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LATIN GRAMMAR.

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LONDON : PRINTED BY

SPOTTISWOODB AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE

ANU PARLIAMENT STREET

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^'•-

THE PUBLIC SCHOOL

UTIN GRAMMAR

FOR THE USE OF

SCHOOLS, COLLEGES, AND PRIVATE STUDENTS.

BY

BENJAMIN HALL KENNEDY, D.D.

RBCIUS PROFESSOR OF GKEEK IN THE I'MVERSITY OF CAMURIDQK,
AND CANON OF ELY.

Nihil ex grammattca nocuerit nisi quod supervacuum e^t : neque enim
cbstant hae disdplinae per tUas euntibus, sed circa ilbt hnerentibus.

QuiNTiu /«*/. Ora/. lib. i. cap. iv

p//^r// KDirto^r. . . > ^

LONDON :
LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.

1879.

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I

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PREFACE

TO

THE FIFTH EDITION.

§ I. By an agreement between the Proprietors and Mr. John
Peile, Fellow and Tutor of Christ's College, Cambridge, it is
arranged that the 'Public School Latin Grammar,' with the books
akin to it, shall hereafter be revised by Mr. Peile as joint and,
in due time, sole Editor. Mr. Peile's merits as a classical and
Sanskrit scholar, and as an able teacher, are widely known.
Those who have the advantage of nearer acquaintance with
him will be assured that the maintenance and improvement of
these books, as means of public instruction, could not be
placed in safer keeping.

§ 2. The First Edition of this Grammar, published in
January 187 1, was introduced by the following Preface : —

* The " Public School Latin Grammar " is simply a develop-
ment of the Primer, in conformity with the design of those,
who, after accepting the latter book, entrusted to the same
Editor the preparation of the former. The difference between
the elementary compendium and the higher work is such as
might be justly expected. Whilst the general principles and
many of the paradigms are in both the same, in the Grammar
the subject-matter is arranged more systematically, the body
of examples very much increased, the illustration wider, and a
large amount of information is added, which in the Primer does
not appear at all.

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342455

vi Preface,

* Yet a Grammar of this size does not profess to be an exhaus-
tive treatise on its subject. Competent and careful students,
who combine its use with the reading of authors and the prac-
tice of composition, so as to master its contents, ought indeed
to become Latin scholars of considerable width and power;
but they will still find much to learn in the field of Latin,
which must be gathered from special monographies by eminent
scholars, some of whom are occasionally cited in the following
pages.

' At the present time, when the science of Comparative
Philology has made such advance, that good living scholars
know far more of the history and organism of the Latin Ian
guage than was known to Quintilian and the old grammarians,
the publication of a Higher Latin Grammar, without reference
to the fects and principles of that science, would be a retro-
gressive and senseless act. It must, however, be remembered
that the chief end and aim of a Classical Latin Grammar is,
to impress upon the minds of students the forms and construc-
tions found in classical authors. Its office, therefore, is to use
Comparative Philology as a guide and auxiliary in teaching
Latin, not to teach Comparative Philology itself through the
medium of Latin. This principle has been kept in view by the
Editor throughout his work. The just mean is always hard to
observe \ but he may venture to say that he has not strayed
from it wilfully. In the Appendix, indeed, and in a few other
places, he has thought it not inexpedient to cite some of the
most important affinities between I.atin and other Aryan
languages and dialects ; but only with a view to point the path
of future study, not to fiimish the student with a sufficient
knowledge of the several subjects there noticed.'

3. The following passages are taken from the Preface to
the Second Edition, published in 1874 : —

* Competent and candid critics are aware that a book of
this size, in spite of its title, is not meant for school use in the
same sense as the Primer and other lesson- books of a similar
kind. As a school-book (for there is no limit to its use by any
students who are capable of good private reading) masters can
use it in two ways : (i) by enforcing general or occasional
reference to its principles and rules in reading Latin authors ;

uiyiuzeu uy x^j v^v^pt ix^

Preface, vii

(2) by requiring definite portions to be prepared for periodical
examinations conducted on paper as well as orally.

'The present opportunity has been used to enlarge and
improve several departments of the Grammar, especially those
of Soundlore and Derivation. To discuss the physiology of
articulate sound has never entered into my plan. Were I
competent to undertake this, which is not the case, I should
hardly deem it suited to a book appl)ang specially to I^tin,
but rather appropriate to a more general work treating of the
Prol^omena to- Grammar.

* On the other hand, I have striven to bring out somewhat
more prominently than before the leading facts of Comparative
Philology, sov^ as they concern three kindred languages —
Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit The Sanskrit words in this Edition
are generally cited in their modem form. The term Primitive
Root is, however, used; in what sense, and by what right, ap-
pears in a Supplementary Note at the close of the Appendix.

' As I am now, by the kindness of those whom I was
bound to consult, authorised to attach tny name to this Pre-
face, I think it right to notice the chief objections made to the
books on Latin Grammar with which I have been occupied

* When the Primer was published, seven years ago, it was
right that it should be criticised, and certain that it would be
impugned ; nor could we expect that all criticism would be
equally candid and intelligent, or that every assailant would
choose his weapons from the armories of truth and reason
only.

' The chief objection urged against the Primer was this :
that it was too abstract and difficult for the use of children
b^;inning Latin. There would have been some weight in this
aigument, if the purpose of the book had been rightly de-
scribed. But it was really designed as a class-book, not for
Elementary Schools and First Forms, but for all Forms in
Public Schools below the grade of those boys who could pass
with advantage to the use of a fuller Grammar. Other com-
panion books were in preparation for the instruction of children
at home or imder private care ; and these have since been
published.

* It was, secondly, stated as a charge against the Primer, and
subsequently against this Grammar (in which the teaching of
the Primer is contained), that they ** bristle with new, hard, and

uiyiuzeu uy x^jv^v^pt ix^

viii Preface.

uninviting terms." This charge, urged as it has been with much
persistence, and little concern for truth, must now be met by
some remarks on the terminology of Grammar, together with a
statement of my own feelings and practice in regard to it.

§ 4. * Every science must have its own terminology. Grammar
is a science j and in Latin Grammar, as one of its departments,
there exist, I believe, more than three hundred technical terms.
Most of these are either actually Greek words, as Syntax^
Prosody, &c., or translated from Greek into Latin, as the names
of the Cases and Parts of Speech. Others are purely Latin, as
Gerund, Supine, Active, Passive Voice. Of these various terms,
whatever the original unfitness of some, the larger number have
struck their roots in literature so deeply and widely that any
attempt to extirpate them would be quixotic Many, indeed,
are in themselves unmeaning or inadequate (as Gerund, Supine,
Deponent, Accusative, Genitive, Ablative); but the learner by
gradual experience is enabled to use them practically, which is
after all the end we wish to reach, though the road to it might
at several points have been improved. A few terms, which
are not only vicious, but really confusing, and at the same time
unessential, I have exchanged for better substitutes. Among
those so rejected are Neuter Verb, Neutropassiva, Neutralia
Passiva, Substantive Verb. Again, we find a considerable
number of cumbersome Greek terms (Heteroclita, Heterogenea,
Aptota, Diptota, Triptota, Tetraptota, with many of the names
given to what are called Figures of Speech), which are of little
use to learners. These may either be omitted, or, at least,
dismissed to some unconspicuous comer.

* This statement affords ample proof that no disposition
existed to place in the student's hands a Grammar. " bristling
with hard and uninviting terms," though it is not unnatural
to ask what those "inviting" terms are which, like the
" crustula " of the " blandi doctores " in Horace's time, have
magic power enough to attract yoimg learners, "elementa
velint ut discere prima."

* But there is one important truth which many would-be
critics either ignore or forget Granmiar is not only a science,
but a science capable of constant improvement; and improve-
ment in science usually brings with it some change in termino-
logy', or some addition to it. Now, in every division of
Grammar, — Soundlore, Wordlore, Syntax, and Prosody, — ^vast

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^v^ pt ix^

Preface, ix

strides have been made in this century through the fruitful
labours of scholars, chiefly German, some English \ whom I
would gladly recoimt here, were I not afraid of omitting some
name or names from so large a list Accordingly it will be
found by those who study the works to which I allude, that the
terminology in each division has been more or less modified,
more or less enriched.

§ 5. ^ As respects my own contributions to Latin Grammar, in
the treatment of Soundlore and Wordlore I claim little origi-
nality. If I have compiled judiciously and correctly from the
works of great comparative philologers, so as to explain and
illustrate usefully the received facts of Latin word-formation, I
shaU be amply satisfied with such credit Again, in the Prosody
of this Grammar I have no share beyond the Table of Metres
and one of the Notes on Metre, containing little more than
tabular enumeration. The rest I owe to the kindness of my
friend Mr. Munro, whose recognised eminence as a scholar
needs no praise from me to enhance it

* But the Analysis of Sentences (Simple and Compound)
which constitutes the Syntax of this book, has been, to a great
extent, the fiiiit of personal study, personal thought, personal
labour. Sketched out in the Syntax of my " Elementary Latin
Grammar," it is filled in, though far from reaching the fullness
of perfection, in the present Granunar.

* I speak firom long personal experience when I say that any
capable mind, which has fully mastered the principles of those
pages (34^500, especially 348-359 and 434-500), wDl be able,
in reading any part of Horace, Cicero, Livy, or Tacitus, to move
through their longest periods with a firm intellectual step,
realising, and, if need be, stating the raison d'Hre of every
constructed word, especially (for this is the most crucial test)
the raison d^Hre of mood and tense in every Subjunctive Verb.
The same mind, so prepared, and applying itself to write Latin,
will be free firom the risk of using any wrong construction. Not
that the mastezy of a grammatical Syntax alone will give the
student stylistic power and skill in composition. These belong
to the vis divinior^ to inspiration drawn by a gifted nature from
the study of the best Latin authors themselves. To such study,
ccnnbined with practice, no scholar will hesitate to assign by far
the largest share in the formation of a good style whether of
prose or of poetry. But, in the course of reading, the student

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^ v^pt i-X^

X Preface.

cannot afford to neglect any valuable help ; and of all appli-
ances none is so valuable, none so indispensable, as a sound,
well-arranged, and lucid Grammar.

§ 6. * The study of any language with its grammar contains
more or less, according to the character of the language chosen,
the study of every language and its grammar, the study of language
in general and its grammar. The Greek and Latin languages
(illustrated by their sister, the Sanskrit) are best adapted for
this purpose, because their forms and constructions, themselves
grand, are fixed in two grand literatures. One who studies
these languages and their grammars cannot help studying to a
great extent, coordinately with them, his or her own native
language and its grammar. And the best mode and course of
study will be that which is so conducted as to make such co-
ordination as effectual and as widely instructive as possible.
The principal reason why translation into Greek and Latin
Verse as well as Prose deserves to be retained in the practice
of classical instruction I hold to be this, — ^that it is a valu-
able exercise in the acquirement not only of those two dead
languages, but of the learner's native living language at the
same time.

§ 7. * A book like the " Public School Latin Grammar " does
not pretend to exhaust the subjects of which it treats — subjects
on which many large volumes may be, and have been, written —
but it carries the student very far on his road, and points and
smooths the path of future acquirement

§ 8. * I return to speak of my Latin Syntax, by which alone, so
far as I know, my works on Grammar have obtained the favour
and confidence of eminent scholars engaged in public instruction.

* The treatment of Latin Syntax has in the present century
passed through a revolution scarcely less considerable than the
treatment of Etymology.

* The means by which this revolution has been wrought are:
(i) the application to the whole doctrine of Syntax of the cor-
relative logical terms Subject- Predicate and Subject-Object,
with the principles they imply ; (2) the distinction between the
Simple and Compound Sentence, and between the several
kinds of each, with the consecution of tenses in them ; (3)
the distinction between Oratio Recta and Oratio Obliqua, with
the various affections which clauses subordinate to Oratio
Obliqua receive.

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Preface. xi

'We owe to the perspicacity and learned labours of
various writers, chiefly German, the reforms made in Latin
Sjrntax. I cannot assign to each his due share. The Grote-
fends, Kriiger, Zumpt, O. Schulz, Ramshom, Kuhner, Madvig,
Key, have each their special merits. Of these I place Raphael
Kiihner in the first rank ; and I am much indebted to Grieben's
'< Lateinische Satzverbindungen." In our own country the
scholastic study of this part of Grammar was usefully promoted
by the Exercise-books of T. Kerchever Arnold.

* These reforms brought into the teaching of Latin S)mtax,
besides the terms already named, a certain number more, per-
haps from forty to fifty, including the names given to the seve-
ral varieties of the Simple and Compound Sentence, with their
subdivisions ; including also the terms Protasis and Apodosis
in sentences which, like the Conditional, take these parts.

§ 9. * As regards the new terms which my own improvements
have suggested, three alone have firequent and important prac-
tical use ; the value of which I insist on as very great These
are, (i) Prolative (Infinitive) ; (2) Copulative Verbs, introduced
first in my " Elementary Grammar " ; (3) Suboblique (clause
or verb), a convenient abridgment of the necessary phrase
" Subordinate to Oratio Obliqua."

* Further, it appeared that the doctrine of copulative predi-
cation in Grammar required, for its dear statement, the use of
some terminology from which the term predicate itself should
be excluded ; and this was at length found in the term used by
Mr. C P. Mason, (predicative) Complement

' I say then, generally, that a new term proposed in Grammar
is not to be condemned because it is new; but, if at all, for
one of three reasons: that it is superfluous ; or that it is in-
adequate \ or because a better term is suggested As respects
myself, I repeat that I have not the least disposition to use
hard terms ; and I say that those which I have introduced are
unjustly so described. But I cannot adopt the poor pedantry
which refiises to facilitate and abridge discourse by the use of
suitable terms ; to write, for instance (after due explanation)
" Collective Subject " rather than " Nominative Singular of a
Substantive which implies a multitude of persons or things":
and "Composite Subject" rather than "two or more singular
Nominatives agreeing with one plural Verb."

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xii Preface^

§ lo. *My "Elementary Latin Grammar," first published in
1843, obtained, after twenty years, approval so wide, that its circu-
lation approached 8,000 copies annually : and, during those years,
not a single coibplaint affecting its terminology was heard either
firom the public press or from the eminent teachers who used it
in their schools. Such attacks broke out when it was adopted
as the groundwork of a new school grammar; and their
justice may be tested both by this fact, and by comparing
the imaginary difficulty imputed to a few new terms in the
Primer, with the many and great obstacles existing in its chief
predecessor, Lilly's Granmiar.'

§ 1 1. In the Preface to the Third and Fourth Editions certain
portions of Syntax were discussed. Those discussions, being
of signal importance to the right appreciation of Latin Com-
pound Construction, will here be repeated generally: but with
partial suppression of some topics and enlargement of others.

L The Doctrine of Predication.

§ 12. This Doctrine is treated (§§ 100-106) in agreement with
the principles now received in all Continental Latin Grammars,
and in most Grammars of the English language, but with some
slight variations in the mode of treatment Logic and
Grammar are akin to one another ; but their spheres are
different Logic is the Grammar of reasoning : it develops

* the laws of thought' Grammar is the Logic of language : it
displa)rs the rules and idioms of discourse. The Correlation
and the Terms Subject-Predicate are necessary to both sciences.
But the scope of these terms is not the same in both.

If we take a Simple Sentence, such as * beneficium male
collocatum nocet (noxium est) hominum sodetati,' we see that
the Logical Subject of this proposition is * beneficium male
collocatum,' but the Grammatiod Subject of the sentence is

* beneficium,' of which *male collocatum' is an adjunct
Again, the Logical Predicate is * noxium,' the Grammatical
Predicate ' nocet ' or ' noxium est,' of which * hominum sode-
tati ' is an adjunct Hence appears the propriety and necessity
(if confusion is a thing proper and necessary to be avoided) of
distinguishing the terms Subject and Predicate in Grammar
by the epithet 'Grammatical.' As for the terms Subject-

uiyiuzeu uy x^j v^ v^pt i-V-

Preface. xiii

Predicate themselves, they have now so firm a footing in the
science of Grammar that they cannot be excluded from it, if
their exclusion were desirable. See * Predicate ' in Index I.

The Subject is * id quod Praedicato subjectum est ' : the
Predicate is * id quod de Subjecto praedicatum est' The com-
bination of the two (as Kiihner says: * Ausfuhrliche Grammatik
der Lat Spr.,' Part iii. § i) is rightly called the Predicative
Relation, because the Predicate (or Verbal notion) is the kernel
of speech, to which the Substantival notion stands in subjection,
and is therefore called Subject ; often indeed expressed by the
endings of the Verb (am-o, ama-s, &c.).

When I was preparing my * Elementary Latin Grammar '
forty 3rears ago, being in some dread of interference with Logic,
I took for my type of simple predication, *homo est mortalis.'
But, when the Primer was compiled in 1866, the four Oxford
scholars engaged in that work unanimously held that (in
Grammar) Subject and Finite Verb are the true norm (homo
moritur), and that Incomplete Predication (of the form
homo est mortalis) should be taken afterwards as the large
exception. This settled the question then, in accordance (as
before noticed) with the practice of all continental writers ; and
a verdict thus authoritatively and generally pronounced is
surely entitled to acceptance.

IL Complement (of Predication).

§ 13. This suitable and useful term was first suggested by
Mr. C. P. Mason in his * English Grammar,' to designate that
which completes the sense of a Simple Sentence when the verb is
one * of incomplete Predication ' (called * Copulative ' in this
Grammar, p. 351).

In sentences such as *homo moritur (est mortalis),' we
have seen above that the Grammatical Predicate is (not
'mortalis,' but) 'moritiu*' or *est mortalis.' Donaldson's
expedient, of using the terms ' primary, secondary, tertiary '
predicate, I cannot approve. It confounds confusion, invades
the domain of Logic gratuitously, and carries into the roles of
Grammar the use of a word (predicate), which, however
necess^ to the preamble of S)mtax, as the correlative of
Subject, may be replaced afterwards by the term Finite Verb
(or Verb of the Sentence) with great advantage. All confusion
is happily avoided by the term * Complement,' which is wide

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^v^pt i-X^

XIV Preface.

enough to include every word or phrase capable of completing
the construction of a Copulative Verb, whether finite or
infinitive. See the Examples on p. 352.

III. Relations in the Simple Sentence.

§ 1 4. Mr. Mason, in his ' English Grammar/ following Becker's

* Organism der Sprache,' treats of the Relations of Words in
the Simple Sentence. The * Public School Latin Grammar '
does the same. One of our critics regards these Relations as
^ spurious children of Logic and Grammar.' But he has failed
to interpret the procedure rightly. It is as purely grammatical
as any procedure can be, which admits (what no grammarian
can now exclude) the correlations Subject-Predicate and
Subject-Object

Two of Mr. Mason's ' Relations,' the Predicative (I.) and
the Objective (III.), are the same, in title and extent, as those
of this Grammar. His 'Attributive' Relation contains the
Qualitative (11. ), but is more extensive: his 'Adverbial'
Relation contains the Circumstantive (V.), but is more
extensive.

Mr. Mason was dealing with English, a language of rare
inflexions, using Prepositions in their stead. I deal with
Latin, a largely inflected language. But even in English the
Genitive should not be merged in the Attributive Relation, and
the Dative Case in the Adverbial (Circumstantive): much less
in Latin. For, true as it is that numerous instances of the
Genitive are attributive in character, and that many Datives
might be replaced by Preposition with case (/>. adverbially) ;
still there remain very many examples of each case which
cannot be so represented, and this fact, combined with that
signal distinction between forms of construction, which merits
distinct treatment in Grammar, leads to the conclusion that
the Dative and Genitive Cases ought to rank as separate
Relations. The Dative is therefore classed here under the

* Receptive ' (IV.), and the Genitive under the * Proprietive '
Relation (VL).

Relation VII., that of 'theProlative Infinitive,' appeared
for the first time in the * Public School Latin Primer.' It com-
prises all the instances in wliich the Infinitive extends (profert)
the construction of words capable of being followed in de-
pendence by a Copulative Infinitive with Nominative Com-

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Preface, xv

plement See § i8o. In the * Elementary Latin Grammar'
the Infinitive with some of these Verbs (soleo, possum, &c.)
was called Objective ; with others (videor, dicor, &c) Predi-
cative (/>. complemental). But these shifts never satisfied : for
if, in * soleo errare/ the Infinitive is Object of * soleo/ it is an
unique Object : and if, in * videor errare,' the Infinitive is predi-
catively complemental (which in some sense it is), its character
as a * Complement' is widely distinct from that of an Adjective
or Substantive (which qualify the Subject), and firom every other
instance in p. 352. And how, on the same principle, can we
analyse without the most mipleasant confusion such sentences
as these? —

Marcus putatiu: velle fieri philosophus. Sapientis est velle
fieri doctiorem.

At length a conviction was reached, that this usage of
Grammar (common to all Aryan languages at least) deserves
separate classification as a specialty of the Infinitive Verb-noun.

Madvig's mode of treating this construction is not essentially
different in principle. Under one head (§ 180) this Grammar
gives what he sets forth in three places (§ 389, § 393, § 400). He
treats in one and the samp chapter of the Infinitive in Oratio
Recta and Oratio Obliqua. Deeming it right and important to
keep Simple and Compound Construction apart, we consider in
Chapter III. the Infinitive of Oratio Recta, in Chapter IV.
that of Oratio Obliqua.' But when Madvig speaks of the
Infinitive as joined to these (extensible) Verbs *um den
Begriff zu erganzen und die Handlung zu ergeben ' {to complete
the idea and supply the actton\ this is exactly what is meant by
the Prolative Relation of the Infinitive : and it is very much
the same as the use of the Infinitive, in German and English,
with those Verbs which some grammarians have very inade-
quately called * auxiliary' (ich will, soil, kann, muss, &c.
kommen : I will — shall — can — must, &c. come) . The con-
strucrion belongs also to French, a Romance (latinistic)
language. For though French inflects (with Latin) / Tvill
comcy I would come^ by ' je viendrai, je viendrais,* it falls in
with Latin, German, English, in saying je peux — ^je veux — ^je
desire — ^j'ose, &c. venir. It is unquestionably true that after
many of these Verbs the Infinitive may be called an Object by
anybody who wishes to do so, as in ^vincere scis, tu sais
vaincre,' ' cupis abire, tu d&ires parrir,* &c. The use of the

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xvi Preface.

Verb-noun as an Object is recognised in § 179. But the
reasons in favour of accepting a distinct Relation wherever the
test of ' esse/ &c. with Nominative will apply are decidedly
preponderant If an example be adduced like this in Horace,
C, i. 2:—

hie magnos potius triumphos
hie ames did pater atque princeps^

and if it be asked whether, as tiiumphos is Object of ames,
did does not also stand in the same construction, the reply is —
that Latin writers, especially poets, often construct one Verb
with dependence of two kinds : so Verg. Aen. iii. 234 : —

sociis tunc arma capessant
edico et dira bellum ctmi gente gerendum.

* Ames,' in the lines of Horace, first takes an Accus. Object
triumphos^ and then a Prolative Infin. did^ with its comple-
ments. The example belongs to that kind of construction
which grammarians have called Zeugma. See §61.

Our last Relation, the Annexive (VIIL), is in kind dif-
ferent firom the other seven. It is really no more than a com-
pendious methody by which a word B is noted as assignable to
the same Relation with a preceding word A. It is a con-
venient substitute for those cumbersome and yet incomplete
rules which in the old School Grammars were meant to account
for the cases, moods, &c of words linked to others by various
conjunctions. See Supplementary Note II. p. 579.

§ 15. There are two great facts in Grammar which the
student of language should always bear in mind : —

(i) Few Definitions are free firom examples which occa-
sionally stray beyond the precincts there laid down, to enter
those of another Definition. For instance : a Substantive may
sometimes become an Adjective (rex, r^ina, raptor, victor,
victrix, &c) : an Adjective' or Participle often becomes a
Substantive (sapiens, utile, utilia, adulescens, sponsus, dictum,
&a) : a Verb contains a Noun among its forms : a Noun
sometimes takes the fimctions of a Verb : an Adverb becomes
a Preposition, a Preposition an Adverb : Declensions encroach
upon one another ; and so on.

(2) A Norm or Rule may be liable to numerous exceptions:

lOOgle

t

Preface, xvii

and yet, even if the excepted instances could be shewn to equal
or even exceed in number the instances which obey the rule,
the Norm ought to remain paramount, and not to be extended
in order to recognise such instances as normal See § loi.

Thus, referring to (i), all Annexed Words belong to some
one or more of the other Relations also. Every Complement,
belonging, as such, to I. will fall under some other Relation
also. Of those which occur in the examples, p. 354, the first
six fall under II., the seventh and eighth under VI., the tenth
under IV., the ninth and eleventh under V. Most examples
of Relation VI. and some of IV. V. are akin to II., being
attributive in sense, but excluded from II. because they appear
as caseforms, and not in attributive concord.

§ 16. The foregoing observations shew that, in the mode of
treating these Relations, there is no spurious intrusion of
Logic into Grammar. The Dative is not merged in the
category of Circumstance, nor the Genitive in that of Attri-
bution (Qualitative). Each case has its own sphere : the Nomi-
native (as Subject-case) and the First Concord are in I., the
Accusative as Case of nearer Object is in III., the Dative as
remoter Object-case in IV., the Ablative (with the Accusative
depending on Prepositions) in V., the Genitive in VI. The
Concords 2, 3, 4, come under 11. ; the peculiar use of the
Infinitive under VII., the linking by Conjunctions under VIII.
Afterwards, the Vocative and all Interjectional usages lying
out of the Sentence are separately treated, and then the theory
of the Relative. Grammar is followed, Grammar kept in view,
throughout.

Experience proves that such a synopsis of the Simple
Sentence does materially help many students to read with more
profitable appreciation the rules that follow, and, reviewed
again at the close, will map the subject in their minds more
lucidly and niore enduringly.

IV. Ellipse of the Finite Forms of 'Suul'

§ 1 7. This topic is considered in the note on p. 428 : see also
§ 99, Munro on Lucr, il i, with the authorities there cited.
The ellipse occasionally creates misinterpretation, participles
finitely used being sometimes mistaken for mere participles
(Hor. C i. 37. 25; ii. 9. 15), and again mere participles
having been regarded as finite : thus in Verg. B, iL 40 :—

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xviii Preface.

praeterea duo nee tuta mihi valle reperti
capreoli, sparsis etiam nunc pellibus albo,
bina die siccant ovis ubera; quos tibi servo.

Wagner and Ribbeck have a semicolon after *albo/ thus
apparently making 'reperti' finite: but the tenour of the
passage indicates that * capreoli siccant' is the principal predi-
cation, and ' reperti ' a mere participle.

The ellipse of * esse ' in oblique construction, when the par-
ticiples perfect, future, or gerundive occur as accusatives in
dependence, is familiar to every reader of Latin authors in
prose and poetry. But the Prolative construction, by which
the Nominatives of these Participles are used as Infinitives
without * esse,' is not by any means so generally and so well
understood by young scholars. They are therefore advised to
study with care the note on § 1 80 in this Grammar, and to
collect other examples of this construction (the Participles in
the Nominative as Infinitives without ' esse '), which are not
duly recognised in Madvig's Grammar. It may perhaps be
more clearly exhibited by setting side by side the Accusative
(Oblique) and the Nominative (Prolative) constructions in a
few examples.

a. T. Manlium locutum ferunt,
T. Manlius locutus fertur, Liv.

b. Ferunt Promethea coactum . . .
Fertur Prometheus coactus . . . Hon

c. Delectum habendum putant,
Delectus habendus putatur.

d. Omnes secutiuros verisimile est,
Omnes secuturi videntur.

e. Graeciam collisam narrant,
Graecia collisa narratiu:, Hor.

f. Memorant quendam solitum . . .
Memoratur quidam solitus, . . . Hor.

g. Credimus Athon velificatum,
Creditur Athos velificatus, luv.

h. Ferunt genetricem adfatam lovem,

Fertur genetrix adfata lovem, Verg. ix. 82.

In every one of these examples * esse ' is to be mentally
supplied— its construction being Oblique (§ 194) in each
former— Prolative (§ 180) in each latter line.

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Preface, xix

V. § 1 8. Some nice points of Syntax have been either over-
looked or inadequately treated. Such are the Substantival
constructions with ut and quod, in place of an Infinitive
Clause. See §§ 195-6. Still more unfortunate has been the
treatment of constructions ranked in this Grammar under the
tide Petitio Obliqua, § 197. A disposition is shewn by some
writers to make these mere varieties of the Adverbial (Final)
Clause with ut, ne, although their prominence and importance
in Narratio Obliqua (§ 230) prove their just rank as one of the
three varieties of dependent Substantival Clauses, which con-
stitute Oratio Obliqua. The Statement (Accusative and In-
finitive) and the Question assert themselves, as it were, and
cannot be ignored : but the Dependent Petition has to wage
a sort of rivalry with other constructions of ut, ne, in order to
obtain its just place in Grammar, as representing an Oblique
* permission, command, or request.* The examples which
Madvig cites in §§ 403-4, shewing the juxtaposition in Narratio
Obliqua of indirect statements, commands, and questions,
might have shewn him the true order in which the three ought
to be treated

' Si pacem populus Romanus cum Helvetiis faceret, in eam
partem ituros atque ybi futuros ffelvetios^ ubi eos Caesar con-
stituisset atque esse voluisset : sin bello persequi perseveraret,
reminisceretur et veteris incommodi populi Romani et pristinae
virtutis Helvetiorum. . . . quare ne committeret ut is locus, ubi
constitissent, ex calamitate populi Romani . , . nomen caperet'
— Caes B. G, L 13.

•Cum vellet, cangrederetur; intettecturum quid invicti
German! .... virtute possent' — Caes. B. G. L 38.

' Duces pronuntiare iusserunt : " ne quis ab loco discederet ;
illorum essepraedam atque illis reservari quaecumque Romani
reliquissent : proinde omnia in victoria posita existimarent" * —
Caes. B, G. v. 34.

* Cicero respondit : " non esse consueiudinem populi Romani
accipere ab hoste armato condicionem : si ab armis discedere
velmt, se adiutore utantur legatosque ad Caesarem mitiant;
sperare^ pro eius iustitia quae petierint impetraturos." ' — Caes.
B, G. v. 42.

* Nuntia Romanis : " caelestes ita veile ut mea Roma caput
orbis terrarum sit : proinde rem militarera colant; sctantque

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XX Preface.

et ita posteris tradanty nuUas opes humanas annis Komanis
resistere posse."' — Liv. L i6.

'Exprobrant multitudini : ^^ saginare plebem populares suos,
ut ingulentur. hoccim patiendum fuissCy si ad nutum dictatoris
non respondent vir consularis ? ^^^^»/ mentitum ante, atque
ideo non habuisse quod turn responderet : cni servo umquam
mendacii poenam vinadafuissel''^ — Liv. vl 17.

* Blaesus multa dicendi arte, " non per seditionem et turbas
desideria militum ad Caesaremyivrw^," ait ; " neque veteres ab
imperatoribus priscis neque ipsos ab dlvo Augusto tarn nova
pettvisse-, et parum in tempore incipientes principis euros
onerari : si tamen tenderent in pace temptare quae ne civilium
quidem bellorum victores expostulaverint, cur contra morem
obsequii, contra fas disciplinae vim mediteniur? decemerent
legatos seque coram mandata darenty * — Tac Ann. L 19.

* Eo in metu aiguere Germanicum omnes, quod non ad supe-
riorem exercitum pergeret^ ubi obsequia et contra rebellis auxi-
lium : " Satis superque missione et pecunia et moUibus consultis
peccaium ; vel si vilis ipsi salus, cur filium parvulum, cur gravi-
dam coniugem inter furentes et omnis humani iuris violatores
haberet} illos saltem avo et reipublicae redder et,^^ — Tac Ann,
L 40. See do. do. il 15.

* post paulo scribit sibi milia quinque
esse domi chlamydum ; partem vel tolleret omnes.*

Hor. Epist, i. 6. 43.
Compare Verg. Aen, iv. 683 :

date volnera lymphis Abluam^ &c.
Aen, vL 884 :
manibus date lilia plenis Purpureos spargam flores, &c.

The true construction, *date abluam,* grant me to wash
away^ ' date spargam,' grant me to scatter, &c, has in each place
been recognised fully by no commentator except I-,adewig.
If commentators who have fallen into error respecting them
had been familiar with the principles of * Petitio Obliqua,' they
would have seen that the Subjunctives depend as Objects on
* date,' like * colamus ' in the following lines of an Inscription
to Silvanus found at Aime in France :

tu me meosque reduces Roman sistito

daqvt Itala rura te colamus praeside. — Coll Orell 1613.

uiyiuzeu uy x^JVjvJVJ Iv^

Preface, xxi

Had * sinite ' been written instead of ' date ' (and there is no
real difference) the mistake would not have been made.

VI. § 19. Chapter VI. of Part I., Division il (§§ 61-99), on
the Uses of Words, though subjoined to Wordlore, may be read
by those who have ahready studied Latin Syntax to some extent
in a shorter Grammar with suitable practice. It unavoidably
contains many topics (as, Ellipsis and Zeugma, Prepositions,
Correlation, Mood), which belong in principle to the construc-
tion of Sentences, and which many grammarians, as Madvig,
intermingle with the rules of Syntax, thereby, we think, sadly
breaking the continuity, and obscuring the doctrine of these
latter, as intended to develop the construction of Sentences,
Simple and Compound.

To those who study this Grammar we strongly recommend
the adoption of the following order, in studying the lapws of
Words constructed in Sentences; i.e. Syntax.

(i) Wordlore, Division il, Chapter VL, Sections i-viii.

(§§ 61-89).

(2) Wordlore, Division ii.. Chapter IL, Section x. (Numerals,

$§ 32-34).

(3) Syntax, Chapters L, IL, III., IV., Section i. (§§ 100-189).

(4) Uses of the Verb (Wordlore, $§ 90-99).

(5) Syntax continued (§§ 190-250).

The whole Chapter on the Uses of Words may be reperused
with advantage at the close of such a course.

VII. § 20. The systematic order in which the Doctrine of
Sentences is drawn out is the chief characteristic feature of this
tOrammar.

Chapter I. of Part IL (§ 100) seU forth :

(i) The distinction of Sentences as Simple or Compound.

(2) The three forms of the Simple Sentence :
Statement (enuntiatio) : Will-speech (petitio): Question

^interrogatio).

(3) The forms which these three severally take when, being
subordinated in compound construction, they become Substan-
tival Clauses : —

Oblique Statement : Oblique WiU-speech : Oblique Question.

Chapter II. (§§ 101-106) contains :

The Analysis of the Simple Sentence, and the eight Rela-

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^v^ pt ix^

xxii Preface.

tions comprised in it : adding to these the Interjectional use
of the Vocative and other Cases similarly interposed.

Chapter III. (§§ 107-188) contains:
Rules and Examples of construction in the Simple Sentence
(Agreement : Cases : Infinitive with Gerunds and Supines).

Chapter IV. (§§ 189-240) treats of:

The Compound Sentence, in five Sections.

Section I. takes up the topic begun in Chapter I., and shews:

(i) Subordinate Clauses, of three kinds ;

Substantival (§ 100) : Adverbial : Adjectival :

(2) Adverbial Clauses, of seven kinds :

(3) Adjectival Clauses, being in some kinds substitutes for
Adverbial (see § 204).

Section II. states the laws of Mood in subordination to
Oratio Obliqua, actual and x'irtual, with examples.

Section III. contains :

Rules and Examples of the construction of the three
varieties of Substantival Clauses :

(i) Oblique or Indirect Statement (enuntiatio obliqua).

(2) Oblique or Indirect Will-speech (petitio obliqua).

(3) Oblique or Indirect Question (interrogatio obliqua).

Section IV. contains :

Rules and Examples of Adverbial and Adjectival Clauses
treated in connexion with one another.

Section V. forms a Supplement, treating of:
(i) Consecution of Tenses :

(2) Narratio Obliqua :

(3) Reflexive Pronouns in Clauses :

(4) Participial Construction.

VIII. § 21. The scheme of Latin construction thus shewn
forms an edifice of its doctrine, fi-om which no stone can be
taken away or displaced without damage to the whole fabric'

* Let me here state my meaning more distinctly.

I. I consider it desirable that the Uses of Words and the Rules of
Construction should be kept generally distinct : but I deem it essential
that the Uses of the Verb and the Doctrine of Moods should be learnt
before the Laws of Compound Construction. This opinion is illustrated in
Appendix II. to the * Public School Latin Primer ' (years 1^8 &cj.

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Preface. xxiii

Nor can a single fact or principle laid down in it be denied
by any one who is able to recognise facts in language, and to
deduce principles from them correctly.

(i) The Simple Sentence has three Varieties :

I. Vales : 2. Vale ; 3. Valesne ?

Can this be denied ?

(a) Each Variety can be subjoined (with some formal
change) to a principal Predication; such junction being a
* Compoxmd Sentence,* the subordinate or dependent member
in which we term ' the Clause.'

1. Audio (constat) te valcre.

2. Opto (optandum est) ut valeas,

3. Quaero (quaeritur) (die) valeasm.
Can this be denied ?

(3) Each of these Clauses is related as Object or Subject to
the Verb on which it depends.

1. I hear (it is evident) — What? Thai you are well.

2. I wish (my wish must be) — What? That you be well.

3. I ask (it is asked) (say) — What? Whether you arc well.
Can this be denied ? (See it even in Madvig, § 208b, 398a.)

2. It is essential that Syntax should take for its starting-point the
three forms of a simple sentence and their transformation into clauses
when they become subordinate.

3. It is essential that the study of Simple and that of Compound
Sentences should be treated in distinct parts of the Grammar, and that the
rules for the Simple InfinitiTe» with Gerunds and Supines, should be in-
cluded under the Simple Sentence, leaving the Infinitive Clause (though
it may be cursorily mentioned) to take its proper place at the head of
Compound Construction.

4. It is essential that the Doctrine of Compound Construction should
take for its starting-point the threefold distinction of Substantival,
Adverbial, and Adjectival Clauses, shewing the intimate relation of the
two latter classes.

5. It is essential that the Substantival Ut-clause and the Substan-
tival Quod-clause should be shewn in their true place as succursal to. the
Infinitive Clause, with due notice of the relation which they severally
imply to Consecutive and Causal Construction.

6. It is highly important that (while the term Conjunctive is given
to the Mood generally) the term Subjunctive should be confined to its
subordinate use.

7. The distinction of Compound and Complex Sentences, which some
English grammarians use, is superfluous in Latin. That of Coordinate
and Subordinate Clauses (§ 100) answers the purpose adequately.

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xxiv Preface,

(4) Therefore each of these Clauses has the property of a
Substantive, and is justly termed ' Substantival.'

Can this be denied ?

(5) Of other Subordinate Clauses, those which answer the
adverbial questions— /4t?z«', for what purpose^ why^ when, oti
what condition, &c. — are justly termed Adverbial Clauses (Con-
secutive, Final, &c.). See § 189 B.

There can be no just reason to deny this.

[All Relative Clauses — formed by qui or a particle expli-
cable by a case of qui, as quo, unde, cur, &c., may be called
Adjectival, having the attributive nature of Adjectives. But in
this Grammar (§ 189 C, § 204, &c,) the term is applied only to
those Relative Clauses which determine Mood to be Subjunc-
tive: such as: Quis est tam impius qui parentem feriat? =
ut feriat ? — Missi sunt qui specularentur = ut specularentur : —
Miseret me tui qui tantum desipias = quum . . . desipias : and
the like. The larger power of the term Adjectival, as belonging
to any Relative Clause, should not be forgotten, though its use
is needed here alone to complete the analogy.]

This classification of Clauses, as Substantival, Adverbial,
and Adjectival, is recognised by the soundest German gram-
marians, Kriiger, Kiihner, Feldbausch, Grieben, and many
others. Its omission is among the chief faults of Madvig's
Syntax. •

(6) Returning to Substantival Clauses (2), we observe that
each of the Clauses is indirect, i.e. dependent on a Verb, which
is itself direct, i.e. independent This indirect speech is called
by general consent of grammarians * Oratio Obliqua,' and that
on which it depends is called * Oratio Recta ' (direct speech).
Thus it appears, that all three forms of the Substantival Clause
constitute Oratio Obliqua. This is allowed, though haltingly
and inadequately, by Madvig, § 403, Obs. i. The chief
reason why oblique statement (te valere) has been * specially
called ' Oratio Obliqua is this : that ordinary discourse in prose
consists mainly of. statements. Another reason is, that the
indirect expression of the Imperative (bidding-sj)eech or will-
speech) is not so manifestly distinguishable from other forms as
the Infinitive Clause (te valere), about which there can be no
mistake. See what is said above of Petitio Obliqua. The
student is strongly advised to keep this larger sense of the
term Oratio Obliqua always in mind, and to fortify it by careful

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^v^ pt ix^

Preface. xxv

study of Oblique Narration, as used by Livy, Sallust, and
Tacitus. He may also consult with advantage the Syntaxis
Veigiliana in our edition of Virgil, pp. 664, &c

(7) The linaits of Oratio Obliqua being thus estabhshed as
coincident with Substantival Clauses, we pass to the Mood of
Verbs in subsequent Clauses depending on them, which we
therefore call *Suboblique,' that is, * Subordinate to Oratio
Obliqua.' The rules on this subject are given in §§ 190-193,
because the constructions resulting from them occur in many
of the examples cited in the sections following.

The Conjunctive is, by its nature, the Thought-mood or mood
of conception. Hence, when a finite verb in secondary depen-
dence forms part of the same conception as the Oratio Obliqua
in primary dependence, it is put in the Subjunctive (dependent
Conjunctive). See Example in § 190 1. So also :

Apud Hypanim fluvium Aristoteles ait best iolas quasdam
nasci, quae unum diem vivant, Cic. 7! D, i. 39. Perspicuum
est, non esse ut ilia, quae sint turpia, Cic Off, iii.

With the other examples on p. 437 of this Grammar, and
those in * Public School Latin Primer,' p. 167. This doctrine
is laid down in all Latin grammars.

IX. § 22. So also Rule 193, which states that a subjunc-
tive is used in dependence on another Verb in the Conjunc-
tive Mood, is in the nature of a corollary to Rule 190, and is
not disputed. Rule 191 relates to implied or virtual Oratio
Obliqua. The doctrine on this subject I have somewhere
seen described as a mystery, too abstruse for anybody to
understand or study. Now the differential calculus, or loga-
rithms, or even decimal fractions, remain a mystery to those
who have not taken the trouble to learn them. But Grammars
are written for those who are willing to learn, and who
wish to know well what they profess to know at all. It seems,
therefore, that a few words here may not be wasted in the
endeavour to clear up a subject which, after all, has nothing
in it mysterious. For this purpose, it is best to begin with
the simplest obvious examples. Compare, then, the two fol-
lowing places in Cicero's Treatise * De Officiis ' :

(i) C3n:enaici . . . virtutem censuerunt esse lau-
dandam, quod efficiens esset voluptatis, iii. 33.

(2) Laudat Africanum Panaetius, quod fuerit abstinens,
ii. 22.

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xxvi Preface,

We say that ' virtutem esse laudandam ' (actually) is Oratio
Obliqua, on which 'quod esset' depends, and is therefore
Subjunctive, being * suboblique.' We say that * laudat ' (virtually)
contains Oratio Obliqua, and that * quod fuerit,' depending on
it, is * virtually suboblique.'

Such is our proposition. Let us consider it

First, as to *quod esset'in sentence (i).

* Virtutem esse laudandam ' is Oratio Obliqua in its principal
form of Accus. with Infin. (Infinitive Clause), and a Finite
Verb really depending on such a form will be Subjunctive
because the reason given for virtue being praiseworthy as well
as the fact itself is referred to the mind of the Cyrenaics, and
for this purpose the Thought-mood (Conjunctive) is employed
Such is the rationale of a Subjunctive * actually subordinate to
Oratio Obliqua,* or (for brevity's sake) * suboblique.'

Secondly, as to * quod fuerit,' in Sentence (2).

Do we utter * a mystery * when we say, that a person who
is said to praise another, is said to think and to express some-
thing; that * laudat' necessarily contains the meaning *putat
esse laudandum * with the meaning ' ait esse laudandum ' ?
Enough that it contains the latter. Laudat then contains
* virtual (i.e. implied) Oratio Obliqua ' : and the Finite Verb
depending on it (quod fuerit), being really subordinate to a
virtual Oratio Obliqua, or (for brevity's sake) * virtually
suboblique,' is referred to the mind of Panaetius by becoming
Subjunctive. He gives the reason why he praises.

Such is one of the simplest instances of ' virtual Oratio
Obliqua.'

X. § 23. Here it will be right to deal with a plausible objec-
tion, which may lead some not unintelligent minds to question
the merit of the terminology used. Why, they may perhaps
say, is a term which itself needs explanation, and which suggests
a merely formal cause, interposed between the learner's
understanding and the true logical reason of the Thought-
mood, viz. that it refers the proposition to the mind of the
Subject ?

The answer to this objection has ah-eady been suggested in
another part of this Preface. Every science is taught and
learnt through the medium of terms. It is the teacher's busi-
ness to see that his pupils do learn— do know — the meaning

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Preface. xxvii

and force of such terms. It is a learner's business to acquire
their meaning and force, either from his teacher (if he has one)
or from his books (if he studies privately). If he uses terms, of
which he has not learnt the true meaning, he walks in the dark,
and the results can only be ignorance and error. A good
teacher will be always on his guard against this danger. If he
asks a question, and is answered by a correct term, which he is
sure the learner understands, he may say ' quite right,' and pass
on. If he doubts this, he should cross-examine. For instance,

As to passage (i) :

Q, Why is * esset ' Subjunctive ?

A. It is suboblique.

Q. How so ?

A, It is subordinate to the Oratio Obliqua ' virtutem esse
laudandam.'

Q. And this Oratk) Obliqua itself?

A. It is subordinate to the principal sentence *Cyrenaici
censuerunt.'

Q. To what then is the Clause ' quod efficiens esset volup-
tatis' referred?

A, To the mind of the Subject * Cyrenaici.'

As to passage (2) :
Q. Why is 'fuerit' Subjunctive?
A, It is virtually suboblique.
Q. How so?

A, It is subordinate to an Oratio Obliqua implied in ' laudat'
Q, How would you express this Oratio Obliqua ?
A. Ait esse laudandum (or some equivalent).
Q. To what then is the Clause *quod fuerit abstinens'
referred ?

A. To the mind of the Subject Panaetius.

If the question were in class, and the catechumen failed to
answer, the teacher would probably explain publicly, and re-
examine privately, till he was sure the matter was understood

If our imaginary disputant, returning to the charge, says :
May not this cross-examination be cut short ? is not all con-
tained in the last question and answer ? No, we reply : for we
are not teaching Logic only, but also Latin : Latm construction,

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xxviii Preface,

Latin procedure, with its rationale. The attempt to teach the
rationale without the forms which lead to it would be a double
failure : grammar would manifestly be sacrificed, and Logic (we
believe) would gain nothing by the sacrifice.

XL § 24. Some persons imagine they have solved all * the
mystery' of such constructions as (2) by sapng that * The Sub-
junctive is used in Causal and Relative Sentences to denote an
alleged reason or act' These words we quote from one such
writer.*

* Causal and Relative Sentences ' certainly do (for obvious
reasons) supply the most numerous instances of * virtually

* It may be instructive to cite this writer's * ipsissima verba,' as an in-
stance of error growing out of the attempt to defend error. He says :

* The Subjunctive is also used in Causal and Relative Sentences to de-
note an alleged reason or act, as *' I^udat Panaetius Afiicanum, quod
fuerit abstinens," ** Panaetius praises Africanus, because he says thai he rvas
self-restraining." Fuit for fuerit would mean "because he actually was
self-restraining," without implying that Panaetius said so. So **iniuria
quae tibi facta est," ** the injury which has been done you" ; but " iniuria
quae tibi facta sit," ** the injury which you say has been done you." Cic.
in Caec. 58.'

(i) The translation here marked in italic type I would rather leave to
the judgment of scholars than characterise it myself. The correct version
is * alleging that he was ' or (better still) * on the ground that he was. '

(2) * Fuit ' for * fuerit ' would not have been joined by Cicero to such
a context as * laudat quod,* that is to say, where the principal verb is one
which by its own nature (as laudo, queror, accuso, &c.) contains Oratio
Obliqua, and is used in any person but the first. If the verb has no such
nature, as in the well-known passage * Themistocles noctu ambulabat,
quod somnum capere non posset,' T, D. iv. 19, Cicero could have written
* poterat,* if he had wished to refer the clause to his own statement.

(3) Any good scholar, on reading this writer's next citation (from Cic.
in Caec. 58) would perceive at once that it is fallacious ; that the context,
when supplied, must account for the use of * quae sit facta.' And such is
the case. Cicero writes : * Hie tu, si laesum te a Verre esse dices, patiar
et concedam : si iniuriam tibi factam quereris^ defendam et n^^bo.
Deinde de inturia^ quae tibi facta sit, neminem nostrum graviorem vin-
dicem esse oportet quam te ipsum, cui facta dicitur.' Then, a few sen-
tences later : * Quid si ne iniuriae quidem, quae tibi ab iUo facta sit, causa
remanet ? '

It would be quite enough to say that for ' si iniuriam tibi £u:tam quereris '
Cicero might have used the not less frequent * quereris quod iniuria tibi
facta sit,' and that * de iniuria quae tibi &cta sit ' is a mere abridgement of

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Preface, xxix

suboblique ' construction : and I suppose this writer has been
misled by Madvig, who, in his very fauhy treatment of Mood,
mentions such examples only. But the principle is general,
and applies also to Temporal, Conditional, and Concessive
Clauses : as witness the following examples :

Darius ejus pontis, dum ipse abesset^ custodes reliquit, Nep.
Afilt 3. At memoria minuitur. Credo, nist eam exerceas, aut
si sis natura tardior, Cic C M, 7. Utilitas efflorescit ex
amicitia, etiatnsi tu eam minus secutus sis, Cic Zae/, 27.

This last example is gnomic in its nature. See xv.

Moreover, it is not true that the Subjunctive, by its own
independent right, * denotes an alleged reason or act' If this
were so, then the compound sentence * Laudat Afncanum
Panaetius, nam fuerit abstinens ' would be good Latin, and
might express * Panaetius praises Africanus, for he was self-
denying ': quod absurdum est, as geometricians say.

The truth (overlooked by the writer in question) is that this
power belongs to the Mood in subordination only, when it is
truly Subjunctive ; and it belongs to it only in its relation to the
previous predication, which is never to be left out of question.
If such predication is itself subordinate, that is, conveys the
thought of another subject going before it, as in (i), then the
Subjunctive also shares that thought If the Subjunctive, as in
(2), depends on a principal Indicative (and is not Consecutive,
or otherwise controlled), its presence denotes that in that
principal predication the idea of Oratio Obliqua is implied In
other words, it is not the dependent mood alone which is then
to be considered, but the principal predication together with its
dependence. In the sentence cited in the note, * posset ' con-
veys to * ambulabat ' the accessary notion of a reason given for
the act by Themistocles : * poterat ' would confine ' ambulabat '
to the statement of Cicero.

XII. § 25. I proceed to support my explanation of this
doctrine by citing a large number of examples, which will be
more instructive if divided into three classes :

' de inioria, de qua quereris quod tibi £Eu:ta sit. * But also ' de iniuria, quae
tibi facta sit ' is really subordinate to the Oratio Obliqua * neminem . . .
vindicem esse * : and, when • facta sit * is afterwards used, Cicero merely
dtes his own phrase, the import of which is known from the previous con-
text See Example 57, below.

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XXX Preface,

First : Examples in which the text does not exhibit formal
* oratio obliqua ' ; but a slight addition or a slight change of
form at once exhibits it without any difference of sense.

Secondly : Examples where * oratio obliqua * is implied in
the meaning of the principal construction as one of expressed
feeling : praise^ biame, complaint^ acrusatioriy reproach, boastingy
giving thanks, promising, indignation, anger ^ menace, regret, &c.

Thirdly : Examples in which no such connexion exists be-
tween the principal Sentence and the Clause as to exhibit a
manifest * Oratio Obliqua'; but we say, on the ground of
analogy, that an accessory meaning is conveyed to the principal
construction from the fact of its relation to the Clause.

Class I.

1. Ne iustitiam quidem recte quis dixerit per se optabilem,

sed quia iucunditatis vel plurimum afferat — Cic d. Fin,
i. 1 6. (Dixerit only wants the dropped esse to make
this an example of actual oratio obliqua.)

2. Te felicem dicis amasque

Quod nusquam tibi sit potandum. — Hor. S, ii 7, 31.
{Esse te felicem,)

3. Recte est igitur surgetque ? n e g a b i t^

Quod latus aut renes morbo temptentur acuto. — Hor, S*
XL 3, 162. (Negabit r^^^y^^.)

4. Hanc reperiebat cans am, quod apud Germanos ea

consuetudo esset ut &c. — Caes. B. G, i. 50. (Causam
esse.)

5. Cum contemplor annno, reperio quattuor causas, cur

senectus misera videatur : unam, quod avocet a rebus
gerendis \ alteram, quod corpus faciat infirmius ;
t e r t i a m, quod privet omnibus fere voluptatibus ; q u a r-
tam, quod haud procul absit a morte. — Cia C. M, 5.
{Esse being supplied with ' causas,' * imam ' &c., oratio
obliqua exists throughout)

6. Ille laborem
Excusare Philippo et mercennaria vincla
Quod non mane domum venisset, denique quod non
Providisset eum. — Hor. Ep, L 7, 66. (Excusare =^wti^

in causa esse,)

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• Preface, xxxi

7. Bene maiores nostri accubitionem epularem amicorum,

quia vitae coniunctionem haberety convivium nomi-
narunt — Cic C, M, 13. {l^omxmiMnt^siesse dixerunt.)

8. Caesar sua senatusque in Ariovistum beneficia comme-

moravit, guod rex appellatus esset a. senatu, quod
amicus, &c. — Caes. B, G, i. 43. (Commemoravit=
mu//a esse dixit)

9. Huic me, quaecumque fuisset^

Addixi. — Yerg.Aen, iil 652. (Addixi me=zdixi me ad-
haesurum.)

10. Videor mihi gratum fecisse Siculis, quod torvLm iniurias

meo labore, inimicitiis, periculo sim persecutus, — Cic.
Verr. ii 6. (Videor mihi=/«/^ me.)

11. Commodissimum visum est C. Valerium Procillum

. . . quod in eo peccandi Germanis causa non esset^ ad
eum mittere. — Caes. B. G, i 47. (Visum tsi^^putavit
esse.)

12. Mirabile videtur ^/:/^//non n/iJftT/ haruspex cum haru-

spicem viderit ; hoc mirabilius quod yos inter vos
risum tenere possitis, — Cic JVl D, I 26. (Mirabile vi-
detMTszmirandum esse putant)

13. Thucydides libros suos turn scripsisse dicitur, a</» a

republica remotus atque in exilium pulsus esset. — Cic d.
Or. ii. 15. (Th. scripsisse d^idXMX^s^Thucydidem scrip-
sisse dicunt.)

14. Quidquid peperisset decreverunt tollere. — ^Ter. And.

ill, 6. {ToVitxtzszui toilerent.)

1 5. Helvetii constituerunt ea quae ad proficiscendum per-

tinerent CO mpa,TaLTe. — Caes. B. G. L 3. (Comparare=
ut eompamrent.)

Class IL

1 6. Nemo e x t u 1 i t eum verbis, qui i ta dixissei, ut qui adessent

intellegerent quid diceret. — Cic. d. Or. L 14. (Extulit
ytxhxs^^laudandum esse dixit.)

17. Athenienses Lacedaemoniorum victorias suae culpae

tribuebant, quod Alcibiadem e civitate expulissent.
— Nep. Ale. 6.

18. Caesar temeritatem cupiditatemque militum reprehendit,

quod sibi ipsi iudicavissent quo procedendum aut quid
agendum videretur. — Caes. B. G. vii. 52.

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xxxii Preface.

19. Nee vero quisquam potest iure reprehendere, ^uod maxe

non tramierim, — Cic. Att viil 12, 3.

20. Haedui que stum veniebant, quod Harudes, qui nuper in

GalHam transportati essent, fines eorum popidarentur,
— Caes. B. G, i. 37.

21. Saepe illi deplorare solebant, turn quod voluptatibus

carerent . . . turn quod spernerentur ab eis, a quibus
essent coli soliti. — Cic

22. Hospitem inclamavit, quod scse absente mihi fidem habere

noluisset. — Plaut Asin, 583.

23. Graviter Haeduos a ecu sat quod , . . non sublevetur;

. . . quod sit destttutus^ queritur. — Caes. B. G.\. 16.

24. Theophrastus moriens aeeusasse naturam dicitur, quod

hominibus tam exiguam vitam dedisset — Cic T. D. iii.
28.

25. Vereingetorix proditionis insimulatus est quod eastra

propius Romanos movisset, quod eum omni equitatu
discessisset, quod sine imperio tantas eopias reliqutssety
quod eius diseessu Romani tanta opportunitate et eele-
ritate venissent — Caes. B, G, viL 20.

26. Caesar centuriones incusavit, quod aut quam in partem

aut quo eonsilio dueerentur, sibi quaerendum aut eogi-
tandum putareni, — Caes. B, G. i. 40.

27. Themistoeles graviter eastigavit Laeedaemonios, quod

non virtute sed imbeeillitate soeiorum potentiam quae-
rerent — lust ii. 15.

28. Cato obieeit ut probrum M. Nobiliori, quodx^m^xo-

vineiam poetas duxisset — Cic T, D, i. 2.

29. Litterae ipsae videntur quasi exprobrare quod in ea

vita maneam^ in qua nihil insit, nisi propagatio miserrimi
temporis. — Cie. Fam, vi. 15.

30. Non tam exitu bellorum, quod vincaiis, quam prineipiis,

quod non sine eausa suscipiatisy gloriaminl — Liv. xlv.
22.

31. Caesari decima legio per tribunos militum gratias egit,

quod de se optimum iudieium/oifx^r/.— Caes. B. G. i. 41.

32. Themistoeles domino navis quis sit aperit, multa polli-

ctns si se conservasset, — Nep. Them. 8.

33. Xerxes ei praemium proposuit, qui invenisset novam

voluptatem. — Cie. T, D. v. 7.

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Preface. xxxiii

34. Beroen digressa reliqui

Aegram, indignantem, tali quod ^olz, careret
Munere, nee meritos Anchisae inferret honores. — ^Verg.
Aen. V. 65 o.

35. Augebat iras, quod soli ludaei non cessissent. — Tac. H.

V. 10,

36. Atqui voltus erat multa et praeclara m in ant is,

Si vacuum tepido cepisset villula tecto. — Hon S. ii. 3, 9.

37. Aeneas . . . minatur

Exitium, si quisquam adeat. — ^Verg. Aen, xii. 760. See
viiL 64$.

38. Anpaenitet yo^y quod salvum atque incolumem exer-

citiun traduxerimi — Caes. B, G. ii 32.

Class HI.

39. Nee fluminibus aggesta terra semper laudabilis, ^a«/i57

senescant sata quaedam aqua. — Plin. N. H, xviL 4.
(Laudabilis=^(a quae laudari debeat)
4a Eo id laudabilius erat, ^«^//animum eius tanta acer-
bitas patria nihil a pietate avertisset, — Liv. vii. 5. (Eo
laudabilius erats^^ magis laudandum esse plebs putavit)

41. Lycurgus populo creandi quos veliet magistratus potestatem

p e r m i s i t. — lust iil 3. (Permisit=^n iussit )

42. Conon a coUoquio Artaxerxis prohibitus Qst, quod tMxa

more Persarum adorare nollet, — lust vi 2. (Conon
prohibitus tst^^edictum est ut Conon frohiberetur.)

43. Unus ex eis domum abiit, quod fallaci reditu in castra

iureiurando se exsolvisset, — Liv. xxii. 61. (Abiit=tf^/r^
licitum esse putavit,)

44. Augebat Tyriis animos Didonis exemplum, quae Car-

thagine condita tertiam partem orbis quaesisset. — lust
XL 10. (Augebat . . . exemplum=^j«/>wjrj' se diubant
Didonis exemplo,)

45. Si quis erat dignus describi ^Wmalus aut fur . . ,foret

. . . notabant — Hon S, i 4, 3. (Deseribi=^«/ descri-
beretur.)

46. Mereatique solum, feeti de nomine Byrsam,
Taurino quantum possent circumdare tergo.— Verg. Aen.

L 367. (Le. mercati sunt, pacti tantumfore quantum^

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xxxiv Preface.

&c * Poterant' might have been written, if the
mere fact, not the thought of the purchasers were
to be expressed.)

47. Pascentes illae tan turn pro dire volando
Quantum dxA^possetit oculi servare sequentum. — ^Verg.

Afn, \i. igg, {^xo^^^=^prodire se volebant Again
* poterant' might have been used of the mere fact)

48. Perdiccas rex Macedoniae moriens filio monstravit locum

que condi velkt. — Just viL 2. (Monstravit implies the
addition eum esse dicens,)

49. Sapiens non dubitat, j/ita melius sit, migrare de vita.

— Cic Fin. L 19. (Non dubitat mi^2ctQ=migrandum
sibi esse decemit,)

50. Tribunos omnes patricios creavit populus contentus eo,

quod ratio plebeiorum habita esset, — Liv. iv. 6. (Conten-
tiys to^satis esseputans.)

5c. Consulem cura anceps agitare : nolle deserere socios,
nolle minuere exercitum, quod aut moram sibi ad
dimicandum aut in dimicando periculum aflferre posset.
— Liv. xxxiv. 12. (Oratio obliqua is evidently latent
here: most simply we may say * deserere '=*se deserere,'
' minuere '=* se minuere.')

52. Ille nescio qui, qui in scholis nominari solet, mille et
octoginta stadia quod abesset vide bat — Cic Ac, Pr. iL
25. (Le. videre dicdfotur a nominaniibus,)

SZ' Quoniatn Miltiades ipse pro se dicere non posset^ verba
pro eo fecit frater eius Tisagoras. — Nep. Milt, 7.
(Fecit=/z«iOT/& a seputavit ; but the example is a daring
one.)

54. Re nuntiata ad suos, qu<u imperarentur f ac er.edixerunt
— Caes. B. G, ii. 32. (This sentence is remarkably con-
densed At full it is : * the envoys of the Aduatuci, after
reporting the matter to their constituentSy came back and
said they would do what was ordered them, * * Facere ' is,
in fact, oratio obliqua, * suos ' being understood as sub-
ject.)

5$. Brutus terram osculo contigit, scilicet quod ea com-
munis mater omnium mortalium'^:rx<e/. — Liv. {.'56, (Con-
tigit=contingendam esse putavit,)

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Preface, xxxv

56. Alter

S u b 1 e g i t quodcumque iacerd inutile, quodque

Posset Q&a2Xi\i^ offendere. — Hor. S, ii 8, 11. (Sublegit

contains the notion, that the slave ' sublegendum esse

vidit:)

57. Ex his, qui anna ferre possent ad milia xcil — Caes. B, G.

L 29. (In the previous sentence we read : * in tabulis
nominatim ratio confecta erat, qui niunerus domo
exisset eorum, qui anna fene possenV This reference
to a construction preceding in the text, illustrates
our general subject here — a Latin author's habit of
adapting mood to a construction existing in his mind,
but only implied in his text See note at page xxix.

58. Numa Camenis eum lucum sacravit, quod earum ibi

concilia cum coniuge sua Egeria essent — Liv. i. 21.
(Sacravit= j^KTww esse voiuit)

59. Non equidem extimui Danaum ^w^^ductor et Areas,
Quodque 2i z\k^ fores geminis coniunctus Atridis. — Verg.

Aen, viii 130. (Non extimui=«^w extimescendum
esse putavi,)

6a Poetus omnes libros, quos frater suus reitquisset, mihi
donavit — CicAtt,\Li. {Donavit^dtmare sedixit. His
words would be: dono tibi libros, quos fiater mens re-
liquit)
XIII. § 26. Looking at Example 60, we observe that the re-
ference to the mind of the subject Poetus is indicated not only
by the subjunctive * reliquisset,' but also by the subjective or re-
flexive pronoun *suus.' Cicero might have written, *quos
firater eius reliquerat,' if he had been satisfied with making the
statement his own, as in the sentence * Themistocles ambula-
bat,'&c, he might have written *poterat' for 'posset,' if he
had not wished to refer the act to the mind of Themistocles.
See also Examples 47, 48, 56. As to suus see § 231 B. and
Ex. 31, 32, 43, 51, 54. We venture to cite in illustration of it
a modem version of the two femous epigrams respecting •
George I., who, on coming to the English throne, sent cavalry
to Oxforc^ and gave a library to Cambridge.

Diversts Diversa, i.
Dum populi spectat mores, et mente gemellas

Mox academias invigilante notat,

b2

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xxxvi Preface,

Cur equitum mi t tit tibi rex, Oxonia, turmam?

Quod tu, docta licet, sis male fida sibi.
Idem, Granta, libros mittit tibi, praemia iusta,

Quod tu fida sibi sis^ male docta tamen.

Diversis Diversa^ 2,

Cur equitum mittit tibi rex, Oxonia, turmam ?

Quod vis regicolis pro ratione va/ef.
Cur mittat tibi, Granta, libros hinc collige, ^uod vis

Unica poplicolis in ratione sita est}

In the first epigram the reasons are subjectively stated,
being refened to the mind of the king. In the second they
are stated as the writer's own observations.

XIV. § 27. Looking at Example 59, we observe that the vir-
tually suboblique clause is rarely found after a principal Verb
in the First Person. Thus Cic. Rose. Am. 47, quod viris forti-
bus, quorum opera eximia in rebus gerendis exstitit, honos
habitus est^ laudo. On this account it seldom occurs after
Verbs of joy, because they usually appear in that Person :
gaudeo (gratulor) quod salvum te recepisti But, if the writer
speaks of a feeling entertained by himself in a past time, the
Subjunctive may follow, as *quod fores' in 59. It must also be
remembered that the Exceptions (noticed § 193, and further
exemplified on p. 437) of Indicative Clauses apparently, but
not really, depending on Oratio Obliqua, are very numerous,
especially in Caesar. Thus too the Clause with * quod * depend-
ing on Verbs of feeling may be Indicative, if the fact in the
Clause is more strongly emphasised than the expression of
feeling which it arouses : as in Liv. iv. 3, quod spiralis^ quod

* The English originals are :

Jacobite Epigram.
The king, observing with judicious eyes
The state of both his universities,
To Oxford sent a troop of horse : for why?
That learned body wanted loyalty.
To Cambridge books he sent, as well discerning
How much that lojral body wanted learning.

Hanoverian Reply.
The king to Oxford sent a troop of horse ;
For Tories own no argument but force.
On the other hand to Cambridge books he sent,
For Whigs allow no force but argument.

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Preface, xxxvii

vocem miititis^ quod formas hominum habetis^ indignantur.
SoCic. Verr, L 47. Utnim reprehendis, <^«^^ libertus patro-
num ivvabat eum, qui turn in miseriis erat, an quod alterius
patroni mortui voluntatem conservabat, a quo sumroum benefi-
dum acceperat?

To the examples in XII. may be added those which appear on
pp. 437 II., 459 (foot), where * suboblique ' should be * virtually
suboblique ' ; also the examples in the ' Public School Latin
Primer,' p. 168.

The construction of Subjunctives in dependence on formal
Oratio Obliqua and on other Subjunctives is not controverted,
and need not therefore be here specially exemplified. It
appears indeed in almost every page of great Latin prose
writers, and is noted by italics in the examples of Compound
Construction (§ 194, &a) in this Grammar.

XV. § 28. Madvig, whose great merit is the nice observation
of particular idioms, notices (§ 370), that the Second Person of
the Conjimctive is used (like *man' in German, *on' in
French) to express an undefined subject {same one^ any one).
Thus often in principal construction : Quem neque gloria nee
pericula excitant, nequiquam hortere^ Sail. Cat. 58. Canes
venaticos diceres^ Cia Verr, iv. 13. It appears also in Clauses
dependent on some general statement, which we call Gnomic.
Cum animum ab istis imaginibus ad veritatem traduxeris, nihil
relinquitur, Cic. T,D, v. 5. Bonus segnior fit, ubi neglegas^
SalL lug, 31. Cum aetas extrema advenit, tum illud quod
praeteriit effluxit ; tantum remanet, <^«<7^ virtute et recte factis
amsccutus sUy Cic. d. Or, iil 52. Mens, quoque et animus, nisi
tamquam lumini oleum instilles, extinguuntur senectute, Cic.
CM. II. Virtutem necessario gloria, etiafnsi tu id non agas^
consequitur, Cic T. D.i, 38. Gerundive and other Imper-
sonal Verbs have a gnomic character, and are sometimes used
with Subjunctive clauses dependent on them. Suae cuique
utilitati, quod sine alterius iniuria fat, serviendum est
Cic Tibi ipsi dicendumerit aliquid quod non sentias aut fa c i-
endum quod non frobesy Cic Fam. iv. 9. Est enim sapien-
tis, quidquid homini accidere possit^ id praemeditari ferendiun
modice esse, si evenerit Maioris omnino est consilii pro-
videre, nequid tale acddat; animi non minoris fortiter
ferre, si evenerit^ Cic Phil, xi 3. Dicere fortasse quae sentias^
non licet ; tacere plane licet, Cic Fam, iv. 9.

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xxxviii Preface,

XVI. § 29. In quitting the topic of Virtual Oratio Obliqua,
on which I have dwelt longer than I expected, I have to say
that this is one of the few terms for which I am responsible.
I should have been equally content to call it 'contained' or
* implied,* or * informal ' Oratio Obliqua : all which mean one
and the same thing.

The point at issue is this :

Are they right, who like Madvig (§ 357, § 368-9, § 404) put
forward first the usage

(a) Principal Sentence (Indie) + Clause (Subjunct)
and follow this up with

(/3) Prina Sent (Indie) -f O. Obliqua -f Clause (Subjunct)
thus making (/3) a corollary or special case of (a) ?

Or are they right, who give the converse order, and make
(a) a corollary or special case of (/3) ?

Having had this question in view for half a century or
more, I have never for a moment doubted that the just gram-
matical order is that which appears in this book (§§ 1 90-1 91),
from (/3) to (a), not from (a) to (/3) ; that this is the order in
which teachers and students ought to pursue the doctrine of
Oblique Construction in Latin ; taking the Infinitive Clause
(Accus. and Infin.) as its first — most representative — ^ribst nor.
mal form (§ 100, § 190, § 194).

XVII. § 30. Yet, although Madvig has failed to treat the
doctrine in this order, I shall now cite incidental passages fix)m
his book, which indicate an inadequately developed conscious-
ness of that order being the true one.

(i) When treating of the Accusative (§ 322) Madvig says :
*In the indefinite infinitive expression, when the connexion
between the subject and predicate is not of itself asserted, the
subject and the predicative noun stand in the accusative, e.g.
hominem currere, that a man runs ; esse dominum, to be lord,'
This just view, properly followed up, ought to have led him to
place the Accus. and Infin. in the front of Compoimd Construc-
tion, But he lost sight of its true importance in his Second
Part

(2) In his Chapter on the Conjunctive, where most of his
paragraphs are useful, as isolated remarks, but uninstructive,
in so f^ as they are out of place and unsystematic — ^he says
(§ 348, Obs. 3) : * The same holds ' — ^to our mind the connexion

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^ v^ pt ix^

Preface, xxxix

he suggests has no real existence — *of other conditional
propositions, which do not contain a condition applying to
the leading proposition, but complete an idea contained in it,
which has the force of an infinitive or otherwise dependent pro-
position, so thai the conditional clause belongs to the ^^oratio
obliqua" e.g. Metellus Centuripinis, nisi statuas Veneris restituis-
sent, graviter minatur (Cic Verr. ii 67 — ^minatur se iis malmn
daturum nisi — Minatiu* is stated absolutely without any condi*
tion). lugurtha iram senatus timebat, ni paruisset legatis (SalL
/t^, 25 — ne senatus irasceretur). Nulla maior occurrebat res
quam si optimarum artium vias traderem meis civibus (Cia
de Drv, iL i, eg. Nullam rem putabam maiorem esse)'

Need I say that in this passage — occurring before he has
introduced those rules and examples on the Subjunctive
clause before referred to — Madvig does, in point of fact, though
but partially, teach the very doctrine which is drawn out in this
Grammar, and which in this part of the Preface I have been
maintaining and exemplifying, — the doctrine of Virtual Oratio
ObHqua, exhibited in his three cited examples ? He has, un-
happily, failed to recognise its wide scope and great im-
portance, and so to give it due prominence afterwards.

The late Professor Key, a learned and ingenious scholar,
in his Latin Grammar (i 201-1204) states first the doctrine of
Oratio Obliqua (too narrowly, because he has not based it on
the triple form of sunple sentences and dependent Substantival
clauses) and then adds (1205): * Without a formal use of the
" Oratio Obliqua," a verb in a dependent clause may be in the
Subjunctive Mood, when it expresses the thoughts or words or
alleged reasons of another.' He then cites the example, Cic. T, D.
V. 36 (given by us, p. 459) Aristides, &c and the two following :
Fabio dicta dies est, quod legatus in Gallos fugnasset^
Liv. vL I. Aedem lovi vovit, «' eo die Yiostes fudisset^ Liv.
xxxL 21 : (in which obviously : Fabio dicta dies est=J^;W
accusatus est^ and vovit contains se dedicaturum).

Thus, by saying * without ^formal use of the Obliqua
Oratio,' Key recognises an informal (or virtual) use of it, as
I do ; and postpones this rightly to the formal use. I could
cite German grammarians, were it worth while, whose treat-
ment implies the same principles : for instance, Middendorf
and Griiter, Frei, Billroth, Ellendt, &c. But the term (Virtual
O. O.) was, I repeat, introduced by me thirty-six years ago.

uiyiuzeu uy ■v^j ^^^ xJVt Iv

X 1 Preface.

It rests upon its own fitness : I can but deprecate, if it exist
anywhere, the spirit complained of by Horace, when he says :

Indignor quicquam reprehendi, non quia crasse
Compositum illepideve putetur, sed quia nuper.

Ep, ii I, 76.

XVIII. § 31. The question, whether the (independent)
Thought-mood should be called Subjunctive or Conjunctive,
stands as follows:

The Greek grammarians of Alexandria used the term
lyifXtenc Worcucriic^, modus subjunctivus. Why? Because in
Greek there are two forms of the Thought-mood, one of which
they called cincruc^. Optative, the other vjroraicrti:^. Subjunctive.
Neither of these terms corresponds exactly to the uses of the
respective forms. The term Optative expresses only one use of
the first: — that oi praying or wishing^ tXQot, may it come: but it
has also a dependent use, on iKBoi^ that it was come-, and by
the convenient accession of the modal particle ai' it gains an in-
dependent or enuntiative power e\6oe av, like the Latin * veni-
ret,' // would come. The second form IX61; was called viroreuc-
TiKii because it never did acquire enuntiative power; the modal
&v was not extended to it, but only the conjunction &v, tf,
the conjunctional relative oc o,v &c, whosoever ^ &c, in dependent
construction. It has, however, an independent power as suc-
cursal to the imperative, in hortative sense ist pers. plur.,
€X6a»/ii€v, let us come ; and as interrogative, in dubitative sense,
— ri ^bf, what can I say'i In spite of these two exceptional uses,
it is manifest that the term vworoKTiKi)^ subjunctive, is, for the
Greek mood, fully defensible, because its principal and (so to
say) normal use is dependence. German grammarians, however,
call it Conjunctive ; wisely we think, for the maintenance of
analogy

But for calling the Latin Thought-mood, generally, Sub-
junctive, there seems to be, from a right point of view, no reason-
able defence. Key, indeed, has taken a point of view, which,
if it were right, would supply one. His words are (Gr.

§§ 427-8):

*The Subjunctive Mood, as its name implies, is used in
secondary sentences subjoined to the main verb. In some
sentences it is not uncommon to omit the main verb, and then
the Subjunctive Mood seems to signify power, permission^ duty^

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Preface. xli

wish^ purpose^ result^ aHegatiofiy hypothesis \ whereas in fact
these notions belong to the verb which is not expressed. Thus
the phrase " quid faciam " is translated by whcU should I do ox
what am I to do? but the full phrase is " quid vis faciam ? "
what do you wish me to do f (!) '

This theory Key, perhaps, borrowed from Hermann, who
applies it (De emendanda ratione Grammaticae Graecae) to
explain the two exceptional uses before noticed of the Greek
Subjimctive: supposing iw/xcv^fiyc ew/xcK, and H <fiw=i(rfifATivov
or oifK oUa tL ^5. This faifetched caprice of an ellipsis is bad
enough as used by Hermann: but when applied to all the
independent usages of the Latin Thought-mood it has not, I
think, been accepted by any grammarian but Key himself. I
therefore consider the adoption of the term Subjunctive, as a
name for that mood generally, to be an unwise and imjustifiable
violation of propriety in the choice of terms. Such no doubt
is the opinion of that multitude of grammatical writers who
take the term Conjunctive in its stead, though, unhappily,
they neglect to assign a distinct name to that dependent
use, which is really Subjunctive. To this neglect is due, in
great measure, their vague and unsatisfactory method of
treating Compound Construction in Latin; a method pro-
pagated, through Madvig, to some English scholars.

See Uses of the Verb, §§ 90-99 of this Grammar, Ap-
pendix u. to the * Public School Latin Primer,' and the Preface
to my Second Edition of Virgil.

XDL § 32. The small number of terms for which this
Grammar is specially responsible will be seen in its Index. Care
has been taken to make them etymologically appropriate, and
useful for their several purposes. On such points I have
always invited expression of opinion by correspondence. It
has been justly urged, that the term Factitive (adopted from
German writers for that class of verbs which join a complement
to their object, § 106, § 131) — is bad in etymology. I have there-
fore now written Factive: but I feel inclined to prefer the term
' Appositive Verbs': ie. such as append to their object a
complement resembling an apposition: populus Nimiam regem
creavit: puto tefelicem {phiiosophum). The point merits further
consideration.

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xlii Preface.

XX. § 33. Among the numerous books which in the
course of my grammatical labours have been consulted with
profit, I desu-e specially to mention the various writings of Mr.
Thring, of Uppingham. His ' Elements of Grammar taught in
English ' is an admirable companion book to the 'Public School
Primer' for early instruction in Latin. ^

B. H. KENNEDY.

Cambridge : Oct, 5, 1879.

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CONTENTS.

[Numerals following § represent the marginal numeration. Numerals without
§ represent the pages. The matter printed in Italics belongs to the
Footnotes. 1

§ I-S P- I INTRODUCTION.

1. Divisions of Grammar ; the Latin Language ; Families of
Language ; the Semitic Family ; the Aryan Family and its branches.
2. The Italic Branch ; its Dialects ; Latin ; Languages derived from
Latin ; English ; its formation ; Influence of Greek on Latin. 3.
Sketch of I^atin Literature ; Table of Classical Authors. 4, Abbre-
viations in this Grammar,

6-99. p. s. ... PART /.^ETYMOLOGY.

6, p. 5- Divisions of Etymology ; Primitive Sounds and Roots.

7-12, p. 5. . Division i.— Phonology or Soundlore.

5. i. Alphabet ; Capital and Small Letters ; Vowels ; Consonants.
6. Divisions of the Consonants ; ii. Quantity, short, long, doubtful ;
iii. Syllabation. 7. iv. Accentuation ; Middle Tone. 8. v. Punctua-
tion ; vi. Relations of the Letters ; Scheme of Vowels ; Scheme of
Consonants. 9. vii. Memoranda from the History of the Alphabet ;
the Letters c, g, k, q, h, f, v, z, y, x ; the Aspirate sounds ch, th, ph,
rh ; the three Letters of the Emperor Claudius, viii. the Semiconso-
nants i-j and v-u. 10. i-consonans and i-vocalis ; v-consonans and
v-vocalis. ix. Sound and quality of the Vowels ; three primitive Vowels
a, i, u. II. a the standard Vowel ; introduction of e, o ; compara-
tive strength of Vowels ; lengthening of Vowels ; Final short and
long Vowels, x. Phonetic Decay in old Italian language : Classical
Latin a reaction. 12. xi. Vowel-change ; strengthening or weaken-
ing, xii. Formation and Decay of Diphthongs; Guna and Vriddhi ;
full list of Diphthongs ; ui, yi. A i (a e) and its changes. 13. O i (o e)
and Its changes ; e i and its changes ; a u, e u, o u. 14-17. xiii. Vowel-
strengthening in Root-syllables, Suffixes and Endings. 18. xiv.
Vowel-strengthening in Disyllabic Perfects; xv. Compensation. 19.
xvl Nasalization ; xvii. Vowel-weakening ; Euphony ; Selection ; e
as final. 20. xviii. The Vowel ft and its weakenings, A) in Root-
and Stem-syllables ; B) in Suffixes ; C) in Cases and Personal End-
ings. 31. xix. Weakening into 6 as influenced by Selection. 21-24.

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^ v^ pt ix^

xliv Contmts.

XX. Weakening into <i as influenced by Selection. 22. Dialectic use
ofo and u injinal syllables, Formidulosus, 6fc, 23. Gerundive forms
orrdus, &c. 24-28. xxi. Change into ^ as influenced by Selection.
29-31. xxii. Selection of I. 30. Vincularl. Note. 32. Recapitulation.
32-35. xxiii. Vowel-change by Assimilation and Dissimilation of
Vowels to each other. 35-39. xxiv. Vowel-weakening in the second
Member of Compounds ; 35. Loose and Fast Compounds ; Some Com-
pounds unweakened. 36. In others, a weakened into u ; a into e ; 37.
a into i ; 38. e into i ; 39. e into u ; ae into i ; o e into I ; o e into (i ;
a u into o ; a u into u ; a u into o e. 40. xxv. Reduplicadon. 41-44.
xxvi. Changes of conciurent Consonants. 41. Complete Assimilation
of Consonants ; Regressive. 42. Progressive. Partial Assimilation of
Consonants. Formation of Comparatives and Superlatives, 43. Dis-
similation of Consonants. 44. xxvii. Loss of Initial letters. 45. xxviii
Loss of Final Letters. 47-50. xxix. Loss of Inner Consonants by
Concurrence with other Consonants. 50-52. xxx. Loss of Inner Vowels
before Consonants. 52-55. xxxi. Hiatus. Elision, Contraction and
Coalition of Vowels. £4. xxxii. Loss of Inner \'owels with Consonants.
55-56. xxxiii. The Shortening of Vowels in Latin. 56-58. xxxiv. Elx-
clusion of Consonants followed by Contraction of Vowels. Peculiar
Contractions in Verbs, 59-68. xxxv. Relations of the Consonants in
Latin and kindred Languages. 58-60. The Guttural Surds c (k) q.
59. Labialism and Dentalism. 6a Sound of ce, ci. 61. The Guttural
Sonant g. 61-62. The Aspirates h, f. 63. The Labial Mutes p, b ;
the Dentals t, d. 64-66. The Nasals n, m ; the Liquids 1, r, and the
Sibilant s. 66. The Soft Labial Spirant v. 67. Sound of V-consonans ;
I-consonans. 68. The Double Consonant x. ^ords which have lost
an initial letter,

§ I3-99* P' ^» • DIVISION II.— Morphology or Wordlore.

§ 13. p. 69 SUBDIVISIONS.

I 14-16, p. 69. CHAPTER /.—Words and their Flexion.

69. i. Stem-flexion : Word ; Stem ; Root ; Suffix. 70. Prefix ;
Character ; Flexion ; Definition of Stem ; of Root. 70-73. ii. Classi-
fication of Words. 70. I. Nouns ; Noun Substantive. 71. Noun
Adjective ; Attribution ; Pronoun : Apposition ; Names, Abstract and
Concrete. Common Names. Collective Noims. Adjectives for Sub-
stantives. Numerals. 72. Declension ; Accidents of Nouns ; II. Verb
Finite and Infinite ; Conjugation, Accidents of Verb ; III. Particles ;
Adverb ; Preposition. 73. Conjunction ; Interjection ; Parts of Speech ;
Absence of Articles.

§ 17-34. p. 73. . . . CHAPTER //.—Nouns.

§ 17-21, p. 73 section I.

73. i. Number in Noims. 73-79. ii. Gender of Nouns. 74. Distinct
Generic Names ; Mobilia. 75. Verbals of double Gender ; Patrony-
mics. 75-77. Words Common of two Genders. 75. Appellatives. 76.
Names of Animals. 77. Epicoena, 77-79. Gender shown by meaning.
80. iii. The Cases ; Declension ; Case in ancient and modem lan-
guage. Order of the Cases. 81. iv. The Five Declensions. 82-84. v.
Formation of the Cases. 85. vi. Endings of the Five Declensions.

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Contents, xlv

§ 23, p. 86. . SECTION II.— i. First Declension ; A-Nouns.

86. Nouns contained in First DecL ii. Table, iii. Cases in First
Dcd. 87-89. iv. Greek Nouns in First Decl.

§ 33, p. 89. section iii.—i. Second Declension ; O-Nouns.

89. Nouns contained in Second Decl. ii. Table. 90. iii. Cases.
91. iv. Clipt Nouns in er. 92. v. Greek Nouns in Second Decl. vi.
Gender. 93. vii. Table of Adjectives in Decl. II. and I.

^ 24. p. 94. . section IV.— i. Third Declension, Consonant and

I-NOUNS.

94. The two Divisions ; their occasional confusion ; its cause ; ii.
Nominative Endings in the Consonant Declension. 95. Vowel of True
Stem. 95-103. iii. Syllabus of Cons. Stems, with Genders. 95-95.
A. Mute Guttural Stems. 96-99. B, Mute Dental Stems. 99. C,
Mute Labial Stems. 99-101. D. Nasal Stems. 101-103. E. Liquid and
Sibilant Stems. 103. F. u- and v-stems. G. Greek e- o- and y-steras.
104. iv. I-stems: Imparisyllabaand Parisyllaba. v. Grouping of I -nouns
with Gender. 104-106. A) Parisyllable I-noims in fe (6r). 104-106.
Nature of L B\ Parisyllable I-nouns Fem. in es (ts). 106-107. C)
Neuter I-notms in 6, &1, ftr. 107-108. D) Clipt I-nouns I mparisy liable.
108-109. ^ Notes on the Cases. 109. Gen. PI. varying with form
cf Noun. Summary of Gender in Third Decl. iio*ii2. vii. Table of
Third Decl. 112-115. ^"' Greek Noims in Third Decl. 114-115.
Greek Table. 1 15-1 19. ix. Adjectives in Third Decl. 115. Con-
sonant Adjectives ; Table. 116-119. Adjectives not purely Consonantal
Four Groups. 1 18-1 19. Table of these Adjectives.

§ 35, p. 119. . section v.— i. Fourth Declension ; U-Nouns.

119. ii. Table. 13a iii. Confusion of U- and O-noims. 121. iii.
Cases in Fourth Decl. 121. iv. Gender in Fourth Decl.

§ 36, p. 131. section VI.— i. Fifth Declension. E-Nouns, Fem.
iL Table. 133. iii. Cases in Fifth Decl. iv. Gender of dies.

I 37-38. p. 133. . . section vii.— Irregular Nouns.

133. i. Irregularity ; Abimdance ; Defect. 133-125. ii. Abundance
in Substantives; of Declension ; of Case-forms. 125-130. iii. Defect in
Substantives. 125. A. Defect of Number. I) Substantives Singular
only. 126-128. II) Plural only. 128-129. Ill) Substantives which
change their meaning in Plural. 129-130. B. Defect of Case.
Substantives Defective in Case. 131. iv. Irregularity in Adjectives ;
Abundance ; Defect.

§ 29-30^ p. 131. . . section viii.— Comparison.

131-132. i. Comparison of Adjectives; 132. Degrees of Comparison ;
ii. Examples ; iii. Notes on Comparison. 133. iv. Irregular Compa-
rison. 133-135. V. Defective Comparison. 135. vi. Comparison of
Adverbs. 136. vii. Irregular Comparison in Adverbs.

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xlvi Contents,

8 31. P- 13^- . . .' . SECTION IX.— Pronouns.

136. i. Pronouns Substantive or Adjective ; thdr Persons. 136-
137. ii. Classification of Pronouns: A, Substantival : i. Personal ; 2.
Reflexive ; B, 3. Possessive ; C. 4. Demonstrative ; 5. Definitive ;
6. Relative ; a. Interrogative ; b. Indefinite ; c. Compound Pro-
nouns ; 7. Pronominalia ; 138-X42. iii. Tables of Declension. i4»«
143, Obseivations on certain F*ronouns, 143-145. Ancient Caseforms
of Pronouns. 144-146. iv. Correlation of Pronouns.

§ 32-34. p. 147. . . . SECTION X.— Numerals.

147. i. Numeralia ; ii. Symbols of Number : Note on these ; iii. The
Four Chief Numeral Series — Cardinal, Ordinal, Distributive Ntunerals,
Quotientive Adverbs. 148-149. iv. Minor Numeral Series. 150-151. v.
Declension of Numerals. 150-153. Numeral Table; Numeral Roots,
153-155, vi. Use of the Numerals. 156-157. Compoimd Nimieration.
'57-158- viii. Expression of Fractions ; the As and its parts ; Calcu-
lation of Inheritance.

§ 35-53. p. i5«. . . . CHAPTER ///.—The Verb.

§ 35-40, p. 158. . . , section I.— i. The Verb Finite and Infinite.

ii. The Voices. 159. iii. Deponent Verbs, iv. Verbs Transitivo
and Intransitive ; Impersonal and Reflexive uses of the Verb. i6a
v. Verbs Quasi-Passive and Semi-Deponent ; Passive Participles from
Active Verbs. 160-161. The Moods — Indicative, Conjunctive, Im-
perative. X61-164. vii. The Tenses. 161-163. Tense-forms Inflected
or Combinate. 163. Table of Tense-forms. Conjunctive Tenus.
164. Combinate or Periphrastic Forms ; Tenses Primary and Historic,
viii. Niunber and Person. 164-166. ix. The Verb Infinite ; Infinitive ;
Gerunds ; Gerundive ; Supines ; Participles.

§ 41-50^ p. 166. ... section II.— -The Conjugation of Verbs.

166. i. The three Stems in Verbs ; Parts derived from them seve-
rally. 167. ii. The Verb of Being 'sum' (esse) ; Forms qfsum, esse.
160. Its Table. 169-182. iii. The Four Conjugations of Regular
Verbs ; Weak and Strong Conjugations ; the Stems in each. 169.
Quantity 0/ the Vowel Characters. 170-171. Mode of Conjugating Verbs
Active, Passive, and Deponent. 171. Verbs in io of Conj. 3. 17a-
182. Tables of the Four Conjugations—Active, Passive, and Depo-
nent. 180. Of Io- Verbs in Conj. 3. 180-182. iv. Combinate or Peri-
phrastic Conjugation. 181-183. Correspondence of the Latin Verb.
183-189. V. Conjugation of Irregular Verbs. 184. Possum. 184-185.
Fero. 186. Fio. 187. Volo, nolo, malo. 188. Eo, queo, nequeo.
189. Edo. 189-191. Conjugation of Defective Verbs. 189. Praeteri-
tiva, coepi, odi, memini. Capio^ &c. 190. Novi, aio. 191,
Inquam. ovare, quaeso. 192-194. Impersonal Verbs. 192. Im-
personal Verbs Active. 193. Impersonal Veriss Pas^ve. 194. Imper-
sonals Gerundive. ^ ,

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Contents, xlvii

§ 51, p. 194. SECTION IV.— The Forms op the Three Stems in Verbs.

194-196. i. The Present Stem and its Afifections. 196. Inceptive
or Inchoative Verbs in sco. 196-199. ii. The Perfect Stem and its
varieties of formation. 199-903. iii The Supine Stem and its va-
rieties of formation.

§ 53, p. 302. . . . SECTION v.— Composition of Verbs.

aoa-303. i. Prepositions compomided with Verbs, separable and
inseparable ; their Euphonic Mutations ; Examples. 202. • Sus, suds.
203. TMe form obs, 904. Scheme of Vowel-changes in the three
Stems of Compound Verbs. 205. ii. Verbs compounded with Ad-
verbs ; with Nominal or Verbal Elements.

8 S3. P- 305. section VI.— Syllabus of Stem-formation in Verbs.

305. A) The First Conjugation ; Imitative Verbs ; Frequentative
Verbs ; Deminutive Verbs ; B) Second Conjugation ; C) Fourth Con-
jugation. 906. Desiderative Verbs ; D) Third Conjugation. 3o6-so8.
Stem-table of A-verbs; Compounds; Deponent A-verbs. 209-214. Stem*
table of E-verbs, Compounds. 314-216. Stem-table of I-verbs, Com*
pounds, 216-937. Stem-table of Consonant and U-verbs, Compounds.
216-917. Cons. Verbs with reduplicated Perfect-stem. 317-218. With
strengthened Perf. stem. 219-221. With agglutinated Perf. Stem in
tii,vi. 331-334. With agglutinated s in Perf. stem. 331-223. Gut-
tural Stems. 223. Dental Steins. 234. Labial, Nasal, and Liquid
Stems. 334-335. U-verbs. 235-337. Deponent Verbs in Third Con-
jugation. 336-937. Inchoative Verbs. 337. Homonymous Verb-firms,

§ 54-58, p. aaS. . CHAPTER /K— Particles.

338. Four Classes of Particles; their intimate conneidon.

§ 55, p. 928 section I.— Adverbs.

328-333. Interrogative Adverbs referring to Place, Time, Nimiber,
Manner, D^^ree, Cause, Quality, &c. Table of Adverbs corresponding
to these severally.

§ 56r p. 933. . . . section II.— PRBPOSmONS.

333. Relations expressed by Prepositions, z) Prepositions which
take Accusative Case. 333. s) Prepositions which take Ablative
Case. 3) Prepositions which take either case.

I 57» P- 233. . . . SECTION ni.— Conjunctions.

333. Conjunctions, Coordinative or Subordinative ; Conjunctions
with both uses. A. List of Coordinative Conjimctions. 334. B. List
of Subordinative Conjunctions.

§ 58.P. 334. .... section IV.— iNTEI^BCriONS.

334. Interjections expressing various Emotions. 335. Interjectional
Noons ; Veibs ; Adverbs ; Phrases. Cases found with Interjections.

.0

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xlviii Contents,

S S9» P- 235-353. . CHAPTER K— Derivation and Composition op

Words.

p. 235 . . . SECTION I.— Derivation of Nouns.

336. i. Stamina! Suffix, ii. Root or Rudiment, iii. Suffixes.
237. iv. Rudimental Words. 237-248. v. Syllabus of Suffixes ; Ex-
amples. 247. Formation of Deminutives ; Examples, vi. Patronymics.
249. vii. Names of Oountri^ 249-251. viii. Nominative Endings of
derived Words according to their meanings; Examples. 252. Ad-
jectives derived from Particles ; Examples. 252-253. Adjectives
derived from Proper Names : Personal ; Gentile ; Roman Names.

p. 254. . section II.— Derivation of Verbs.

254. Verbs derived from Verbs ; Verbs derived frpm Nouns.

p. 255-259. section III.— Derivation of Particles.

255. i. Primitive Particles, ii. Particles derived from Nouns ; from
Pronouns ; from other Particles. Particles compounded with other
Particles. 256-257. iii. Denominative Adverbs in the form of Cases.
257-258. Denominative Adverbs with Adverbial Endings. 258. v.
Derivation of Pronominal Particles. 259. vi. Other Particles. Note
on some of them.

% 60, p. 259-266. section IV.— Composition of Words.

260. i. Parts of a Compound, Fundamental and Determinative ;
Paraiheiic and Synthetic Composition, ii. Varieties of Composition,
Constructive, Attributive, Adverbial, and Possessive. 260-263. Syn-
thetically compounded Substantives, Adjectives and Verbs. 263. De-
composita. 263-266. Verbs compounded with Prepositions; their
various senses, &c

§ 61-99, p. 267. . CHAPTER V/.—VsEs OF Words.

I 61, p. 267. section i.— i. Figurate Construction.

267-269. ii. Ellipsis ; Zeugma; Pleonasm ; Examples; Attraction;
Synesis. 269-270. iii. Other Variations. 27a iv. Metaphor;
Metonymy,

§ 62, p. 270. . section ii.— Uses of the Substantive.

270. i. Singular Appellatives used collectively for Plurals, 271. il
Plural words used with Singular coUective sense in prose and poetry,
iii. Plural used to express a * genus,' when individuals are implied,
iv. 'Plural of Proper Names expressing typical characters, v. Ab-
stract Substantives used in Plural. 272. vi. Abstract Substantives for
Concrete. 272-273. vii. Idioms of Substantives. 274-275. viii. El-
lipse of Substantives.

63, p. 275- • • section iii.— Uses of the Adjective.

275-278. i. Adjectives used as Substantives. 278. ii. Adjectives tised
adverbially in Predicative Construction, iii. Partitive Attributes.

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contents. xlix

nr. Multiplication of Attributes. 279. v. Possessive Attributes, vi.
Idioms of the Superlative. 280. vii. Intensive Phrases. 281. viii.
Adjectives used in Passive and Active Sense.

% 64^69, p. a8i. . SECTION rv.— Uses of Pronouns.

flSi. i. Personal and Possessive Pronouns. 989-085. ii Demonstra-
tive Pronouns hie. ill e, iste, is, idem. S85-387. Hi. The Reflexive
Pronouns se, suus. 287-089. iv. The Definitive Pronoun ipse.
289-291. V. The Indefinite Pronouns quis, qui, aliquis,>aliqui,
quispiam, quisquam, quidam, quivis; the Pronoun
quisque. 291. vL The Universal Relatives quisquis, quicum-
que, &C. 292. vii. Pronominalia ; alter, uter, &c.; alius, &c.

% 70-72, p. 993. . SECTION v.— Uses op Prepositions.

293-299. Examples of Prepositions taking an Accusative Case.
999-304. Examples of Prepositions taking an Ablative Case. 304-
306. Examples of Prepositions taking Accusative and Ablative. 306.
Prepositions used as Adverbs. 307. Notes on Prepositions.

4 73-76, p. 307. section VI. — Correlative Construction.

307-310. i. Pronominal Correlation, ii. 310-312. Correlations of
Manner with ut, &c. 312-3x3. iii. Correlations of Likeness and Un-
likeness with atque. ac, &c. 314-315. iv. Correlations of Degree
with quam. 314. Quam with Positive and Superlative Adjectives,
&c Quam after Adverbs. 315. Idioms of Comparative.

477-82. p. 316. . . section vii.— Coordination.

3i6-32a i. Coordination by Conjunctions. 3x6. Annexive Conjunc-
tions. 317. Distributive Association; Ordinative Paitides. 318.
Disjunctive Particles ; Adversative. 32a Causal ; Illative. 320-322.
ii. Coordination by the Relative and its Particles. 321-322. Idioms
of quod.

4^SP-3?3- . section VIII.— Negative Words.

323-324. i. Ne and its Compounds. 324. ii. Doubled Negatives.
325-326. iii. Ne . . • quidem, nedum, non modo, &c.

{ 86-89^ p. 326. . section IX.— Questions and Answers.

I. Questions Single or Disjtmctive. 326-327. L Single Interrogation
without Particle ; ii. withjParticle ; uses of an, nescio an, &c. 328-
329. iii. Diqunctive Interrogation with utrum, &c. 329. II. An-
swers. L Aflirmative Answers. 330. ii. Negative Answers.

i 9^"^ P- 330. . section x.~Usbs of the Verb.

331. i. The Indicative Mood and its Tenses ; Use of Mood ; Rela-
tions of Tenses. 332-333. Uses of the Present. 333. Uses of the
Perfect. 334. Uses of the Imperfect and Pluperfect. Tenses in
Roman Letter-writing. 335. Uses of the Simple. Future and Future
Perfect ; of the Future Periphrastic Conjugation. 336. Idioms of the

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Indicative Past Tenses in Predications of duty, necessity, &c. 337. ii.
The Imperative Mood and its Tenses, 338. iii. The Conjunctive
Mood and its Tenses. 338-341. iv. Uses of the Pure Conjunctive ;
Potential 339. Dubitative, Concessive, Optative, Hortative uses. 340.
Permissive and exhorting use of 2nd Pers. Conjunctive ; Prohibitive
use. 341. V. Examples of Pure Conjunctive. 342-343. vi. The Sub-
junctive; Subordmate Subjunctive Clauses. 343-344. vii Particles
and Pronotms which introduce Clauses. 344-346. viii. Consecution
of Tenses with Examples. 346-347. be. Ellipses of the Verb.

$ IO(«SO» p. 348. . . PART IL^SYNTAX,

§ xoo, p. 348. CHAPTER /.—The Doctrine of Sentences.

348. Sentences Affirmative or Negative ; Simple or Compound. la
a Compound Sentence, Principal Sentence and Clauses ; Coordinate
and Subordinate Clauses. Three Forms of a Simple Sentence —
Elnuntiation, Petition, Interrogation. 349. Oratio Recta and Obliqua.
Substantival Clauses ; their Three Kinds—Enuntiatio Obliqua, Pe-
titio Obliqua, Interrogatio Obliqua.

§ X0Z-Z06, p. 349. CHAPTER IL^Tax. Simple Sentence.

349. i. Members of a Simple Sentence, Grammatical Subject and
Grammatical Predicate. 350. What the Subject may be. What the
Predicate. Examples of Predication with Subject and Verb. Omis-
sion of Pronoun Subject ii. Incomplete Predication ; Verbs which
do not predicate completely. Sum, esse (complete only when
implying absolute existence), usually requires a Complement, 35X.
Examples. Incomplete Verbs called Copulative. List of Copulative
and Factive Verbs. 350-351. Incomplete Predication and its Terms.
352. What the Complement may be. Examplesof Copulative Predica-
tion. PArase, EntAesis, Clause. 353. iii. Relations in the Simple
Sentence. Note on these. I. Predicative Relation ; Subject and F^
dlcate. II. Qualitative Relation— Attribute, Apposite. Adjuncts of
Substantives, 354. Four Varieties of Qualitative Relation — Epithetic,
Enthetic, Adverbial, Complemental III. Objective Relation; Ob-
ject, Accusative governed by Transitive Verbs; Verbs with two"
Objects, Person and Thing; Verbs with two Accusatives, one
Oblique Complement of the other. IV. Receptive Relation ; Dative of
Recipient. 355. Predicative Dative or Dative of Purpose. TVa-
jective Words, V. Circumstantive Relation; Adverbs; Ablative
Case, Ac. 356. VI. Proprietive Relation ; Genitive Case. VII. Pro-
lative Relation ; Predication extended by Infinitive. VIII. Annexive
Relation ; Conjunctions. 357. iv. Ecthesisby Interjections and Vocative
Case. V. Notice of the Relative Pronoun. 358. vi. Conversion of
Active Sentences into Passive form.

% Z07-Z88, p. 359. CHAPTER ///.—Constructions of the Simplb
Sentence.

§ Z07. I. Agreement. II. Case-Construction, III. Verb-Construc-
tion.

§ Z08-ZZ4, p. 359. . . . SECTION I.— Agreement.

359. Agreement what i. The Four Concords: I. Verb with Subject ;
Examples. II. Adjective with Substantive; III. Substantive with

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^v^pt i-X^

Contents, li

Substantive. 360. Examples of II. III. 361. IV. Relative with Ante-
cedent; Examples, ii Ellipsis of Subject. 361-363. iil Attraction
of Verb. 36a. iv. Synesis in first and second Concords : of Gender ;
of Number ; Collective Notms. 363. v. Composite Subject 364-
367. vi. Idioms of Attribution and Apposition. 364. Adjective
agreeing with Veib-Noun. 365. Adjectival Pronoun substantively
used as Subject. Adverbial Attribution and Apposition. Neuter
Adjectives Substantival 366. Number and Gender of Appodtes.
Peculiar forms of Apposition. 367. Attribute with more than one
Noun. Noun with more than one Attribute or Apposite. 367. vit
Synesis and Ellipsis in Relative Construction. 368. Attraction in
Relative Construction, viii. Construction of Qualis ; Quantus ; Quot.
369W Abnormal Constructions. 369-370. Examples of tk^ Rules of
Agreement,

f 11S-176, p. 37a . . SECTION II.— Case-Construction.

S 115-117. p. 37a . . -<4.— The Nominative Case.

37a L The Nominative as Subject : ii. Ai Complement 371. iii.
With Interjections.

f X1S-Z19, p. 371. . . . A— The Vocative Case.

371. L Vocative without or with Interjection : ii. The Nominative
for the Vocative.

J 120-Z33, p. 37a. . . . C— The Accusative Case.

372. i. The Accusative the Case of the Contained or Attained Nearer
Object : Agent and Object : Objective Propositions, ii. Accusative of
the Nearer or Attained Object of Transitive Verbs. Examples. 373-
374. iii Contained Object (Cognate Accusative): its various instances.
374. Part Aflfected (Respect), iv. Medial Object in Poetry. 375. v.
Accusatives of Time, Space, Measure, vi Accus. of Place Whither.
376. vii Transitive Verbs used Intransitively. 376-378. Intransitive
Verbs used Transitively. 376. Verbs expressing State. 377. Com-
pounds of Intransitive Verbs become Transitive ; Test of Active Trans-
itive Verb its power of becominj^ Passive, viii Personal and Im-
personal Passives. 378, Preposition of Compound Verb repeated
with Accusative. Compounds with two Accusatives. 278. ix. Idio-
matic uses. Verbals with Accusative. Unconstructed Accusative.
379. X. Exclamatory Accusative with or without Interjection. 379-
38a xi. Accusatives of two Objects with Verbs of askings teaching,
&c 380-381. xii Oblique double Accusative. 381-383. Examples
of Accusative,

J 139-142, p. 382. . . . />.— The Dative Case.

382-383. i Three chief uses of Dative~I. As Remoter Object II. As
Recipient or Acquisitive. III. As expressing Purpose. 384-386. ii.
Dative of Remoter Object Words which govern it 386-388. Verbs
which vary Construction with Meaning. 388-389. Adjectives with
Dative Object 389-39a iii. Recipient or Acquisitive Dative (Com-
modi et Incommodi). 390-391. iv. Predicative Dative. 391-394.
Examples of Dative,

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§ 143-161. p. 392. . . . ^.— The Ablative Case.

393. i. Uses of Ablative — I. Instrumental ; II. Locative ; III.
Ablative Proper. 393. ii. Instrumental Ablative. 393-394. Ablative
of Cause. 395. Of Instrument : of Personal Agent. 395. Of Price.
396-398. Of Matter. 398-402. iii. Locative Ablative. 398. Abla-
tive of Respect : of Measure. 399. Of Manner : of Condition: of
Quality. 400-401. Of Time. 401-402. Of Place Where. 402. Of
Direction. 403-405. iv. Ablative Ptoper. 403. Ablative of Place
Whence : of Separation. 403-404. Of Origin. 404-405. Of the
Thing Compared. 405-406. v. Ablative Absolute. 406-41 z. Examples
of Ablative,

§ 169-176, p. 407 . . . /'.—The Genitive Case.

407-408. i. Main Function of Genitive, ii. Its twofold Use : Sub-
jective and Objective. 408. Both these dependent on one Noun,
409. iii. A) Subjective Genitive ; Possessive ; Descriptive ; Partitive,
Phrases for Genitive. 410. Attributive Nature of Subjective Genitive.
411-413. Genetivus Auctoris et Possessoris. 413-415. Genedvus
Descriptionis. 414. Genitive of the Fact charged. 415. Genetivus
Qualitatis. 416-417. Genitive of Value and Price. 416. Constmo-
tions with interest, refert. 417-418. Genetivus Rei Distributae* or
Partitive. 418-420. Genetivus Rei Demensae or of Quantity. 42a
Genitive of Plenty and Want. 421-423. iv. B) Objective Genitive
dependent, 421. on Substantives ; 421-422. on Adjectives ; 422-423.
on Verbs. 423. Genitive of Cause. 423-427. Examples of Genitive,

S 177-188, p. 424. . . Section III.— Verb-Construction.

424-425. i. The Infinitive. 426. ii. The Infinitive Present and Past
as Subject. 427. iii. As Object. 427-428. iv. Prolative Infinitive:
extends Construction of Verbs. Construction of Copulative Infim-
ttves. 428. Use of coepit &c. with Impersonal Infinitives. Prolative
Infinitive extending Adjectives. 428-429. Cases of the Infinitive,
Gerunds, and Supines. 428. v. Gerundial Construction : the Gerunds.
429. Their Case-construction ; Gerundial Attraction ; their Depend-
ence, vi. Impers. Gerundive Construction, vii. Personal Gerundive
Construction. 430-431. viii. Notes on Gerundial Construction. 431.
The two Supines— Accusative Supine ; Ablative Supine. 432. Not«
on the Annexive Relation. 431-434. Examples of Infinitive, Gerunds,
and Supines.

§ 189-240^ p. 434. . CHAPTER /K— Compound Construction.
§ 189, p. 434. . . Section I.— Subordination of Clauses.

434. Clauses of three Kinds — Substantival, Adverbial, Adjectival
or Relative. . . .

§ Z9O-I93, p. 435. . . SCTION II. — SUBOBLIQUE CONSTRUCTION.

435. i. Oratio Obliqua. ii. In a Clause dependent on it {i.e. Sub-
oblique), the Verb is Subjunctive, iii. Virtual Oratio Obliqua. In a
Clause dependent on it {i.e. virtually Suboblique), the Verb is Sub-
junctive. 486. iv. A Verb dependent on Conjunctive is generally Sub-
junctive. V. Exceptions to the Law of Mood in dependence. 437..
Examples of Suboblique Construction,

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% x94raQ3, p. 437. . section hi.— Substantival Clauses.

437. I) Entmtiado Obliqua : has three Forms— Infinitive Clause ;
Ut-dauae ; Quod-clauae. 437-^40- i. Infinitive Clause. 440-441. ii!
Ut-dause. 44i-44a. Quod-dause. 44a. II. Petitio Obhqua: Verbs
which introduce it 443. Quominus; Quin; Construction with
Predications of Fear and Caution. 444-447. ^I. Interrogatio Obli-
qua. 448-^49- Dependent Constructions with various Verbs. 444-451^
ExampUs of SubstoHtioal Clausts.

f 30^-427, p. 452. . . . SECTION IV.— ADVERBIAL AND ADJECTIVAL

Clauses.

453. Why taken in connexion, i. Relative Clauses, why caHed
Adjectival ; Partides equivalent to Pronouns ; Mood in Relative
Claases. ii. Consecutive Clauses : why so called ; with ut, ut non,
&&. after Demonstratives or without them. 453-453. Adverbjal Con-
secutive Clauses. 453. Use of Perfect Subjunctive in Historic Con-
secution ; Idioms of Adverbial Consecution : Tantum abesseut.,*
454-457- Adjectival Consecutive Clauses ; when they occur ; after wlnt
Predications, &c 456. Use of quin for qui non. 457. Limitative use
of qui ; Occasional Definiteness of Relative with Indicative. 454-456.
Examples of ConucuHve Clauses. 457. iii. Final Clauses: what
they express ; Adverbial Final Clauses with at, ne, &c. 458.
Dononstratives used with them ; Adjectival Final Clauses. 457-458.
Examples of Final Clauses. 458-461. iv. Causal Clauses ; Adverbial
Causal Clauses: of admitted Cause, quoniam, &c. with Indicative
visually. 459. Of alleged Cause, quod, quia, with Indicative, if
not Suboblique ; Of conceived Cause, cum, with Subjunctive. 459-

460. V. Idioms of Causal construction ; non quod, &c. ; non quin.

461. Adjectival Causal Clauses. 459-461. Examples of Causal
Clauses. 461-467. vi. Temporal Clauses ; four Groups of Temporal
Conjunctions. 469-vt.63. When Subjimctive is required in Temporal
Clauses. 463. Iterative Subjunctive. 461-464. Examples of Temporal
Clauses, 465-467. Uses of the Conjunction cum, when, 465-466.
Examples of cum with Indicative and vnth Subjunctive, 467-479^
vi. Conditional Sentences. 467. Conditional Conjunctions; Normal
Forms of the Conditional Sentence. 468-469. Class Alpha»
Sumptio Dati; Examples. Class Beta, Sumptio Dandi. Class
Gamma, Sumptio Ficti. 469-470. Various Forms of Gamma. 467-
468. Examples of the three Classes, Distinctions, 470-472. Conjunc-
tive Protasis with Indicative Apodosis : Four Idioms with Examples,
472. Indicative Protasis with Conjunctive Apodosis. 473. Abnormal
Rdation of Tenses ; Protasis i^thout si. 473-4,74. Si in various
senses. 474. Si combined with Pronotms and Partides. 474-475»
Idionadc uses of SL 475. Sive, seu. 475-477. Negative con-
dition: Nisi, ni, si non. 477-478. Examples, 477-478. Conditional
Sentences in Oratio Obliqua; Examples, 479. Modo, dum, duoii«
modo, Conditional; Examples, 479. vii. Concessive Sentences;
Concessive Conjunctions of several Classes. 480-482. Mood in Con-
oesshre Clauses. 480-483. Idioms of Concessive Conjunctions. 481-
482. Examples of Concessive Sentences, 482-483. viii. Comparative
Sentences; Conjunctions that introduce these. 483. Comparative
Idioms. 482-483. Examples of Comparative Sentences.

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% 329-340^ p. 483. . . . SECTION v.— Supplement to Compound Cow-

STRUCTION.

I. 483-486. Consecution of Tenses. 483. Consecution <rf Present
Past. 484. Of Historic Present; <rf Future with Future; three
varieties. 485. Of Future after Primary and Historic Tenses; of
Subordinated Conditional Sentences. 486. Of might have, ought,
must have ; Consecution when Infinitive, &c., intervene.

II. 487-489. Narratio Obliqua, how used by Historians ; Examples,
487-488. Idioms. 488-489. Examples of the Conversion, cf Oratio
Recta into Oratio Obliqua.

III. 489-495. i The Reflexive Pronoims se, suus, in Clauses. 489.
Ipse supplies them ; se, suus are Subjective ; is. ille, &c. Objective.
F^nominal reference to be interpreted by 'the Reason of the Thing.*
490. Se, suu s connected with the use of Subjunctive : with the mind of
the Subject, ii. Their use in various Clauses. 490^493. In Substan-
tival Clauses : Ordinary Instances. 491. Reference when a Clause
has a new Subject capable of being referred to Subjectively; Vari-
ation of Reference in Clauses of Prayer, Exhortation, &a 492.
Se, suus, when referred to a Case governed by a Passive Verb. 492-
494. Pronominal Reference in Adverbial and Adjectival Clauses : in
Final ; Consecutive ; Causal ; Conditional ; Relative Clauses. 494. ilL
When Oratio Obliqua intervenes, iv. When in Clauses more than one
Subject is referred to. 494-495. Ipse assisting the use of Refleidve
Pronoims in two ways. 495. ItsAppositiveuse; Inter ipsos;Interse.

IV. 495-501. P^cipial Construction. 495->496. Nature <^ Parti-
ciple ; want of Participles ; how supplied. 496. Uses of Participles ;
Participle as an abbreviated Clause ; Attributive or Absohite. 497.
Construction of Abl. Absolute ; Participial Construction abbretiates,
i) Relative Clauses ; 2) Adverbial Clauses ; Consecutive ; Transla^
tion of English ' without ' and Verb, 498. Final, t>y Fut Participle ;
Causal; Temporal; Conditional. 499. Concessive; with nisi, etsi.
&c. ; Comparative with quasi, tamquam, &c. 499-501. Notes on
Participial Construction.

% 341-350, p. 501. . . CHAPTER ^.—Arrangement op Words and
Structure and Connexion of Sentences.
501-503. Order of Words ; Parts of Sentence. 503-504. Notes on
the Order of Words. 504-505. Connexion of Sentences. SOStSio.
The Period in Latin, Simple or Complex. 5o6-5ia Its Style and
RhythuL 508. Subject and Object in Periods. 510. Narrative Style;
Qualities of Style. 510-51 1. Distinctions of Prose Style. StyUs rf
Various Authors,

J 351-269, p. 511. . . PART IIL'-LATIN PROSODY.

511. Prosody; Quantity and Rhythm. 513-5x3. Quantity of
Syllables; Position. 513. Syllables long by nature or posOion,
513-516, Quantity of Inner Syllables. 516-530. Quantity of Final
Syllables. 530-521. Quantity of Words in Composition. 531-533.
Elision. 533-534. Exceptions to the Law of Elision ; Hiatus. 534-535.
Metre ; Verse ; Foot ; Arsis and Thesis ; Principal Feet. 535-537.
Verses: Dactylic Hexameter. List of Feet, 537-531, Caesura:
Synaphea. 537-538. Technical Terms, 531-533. The Elegiac
Distioh; its Rhythm, 533-546. Lyric Metres. 533. CatuUus»
Horace. 533-534. Iambics of Horace and Catullus ; Scazon ; Epodes
of Horace. 534-535. Minor Horatian Metres; Three Lyric T^pes;

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Asdepiad Metres: 536-537. Glyconics of Catulltis ; Sapphic Stanza in
Horace and Catullus. 537^538. The Hendecasyllabie of CatuUus.
The Alcaic Stanza in Horace. 538. The Galliambus of Catullus.
539-541. Table of Metres: I. Single Verses; Dactylic Rhythms;
Trochaic Rhythms ; Iambic Rhythms. 539-540. Ionic Rhythmis. 541-

543. Mixed Rhythms; Logaoedic 543. Asynartete. Anapaestic
Rhythm : Satumian Verse. II. Strophic Metres ; Dicola Disticha.

544. Dicola Tetrasticha. 545. Tricola Tetrasticha. 546. Metres of
the Comic Poets.

p. 547. APPENDIX.

547-551. A, Latin Orthography. 551-553. B, Latin Pronundadon.
554-555. C Aflfinities in the Aryan Family. 555. Grimm's Law.
556-5^ ^' Ancient Dialects of Italy. 556-559. (A) The Umbrian
I^uklcct* 559-561. (B) The Oscan Dialect. 561-563. (C) Specimens
of Ancient Latin. 563-564. E. Poetic Forms and Idioms. 565. F,
Supplement to Figurate Construction (§ 61). 566-572. (7. Money ;
We^t ; Measure. 572-575. Computation of Time ; Roman Calen-
<^- 575-576. Siglarium Romanimi (Abbreviations). 577-582. Sup-
plementary Notes : I. On Sanskrit Roots. II. On Relations in the
Simple Sentence.

p. 583 INDICES.

I. Index op Subjects 583

n. Latin Index 591

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THE

PUBLIC SCHOOL LATIN GRAMMAR.

INTRODUCTION.

X

Grammar has two chief divisions : pivi-

nons of

(i) Etymology (irvfioXoyia, true wordformation), ^2!°'
the doctrine of Letters and Words.

(2) Syntax {avvra^is, construction), the doctrine of
Sentences and Discourse.

Prosody (irpoer^^/a), which treats of Quantity, Rhythm, and
Metre, is not a necessary part of Grammar, but is usually appended
to it.

a

The Latin Language, so called from the Latini, or The
people of Latium, in Italy, who used it, was the pre- lSS*
valent scion of the Italic branch of the great Indo- 8^******
European or Aryan family.

I. Various languages were formed by various races of mankind
in their several habitations. When migrating bodies sought new
seats, they carried with them their native language, which, amidst
the changes wrought by time, always retained traces, more or less
strong, of kinship to other branches of the primitive stock. Such
kindrcd languages constitute a Family. Among the families of
human speech, two have been most operative in the work of civili-
sation— the Semitic and the Indo-European or Aryan.

The Semitic family (to which we owe the origin of alphabetic
writing) occupied south-western Asia; comprising the Aramaic
(Syriac and Cnaldee), Hebrew, Phoenician, and Arabic branches.

The Aryan race was seated in central Asia ; whence, by a long
series of migrations, it sent forth language to most parts of Europe,
and to various regions of the Asiatic continent The European
branches of this family are : (i) the Keltic ; (2) the Teutonic or
Gennan ; (3) the Sclavonic ; (4; the Lithuanian ; (5) the Italic
(Latin) ; (6) the Hellenic (Greek). The Asiatic branches are : ^i)
the Indie or Sanskrit, in India ; (2) the Iranian (of which the
Zand is the chief scion) or speech of Persia, Bactria and adjoining
districts.

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2 Introdtu:tion, % 3-4,

2. The Italic ]3f^chi like the Hellenic, was from early times
divided into various dialects.' The principsd of these were the Um-
briaA in the porth-eas^of It?ly, the Sabellian and the Oscan in the
cenbrhl- districts; and the' Latin- in Latium. Umbrian, Sabellian,
Oscan, and others were destined to fade away, leaving a few scat-
tered monuments of their former existence. Latin survived to be
the parent of learning and language in Western Europe. Rome,
founded on the Tiber by Latins, according to tradition, B.C 754,
became, on the fall of Alba, the head of the Latin race and name
(nomen Latinum) ; and the clannish pride of the Romans led them
to call their language, and afterwards their literature, Latin rather
than Roman.

3. By Roman conquest and dominion the Latin speech was ex-
tended, with dialectic varieties, to all Italy and to other neighbour-
ing countries. From this source are derived the following modem
languages : Italian, French (in both its divisions, Oc and OiC)y
Spanish, Portuguese, Wallachian, and the Romansch of the Swiss
Grisons. They bear the common title of Romanic or Romance
lanyguages. All are more or less alloyed with the Teutonic dialects
which barbarian conquest carried into Western and Southern
Europe in the fifth and following centuries.

English. English is the single instance of a Teutonic language largely
alloyed, without being disorganised, by the speech of Romanic con-

auerors. When the Romans quitted Britain in the fifth century,
le island, after a brief intervsd, was overrun by Teutonic hordes
(Saxons, Angles, and Jutes), who formed no fusion with the Keltic
natives, but either extirpated them gradually, or drove them (as
Walsche, Welsh, or foreigners) into mountainous and barren dis-
tricts. The rest of the country south of the Tweed came to be
called England (Angle-land), and its speech (Anglo-Saxon) was the
parent of the later English. The conversion of the Saxons to the
Christian faith brought into England some knowledge of Latin, and
incorporated many Latin words with the English tongue. By the
Norman conquest A.D. 1066, a dominant race came in, who, though
comparatively few in number, filled most places of rank, power,
and influence. Hence their speech — Norman-French, a Romanic
dialect — ^became that of courtly society and of law ; Latin, its
mother-tongue, became the vehicle of religious service and learned
intercourse ; whilst English continued to be spoken by the gpreat
bulk of the population. In the fusion of these varieties, by which
modem English was gradually formed, the usage of the yeomanry
and peasantry prevailed over that of the nobles, the law, and the
church. English is structurally a Teutonic language, and the
number of Teutonic words holds to those of Latin origin a propor-
tion of about two to one. This shews that, without a knowledge of
Latin, it is impossible to gain a thorough knowledge of English.
It must also be remembered that the Teutonic element in English
has itself a distant kinship to Latin.

Influ- The influence of Greek civilisation upon Latin was immense,

gwof Besides their original affinity the Greek race came into influential
****• contact with the Latin at two distinct eras. The first of these was

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^5.

Introdtiction.

when the Greek colonies in Sicily and Italy became active in com-
merce and literature. This activity may be dated as beginning
about 550 B.C The Aeolic city of Cumae in Campania appears to
have been the chief medium of communication between Rome and
the Greek colonies, and to the influence then exercised may perhaps
be ascribed those facts of language which led grammarians to
clerive Latin from the Aeolic Greek Dialect. Hence too the Romans
probably drew the peculiarities which characterise the Latin Alpha-
bet, as file letter Q and the V consonant, which the Aeolic Greeks
had kept in the Dorian alphabet at Cumae.

Again, when literary activity began at Rome in the third Sketch
century B.C, Grecian literature supplied most of the forms and ^l^
much of the matter. Rome had no models to furnish. Inscriptions, turc.
laws, crude annals, with fragments of ritual songs and coarse
farces, are all it has to shew within its first five centuries. The
credit of authorship is ascribed first to Livius Andronicus, who
wrote dramas for the stage B.c 240. He was succeeded by a
crowd of authors, among whom may be mentioned Naevius, En-
nius, the father of epic poetry at Rome, and Lucilius, whose subject
and reputed invention, satire, is the most original product in Latin
literature. But of these writers mere fragments remain. The
comedies of Plautus (Plant) * and Terentius (Ten), founded on
those of the later Attic stage, with the remnant De Re RusHca of
the elder Cato, are the only literary works extant in Latin before 85
B.C, the date of Cicero's earliest >vritings. From this time to A.D.
14 extends what is usually called the Golden Age of Latin. Its most
-eminent authors are : —

Prose.

Cicero C. (or Cic.)

Caesar Caes.

Cornelius Nepos... N. (or Nep.)

Sallustius Sail.

Livius L. (or Liv.)

Varro Varr.

Vitruvius Vitr.

Poetry.

Lucretius Lucr.

Catullus Cat

Vergilius V. (orVerg.)

Horatius H. (or Hor.)

TibuUus Tib.

Propertius Prop,

Ovidius Ov.

The so-called Silver Age, to A.D.

Prose.

Seneca Sen.

Quintilianus Qu.

Pliniusthe elder... PL N. H.
Plinius the younger Plin.
Valerius Maximus V. Max.
VelleiusPatercxilus VeU.

Tacitus Tac

Suetonius Suet

Florus? FL

Q. Curtius? Curt.

117, contains among others :

Poetry.

Manilius Man.

Phaedrus Phaed.

Seneca Sen. Tr.

Lucanus Lucan.

Persius Pers.

Silius Italicus S. It

Valerius Flaccus V. FL

Statius St

luvenalis luv.

Martialis Mart.

' The letters following the names shew the abbreviations used for them in this GrammaB

B 2

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

4 Introduction, % 5,

The next period, extending to the fall of the Western Empire,
A.D. 476, has been termed the Brazen Age. The writers who come
nearest to the classic style during this period, are : —

Prose.

A. Gellius Cell.

lustinus lust.

Appuleius App.

Eutropius Eutr.

Macrobius Macr.

In the Iron Age, which succeeded, Bo^thius may be named as
the most successful imitator of classic purity.*

Poetry.

Ausonius Aus.

Claudianus Claud.

* Other abbreviations used in this Grammar :
Pr. Primitive (Sound or RootX

Sk. Sanskrit
Gr. Greek.

E. L. Early Latin (before i86 B.C.).

R. L. Republican Latin (from 1 86 to 30

ac.)
I. L. Latin of Imperial Age (from ^o D.C.

to 170 A.O.X
C L. Classical Latin.
L. L. Later Latin.

U. Umbrian.

O. Oscan.

S. SabelHan.

F. Faliscan.

V. Volsdan.

M. Lucr. Munro on Lucretius.

C. Corssen (Aussprache).

Curt. G. Ciutius (Gr. EtymologieX

Three dots (...) following a word imply that other derived or kindred words are to be
included.

In Sanskrit words :

^represents the palatal sound ck {zs va 'church'): ric' is sounded 'rich.' G. Cur-

tius represents it by k'.
/ represents the slightly aspirated sibDant, which often corresponds to Greek k and

Latin c, q. Sk. da^an, Gr. Uko, L. decern. Sk. di^, C5r. «ftK-, L. doc-eo, &c.

G. Curtius represents it by ^ .
ri is a Sanskrit vowel^ which may be written or. See p. 578.
J is the Sanskrit letter= English j (Curtius g^.
^= English y-consonant (Curtiusy).
E*. — yuj, to yoke (Curt. Jyg^

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

PART L
V LATIN ETYMOLOGY.

Etymology comprises: — Etymo-

I. Phonology or Soundlore, the doctrine of '"^^^

Sounds.

II. Morphology or Wordlore, the doctrine of

Words.^

By a Primitive Sound or Root is meant one which careful in-
duction assigns to that ancient, though no longer extant, Aryan
language from which the Sanskrit is derived. Such induction is
obtained by comparison of the Sanskrit with all other kindred
languages, espedally with Zand, Greek, Latin, Gothic, and Lithu-
anian. See Supplementary Notes following Appendix.

DIVISION I.

PHONOLOGY OR SOUNDLORE.

i Soundlore treats of the sounds and relations of sound.
Letters and Syllables. . *°"'

1. The Latin Alphabet now in use contains the Latin
same Letters as the English, omitting W. ^^

The Letters have two forms :

i) The Capital, Uncial, or ancient form.

2) The Small,, or later form, which came into common
use m the eighth or ninth century: after which the
Capitals were chiefly used for inscriptions, and as initial
letters of sentences and proper names.

i)ABCDEFGHia) KLMNOPQRST
2) abcdefghi(j)klmnopqrst

(U) V X Y Z.

(v) u X y z.

2. Six of the Letters are Vocales, Vowels (self-sound-
ing), a, e, i, o, u, y : the rest are Consonantbs, Con-
sonants, which are sounded only with a vowel

' The tenns Phonology and Morphology are taken from Schleicher's VergUicke$idf
Crammaiik der JndogermaniKktM SprackeH,

Digitized by VjOOQIC

6 Latin Soundlore. $8-9-

3. Consonants are divided into Mutes, Nasals, Liquids,.
Spirants, and Double Consonants.'

The Nasals are n, m ; Liquids, r, 1 ; Spirants, f, h, j,
s, V ; Double Consonants, x, z : the rest are Mutes.

Note I. J- and s are only used in words borrowed from the
Greek.

Note 2. t+j and n+v are two pairs ; each pair constituting one
ancient letter in double form. See § la. viii.

sviia- 4. A Syllable (avWa^iJ) consists of one or more
Di^h- letters pronounced in a single breath ; i-lex.

thongs.

5. A Diphthong (Sl^Ooyyos) is the combined sound
of two vowels meeting in the same syllable ; au-lae.

There are in Latin three usual diphthongs, ae (or ae),
oe (or ce), au ; and three seldom used, ei, eu, ui.

8

Quan- ii Quantity is the time of uttering a Syllable.

tity.

I. Every Syllable is considered Short (^) or Long (-) ia
Quantity, according as its vowel is short or long ; that is, accord-
ing as it is uttered with a single or double time (mora) :

(Short by nature . . » 6 in . . SmSr.
Long by nature . . « II in , . esii.
Short by position before
A Vowel may be < another vowel . . I in . . . plos.
Long by position before
j two consonants or a
\ double consonant . « 5 in . . pemox.

Diphthongs are long . . an, ae in . caudae.

2. A Vowel is called Short or Long by Nature, when the reason
of its quantity is other than position.

3. A Syllable is j:alled Doubtful (^) when its Vowel may be
short or long : Sidonius.

4. A Vowel, naturally short, may be made long in poetry, if it
stands before or, cr, tr, dr, pr, br, fr, ol, pi, or 11 : tenlbrae,
quadrftplex. Such a Vowel is called Doubtful by position. Id
prose the syllable is pronounced short, tenfibrae.

syikba- iii Syllabation is subject to the following

*^ rules:

1. Every syllable must contain a voweL

2. A word may beg^n with any vowel but y.

3. A word may end with any vowel, and with any of the con-
sonants, 1, m, n, r, s, t, X. A few words end in b, o, d.

* Checks are another term for Mutes: Trills for Liquids; Fricatives (as gene^
rated by the friction of the breath) for Spirants (See Max Mailer's Lectures oh Lati£uage%
Mutes have also been called Momentaneous or Explosive Consonants, as disdik^
guished from Nasals, Liquids, and Spirants, which are Continuous.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

uation.

§ la Accentuation. 7

4. Priscian's rule is that inner syllables end with a vowel, if a
single consonant follows : cla-ma-tur ; or if two or more conso-
nants follow, which can begin a word : lu-di-crus, e-sca, ma-gnus,
scri-ptus, scri-psi, a-stra. Custom extends this rule to such in-
stances as so-mnus, A-bdera, rhy-thmus, etc. But, if the conso-
nants cannot begin a word, they are divided between the syllables :
gal-lus, punc-tum, of-fen-do, am-plis-simus, ex-per-tus.

5. In compound words a syllable ends with the end of one part :
ab-igo. res-publica.

6. The last syllable is called Ultima, the last but one Penul-
tima or Penult, the last but two Antepenultima or Antepenult.
An inner syllable is called open if it ends with a vowel, close if it
ends with a consonant. A word of one syllable is called Mono-
syllable; a word of two syllables, Disyllable, etc.

vi Accentuation YidLsih^ioWoyNingldiyfs:^ Aa^t

1. The tone of a syllable is called ACCENT. There are two
strong accents, the Acute (0 or sharp quick stress, and the Cir-
cumflex (*) or deep lengthened stress. Syllables without either
arc sometimes called Baryton (Grave in tone), sometimes Atonic.

2. Monosyllables, with vowel short by nature, have the Acute
Accent : <5s, vfr, ddx; those with Vowel long by nature have the
Circumflex : 6s, m6s, 16x.

3. Words of several syllables are not accented on the Ultima,
but on one of the two preceding syllables. Only, when a word loses
a final vowel, if the Penult had an accent, that accent remains on
the same syllable : illfnc for ilHmce, audin for audisne.

4. Disyllables have the Acute on the Penult, when either both
syllables are short by nature, as b6n^ or the first is long by posi-
tion, or the last long by nature or position, asfnter,m<5res,dmant.

5. Disyllables have the Circumflex on the Penult, when the
Penult is long by nature, and the last short by nature and not
lengthened by position : m&t€r, m{isa.

6. Words of more than two syllables have the Acute on the
Antepenult, when the Penult is short, as hdmtnes, ampHssTmos.
But the accent remains on the Penult in unweakened compounds
of ficio, as benefdcis, and in contracted genitives : ingeni.

7. Words of more than two syllables have their Accent on the
Penult when long ; namely, the Acute when the Penult is long by
position only, clamdntur; or when the last syllable also is long,
ami rant; the Circumflex, when the Penult is long by nature, and
the last short by nature, and not lengthened by position : clam ire.

8. Enclitics, que, ng, ve, etc. brine forward the accent of
the word to which they are subjoined : homines, homin^sque ;
prdna, prondque. Prepositions are Proclitic, that is, with-
out an accent of their own before their cases . circa mo^nia;
buty mo^nia circa.

Note. The Accents are not marked on words, but understood.^

* Ladn Accentuadon Is a subject too Urge, intricate and unsettled to be fully discussed
in a book like the present. Students who wish to pursue it more minutely are referred
to the works of Ritschl and Corssen. and to the Latin Grammars of KrOger and KOhner.
Only a few general rules are giren here.

' Corssen allows a second accent, which he calls a Middle Tone 0-e- femiacuteX to

Digitized by v_i y^ '*^pi^ ^^

8

XX

Pimctu*
ation.

Schemes
of the
Letters.

Latin Soundlore,

§ II-I2-

V. PuNCTAy the Signs of Punctuation, or Stops.

These are the same in Latin as in English : Comma (,) ; Semi-
colon (;) ; Colon (:) ; Full Stop (.) ; Note of Interrogation (?) ;
Note of Admiration (!). The mark ( •• ) is placed over e or t when
it does not coalesce with a preceding vowel: aer, Tei'us. But
none of these were used anciently except the Full Stop (punctum).

vi The Relations of the Letters may be thus
shewn :

I. VOWELS.

Standard vowel

a

Sharp medial e o Flat medial

Sharp semiconsonant 1 ^ n Flat semiconsonant

Medial (see vii. 1 1).

II. CONSONANTS.

A^i^/z.—T e n u e s and M e d i ae
are by some called severally
Surds and Sonants.

Guttural mutes are also called
k-sounds. Dental mutes t-
sounds, Labial mutes p-
sounds.

GUTTURAL^OXl:\iX02X'

sounds .

Dental^ or Teeth- 1
sounds . . . I

Labial^ or Lip-sounds

Mutes

(Momentan-
eous)

^t

Nasals Liquids Spirants
(Continuous)

'(i^rq)

r,l

N is guttural when it precedes ff, o, or q.
soimded as in English, are labiodental^

The Spirants f, ▼, if

certain words of more than three syllables* when there is an interval between the ac-
cented syllables. Such words are —

i) Plurisyllable Compounds, in which the Middle Tone will fall generally on the first
syllable, as in v6rsipellis, misericordia, (indeviginti, ^flrenatus, stU>levare, etc ; sometimes
on the second, as in sup<frbiloquentia, rep&ndirostrum :

a) Plurisyllables, in which, by Derivation or Flexion, the accent of the primitive
word has been shifted to a suffix. Such a Middle Tone will generally be on the first
syllable ; as in Mngitudo, pdpulabundus, stfrvitutem. This theory implies, in nu«
instances, the posubility of two Middle Tones, as in cdnfid^ntiloquius. See Corssen,
iL 824.

* Sanskrit has two more classes of Consonants : (a) Palatal, a modification of the
Gutturals : (b) Cerebral or Lingual, a modification of the Dentals. Tho^, in Sanskrit J
is Palatal

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

§ 12. Semiconsonants. 9

vii Memoranda from the History of the Al- History

•■ V ^ ofAl-

pnabet. phabet.

1. The Romans modified the fonn of the third Greek letter from
r to C, and gave it the sound K, instead of G. The sound and
letter G were afterwards introduced about 250 B.C. C. was kept as
the abbreviation of Gaius ; Cn. of Gnaeus.

2. The use of C as sharp made K superfluous, and the Romans
almost ceased to use it ; but it was kept in a few abbreviations : K.
for Kaeso; KaL for Calendae and Calumnia : also Kar. for
Kartaga

3. The other Phoenician guttural surd Koph or Koppa (which the
Dorian Alphabet of Cumae possessed) was kept by iJie Romans as
Q, and ultimately confined to words in which parasitic n or v
follows the guttiuraL

4. The Rough Breathing was raised to the rank of a letter, ob-
taining the form and position of the Greek Eta, H.

5. The letter f was purely Italian, its ancient sound being not
exactly that (which it now has) of Phi (ph), nor that (which its
form suggests) of the Greek Digamma (w). In the Etruscan Al-
phabet it has the form 8; but the Romans gave it that of the Di-
ganmia, (f) F.

6. Vau (V nearly = English w) was adopted by the Romans as
a semi- vowel, and took the position held by Upsilon next to T.

7. There is some evidence that the ancient Romans used s (zeta),
but afterwards supplied it by s or ss : so that j-, s were added at
the end of the Alphabet in Cicero's age to represent the Greek v, f ,
and are only used in latinized Greek words: lyra»A6f>a| zona

8. The history of x is obscure. It appears in a few early in-
scriptions : but, though in power equal to Greek £ (o»), it took the
place and form of Chi : when and why, are doubtfixl points. See
Corssen {Ausspr, I. 6).

9. The long vowels Eta and Omega were omitted as unnecessary.

10. The Aspirate sounds x> % ^> as foreign to Italian utterance,
were left out ; but the study of Greek in Cicero's age led to the use
of ell, tn, pb, which represent those letters in latinized Greek words :
parochus^ thesaurus, philosophus ; also of rH : rhetor.

1 1. The Emperor Claudius invented and introduced three letters :
(i) J to represent m-consonant; ^2) p (antisigma) to represent
1/' (p») ; (3) h to represent a vowel naving a middle tone between 1
and a, as in llbet — liibet, gradlbus — gradiibus, maximus —
maxumus. They did not remain in use; but the first and last
appear in inscriptions.

viii The Semiconsonants i (j) and u(v).

I. The consonantal character of 1 (j) is shewn by the two facts, i (JX
that, when it begins Latin words before a vowel it makes position
in verse a^er words ending with a consonant, and that it inakes no
hiatus after words ending with a vowel or with m. Thus in

Sub loue iam ins est

sob^ iam are long by position, and -6, -am are not elided before L

uiyiuzeu uy x_j ^^^ wVJ Iv

lo Latin Soundlore. § 12.

i) X is a vowel (l-vocalis) when it ends a syllable ; ni-ti ; or when
it stands in a syllable before a consonant, in-it, sic-cis; or when
it is a syllable ; ab-i-to.

Z is a consonant (i-consonans) when it begins a syllable before a
vowel; ie-iu-no; its sound being that of English y-consonant
( = German j), a feint protraction of the vowel-sound t

2) In Greek words, however, Idle, Iambus, and in a few
Latin words, I-ens, leram, t-vocalis remains open before a
voweL

3) The sign J was introduced in a late age, to represent 1-con-
sonans, and most editors do not use it Its English and French
sibilant sounds (yohn, Jean) are not classical, but crept in before
the Middle Ages.

4) z-consonans is omitted before 1 by the compounds of Tacio,
ab-icio con-icio pro-icio re-icio, etc ; though the long quan-
tity of the first syllable is kept ; 1 being » J L See Munro on Lucr.
i. 34, ii. 951. In Lucr. Verg. eice, r£lce. But rWcere, Plaut

5) Poets sometimes harden l-vocalis into l-consonans : ab-iS-te,
ar-i€-te, par-iS-te, for ab-I-ete, etc. Sound ab-y€te, ar-y6te,
etc., trisyll. So Horace has consil-ium («consIl-yum), Virgil
has fluv-iorum ( = fluv-yorum), trisylL M. Lucr. ii. 991.

V(UX 2. The sign V was employed by the Romans as vowel and con-
sonant In a latter age « became the vowel sign, ▼ the consonant
sign. Ifuva ( = oowa) be sounded, it appears that n-consonans
(»w) is only a faint protraction of the labial vowel « ; whence the
modem name Double-u.

i) V-consonans is vocalized in cautum for cavitum, fautum
for favitum, lautum for lavitum, and in auceps for aviceps,
nauta for navita, naufragus for navifragus.

2) Poets sometimes vocalize m-consonans before a vowel : sil-u-
ae : sometimes they harden n-vocalis into n-consonans : gen-ua
for ge-nu-a, ten-ui-a for te-nu-ia. M. Lucr. iv. 1 157.

3) Parasitic u follows q, niTy and % : sequor; lingua; suavis.
This usage is derived from ancient groups kv, yr, •▼ : but as the
sign u so used neither forms a syllable nor creates position, it must
be regarded, not as a proper letter, but as a kind of link between
the guttural (or sibilant) and labial sounds.^

ix, Sound and Quality of the Vowels.
Sound I. Vowels have not one short and one long sound only ; but

*uaiitv vaJ^o^s shades of these, in close or open syllables.
3f (Thus the sound of « varies in the following words : credHlUs^

Vowels, biisyy/ally Use^ 7^«^, and in the French words, comfmin, commune.)

2. The old sounds of the Latin vowels probably differed little
from those of the vowels in modem Italian. Proceeding from the
thinnest and sharpest sound 1, to the thickest and flattest n, the
following words may represent their general distinction : the first
four being pronounced as in French, the fifth as in Italian, Ziiloo.

QaTnlne, dSm^sne, pXpi, promote, ZtUO.

3. The three primitive vowels are a, 1, «. Sanskrit has • and o
only as diphthongs arising from aI, an.

* In nuuw modern editions of Latin authors, V alone is used as the Capital form of coo-
sonant and vowel, and « alone at the Contve form of both. lo thu gnunmar v ia>
retained as a cursive.

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^v^pt lx^

I j^ Phortetic Decay, 1 1

1) The standard vowel is &, issuing from the throat through the
opened mouth : i is the thin sharp palatal, soimded between the
tongue and the lower palate ; & is tne thick flat labial, soiinded by
a low interior whistle through the protruded lips. Each has its long
and short sound, with shades of these,

2) The want of intervening sounds to represent the strengthen-
ing of X and 4, and Uie primary weakenings of ft, callecl into use
two subsidiary vowels ; 6 medial between & and I, and 6 medial
between & and tL Both these are narrower gutturals than a ; e
sounding along the upper palate and tending to the sharpness of
1 ; and o sounding from the lower throat with a fullness which its
form marks, but tending to the labialism and flatness of n.»

3) The strongest short vowel is ft, into which none other passes.

4) The weakest is \ : for which reason it often stands as a vin-
ctilar vowel before suffixes : reg-i'-to, flag-f-to, leg-r-bus : but
sometimes e or n takes its place; soci-/-tas, teg-/3f-mentum.

5) That 6 is stronger than 6 may be seen by comparing pondus
with pendere, t6ga with tSger^ vdlo witlk v61im, velle.

6) Though ft has various shades of strengh, as in put o, sumQs,
augur, augfirium, declining almost to the weakness of t, as in
optiimus (optlmus, vii. 11), yet on the average it is not seen to
be weaker Uian «. Such examples as pigniis, pignSris, pignSris
etc., might seem to shew a. stronger than 6, 6 : but it must be re-
membered that this tt corresponds not to Greek v, but to Greek o :
that tts is really a weak syllable, and tt, like I, gives a facility to the
rejection of s in old Latin poetry, which 6 does not afford.

7) When a vowel from being short becomes long, it is doubled
in time and strength ; « =i, W5 « e, etc

8) As final short vowels, ft and 6 predominate ; X, 6 are rarely
final ; u never, except by the rejection of m in old Latin poetry.

As final long vowels, i and 5 predominate : 8 and ft are less
firequent ; and & least frequent of aJL

X. Phonetic Decay in old Italian language. pho-
(See Corssen, I. 347.) J^^

1. Phonetic Decay tends to lighten diphthongs, to shorten and
weaken vowels, to silence or throw out light vowels, to cast off or
assimilate consonants.

2. This tendency is especially shewn in Umbrian and its cognate
dialects ; also in the old Latin, of which our knowledge is derived
chiefly from inscriptions, partly from the testimonies of gramma-
rians, and from the most ancient manuscripts.

3. Classical Latin (see § 5) may be regarded as in some measm^
a reaction, by which, during a long literary period, the process of
Phonetic Decay in Latin was arrested. After the a^e of Sueto-
nius, about A.D. 120, decay recommenced and continued for nearly
1000 years, till the modem Romanic languages gradually emerged
from the darkness of those centuries.

* Vonrds are here spoken of as sounded with consonants : Sd, dS. All vowels issue
from ooe primary vowel, a fitint sigh in the depths of the throat. Its first scarce distin-
fuishable strengthenings may be compared thus: max-»-mos, max-il{-mos, max-/-mos»
max-^moi^ max-^-mos. ^ t

uiyiiized by VjOOQ IC

12 Latin Soundlore. § 12.

Vowel- Xi VOWELCHANGE.

^' I. Vowels are liable to change in the Flexion, Derivation, and
Composition of words.

2. Syllables may be either strengthened or weakened by
Vowelchange.

3. The general tendency of Italian dialects was to weaken vowel
sounds. But sometimes a syllable is strengthened by assuming a
stronger for a weaker vowel Thus the tonic syllable in toga is
stronger than in teg o.

Diph- xii. Formation and Decay of Diphthongs.

thongs.

1. Diphthongs and long Vowels in Sanskrit arise from the intro-
duction of a vowel to strengthen a short sound. Thus & by-
strengthening 1 produces A ; & by strengthening ft produces 6 ; and
this process is called Guna (distinction). If k strengthens (41, Am),
the process is called Vpddhi (augmentation).

2. In Latin (as ifi Greek) 6 and 6 are themselves capable of
strengthening I and tt. Thus the full list of diphthongs proper is

at el ol

an •« o«

3. ITl is an improper diphthong, only found in the words cui,
huic, hui, phui.

4. Tl in Greek words for vi is very rare : as Hi thy i a (EiXciOvIo).

5. The six diphthongs proper existed in ancient Latin, as shewn
by inscriptions : but before tbe classic age all except an had de*
cayed into other long sounds, namely : —

al into ae, rarely passing into 9 (el) X
ol — oe, often — — ft (el) I
el — « or I
en — ft
on — ft

Note, Corssen observes (I. 674), that the history of al« el, el, has
peculiar interest, because, as these diphthongs often sprang from
the addition of a suffix which begins with a vowel to a stem which
ends with a vowel, they illustrate the laws of flexion as well as the
progress of phonetic decay.'

6. The diphthong al prevailed in old Latin: aidilis, Romai,
filiai, &c. ; and is found even in the imperial age. But about B.C.
200 ae came into use, and gradually became the classical form.
For this, as a rustic variety, in the age of Lucilius, is found d : edus,
pretor, Cecilius, &c.; which became more prevalent in later
Latin, and in modem language has superseded ae : sectUar^
premium,

i) Examples occur of eU for Dat and Abl. Plur. Ending ala,
which in classical Latin became Is : tabuleis publiceis»tabulis
publicis.

* This history is gained from the carefiil comparison of Latin Inscriptions extending
for about 400 years from b.c a6o to a. d. 15a In the present chapter and in $ ao such
results alone are generally mentioned as suffice to explain the varieties of form which
appear in classical authors.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

I 12. Formation and Decay of Diphthongs, 13

a) Old poets, as Lucretius, often use the Gen. in ft-i, dividing it
into two syllables, materia-L Virgil rarely : aula-I, Aen. iii.
354.

b) The vowels are divided in Ga-I-Os, Ga-T, and m the Greek
words Agla-I-a, La-I-iis. In others, as Achaia, Aiax, Graius,
Maia, and in aio, maior, 1 is l-cons. (Acha-ya, a-yo, ma-
yor,...).

7. The diphthong ol (oe) is of much rarer use than at (a«).
01 is found as late as the first century B.C in stem-syllables. But
it passed into oe early, as at into ae, bv strengthening L Also,
by weakening o, it passed into (vl, i&e»; ft. Thus we find moi-
nera, moenera, munera; loidos, loedus, ludus; iro«n/,
poena, punire; coirare, coerare, curare (also courare) ;
oitier, oetier, uti. M. Lucr. ii. 829.

i) In the Imperial age oe began to be corrupted into ^ee) 9 :
pomerium, federatus. This, as in ae, grew more ana more
usual, and prevails in modem language \ pencUy federal ^ &c

2) In Case-endings, ol from old times was hable to pass into el
andt: puer-oi, puer-ei, puer-i; puer-ois, puer-eis, puer-is.

d) In pr61n, pr61nde, the vowels coalesce : in Tro-I-us they
remain separate (Hiatus). In Troia 1 is l-cons. (Tro-ya).

8. aiis either a diphthong, as in a few old words, deiva, deicere,
leiber; in the old Italian Dative ending el, virtutei; in Dat
AbL PL ending els for ole; and in Nom. PL ending el for ol of
DecL 2 : or it is a middle sound between 8 and i, as when the form
eto represents a compromise between the Ace. Plur. endings u, Si,
of I-nouns : urbis, urbes, urbeis.

i) ai is found as diphthong or middle sound in inscriptions of all
ages ; 9 sometimes taking its place, but I prevailing over both.

a) In the words dein, deinde, deinceps, e-1 may coalesce in
poetry, or, as some thinl^ e is elided.

^) In names in -elns, 1 is l-cons. ; Pompeius = Pompe-yus.

r) Greek « appears in Latin generally as X : Tydldes for
Tvdridi;; ; but often as d before a vowel ; Alexandria or Alex-
andria, Dareus or Darius, Thalea or Thalia.

d) In some Greek words e is open before 1 (Hiatus) : Teius,
Pleias, Nergi'des.

9. An was retained in all ages of Latin. But it often passed
(by the process on, 00) into 5 : codex, plostrum, Clodius,
Plotius, &c, and (in Italian) oro^ toro, tesoroy &c. ; sometimes (by
the process on, mn) into & : cludo. M. Lucr. ii. 829.

la Bn in Latin words is very rare. Heu, eheu, alas, are
imitative words. In neu, seu, ceu, n is a vocalised v (neve, seve,
ceve). On neuter, neutiquam, see Prosody.

a) In Greek words en remains : Euripides, Eurus.

Note. — Greek an and en before a vowel are written with vowel
or consonant : Agauc or Agave; Euander or Evander.

II. On occurs on old Inscrr. : doucere, iovsit, Louceria; but had
decayed into a before the classical age.
(On the pronunciation of Diphthongs, see Appendix B,)

lOOgle

14

Latin Soundlare.

§12.

Vowel- xiii VowELSTRENGTHENiNG in Root-syllablcs,
JSTnT^ Suffixes, and Endings.

A) Root-syllables (see Supplemental Notes after Appendix).

a) Primitive or Italian % strengthened by tt (tt, <) in the
manner of Guna, or bv ft, (5, 9) in the manner of Vpddhi,
subsides from a diphthongal sound into a or ft ; the series
of possible change being % ah, o«, •n, a (6).

jug, to yoke
krii, hear ,
kru, de raw
lii, wash .

^XXyflOW .

(pii-s, ««r-
/«r^, thrive)

pu, cleanse

pu, j//«/t .
ru, ^^^
rudh, ^^ r^^

xX^ygive
light

skii, ^f<i4? .

tii, J^tt/

(tt) iii(njg-ere ... ifig-u-m, iiig-are .... (eu) fevy-
(ft) iug-i-s, iug-er-a, iu-mentu-m.

(tt) clu-6re. (au) lau-s, laud-are .... (ft, 6), lu-
s-cin-ia, gl6-r-ia ....

(ft) ru-di-s. (an) rau-du-s, rau-du-s-culu-m. (ft)
cru-du-s ... cru-d-eli-s ... cru-s-tu-m, cru-s-ta.

(ft) lQ-6re ... lii-tu-m .... (au) Iftv-ere with v-
cons. ... lautus. (on) Xow-««i', di-lGv-iu-m ...
with T-cons. for ▼-voc (ft, ft), lo-tu-s ...
pol-lu-tu-s ... lu-s-tru-m, lu-s-tr-are ....

(ft) plii-it (on) pliiv-ia ... for £. L. plov-ia ...
(ft,5), plu-vi ... pl6-r-are ....

(ft) pu-er ... pu-ella ... pfl-s-illu-s ... disci-pfl-lu-s,
pu-m-ilu-s, pu-tu-s. (an) iralc for ra-vc
(ft) pu-su-s, pu-s-io, pu-pu-s, pu-pa, pu-p-
ula, pu-p-illu-s, pu-m-ilio, pu-ber, pu-bes.

(ft) pii-tu-s, pii-t-are ... am-pii-t-are. (an) pa-eni-
t-et for pav-ine-t-et. (on) po-ena for pov-
ina. (ft) pu-ru-s ... pu-n-ire ....

(ft) piS-ter pil-tris .... (an) pa-e-d-or for pav-i-d-or.
(ft) pu-s pu-r- ... pu-t-ere ....

(ft) rii-d-€re ... ril-d-en-s. (an) rav-u-s ... rau-
cu-s .... (ft) ru-m-or.

(ft) riib-er, rub-ere ... rii-tilu-s ... ipvd-poQ. (en)
ipevd-u, (ft, 5) rub-ig-o or rob-ig-o, riaf-
u-s ....

(ft) luc-er-na, Xvic-. (on) E. L. Louc-ina, (en)
Xcvicoc. (ft) lux luc- ... luc-ere ... Luc-ina,
di-luoulu-m ....

(ft) scti-tu-la ... cii-ti-s. (an) c&v-ere, cau-tu-s ...
cau-s-sa or cau-sa. (on) E. L. cou-r-are
or coi-r-are for cov-i-r-are, (en) ircv-Ow.
(ft) cu-ra, cu-r-are ... E. L. cd-r-are, cu-
s-t-o-s, scu-tu-m, ob-scu-ru-s. See C. 1. 356.

(ft) sii-ere. (diphthongal in Sk. Goth, and Uth.).
(a)su-t-or, su-bula.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

Il«.

Vowelstrengthening.

IS

%.

til, swell . (*) tii-m-ere, td-m-idu-s, tu-mu-lu-s. (mi in Sk.),
tae-d-et for tav-i-d-et. So ta-e-ter. O.
tau'ia, (ott) O. tou-to. (ft, 5) t5-tu-s, tu-
ber. U. tU'ta^ tO'ta, These old Italian
words mean * a community , a people,^

diic-, lead . (ft) dux due- ... eddc-are .... (ou) E. L. douc"
> ire. (ft) due-fire ....

flu-jftwe/ . (ft) flfi-fire ... con-flu-g-es. (on) fluv-Idu-s, fluv-
iu-s (from flou-v-). (ft) flu-men, flu-l-are.

nii-, nod . (ft) nfi-6re. (en) vtv^a. (u) nu-tu-s, nu-t-are ...
nu-men.

Add the prinL root dyu, shine (-div), whence (6 for ft) i6-cu-s.
[•»), O. Diouv-ei, whence the weakened words, E. L. Didv-is^
\ fuv-e, I6v-is, iiiv-at, .... (ft) lu-p-piter, lu-n-o, iu-c-undu-s....
d) Primitive or Italian Y, strengthened by a (6, «), or by ft
(6, 9), subsides from a diphthongal sound into I or 8 ; the
series being ¥, ai, ol, et, I (8).

dlkjX^^tt/,

dIv, skine

\go

r, that

kr, lie dawn

^,spuar .

splc(-spak),
spy

trif, three .

fid, to trust

^f to choose

(I) dlc-are ... dic-io, con-dlc-io, dic-is, caussi-
dlc-u-s ... iu-dex, iu-dic- ... di-dlc-i, dlg-
i-tu-s, dig-nu-s ... pro-dlg-iu-m ; ... IXk-ti ....
(el) hiK' E. L. deiC'ire. (l) dlc-fire, dix-i ...

(I) re-dlv-ivu-s, dl-u, inter-dl-u-s, nu-dl-u-s, dl-es,
dl-ur-nu-s, ho-dl-er-nu-s, dX-es-piter, nun-dl-
nare. (S = ftl) Sk. div-a-s. a god (et) Ocioc,
E. L. deivos, deiv-a, (i) dlv-us, dl-us (weak-
ened form dfi-us), Dl-a-na, I-anus for Di-
anus. In bl-du-um, tri-du-um, &c., du is a
weakened form of div.

(I) I-t-er, ad-I-tu-s, &c, in-I-t-iu-m. ... («-ftl)
Sk. i-mu (ol) oI-/i-o-c. (et) «!-/«-«, E. L. ei-re,
(i) i-re, i-bo, I-vi. ...

(I) I-s, I-b-i, I-dem.... (et) E. l^ei-eis. (i) I-dem.
(I) qui-es, qui-e-sc-fire, qui-e-tus .... (et) Kuiiatt
E. L. cei'Vi'S, (i) cl-vi-s.

(X) ll-n-€re (-ire), H-tu-s, ll-tu-ra. (et) E. L. lei-
t-er-a, (i) iT-mu-s ... ll-m-ax, ll-n-ea, ll-t-
er-a or li-tt-er-a. (G. schleim^ EngL slime,)

(I) -spTc-ere -spfic-ere ... (et) E. L. peic-u-s, (i)
pic-u-s, su-spic-io ? (G. specht, EngL wood-
pecker ; pie,)

(I) tr!-bu-s, tri-dens ... t5r, tr€-centi. (et) r/wlc.
(l) trl-s, tri-ni, tri-du-imi.

(I) fid-es, frd-eli-s, per-fld-u-s .... (ot) E. L.
foid-U'S, foedus, foed-er-a-tu-s, iriiroida. (et)
irciOw, E. l^feidus, (i) ftd-€re, ftd-us ....

(I) Kb-et (ot) E. L. loeb-er. (et) E. L. leib-er.
(I) Ub-er ... .

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

i6

Latin Soundlore,

§12-

c) Primitive or Italian ft, sometimes represented by «, I, 6, or
% is strengthened into ft, which sometimes sinks to 5 or a.

(I) a (g, I, 6, u). (2) a. (3) e. (4) 6.

Sk, sharpen (i) a*:- Sc-u-s, Sc-u-Sre. (2) ac-er. (4) actfr^, wk-vc,
6c-i-or....

(i) ay-ag-gre...ag-i-li-s.... (2) amb-ag-es,ac-tu-s.
(3) eg-i, (TTpaTTiydQ ... . (4) paedSgog-u-s.

(i) ft-n-es-tra, fil-t-eri, fil-t-uu-s, inft-ti-a-s, €ax
fSc-, ftlc-Sre ... f ac-ie-s, fil-ber, ^d-oc, 0a- vac.
(i) fa-s, fa-s-ti, fa-ri, fa-bula, fa-ma, fa-c-
imd-us ... fa-tu-m, fa-nu-m, (3) fe-t-i-ali-s,
y?-j-w-^=£e-r-ia-e, fe-s-tu-s, ^ijfi/, fp^jiv-

(i) fra(n)g-€re ... frSg-ili-s, frSg-or, nau-frSg-us,
.... (2) refrag-ari, suf-frag-iu-m ...frac-tu-s.
(3) freg-i, fpiiy- .... (4) (^orya.

(i) c^r-ere. (2) car-us.

(i) ggn-us ... g5n-ui, yiv- ydr- g€n-€r, pro-ggn-
ie-s, ggn-iu-s, in-g&i-iu-m, indi-ggn-a, g6n-i-
tor, yvvif' (2) gna-tu-s, na-tu-s ... na-t-io,
natura, gna-vu-s, i-gna-vu-s .... (3) yv>/<rtoc.

(i) n6-t-a, n6-t-are, c6-gnl-t-us ... . (2) gna-ru-s^
i-gna-ru-s, na-r-r-are. (4) no-tu-s, i-gno-tu-s,
igno-r-are ... no-r-ma ... nd-bUi-s ... no-
men, a-gno-men, i-gn5-min-ia ... eyrtitKa,

(1} clS-p-gre (cW-p-eu-s), cel-la, oc-cul-5re, cu-cul-
lu-s, -cTl-iu-m, c-la-m, icXcwr^. (2) cal-ig-o.

(3) eel-are. (4) xXutyp,

(i) Ulb-are, lib-e-facere. (2) lab-i ... lab-es.

(i) mX-nu-s, fi€Tp€iy, mg-tru-m, mg-d-imnu-s, mg-
t-gre, m5-diu-s, m6-d-u-s, m5-d-er-ari, m6d-
es-tu-s .... (2) ma-ne, im-ma-ni-s, ma-tu-
ru-s, Ma-tu-ta. (3) me-ta, me-t-Iri ... me-n-
sa, me-n-sura, me-n-si-s, se-me-s-tri-b ....

(4) mo-s mor-, mor-osu-s.

(i) pic-i-sc-i, pa(n)g-gre, pe-plg-i, irdy-. (2) pax
pac-, pac-are, re-pag-ulu-m, pag-u-s, pag-ma,
com-pag-es, pro-pag-o. (3) -pegi, iriyy-.

(i) rgg-ere, rgg-io, -riggre, r6g-u-s. (2) Sk. rdjaft,
(3) rex reg- ... reg-ula .... (From rggere
perhaps r!g-ere, rig-i-du-s ....)

(i) sS-tu-s, sS-t-io (sg-rgre) ... . (2) Sa-t-iir-nu-s.
(3) se-vi, se-men ....

^g, drive .

bha Uhrow
hhSi'S flight

bhrSg, break

kSr, want .
gSln, beget .

gaSiyknaw

k^,hide .

lab, slip .
mS, measure

1^^ fasten
r^g, direct .

$5, sow

sni, floaty
bathe

(i) nS-t-are. (2) na-re .
turt-iu-m (nasum

.. na-r-i-s, na-s-u-s, nSs-
torquens). (3) vntroQ^

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

J".

Vowelstrengthening in Root-syllables, etc, 17

sUi, stand . (i) stS-tor, sti-ti-m (but E. L. std-ti-m), st^-ti-o,
st^-tu-s, sta-tu-6re, st^-tu-a, st^-bulu-m, sti-
bili-s : st€-t-i, super-stl-t- .... (2) sta-turu-s,
sta-tura, sta-men, and in Conjug. sta-re,
sta-bam .... (3) trrijvat ....

star, strew, (i) stgr-(n)€re (<n-op-), (2) stra-vi, stra-tu-s, stra-
men...stli-ta,stla-t-ariu-s, (4) oTpU'Vyu-vai,
OTpW'fia*

d) The following are strengthened from (i) i (fi or I) to (3) e (I).
Pr. har, seise (i) (h)&r-us, (h)gr-a, (h)er-c-i-sc-6re, h!r-und-o, hlr-

ud-o, E. L. hir (x«P-) (3) (h)er-es, (h)er-ed-
kir, create (i) CSr-es, crC-are, cre-sc-€re ..., (3) cre-vi, in-cre-
mentu-m ....

Ad,stt . (i) s€d-ere ... as-sld-uu-s, (3) sed-es, sed-i, sed-
tdu-s, sTd-5re... .

^,joiu . (i) s6r-&-e ... sSr-ie-s, sfir-a, ser-tu-m, (3) ser-ia,
ser-u-s, ser-iu-s.

skir, sever (1) cer-(«)ere ... cer-tu-s, ... scr6-are, (3) cre-vi,
dis-cre-tu-s ..., ex-cre-mentu-m, cri-bru-m,
cn-men, dis-crT-men .... kpiyu.

stig, cover (i) orcyw, rcy-oc, tSg-ere, tSg-es, (3) teg-ula, tex-L
}fiuricover (i) val-lu-m, v€r-eri, v51-le, v51-ere, vil-idu-s, (3)
vii f choose vel-u-m, vel-are ... : ver-us, ver-ax ....

From another root vSl, implying motion, come

(i) v61-are, (3)vel-ox, vel-es, vel-it-ari.

e) The following are strengthened from (i) Pr. S (6) to (4) 6.

Pr, sir, be whole

(i) sil-us sil-u-t-, sai-u-ber,sal-vu-s.,
sol-a-c-iu-nL

, (4) sol-ari.

svin, sound (i) sdn-u-s, sdn-are ... (4) per-son-a.
svip, sleep (i) sdp-or ... som-nu-s, (4) sop-ire.

sv5r, sun (i) s5r-enu-s, ff«X-ac, ot\'i\vi\^ 2c/p-ioc, (4) sol

(Sk. sHr-a-s),
v&k, call . (i) vdc-are, (4) vox voc-, v6c-ali-s (con-vlc-iu-m ?).

/) C. cites also many examples of I (€) rising to I and of A
rising to ft in Latin without diphthongal accretion. Such are
{a) ITqu-ere ... llqu-or, (/3) Uqu-i, liqu-or.
\a) s^c-are ... (i3) sic-a, sic-ar-iu-s.
(a) stll-u-s, stifm-ulu-s ... (j3) instTg-are.
(a) ^y-po-c, 0^) u-v-ere, u-m-or ... .*

* Tbe ejamples in pp. 14-X7 are selected from a large number in Corssen's great work,
^ 348~sy>> The initancen dted are the moM important of those in which the short as
weU as the long vowel occurs in words of classical use. Forms from old Italian dialects
and from other languages are here given cmly so far as they illustrate diphthongal
ttrengtheoing. Other roots of great interest will be found in Corssen's pages : as

P3br, \^tfiU\ whence pl6re, plOs, plCnus, popiilus, plebs.

ViSett gutter', whence mSre, marmor, Mars, Mamers.

WiXf/ade : whence marc€re, mors, mdri.

Bhu, b€ bom : whence fiS-, fSre, ft-, (<Hus, fSmina, ftcundus, fSnus.^

C uyuzeu uy .^OOglC

ig Latin Soundlorc, § 12.

B) Vowelstrengthening in Suffixes, Case-endings, and Personal-
endings, will appear in the Sections which treat of Declension, Con-
jugation, and Derivation :

hon-6s hon5r-is, Cer-es, pulv-Is, nub-es, lig-5n-is, matri-mon-
ium, matr-6n-a ; — mens-aivum, de-or-um ; — am-as, am-a-
mus, am-a-ris, fu-e-nint, fii-I.

DUyi. xiv. Vowelstrengthening in Perfects.

Per? i) Most Verbs with vowel character a, 1, o, and some with ©^

fccts. formed the Perf. in vi, and lengthened the character :
na-vi, ne-vi, no-vi, ll-vi.

2) Of tt-verbs, C. says that their Present-stem anciently received
the strengthenings on, ft, before it was weakened into ft ; and that
the Perf. passed through the forms -ftvl, ftl before it was weakened
into ftL Thus plouo, pluo became pluo : and pluvi, plui be-
came plvii. The only exceptions are batiio, -griio, metiio, ruo,
which seem never to have lengthened n before a vowel : and fuo,
which in the Perf. became foul (poet, fovi), fui, and ultimately fuL

3) As to the formations

c&veo cavi

filveo favi

pSveo pavi

ftSveo fovi

mSveo movi

v6veo vovi

ftc- feci

fra«)g-

fregi

cap.

iic- ieci

isg-

legi (lexi)

ru(w)p-

lt(«)qu- iTqui

gd-

edi

scab-

vl(«)c- vfci

fSd-

fodi

€m-

ag- egi

fu(«)d-

fudi

C. thinks that (to avoid the concurrence -vnl) ft was thrown out,
and the root-vowel then strengthened : cSvui, civ-i, cavL
4) As to the following three —

sSdeo sedi ; vTdeo vidi (E.L. veidi) ; vCnio veni
he assumes the existence of old forms s€d-Sre, vtd-Sre, vSn-Sre^
which in the Perfect were strengthened as the following Consonant
Verbs :

cepi
rupi
scabi
emi

He brings reasons against the common assumption that in such
Perfects the long vowel compensates for a lost reduplication. And,
in fact, the practice of vowelstrengthening in Italian Soundlore is
so well established, that no such assumption is necessary to explain
the quantity. Yet f efi c i (O. fefUci) is known as an older form than
feci, while pegi from pango and tudi from tundo appear as
secondary forms for peplgi and tutudi. We may also compare
Greek forms, as &yriyov or fiyayov with egi, icialii with edi,
olZa with vidi or veidei, and be led to doubt whether, in some
instances at least, a loss of reduplication may not have caused the
root-vowel to be strengthened in Latin.

Com- XV. Compensation,

SS^' Compensation is usually said to happen when a naturally short
vowel is lengthened in order to maintain the quantity of a syllable
after the loss of a consonant: vid-sum, visum. But such com-
pensation is not always made: seg€t-s, seg€s.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

f 12. Nasalisation. Vawelweakening, 19

xvL Strengthening of the Present Stem in Ni^b.
Verbs by Insertion of a Nasal.

Some Verb-stems have the short vowel of their Present-stem
strengthened by Nasalisa tion ; that is, by adding n to the Stem-
vowel before a Guttural or Dental, m before a Labial character :

frig-

frango

iug-

iungo

ng-

ling-

Kqu-

linquo

mlg-

mingo

nlgu-

nhiguo

pSg-

pango

P%-

pingo

scld-

scindo

pug-

pungo

tad-

tundo

strig-

stringo

pis-

pinso

tag-

tango

dib-

cumbo

vlc-

vinco

lab-

lambo

fld-

findo

rup-

rumpo

fiid-

fundo

As the Nasal for the most part disappears in Derivation, it was
evidently not so strongly sounded as in modem utterance.
Guttural n is called by grammarians n adulterinum.
(On the strengthening of the Present-Stem by Suffixes, see § 52.)

rvii Vowelweakening. vowd

1. Pr. roots are formed with each of the Pr. vowels, »,¥,*; *"*"«•
but those with & are by far the most numerous.

2. The standard vowel ft is weakened into \ and ft in all Aryan
languages : but in those which have € and tt the weakening of ft
into I passes through €, and the weakening of ft into ft passes
through tt :

Pr. sSma E.L. sgm6-l C.L. s!mu-l

3. Italian dialects shew such weakening largely ; in Root-syllables,
in Suffixes, and in Endings of Case and Person.

4. The general object of all such changes is Euphony (cv^wWa),
the more easy and convenient utterance of the sounds of sp)eech.

5. In pursuit of this object certain principles are applied ; among
them Assimilation and Dissimilation, hereafter noticed; also
Selection, which occurs when a certain vowel is chosen as the
most suitable before a particular consonant Thus, v has a prefer-
ence for o ; 1 and the labials chiefly for « ; r for o ; n and t for i.
Grouped consonants often prefer e :

liivis becomes
volt —

ep^a —
peptri —

Note. B is the easiest and smoothest Latin vowel, being neither
so sharp and thin as Y, nor so flat and thick as 6 and ft. Hence
it prevails as a final vowel, and in several instances is so used
when final consonants are cast off: vener6 for venerunt ; utar6
for utarls ; dictator^ for dictatore-d or dictatori-d. Also for
I final in Neuter Nouns : mare for mari-.

But when Mascuhne or Feminine Nouns drop final n, the
stronger vowel o becomes final in Nom. Sing. : homo (homon-,
homin-), virgo (virgon-, virgin-).

O 2 Digitized by CjOOQ IC

I6vis

Minerva becomes Minerva

vult

alHem — alltem

iipupa

voile — velle

peptri

faciundiis — faciendus

20 Latin Soundlore, j 12^

Weak. xviii. The Vowel a and its Weakenings.

Sf Sf* A) In Root and Stem syllables.

i) Corssen (II. 6) cites about 270 Latin words which have

kept Pr. II in the syllable of the root or stem :
^cus, ^qua, tr^o, daps, l&bor, p&teo^ m&deo, m&neo, ango,
pando, &mo, sal, v^eo, palleo^ m&lus, ciUreo, carmen, hasta,
&veo, grivis,

2) He cites about 21 ? words which have weakened Pr. & to S

in the syllable of the root or stem :
d€cem, nSco, 6quos, sSquor, tSgo, tfipeo, ftbris, p€to, €do,
s6nex, frfimo, m61, qufiror, tSro, vespa, sSverus.

And others which have passed from & through € to 1 :
dtgitusy igniS; quinque, pinguis.

3) He cites about 190 words which have weakened Pr. ft into

o in the syllable of the root or stem :
v6co, mox, 16quor, r6go, 5pus, 6b, ndta, f5dio, t6no, vdmoy
mdla, 6rior, v6ro, post, n6vem.

And others which have passed from m through o to n :
nummus, unguis, fungus, multus, culmen, vulnus.

n) Pr. ft is weakened to % and 6 in some roots :
nex, nSco, nSceo ; t5go, tSga.
bSne, b6nus ; mens, m6neo ; pendo, pondus.
ftro, fors, fortis ; verto, vorto ; v61o, velle, volt (vult).
prices..., prdcus, posco; cello, coUis, columen.

b) Pr. ft, kept in Latin, also becomes « in

f^tisco, fessus ; gridior, gressus.

c) Pr. ft, kept in Latin, also becomes 6 in

^piscor, 6pus ; sc^bo, scobs ; pars, portio ; f^veo, fSvea

d) Pr. long & becomes 6 in some words and many suffixes :

donum, vox, mos :

-t9r, -ds, -5r, -m6ii, -da, and Imperative -to. ^

B) In Suffixes.

It may be stated as a general rule that Latin suffixes with the
vowd^ €, 1, 9) % are weakened from Pr. suffixes with a.
Exceptions are very few :

«- in such words as menti- parti- poti-.
bX- in such words as ignT- pani-.
▼I- in words like ovi- avi-.

tti- (•&-) in Supines and Nouns, as statu-, dictii-, casil-.
AU which are in Pr. form.

Q In Cases and Personal Endings.

Cases (except the Locative Singular) and Personal Endings, with
vowels e, 1, o, n, are for the most part weakened from Pr. forms
with a. See §§ 20, 39, and Schleicher, Vergleich, Gramm, der
Indogerm, Spr,^ § 205.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

JI2. Vowehveakening with Selection, 21

xix. Weakening into 5 as influenced by Se- ^J^*
lection.

1. V following has determined Pr. ft to become tt in

nSvem, nSvus, 1 6 vis, 6vis.

2. ▼ preceding has probably done this in v6co : while in v61o^

volvo,volnus (vulnus) and v6mo, the consonants which
follow may also have had influence.
E, L. has v5co for vico, vdto for v€to, vorto, voltur. M.
Lucr. L 2a

3. Pr. sTft is changed to so in

s6ror (for svasar^ 'sister'), s6por, s6cer, s6nus, sol,

sddalis;
and has passed to stt in su-sur-rus. See p. 17. C. IT. 64.

4. & shews a preference for o before it in many words :

d61us, s51\im, sdlium, toUo, &c.
but especially in E. L. suffixes :

poc-dl-om^ tab'dl-a, Pseud-dl-us, po-pdl-us,
which afterwards changed tt into tt.

5. Inner r often prefers »to*: f6re, f6rem from fu-o; so

ancdra from Gr. fiyicvpa (but generally Greek v was kept
before F : pur-pur-a) :

especially in the Suffix of Neut. Substantives with Nom.
S. tts or ttr: corp-us corp-6r-, eb-ur eb-6r-.

Some keep ttr-: fulg-ur-, gutt-ur-, murm-iir-, sulf-
ur- ; and the Masc. words aug-iir-, turt-ur-, vult-ur-.
(But most Neuters in tts are inflected by «r-. See p. 25.)

6. The Comparative Suffix was anciently 5s 6r-, then 5f 5r-,

for all genders : finally, and in C. L., it became
M.F. meli-dr meli-6r-, N. meli-fis meli-6r-. Note
p. 42,

IX. Weakening into u as influenced by Se- Seicc-
lection. ^ '•°"°^*-

I. C. says : * In Latin root-syllables, suffixes, and flexional end-
ings, tt has arisen generaUy from 6.*

a) before • and m final :

deus (dcoc), genus (ycVoc), bellum (bellom), filium (filiom),

^) before inner 1, or a labial :

popQlus, upupa, columen, Heciiba.

0 before grouped consonants, the first of which is a Liquid,
Nasal or Sibilant :

pulsus, palumbes, fungus, rursum, luscus.

230 B.C. the 9 of case-endings generally \
^ept in some instances :

«) hoc, tot, quod, quot, always. So com- con^^^ ^^ GoOglc

2. About 230 B.C. the 9 of case-endings generally passed into il :
bat 6 was kept in some instances :

22 Latin Soundlore, $ 13^

/3) after n, ▼, as late as the Augustan age :

equos, equom, servos, servom, aevom. So quom.

The Emperor Claudius seems to have promoted the use of the
combinations nii, vo, which in Republican times were generally
avoided. See C. II. 97-101.

3. Rustic dialects kept o ^quently : hence it returned into use
in L. L.^ and reappears in modem Italian : popdlo^ secdlo>

4. Selection of 11 appears

A) before Labials and 1 :

i) in place of 0 :

humanus

utriibi

consul

umerus

bublle

adulescens

nummus

bubulcus

epistula

volumus

bubus

exsOl

quaesumus

rubigo

titulus

sumus

upilio

singuli

B6vile is another form for bubile.

2) in place of Gr. a, € :

hiimus (x«f "0 scopulus (<r<:off£Xoc)

pessulus (ira^<raXoc) Sic&lus (Si#ce\oc)

3) in place of ft, 6 :

ft : occiipo, aucupor, contubemium ; h : quincuplex*

4) as middle sound, approaching to X :

clupeus or cllpeus : lacrilma or lacrlma. See xxi.

Note I. When I or 6 came before the sufHx 616- 61-, 6 was not
changed into ft :

(i) fili-51u-s, basi-61u-m, Cori-61-i, vi-61-entus.
(2) alve-61u-s, lacte-61u-s, laure-dla, Pute-61-i.^

Note 2. When v came before 61, 6 was kept as late as the Au^
gustan age, after which it often became * :

parv-61u-s, parv-iilu-s : serv-61u-s, serv-ulu-s.
But friv-61u-s was never changed.

* As to the dialectic use of O and a in final syllables, C says :
i) Lat. and F. received O as the pure Gr. o.

O. and S. as O inclining to V.
U. as a middle tone, or 11 inclining to O. '

9) Lat. changed O to n about 300 . . . aoo B.c
F. still earlier.

O. about 300 B.C, but before m not till 130 b.c
S. before 200 B.c
V. never.
New U. returned from V to O between 300 and 130 B.C.

* MSS. shew formid-ul-osus and formid-ol-osus, sanguin-ul<entu5 and sanguin-ol-entus,
vin-ul-«ntus and vin-ol-entus ; the forms with ul- having the advantage. Somn-ul«entus is
decidedly better than somn-ol-entus.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

1 12. Vowelweakening with Selection, 23

B) Before grouped consonants, of which the first is a Liquid,
Nasal, or Sibilant :

I. In place of o.
i) pullus, cucullus, and the Deminutives ampulla, homullus,
Catullus, MaruUus, &c

But before 11, e is more frequent than «. See xxi. D. 6.
fulcio ... , hiulcus, pulcher ..., sulcus ..., Vulcanus ;
fulgeo ..., mulgeo..., vulgus ... .
culpa ..., bulbus.
adultus ... , cultus ..., multa ..., pul(t)s, ultra ... vultur,

vultus, vult : — ^vulsL
culmen, fiilmen, ulmus ; ulna.
Fulvius, pulvis, vulva, ulva.

Here too ol after ▼ held its ground long :

Volcanus, volgus, voltur, voltus, volt, volsus.

2) amurca, fiirca, urceus, murmur, fumus, ebumus, purpura,

Surrentum, ursus, rursus.

3) umbo, nunmius, aerumna, alumnus, autumnus, columna,

Clitumnus, Vertumnus.

4) uncia, uncus, hunc, Aurunci ; fungus, unguis ....

The Demin. suffix -nnonlo- : ranunculus, virguncula.

5) Promunturium ; nuntio (noventio). Corss. I. 51 ; nundinae.
The Personal Ending -nnt was anciently ontl- out, as

ecfociont for effugiunt on the Columna Rostrata, con-
sentionty dedtronty &c., on old inscriptions. The classical
form of 3d Pers. PL Perfect -miit for -ront first appears
in the Senatusconsult de Bacc. B.c. 186, consoluerunt;
the weakened form in -re somewhat earlier, fee ere.
When 11 or ▼ came before -ont, o was kept to a later
time. Thus in the MSS. of Plautus appear ruont, per-

FJuont, vivont; and in Lucretius loquontur, disso-
uont, vivont.
The inner suffix -ant- {pvr-^ appears in a few words : sc
euntem ..., chironomunta (Juv.); Acherunta (Plaut
Lucr.).

The suffix -un-do- (for -on-do-) appears in

har-undo, hir-undo, sec-undus, ori-undus, rot-undus, fa-c-
undus, fe-c-undus, vere-c-undus, fiiri-b-undus, treml-b-
undus, vaga-b-undus ;
and in G^undive Participles.'

' Of the Gerundive fonns •ondu-s, -undu-s, -end-us, C (I. x8o) shews that

(i) No nritliwK £. L. Inscrr. contain •ond-us ; but, as it was the tendency of L. L. to
RsoBM the o of £. L., and in L. L. appear sudi forms as secondus, verecondus, while
Italitn also has seamdo^ rotomdot it may justly be assumed that -on-do- was the first
weakening of Pt. •an-d-ya.

(3) The forms -undus -endus appear side by side in £. L. and R. L. to the Christian
era. So in Plaut. Ter. Lucr. : in the Senatuscons. de Bacc., the Lex lulia.

(i) The form -endus prevails in prose : but Sallust Ekes -undus. Cicero, Caesar, Livy,
use it often, chiefly in io-verbs of the 3rd as well as 4th ConJ. : moriundum, partiundus,
&c It prevails especially in legal and statistic phrases: rerum repetundarum, iure
dicondo, belU gerundi, agris dividtmdis. _^

uiyiuzeu uy x^JVJvJVJ Iv^

24 Latin Soundlore, § 12.

Rarer forms are frundes for frondes, frunte for fronte,
dupundius for dupondius.

Later language resumed o :

It. fronde^ fronte^ pondo, mondo,

6) The Demin. forms arbuscula, corpusculum, rumus-
culus.

aplustre, indu-stria (endo) :
also arbustum, onustus, robustus, venustus;

which C. would derive from weakened forms arbus, onus,
robus, venus.

2. The words in which n appears to represent e are few : as
mulsum (^cXi); sepultus from sep€l-ire ; urgeo (^y©) ....

Note, Long a for Pr. ft or its substitute 5 appears in various
suffixes : -tflro-, -tOra, -sftro-, -s&ra, -&110-, -ftna, -iioo-, -ftea,
-ftoeo-, -nolo- :

i-turus, prae-tura, pas-surus, men-sura, Nept-unus, fort-una,

cad-ucus, fest-uca, pann-uceus, Vin-ucius.
compared with
prae-tor (anc), patr-onus, fer-ax, fer-6x, mer-acus, clo-Sca,

gallin-aceus.

sdcc- xxi. Change into S as influenced by Selec-
^^-^^^ tion.

It has been shewn that
A) h has affinity with r.

i?) « is a convenient vowel for the close of words and for final
syllables.

Also it must be noted that

C) ^ has affinity with the combinations st, %%^ u.

D) « is a convenient letter for the syllable of Reduplication.

These causes determine a great number of instances in which e
appears for other vowels in suffixes and endings.

A) € chosen with r.

i) In DecL i and 2, before the suffix ro- pa-, h takes the place
of Pr. ft or of o, sometimes of ft : Examples are —

Words which retain vowel and suffix throughout :

num^ru-s, um&ii-s, utSru-s ; camera, litt^ra^ tessSra ;
and the Fem. Adjectives,

lacgra, libSra, misSra, tengra, altgra.

Words which drop the vowel of the suffix in Nom. and Voc.
Sing. Masc. :

gen6r,pu5r,socSr (licvpoc), vespftr.
Iac6r, lib€r, mis6r, ten€r, altSr.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

§ 12. Vowelweakening with Selection. ^ 25

Words which drop the vowel of the suffix in Nom. and Voc»
Sing. Masc, and drop 1$ in all their other forms :

ag€r, apSr, fab€r, magist^r ;
/3Sr, rub$r, niggr, utfir.

In some of these (as magistSr and utSr) < represents
Pr. ft, while in others it is perhaps a transposed repre-
sentant of the dropt »•

In some words with suffix ro- pa- Greek a was kept before r :
canth2.rus^ cithSra.

2) Similarly, in DecL 3, e comes before r in many forms :

Words in «f «f-, which keep e throughout :

carcSr, cadavSr, pipSr, papavSr, tubdr :
celfir, degenSr, pauper, ubSr.

Words in t^r, o«r, b«r ; which keep e ( = Pr. i) only in Nom.
and Voc. Sing. Masc, dropping it in the other cases ;

fratSr, matSr, patgr, venter, imbgr;
ac6r, alacSr, salubSr, putSr, silvestSr.

Numerous words of Decl. 3, which take Nom. S. tts (■*•)»
have in the Oblique Cases the suffix hx- :

fun-€r-is, gen-gr-is, op-Sr-is, Ven-gr-is, vet-Sr-is.

but some keep »-i^ :

corp-dr-is, frig-6r-is, pect-6r-is.

a few use Sr- and 6r- :

pign-iis, pign-Cr-is and pign-6r-is: feniis, fen-gr-is and fen-5r-is ;
tempCri for tempfiri : whence tempSro, tempgries.

VomSr or vomis, Gen. vom-Sr-is, points to an originalform
in es, which sometimes weakens the consonant and be-
comes Sr, sometimes weakens the vowel and becomes U :
see xxiL 2. and compare the forms

Ceres Cer6r-, cinis cinSr-, puMs pulvSr-.

3) Verbs having fo in their root do not weaken e into 1 m

compounds :

aflfSro, congSro, desSro, puerpgra.
for the same reason

pepgri not (pepYri) ; reppSri not (reppiri).

similarly the compounds of iuro become de-iSro, pe-i5ro,
weakening II into €.

When the Perfect receives suffixes which begin with r, I is
changed into 6 or 8 :

(E. L. dedi'Sont dedl-roni) dederuntordedere.
(E. L. dedi'So\ ded6-ro.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

26 Latin Soundlore, § 12,

5) B has a tendency to take the place of other vowels in final
syllables before weak consonants, n, m, s, t.

i) In DecL 3, the Nom. S. -4$b (for Pr. -an) becomes -in- in
the Oblique Cases :

pect2n, agmSn, crimgn, oscSn, tubicSn.
Gen. pectln-is, agmln-is, crimln-is, osctn-is, tubidn-is.

1) a. Sep tern {Sk. sap/an, Gr. tvTo) ; novem (Sk. navan, Gr.
tppea), decern (Sk. dasfauy Gr. 5«o).
/3. In DecL 3 -em is the Accus. S. Ending of Cons. Nouns :
r^-em, virgin-em, passer-em.
it prevails in I-nouns against -tm:

civ-em, font-em, serpent-em.
but -im is retained by some :

bur-im, sit-im, tuss-im, vim.
while others use both forms. See § aft, 5.
febr-im febr-em, messim messem.
* Tim is kept by the numerous Adverbs having that form :
as ad fatim, partim. But saltem or saltim.

Mzsz. final letter faded in L.L. as it had faded in U., and passed
out of use in modem Italian, leaving e final generally ; sette^ nove,
&c.; but undecif dodeci^ ... from undecim, duodecim, ...

3) On such forms as nub-es, sed-es, see § ao, aft.
Some I-nouns have two forms of Nom. S., -to and Ss :

fel-Is fel-es, vall-Is vall-es, verr-Is verres;

but s, like m, disappeared m L.L. and Italian, leaving • final :
nube^ valle^ &c

4) In old Italian dialects, except O., also in E. L., final t in

Verbal forms was weak and sometimes disappeared. Before
it the Perfect character i was sometimes changed into s :
at a later time to the middle sound el : finally in classical
times settling into T. Thus are found the various forms :
{dedi, dedit, dedet, dedeit), dedit

In L. L. and in Italian, this t, like m and e, disappeared
again, leaving final e ; disse.fece,

0 ■ has a tendency to become itself a final letter in the place of
othemrowels.

1) In the Voc. S. of 0-nouns it supersedes 9 :

doming, lup€, Romulg.

2) In the NeuL S. Nom. Accus. of I-nouns it supersedes ¥ :

marg, retg ; tristg, necessC.

3) When final consonants are cast off :

quinque(Sk./tf«^/i, Gr. i^ivrt).

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

§ I J, Vowelweakening with Selection. 2J

ill5, ist6, ipsfi (illus, istus, ipsus).

AbL S. of Decl. 3 : quaestorfi (quaestorid or quaestored).

-ff4 for nmt in Perf. dedere (dederunt).

-r» for -rto in 2nd Pers. S. Pass. : loquare for loquaris.

-v« for tU in nevg, si vS.

mag^for magTs; pot^ for potYs.

In L. L. instances occur even of a Gen. S. in e for to.

By this gradual rejection of final consonants the classical system
of case-inflexion was broken down and the uniform declension in-
troduced which prevails in modem Italian.

D) B has a tendency to take the place of other vowels before
grouped and double consonants.

i) a appears before x ( = c», r») in the final syllable of Nouns
of DecL 3 which are inflected with the suffixes lo- X»- ( =
Yoo- Iff«-y as explained by Corssen) :

codex, cortex, imbrex, remex ; simplex, supplex.
Gen. codlcis, cortlcis, remlgis ; simpllcis, suppllcis.

2) a appears before ps, ba in the final syllable of Nouns of

DecL 3, which are inflected with the suffixes Ip- (up-) lb- :
such are

municeps, auceps, caelebs, particeps.
Gen. municTpis, auciipis, caellbis, particTpis.

Compoimds of c&piit, with Nom. -ceps for -clpit-^, have Gen,
-cipttis ;

praeceps, Gen. praeclpltjs.

3) When a Noun with that suffix tl- (which appears in

hos-ti-s, tes-ti-s) would have the accent on an ante-
penult syllable Tdli-ti-, ^qu6-ti-), the vowel of the penult is
weakened usually into X falltl-, equltl-), sometimes into h
(abiStl- seggtt-). The 1 ot the suffix being dropt, the forms
then become (allt- eqult- segSt- abi€t-) : and when the Nom.
S. is formed by the addition of -«, they become (aht-s
equit-s seget-s abiet-s) : but, e being preferred to I in a
final suffix, (alit-s equit-s) become (alet-s equet-s). After
which, by Uie rule of euphony, the dental falls out before s,
and the Nominatives then become

aUs, equSs ; Gen. alU-is, equTt-is;
segSs, Gen. segSt-is; tegSs, Gen. tegSt-is.
but abies, aries, paries. Gen. abiStis, ariStis, pa-
riStis, on account oil preceding.

Note. In this class, thie vowels e, 1 generally represent Pr. or
Latin ^ (see above), but in a few ¥ is the root- vowel :

comes^ comit- (root I, to go).

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

28 Latin Soundlore, § 12.

In pedSs pedTt-, probably also in seg€s, tegSs, the vowel is adopted
by analogy, forming a suffix I-t- or «-t-. See Footnote, p. 30.

4) The same principle applies to a few words derived from

s€d- srd-, /^?J«/(Pr. sid):

(obsed-s^ obs€s obsid-; (praesed-s) praesSs, praesid-;

(desed-s) desCs desid- ; (resed-s) resSs resid-.

5) B before nt appears in the suffix mento- :

ar-mentu-m, la-mentu-m, monu-mentu-m.

and for Greek a in

talentum, Agrigentum, Tarentum.

6) B is frequent before 11 :

cello, pello, vello, velle,

and the Demin. forms : puella:
but in these 1 is also used : sigillum.

In other groups with 1 the vowel v prevails, see xix. : but
e is not excluded : celsus, excelsus.

7) Equester, pedestcr, for (equet-ter, pedet-ter).

8) (fat-) fessus ; (grid-) gressus.

9) The Neuter suffix (os) va weakens its vowel into e before

another suffix beginning with t :

fun-us fun-es-tus ; scel-us, scel-es-tus.
temp-US temp-es-tas ; intemp-es-tus.

The existence of an old Neuter Noun modus is shown by
mod-es-tus ; mod-6r-ari :

so the Masc. Noun honos forms

hon-es-tus, hon-es-tas :

but o becomes n in

ang-us-tus, aug-us-tus, on-us-tus, rob-us-tus, ven-u»-tus.
maius, mai-es-tas, is like temp-us, temp-es-tas.

C. forms pot(i)os, pot-es-tas : others

poten(t)s (potent-tas) pot-es-tas :

he cites Praern-este as Superl. from a supposed (prae-
no-), meaning * the town on the highest prominence!

10) The comparative forms mag-is-ter, min-is-ter, sin-is-
ter, in L, L. appear with es for to ; whence Italian maestro.
In some other words also, asantestes, L. L. writes est-
for tot-.

Modem Italian is not uniform in the choice between • and t
We find

fermo^ selva^ segno ^ trenti; but
principe, sinistra, vittoria, carissimo,

E) On the use of « for «, 6, tt in the reduplicated syllable of Per-
fects see xxv.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

§ 12. Vowelweakening with Selection, 29

xxiL The Selection of L ^^^i,

A) The thinnest and sharpest vowel 1 has a strong afiinity with
dental consonants ; chiefly with n and s, but also wiUi t and d.

E) Hence it is largely used as a vincular vowel, linking stem
with suffix and suffix with suffix.

C) The existence of a middle sound between I and ft caused the
orthography of many words to fluctuate.

A) I. Affinity of i with n.

I represents Greek a before n in

ballneum, buclna, fascino, machlna, patina, trutitna.
' It represents Greek 1 before n in

adamantlnus, cocclnus, coccTneus, crystalUnus.
It stands before the suffix no- in numerous Latin words : ^
fisdna, fiisclna, paglna, sarclna, pamplnus, suclnum, faglnus,
£iglneus, gemlnus, myrrhlnus.

In mlao- (Pr. nuum) and tino- (Pr. tana) :

terminus, femlna ; fruimino, amamlnor.
crastlnus, diutlnus, pristlnus.

In the suffix In- (Pr. an L. in, «n) before vowels :
pect-In-is, sangu-Tn-is, osc-In-is.

In the suffix In- (Pr. an L. dn, ttn) before vowels :
hom-In-is, marg-In-is, ord-In-is, virg-In-is, Apoll-In-is.

In the suffix min- (Pr. man L. mto) before vowels :
flu-mln-is, no-mln-is, nu-mln-is.

A striking instance of the affinity of I with n appears in the
fact that it was inserted in the Greek word ^xva^ which so
became mina. Similar insertions occtu- in Daph-I-ne^
luc-I-nus or lych-I-nus (M. Lucr. p. 211), gum-I-
nasium probably in Catullus.

So the affinity of ft with m is shewn in the occasional
forms drac-u-ma for 3pawii/, Alc-ti-mena, Tec-u-messa,
&c, and with 1 in Aesc-u-lapius, Herc-ti-les.

Minerva, anciently MCnerva.

Though e prevails before grouped consonants, yet there are
many instances of it being sharpened into 1 before n with
anoUier consonant :
intus, inter, indu- ... quinque ... tingo ... vindico ...
so when n follows another consonant :

ignis, pignus, sig^um, tignum.
2. Affinity of i with % is shewn
In the forms cinis (cingr), cucumis (cucumfir), pulvis
(pul-vgr), vomis (vom€r), pubis (pub€r) : also aci-
pensls (acipensgr). See C. II. 278.

* In Cut the suffix no- takes, in true Latin words, no shori vowel but 1 before it. Such
words as halinw, cottSna, plat^us, raphinus, Rhod^niis are not native of Italy.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

30 Latin Soundlore, § 12.

In the Gen. ending -is (Pr. as).

In the occasional use of i-se- for e-se- in Inceptive Verbs :
lucisco for lucesco.

3. Affinity of 1 with t is shewn

In the adoption of 1 before many Verb and Noun suffixes

beginning with t :
ag-I-to, ag-I-te, ag-T-tis, gen-I-tus, gem-I-tus, doml-tum, merl-

tum, vetl-turus, doll-turus, fru-I-turus, gen-I-tor (but gene-

trix), habl-tare, strepT-tare : — laetl-tia, planl-ties, verl-tas,

altl-tudOy penl-tus, largl-ter, sempl-temus.

4. Affinity of I with d is shewn

In the adoption of I before the suffix do- :
candl-dus, torp-I-dus, flu-I-dus, viv-I-dus.
herbl-dus, gravl-dus, morbT-dus, gell-dus.

Note, When an £-verb forms a Substantive with suffix d-oii-
41-lB-, the vowel before that suffix is e :

albe-do, dulce-do, gravC-do :
but lib I -do, by assimilation.

B) Use of 1 as a linking VoweL*

I. The large use of I before suffixes beginning with n, t, d, and
its own altitude for this purpose, led to its adoption before many
other suffixes as a link-vowel in the place of others : as before eo-,
o-an-do-, enlo-, oro- ; b-nn-do-, bulo-, bill-, men, men-to-, monla.

(Verbalia) all-ca, velll-co, medl-cus, rubt-cundus, cubl-culum,
ridl-culus, veh-T-culum, pudl-bundus, fur-T-bundus, patT-bulum,
cred-I-bilis, terrl-bilis, flexl-bilis, spec-I-men, al-I-mentum, quer-
T-monia.

(Dcnominativa) auW-cus, belll-cus, annl-culus, ludl-cer, currT-
culus, ant-cula, aegrl-monia, caerl-monia.
But Verbal ft is kept :
ira-cundus, caena-culum, vaga-bundus, ama-bilis, grava-men,
sacra-mentum.
Sometimes i : vere-cundus^ fle-bilis.

* Consen is right in principle, when he considers this I to be a weakening of the final
Towel of Stems with vowel-character ; as in auli-cus from aula: bellT>cus from belle- :
ridl-culus from ride- ; anl-cula from anii-. But he seems to go back too far when (II. 314
and elsewhere) he speaks, for instance, of the 1 in regimen as weakened 'from the
original final S of the 3rd Conjugation.' He might surely have applied here and in other
Derivatives of Consonant Nouns as well as Verbs the principle which he admits, for ex-
ample, in ped-&, ped-Tt- from the root ped- (Pr. pad, Gr. iro^), and in the use of the
suffix T-co- (II. 211. 205) ; namely, that the usage of vowel-stems, which adopt! so gene-
rally as a light link-vowel, has thus created a KM^/^^rw xi(^Lr (einheitliches Suffix) applied,
by linguistu: analogy (Sprachbcwusstsein), to C^onsonant stems alsa This is, in fact, all
that is meant when the use of vowels (!, u, e) is cited in this Chummar as ' vincular : '
and in this sense the term will be still kept as convenient.

The same convenience recommends the term * CHipt Stem * to express a vowel-stem
without its vowel character. But * mc»'d * is in fact the root of mcvd-Cre. Hence, to
say that momord-i, morsum, come from a theoretic verb mord-€re, as C does, and to
say that they are formed fhmi the Root of the extant Verb, are but two ways oi* saying
one and the same thing ; anl the latter is the shorter way.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

J 12.

Vowelweakening with Selection,

31

2. A similar adoption of I is frequent in Compound Words at
the close of the prior element.

(i) terri-gena, siM-cola, aurl-fex, signl-fer, fatif-dicus ; coml-ger,
ardf-tenens, luctT-ficus; munl-ceps, sortl-legus; parr!-cida,
luc-T-fer, rur-I-cola ; (2) hord-sonus^ terrT-ficus ; miseri-cors ;
(3) undl-que, indl-dem, sicl-ne ..• hict-ne ... .

Ante, bene, male vary :

antl-cipo, anti-stes; but antC-cedo, ant€-venio ...
beni-gnusy benY-volus; but also benS-volus ...
mali-gnus, mall-ficus; but also malg-ficus ....

E-verbs compounded with dicere, facere keep 8 or weaken it
to« :

valedicere, argfactus, tepgfactus.

3. The Suffixes I0-, ro-, cro-, bro-, bulo-, tro-, tno-, &c., often
change their vowel into I before the Nom. ending » ; thus causing
Adjectives in na, a, nm to pass into the I -declension.

gracil-us, gracil-t-s ; hilar-ii-s, hilar-T-s.
steril-u-s, steril-T-s ; indecor-u-s, indec6r-t-s.
seques-t6r -tri -trum ; seques-ter -trlfs -trS.

On this preference of \ the Adjectival forms in u-s, rl-s, eii-s,
bri-fl^ bUi-B, trl-s are founded.

By the passing also of 6- tt-s into Y- Y-s arises a double form of
numerous Adjectives :

imberb-ii-s, imberb-I-s ; unanim-u-s, unanim-I-s
decliv-ii-s, decliv-I-s ; effren-u-s, effren-I-s.

In bicomT-s, n of the stem passes into I. See § 28.

4. Before the Ending -bos of Dat. AbL PL we have

t for o^in qui-bus, hl-bus (Plaut), and other old forms.
\ in I-nouns, as navl-bus (navS-bos on the Duellian Colunm).
I vincular in Cons. Nouns, as reg-I-bus, virgin-I-bus.
I for* generally in U-nouns, as cantl-bus, cornl-bus; except
those in -ou-s, and artus, partus, tribus; which keep tt.

C) The last-cited examples point to that middle sound between
1 and *, which the Emperor Claudius wished to mark by a distinct
sign. See p. 9. This exists almost exclusively before labials, affect-
ing chiefly such words as the following : —

(i) Imo- or ttmo- :

lacrlma

aesthno

legitlmus

maximus

monTmentum

(2) ip- or ttp-, n>- or *b-

lacruma

aestiimo

legitumus

maxumus

moniimentum

mancTpium
Itbet

(3) W- or *f-

aurtfex
manlfestus

mandipium
lubet

aurufex
manufestus

victlma

existtmo

maritTmus

decTmus

testimonium

reclpero
ritlbus

pontTfex
sacrffico

victiima

existiimo

maritumus

decumus

testiimonium.

recupero
ritubus.

pontiifex
sacriifico

y Google

32 Latin Soundlore, ^ la;

Also capi talis or capu talis and a few more words.

Inscriptions shew that the forms with ft prevailed in E. L. and
R. L., those with I in and after the Augustan age, for which the
Monument of Ancyra, as edited by Mommsen, is the best authority.

Recapitulation, The principles thus laid down respecting the ad-
aptation of certain vowels to certain consonants in Latin are sup-
ported by the usage of other Italian dialects so far as known. See
Corssen, II. 60-225.

These principles affect short vowels much more than long; suffix
vowels more tnan root vowels ; grave much more than accented
vowek.

The general results are :

A, the strongest vowel, into which none other is changed, is not
itself appropriate to any particular consonant, though its natural
kinship is to gutturals first, and least to labials.

O is appropriate (i) to ▼, ^2) to 1, r.

V is appropriate to 1 and ttie Labials.

a is appropriate to r.

Z is appropriate to the Dentals n, t, d, s.

Again :

a and n are appropriate to grouped consonants.

a is convenient for final syllables and the end of words.

a is a convenient letter for the syllable of Reduplication in Verbs*

Z is adapted, by its lightness, to link stems with suffixes, and
suffixes with each other, v, e, sometimes take its place.

All these appropriations arise from euphonic assimilation, in-
tended to make utterance less troublesome.

Again :
The extensive weakening of Pr. a through o to 11 and^hrough e
to I, is characteristic of Italian language. In L. L. a reaction
occurred, by which o and e recovered much of their lost ground,
and in modem Italian o very often appears where n stood anciently :
often e where Latin had 1 :

motto y THOsca, polvere, sepolcrOy fondere^ romper e^ sono (sum),
&c., bevere (bibere), disse (dixit), senza (sine), verde
(viridis).

Attimi- xxiiL Vowelchange by Assimilation and Dis-
Md^Dis- similation of Vowels to each other.

By Assimilation a letter is changed so as to become the same
as another, or so as to become more suitable to it.

When a letter is changed so as to become unlike another, this
change is called Dissimilation.

Every such change has euphony for its object.

Assimilation may affect adjoining or disjoined letters.

It may be Regressive, when the following letter operates to change
the preceding : or Progressive, when the former letter operates to
change one which follows.

simila-

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

§ 12. Assimilation and Dissimilation of Vowels. 33
I. Assimilation of Vowels. . . .

Asami-

A) Assimilation of adjoining Vowels. v^Sd^

(An adjoining vowel is never assimilated so as to be the same
as Its neighbour ; but only so as to be suitable to it)

A Regressive.

1) In the conjugation of the Verb-roots \, go, qui, can, and

their compounds, I before •, o, n is chang^ into e':
earn ... eo, eunt; queam ... queo, queunt.

X before e in their Participles is used rarely : as Nom. S iens.
quiens, but m the Oblique Cases usuaUy le becomes ett :
euntis ... queuntis ...
Sciendum ... usually passes into eundum ...

As to is an admissible combination, it is probable that the order
of change w^t^nt- i-ond-, then e-nnt-, e-nnd-, which remained
m tms old verb after ent- end- had come in generally.

Ambio, one of the compounds of eo, is conjugated like audio.

2) The Pronoun-root I (Is), and its strengthened compound

Idem, in the same manner change X to « before a, o. a:
hence we get *

ea, earn, eum, eo, eos ;

eadem, eandem, eundem, eodem, eosdem, easdem.
3) Deus, dea (for div-us, a, from Pr. dlv), is an assimilation
D. AbL dis (deis) ; but not dii, diis. '

But Diana is classical : Deana L. L.
4) Teate, Teanum, for Tiati- Tiam- O

nausea {yavnia)', cochlea (icovX/aA
but I remains in pius ... via (veha).

b. Progressive.

1) By the influence of « or of i preceding it, o is prevented

from passing mto n in the suffix ttio- ; see p. 22.

2) Substantives in -ta, DecL 1., pass into -le., DecL 5 :

avarit-ia avarit-ies ; mater-ia mater-ies.>

3) In Numeral Adverbs, from Pr. l-yau, comes -lens f-lS.) ;

quot-iens (quot-ies) ; dec-iens (dec-ies).

4) In Verbs the Mood-suffix u becomes le :

(es-ia-m) = siem = sim ;

(aina.s.ia-m = ama-ie-m = ama-im) amem.

•«d, with addition of Nom. S. Ending .,^^,uxu"^^^^^^^^ ^

Q uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^ v^pt i-V-

34

Latin Soundlore, % 12.

Escjulliae (aescfilus)

exflium (exGlo)

facllis (faciil)

Quiris (Cfires)

B) Assimilation of disjoined Vowels.

(Regressive and complete always in Classical Latin.)
i) Jt is often assimilated to a subsequent \ :

Aemflius (aemiilus) '^

consilium ?consulo)

-cflium f-culere)

sinn^is fsimiil)

manlbiae (maniibiae)

2) O is assimilated to a subsequent 1 in

inqullinus (incdlo) | upilio {fA&KoKot^

3) a is assimilated to a subsequent \ in

Duilius (Duel-1-ius, Bellius), Brundlsium (BrundSsium) ,
mthi (m6hi), tibi (tfibi), sibi (s6bi) ;

nthil (nghil), nimius (n6-mi-u-s),««»f^<zj«r^^/. See C. 11. 366
famllia (0,famely whence famfll, famiilus).*

n is assimilated to o in ^ v ,

s5boles, when written for suboles.

o is assimilated to iS in

b6n6 (b6no-)
a is assimilated to tt in

tiigurium (tCgere).

And long » to « in

socors (secors).

Dissimi. II. Dissimilation of Vowels.

v?w2i^^ I) It has been shewn that in E. L. and R. L. «, ▼ were avoided
before n, whence such forms as vivont, avos, servom, &c.,
antiquom, suom, &c., continued in use to the Augustan age. Xhr
was not so much avoided. We find md^ed ^floviom, conflovont in
E. L., but also in R. L., Cluvius, luventius.

2) The concurrence U was avoided in E. L. and R. Ln by writing
i-ei ; as fili-ei * sons ; ' peti-ei^ &c., ids and eeis ; also adi-eu in
Senatuscons. de Bacc, but in I. L. this repugnance faded; and we
find iis consiliis, &c. on the Monument of Ancyra.
In C. L. it is avoided by writing e for 1 in
anxi-fitas, ebri-6tas, pi-Ctas, sati-Ctas, soci-Stas, vari-gtas, abi-5tis
.,.,ari-etis ..., pari-gtis ... vari-6gare, li-en, Ani-en, ali-enus,
lani-ena,
and in many Proper Names :

Cati-enus, Labi-enus.

' Few words have been more debated, as to their derivation and consequent orthography,
than suspIcio(suspltio)and con vIciuin(convItiumX Eachform has good documen-
tary evidence in its fiivour, and perhaps the strongest argument for t is that, while ol often
appears in I. L. and L. L. for tl, converse examples are hardly to be found. Yet Corssen
isstronglyinfavourof suspTcio, as an assimilation ofa strengthened form susp€cio, and
of convlcium, as an assimilated form from con vOcium. Fleckeisenon the other side
assumes suspltiofromsuspicitio, and convltiumfrom convocitium. Subiudice
lis est There are strong ai^guments against each view ; but for the present Corssen's
s the less objectionable.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

i 12. Vawelweakening in Compound Words. 35

It is avoided in the compounds of iacio by casting out one \
and allowing to the other the power of JL See pp. 10, 38.

Peior is perhaps by dissimilation for pid-ior (compare pi4y
^injure')

In the Pronouns Is, Idem, the forms ft, fis were avoided by writ-
ing ^, ^s : but li, lis were tolerated in Imperial times.

3) 0-0 was tolerated in I. L.
But c5-5pia becomes copia ; and
coptato is in the Lex lulia for co-opt ata M. Lucr. v. 342.

zxiY. Vowelweakening in the Second Member vowct

of Compound Words. SgiiT"

Coin-
Composition of words forms either loose or fast Compounds. pounds.
If the two members are so joined that, although the first is pro-
ditically connected with the second, nevertheless they can be se-
paratedy the compound is loose. Thus Mdrs-pater is a loose
compound ; but Incoming Mdspiter, it is fast; oecause the parts
are inseparable. In old language compounds are often found in a
state of separation : M. Lucr. L 452.

ob vos sacro (Festus) obsecro vos

sub vos placo „ supplico vos

Cacit are (Lucr.) arefacit

per mihi gratum est „ pergratum est mihi

per mihi placet „ mihi perplacet

Such compoimds as satisfacere, circumdare, &c., may be
considered loose ; while proficere, tradere, &c are fast

The fest Compounds hitherto cited, Masplter, proficere, tra-
dere, weaken the root- vowel of the second member. But this
weakening, though of frequent occurrence, is not universal in fast
Compounds. Thus attraho, though a fast Compound, is not
weakened.

We have now to see what compound words do weaken the second
member of the composition.

I. (i) Numerous words keep their root- vowel a unweakened in
the second member of their compoimds ; such are most
Verbs of Conj. 1. :

agitare^ amare, gravare, vagari;

many of Conj. 2. :
ardere, iacere, manere, pallere, patere, pavere,
valere;

many Nouns :

animus, avus, faber, palma, par.
Some words, as will be seen, weaken a part of their compounds,
but not all: from mandare, commendo, but demando.

Likewise some compounds are not weakened in earlier Latin
which are weakened later ; M. Lucr. ii. 951, 11 35.

aspargere, dispargere (Lucr.) ;
afterwards aspergere, disperger^,^,,^,,yGoOgk

36 Latin Soundlore, % 12.

b) A is weakened (through o) into n in the second member of
some compounds :

cu before 1 :

calcare . . con-culco : in- pro-culco.

salsus . . insulsus.

saltare . . cx-sulto : de- in-sulto.

saltum . . de-sultum : as- dis- ex- in- prae- pro- sub-sultum.

Note, Salire anciently was weakened by v, dissuluit (Lucr.) ;
but later it took 1 by assimilation : de-si lio.
/3. Before Labiab :
cSp- . . . occiipare : nuncupare : aucup- : manciip-.
t&bema . contubemiuni.
livfire . . diluvies, al- col- il-luv-ies, -ium.

y. After qu, by assimilation :
qu&tere. . conciitio, de- dis- in- per- suc-cutio -cussi ...
quare . . cur (for quor).

0. Before %• :

as, assis . decussis : nonussis : centussis.
Note. O (from Pr. a) is weakened into u in

consul, exsiil, praesiil, insQla, consQlo.
Long ft is weakened into H in the suffix -nro (-ftffo) :
aerugo, albugo, ferrugo, lanugo.

c) A is weakened into iS in the second member of many com-
pounds:

tam . . autem, item.

-dam . . idem, itidem ... quidem, tandem ....

^pisci . . ind^pisci.

c^ere . . oscfin, comlcSn, fidTcSn ... accentus ....

b&ciUus. . imbecillus ...

gr&di . . aggrCdior ... con- de- di- e- in- prae- pro- trans-

re-erSdior : aggressus ....

lacere . . ill^ebrae, illectus, paelex.

p&cisci . . dep^isci (or dep&c-) : but compacisd.

pati . . . perp^tior, perpessus.

mtigare. . def^tigo (or defit-).

nitisci . . def^tisci, defessus.

dire . . . addSre, de- e- pro- red- tra-dfire ... .

(Sk. dhd) . abdSre, con- abscon- in- sub- ere- ven-d&e.

pirare . . (imp^ro ... ; paupSr ..., propSro, aequipSro, vitu-

p€ro ...?) but appSro, com- prae- re- se-pkro.
pirio . . compSrio, repSrio: (apSrio, opSrio?) puerpdra,

vipgra ... .

iger . . . peregre (i), peregrinus ; but peragrare.

arma . . mermis.

arcere . . coerceo, exerceo ....

ars . . . iners, soUers, quinquertium.

igere . . remex.

annus . . biennis, biennium, tri- dec-ennls -ennium ... »

aptus . . ineptus ; adeptus.

3gle

4 12. Vowelweakening in Compound Words,

37

as, assis . tressis, bessis, bicessis ....

barba . . imberbis.

candSre . accendo, incendo ... succendo •.. .

canttis . . accentus, concentus.

cipere . . particeps, princeps ... auceps, manceps ....

captus . . acceptus, con- de- ex- in- prae- re- sus-ceptus....

<:aput . . anceps, biceps, triceps, centiceps, praeceps ....

carpere . . discerj>ere, con- de- ex-cerpere.

castus . . incestus.

4ainnare . condeninare ; indemnatus, indenmis.

nicere . . artifex, opifex, camifex.

&ctus . . affectus ... con- de- ef- in- prae- re- suf-fectus :

but labefactus ... with many more,

fallere . . refello.

fassus . . confessus, dif- pro-fessus.

farcire . . confercio, confertus, infercio, refercio, refertus.

i&cere . . obex (for ob-iex).

iactus . . adiectus, con- de- dis- in- ob- re- sub-iectus

lactare . . delecto, oblecto.

mandare . commendo, but demando.

pandere . dispendo, dispessus (but expando).

parcere. . comperco, compesco, dispesco (but com-parsit).

pars . . . expers, impertio, dispertio, bi- tri-pertitus (-par-

titus).

partus . . compertus, repertus (apertus, opertus).

passus . . perpessus.

patrare . . impetro, perpetro.

raptus . . abreptus, cor- di- sur-reptus. »

sacrare . . consecro, ob- ex- re-secro (consacro, Mon. Anc).

scandere . ascendo, conscendo, de- ex-scendo.

spargere . aspergo, con- di- in- re-spergo. See p. 35.

stare . . antistes, superstes (-stU-).

tractare . contrecto, de- ob-trecto ; but retracto (con-

tracto, Lucr.).

Note, O (Pr. a) is weakened into e in
potis . . hospes, sospes (pit-) ... but compos, impos.

Long ft is weakened into 8 in
hSare . . anhelo (redhalo, Lucr. vi. 523).

if) A is weakened (through e) to 1 in the second member of
many compounds :

Igere . . adigo, ab- ex- red- sub-Igo (but circum&go, per&go,

satigo), nav-!g-o. Part. P. -actus.
Ipisci . . adipiscor, indlpiscor.
^icus . . inlmicus....
<:^ere . . accldo, con- de- ex- in- oc- re-cldo ... declduus,

occlduus, ... stilicldium.
<:inere . . accIno,concIno,prae-pro-re-suc-cIno,vaticTnium,

luscTnia ....
^Sput . . occiput, sincTput, anctpit- praecTpit- ....
c&pere . . acclpio, con- de- ex- in- per- prae- re- sus-clpio,

... praeclpuus, princlpium... .
ditus . . addltus ... de- prae- pro- red- tra-dltus.

uized by Google

3S

Latin Soundlore.

512.

Pr. dha . . abdYtus, con- e- sub- ere- ven-dTtus.

ficere . . afflcio, con- de- ef- in- of- prae- pro- re- suf-flcio ;

cpp. with -ficus -ficium, beneficus ... beneflcium

...,but benefacio, calefacio, and all similar cppu
difftcilis.
superficies,
inflcetus.

conflteor, dif- pro-ftteor, infltiae, inflftior.
adhlbeo, co- ex- in- per- pro- red-hlbeo; but

post-h^beo.
adicio, ab- con- e- pro- re- in- ob- sub-tcio. On

forms in MSS. with e, and on dissice, see M.

Lucr. ii. 951.
alllcio, e- il- pel-llcio.
delltesco.

commtnus, emtnus.
enim, etenim.

lupptter, Diesplter, Masplter.
displlceo : but perpliceo.

abrlpio, arrlpio, cor- de- di- e- prae- pro- sur-rfpio^
irrltus.

adsllio, de- ex- in- pro- re- sub-sHio.
desTpio, inslpiens ; reslpisco.
instttor, iustltium, solstltium.
constltuo, de- in- prae- pro- re- sub-stltuo.
destino, obstino, praestino, obstlnatus.
effringo, in- con- per- re-fnngo. Part. P. -fractus^
compingO) impingo. Part P. -pactus.
attingo, con- per-tingo. Part P. -tactus.
praefisclne (i).
semis, semisses.

Note, O (Pr. a) is weakened to If in

pdtis. . . hosplta, sospTta, hospTtium ... .
Long ft is weakened into i in the suffix -iro (-ftffo) :
fullgo, roblgo, uligo, &c.

2. a) a is kept in the second member of many compounds :

6do, fremo, gemo, meto, peto, seco, sequor, tremo, tego^
veho, venio, gen-, ped- ;

and those with er,

fero, gero, sero, tero.

b) m is weakened into \ in the second member of several com-
pounds :

indlgeo, indlgus.

adtmo, eximo, per- red-Imo, (but co5mo).

colllgo, de- di- e- se-llgo. But intellSg^, negl€go,

sublSgo. Also perlSgo, prae- re-l€go from ISgwe^,

to read.
dimtdius.

comprlmo, de- im- op- re- sup-prfmo.
arrlgo, cor- de- e-rTgo.
assldeo, con- de- dis- in- ob- prae- re- sub-sldeo ^

asslduus, praesYdium, subsldium.

uiyiiized by CjOOQ IC

fiicilis

f^cies

ficetus

fateri

hibere

iicere

Ucere .
latere .
minus .
nam . .
pater .
plicere .
rSpere .
rStus .
saiire .
sSpere .
stare .
statuere
(stan-) .
trangere
Ipangere
tangere.
fasclnare
as, assis

ggere
€mere
l^gere

mSdius .
prSmere
rSgere .
s5dere .

§ 12. Vowelweakening in Compound Words, 39

tSnere . . abstlneo, atttneo, con- de- dis- ob- re- per-tlneo ;

contlnuus, pertlnax, protlnus, protlnam.
dSdi. . . addrdi,&c.
stfiti . . . adstrti, &c.

In close syllables compounds resume e :

ademptus, coUectus, compressus^ directus, consessuSi
retentus.

Long % is weakened into i in
lenire . . delinio (also delenio).
tela . . . subtilis.

r) a is changed to ft in
temnere . contumelia (contumax ?)

3. o is kept in the second member of compounds generally :
convoco, abrodo. But

Idcus . . ilTco.

gnotus . . agnltus, cognTtus.

4. n is kept in the second member of compounds : ac- inciibo,
elCiceo; except that a is weakened into « in

iiirare . • de-i€ro, pe-iSro.

5. The diphthong ae is often kept, as exaest'uo, obaeratus;
but melts into I in

aequus . • iniquus.

aestumare . existimo.

caedere . . abscldo, accTdo, con- de- in- oc- prae- sue- re-cldo,

homicldium, parriclda ....
laedere . . allldo, col- il-lido.
quaerere . acquiro, anquiro, con- dis- in- per- re-quiro, inqul-

sitio ... .

6. The diphthong oe (of) sinks to Y in
coenum^ . inquYnare, coinquTnare.

In £. L. it sank to a in liidere, uti, munus, munio, punio,
etCy and their compounds. See xii.

7. The dip>hthong an is generally kept : inauro, adaugeo : but
it sinks to 5 in

faux . . . suffbcare ;

plaudere . expl5do, suppl5do (but applaudo) ;
toft in

causa . . accuso, mcuso, recuso ;

fraus . . (frustra, frustrare) defrudare ; see M. Lucr. vL 187.

daudere . concludo, dis- ex- in- oc- prae- re-cludo ;
and to o« in

audire . . oboedire.
Note. The other Italian dialects exhibit the same general laws
of Vo¥^change as the Latin.

* Obscentts(obscoenus) b usiially deriYOd from coenum. This, however, is by
no means certain.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

40 Latin Soundlore, § 13.

Rcdupu. XXV. Reduplication,

cadon«

Reduplication in language is a practice as old as language itself.
The infant from instinct or imitation forms words l^ repeating
the syllables : pa-pa, ma-ma, ta-ta ; often unconsciously weakening
the nrst: pu-pa, m^-ma, t!-ta: and the mother or nurse amuses
or lulls the infant by similar repetitions: ding-dong, by-bye, &c.
Various emotions express themselves in the same manner : aha !
oho ! &c. See Pott {Die Doppelung).

Thus arose the habit of modifying words

A) By doubling a root merely:

B) By prefixing to it its first consonant and voweL

After which it came to pass, that the reduplicative syllable
might be either strengthened or weakened, and the root
itself weakened (rarely strengthened) after reduplication, in
consequence of accentual change.

A) Reduplication by doubling the Root merely :

d) bar-bar-US (bulbul Pers.), cu-cu-lus, la-la-re, Mar-mar, cin-
cin-nus, tin-tin-nare, ul-ul-are, cur-cul-io, gur-gul-io, fur-
fur, mur-mur, tur-tur. So quisquis, utut, ubiubi, &c

b) The Root is weakened in

car-cer, mar-mor.

B) Reduplication by prefixing the first two letters of the Root
(This is specially important in Greek and Latin on account of

its use in forming the Perfect Tense of Verbs.)

d) Without vowelchange :

cii-cul-lu-s, {pd-pdl'U'S), sii-sur-ru-s, and the following Per-
fects ; cii-curr-i, dl-dlc-i, m6-mord-i. p$-pend-i, pd-posc-i,
pu-piig-i (pu-«-go), scl-cld-i (sci-«-do), sp5-pond-i (spon-
deo), tS-tend-i, t6-tond-i, tii-tiid-i.

b) Redupl. weakened. Root unchanged ; in occasional forms

cfi-curr-i, mS-mord-i, p€-posc-i, p€-piig-i, sp€-pond-i.

c) RedupL unchanged ; Root strengthened.

pft-pa-ver, tii-tud-i (rare).

d) RedupL strengthened ; Root weakened.

Ma-mers, Ma-mer-cus, Ma-miir-iu-s, pa-pU-io, p6-piil-us
{poplar), pu-bl-icu-s.

e) Redupl. unchanged ; Root weakened,

p6-pul-us {people),

f) Redupl. and Root weakened.

cl-cind-ela (candela), cT-con-ia ; tl-tii-lu-s ; bl-b€-re (po Pr.
pd, drink^j gi-gn-ere (Pr. gdn, g6n, engender), si-std-re
(sta-), s€-r€-re (for sg-s$-re. Root sd).

The reduplicative syllable is weakened in many Perfects by
changing its vowel to h (see xxi.) :

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

1 12. Assimilation of Cofisonants. 41

dg-d-i (da-), ste-t-i (sta-) : f^feU-i (faUo), p$-p6r-i (pario),
p€-perc-i (parco) : tS-ttll-i (tol-l-o, Pr. tal) : c€-cld-i
(cado), c6-cln-i (cano), p€-plg-i (pa-«-go), tg-tlg-i (ta-«-
go) : cS-cid-i (caedo).

Obs. A consonant is lost in si-stS-re (for sti-ste-re), sci-cid-i,
usually scld-i (for sci-scld-i), spd-pond-i or sp^-pond-i (for spo-
spond-i or spe-spond-i), pd-p£il-are (for spo-spul-are from spdlium).

A vowel is lost in d€-d-i (for de-de-i) : gi-gn-o (for gi-ggn-o).

A vowd and consonant are lost in st€-t-i (for ste-ste-i).

xxvi Changes of Concurrent Consonants. Assimi.

lation of

(The sign x is used to express * becomes.') Conson-

I. Complete Assimilation of Consonants.

A) Regressive Assimilation :

(dq) X oq ^adquiro) accjuiro (bm) x mm (submoveo) summoveo
» n n (quidque) quicque „ „ „ (sub-mus) summus

(dl) X u (adludo) alludo (cm) „ „ (flagma) flanmia

„ „ „ (s€d-«-la) sella (nm),, „ (inmotus) immotus

(nl) „ „ (conloco) coUoco (br) x rr (subripio) surripio

(coron-«-la) corolla (mr) „ „ (inrideo) irrideo

ants.

99 »

„ (un-w-lus) uUus
(rt) „ ,j (perlicio) pellicio («u) x m (fod-sa) fossa

(ager-w-lus) agellus „ „ „ (adsurgo) assurgo

99 «

(tn) X an (pet-na) penna „ „ „ (cedsi) cessi

(dn) „ „ (adnuo) annuo (t») ,^ „ (concutsi) concussi

„ „ „ (merced-narius) mercennanus.

The following Assimilations also occur in the Composition of
Particles with Verbs :

(be) X 00 Tobcurro) occurro Tbp) x pp ^obpono) oppono
(de) „ „ (adcedo) accedo (dp) „ „ (adpeto) appeto
(br) X rv (obgero) oggero (bf ) x it (obfero) offero

(dr) „ „ (adgravo) aggravo (of) „ „ (ecfugio) effugio
(dt) X tt (adtendo) attendo (df ) „ „ (adficio) afficio

(•') » 99 (disfiteor) diffiteor
a) (nd) X nn occurs in Plautus :
dispennite for dispendite ; distennite for distendite.
So in Oscan; opsannamt^opeTSLnddLia.

0) mn, though stable in C. L., often yields to assimilation in
modem language :

L.col\imna, It colonna, Fr. colonne,

7) That final m of a proclitic word assimilated itself in utter-
ance to a following n, is testified by Cic. Or. 45 and Quint.
viiL 3. 45. Thus etiam nunc was sounded etian-nunc*

.' The sharpening of an inner syllable by doubling a consonant (relllgio, relliquiae,
millia, querella, bracchium, luppiter, littera) must not be confounded with
Aiwmilatioo. See Appendix A. : also C I. 237. II. 466. ^

uiyiuzeu uy x^Jv-ZvJVt Iv^

42 Latin Soundlore. § ^^

B) Progressive Assimilation :

(ferse) ferre ; (farsis) farris ; (rvpaii) turns.

So C forms (miser-timusxmiser-simus) miserrimus*

!!•) X u ; (vol-se) velle ; (mel-tis x mel-sis) mellis, &c. (facil-timus
acil-simus) facillimus (C).

(»t) X %% : (duris-timus) durissimus : where duris is contracted
from durius (C.).'

(This assimilation occurs in some Supines, according to C.*s
view: fissum, fossum, passum, &c. See xxxi.)

Adapta- II. Partial Assimilation of Consonants (Adaptation).
I. The Sonant g becomes o, and the Sonant b becomes p, before
» or t ; (reg-si) x rexi ( = rec-si) (scrib-si) x scripsi

(reg-tum) x rectum (scrib-tum) x scriptum

a) But ab, sub, ob, may remain in composition :

absens, subter, obtineo (but also aps ens, optineo)

And bs final may be kept in Nouns :

caelebs, plebs, trabs, urbs (but also pleps, urps, &c.).

Ods, ac s es =: any Guttural with m : any Guttural except e being
supposed to become c before u, and so to form x :

Mic-si) X dixi (sug-si x suc-si) x suxi

{pkc-s) X fax (leg-s x lec-s) x lex

(coqu-si X coc-si) x coxi (ungu-si x unc-si) x unxi

The following Verbs deserve special attention :
trah-6re Perf. (trah-si trac-si) traxi (from a lost Pr. fragh f)
veh-gre — (veh-si vec-si) vexi : Sk. vaA (a lost Pr. va^h f),

* The formation of Latin Comparatives and Superlatives may be briefly stated here.
I. Comparatives.
i) (Sic ydns, yas) Lat (-ios)x -ior -ius is added to the dipt Stem :

(dur-iOs)dur-idr, dur-ius ; (ingent-iOs)ingent-iSr, ingcnt-ius.

(mag-iOs, mag-ior, &c.), ma-ior, ma-ius :— magis for mag-ius.

(root min- ; min-ior, &c), min-or, minus.

(root pie- = Sic /r I : ple-ior, ple-ius, plo-ius, pious), plfls, plQr-.

2) (Sk. iara) Lat tero- is added to Roots and Stems :

al-ter, u-ter, dex-ter, sinis-ter, in-ter :— pari-ter, ali-ter, &c

3) Both Suffixes are used in

mag-is-ter, min-is-ter :— dex-ter-ior, in-ter-ior, &c
IL Superlatives,
x) (Sic /a) to-, inquar-tu-s, quin-tu-s, quo-tu-Sy&c.

1) (Sk. ma) mo-, in sum-mu-s, i-mu-s, pri-mus, mini-mu-s, pluri-mu*s; (ex-

fcer-mu-s)xextre-mu-s;(pos-ter-mu-8)xpostre-mu-8;(super-mu-fi)

xsupre-mu-s.

3) (Sk. tama) tlmo- in ci-timu-s, ul-timu-s, op-iimu-s, in-timu-s, ex*

timu-s, pos-tumu-s, dex-timu-s, sinis-timu-s.

passes into simo- in (pe-d-timo-) pessi-mu-s, (mag-timo-) maxim-us,

proximu-s.
passes into (simo-) limo- in facillimu-s, &c.
— — (simo-)rimo-in miserrimu-Sy&c.
In most Adjectives tlmo- is added to the contracted comparative is G-<)s) and at*
similated:

(dur-is-timo-)xdurissimu.8. So tristissimus, felicissimus, &c

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

$ 12. Dissimilation of Consonants, 43

viv-^5re Perf. (vigv-si vic-si) vixi : Sk, jtv (Pr,gvigv-),

flu-ere — (flugv-si, fluc-si) fluxi (from a lost form jflug-vifreS.

stru-ere — (stru-ic-si) stnud (probablyfrom diiormstru'ic-ire).

Add the nasalized ninguSre with its Noun nix, s-now (Pr*
stti^y Sk. snihf « to stick'). Nix (ningv-s) drops ▼ in Nom. Sing,
and Bff in the other cases, forming Gen. ni v-is, &c

2. Liquids and Nasals ^ take Sonants before them in preference
to Surds :

(po-pl-icus) X pu-bl-icus rtli-cn-us) x ili-gn-us

(qua-tr-a) xqua-dr-a (cy-cn-us) xcy-gn-us

(ne-cl-ego) x ne-gl-ego (se-cm-entum) x se-gm-entum

Through some feeling of euphony (nec-otium) becomes neg-
otium.

3. V becomes m before the Labials p, b, ni ; but remains be-
fore ty V :

impleOy imbuo, immitto ; but infero, inveho.

4. A Labial Mute becomes m before n :

(sop-nus) x somnus ; (Sab-nium) x Samnium.

5. IK often becomes n within words before a Guttural or Dental ;
and, if kept, is sounded as n :

clan-culum prin-ceps eun-dem

clan-destinus quen-dam ean-dem.

So quon-iam for quom-iam.

But in some instances m must be kept : quemque, quemquam,
unumquemque, namque, numquis.

In others m is better than n : quamquaro, tamquam, cumque«
umquam^ numquam.

6. When Dental Mutes meet, the former often becomes » :

(edit, ed-t) x est (claud-trum) x claustrum

(rod-trum) x rostrum (plod-trum) x plostrum.

In Supines and Superlatives sometimes both become m :
(fod-tum) fossum ; (pat-tum) passum ; (duris-timus) durissimus.

III. Dissimilation of Consonants. Dissimi-

lation of

The recurring sound of the same Consonant in succeeding
syllables is sometimes avoided by changing it in one place.

a) caeluleus, caelulus are changed into caeruleus, cae-
rulus.

b) Palilia is sometimes written Parilia : Remuriax Lemuria.

Cooaon-

* The assimilation of Sonant to Nasal explains the sound of %n. in French -|^e final*
as cygne. Its sound in Frenchand Italian before interior vowelssll-y : thus, agneau*
agnello Csan-yo* an-yello).

Digitized byCjOOQlC

44

Latin Soundlore,

§12.

Trans-

T>osi-

tion.

Eu-
phonic
Inser-
tion.

c) The suffixes all- eli- lU- nil- are chosen for Adjectives de-
rived from Nouns, if the root contains r : and the suffix -ttsi is
chosen if the root contains l :

austr-ali-s al-ari-s

cardin-ali-s capill-ari-s

liber-ali-s coll-ari-s

reg-ali-s sol-ari-s

crud-eli-s stell-ari-s

puer-ili-s tutel-ari-s

cur-uli-s vulg-ari-s

Obs, But in the suffix -arlo, r is not changed :
ordin-ariu-s, temer-ariu-s.

Note I. Consonants are sometimes transposed within a word for
the sake of euphony :

prist is for (pistfis) I colurnusfor (corulnus)

extremus „ (extermus) \

Note 2. When m is followed by ■ or t, p is euphonically inserted
to strengthen the syllable :

hiem-p-s, em-p-tor, sum-p-si, sum-p-tum.'

The change temptare for ten tare, though supported by inscrip-
tions and good MSS., is censured by Corssen as an etymological
blunder : the formation of the Verb being Pr. tan^ L. ten, whence
ten-d-€re, ten-tu-s, ten-t-are.

■ seems to be euphonically inserted in mon-s-trum, mon-s-tro,
&c. (from mon-eo).

(On the euphonic insertion of a Vowel in m-I-na, drac-u-ma,
&C., see xxii. On the insertion of e in ag-e-r, nig-e-r, &c., sec
xxi.)

* *

*

TJu Loss of Letters will next be considered.

oflnitial

xxvii. Loss of Initi

al Letters {*A(f>aipi<TC9).

Letters.

lost by

shevm in

C

lamentum...
laus; luscinia ...

c-lamare
c-luere

vapor ...

K-aWVOQ,

g

nasci, natus ...
noscere, notus ...

narrare
lac

g-nasci g-natus : Sk. Jan Gr. ytv^
g-noscere, i-gnotus : S\Ljnd Gr.

(g-narigare) from g-narus
Gr. ya-Xak'-r-

* The euphonic bsertion of b between m and 1 or r, and that of d between n and r,
occur in Greek (as ii^ii-fi-XmKmf yafi-fi-p^, ar-8-p<{«X but not in classical Latin, except in
hi-b-ernus for (hiem-rinus, Gr. x««^«P**^'«X But they came in later, and exist in
numerous modem words: as number, humble, remember, cinder, tender, &c.

* Cicero, though a Greek scholar, was unacquainted with the formsgnasci, gnoscere^
and knew to little of etymology, that he treats the gin ignotus, ignavus, ignarus as
a mere euphonic substitute. See Or. 47. He would naturally do the same in agnatus*
cognatus, prognatui» agnomen, cognomen, &c.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

§ 12.

Loss of Initial and Final Letters.

45

lost by
vivcre
lanx ; 12.tus
viginti

luppiter: lanus
rosa (radix, rigo)
hipos
lis, locus

torus
£allere
tegere
taiinis

cutis, cavus, caelum, casa,
cavere, causa, cauda, &c.

shewn in

Sk. j4v (Pr. gviv). See p. 43.

Gr. ^-Xaic->, ir-Xarvc.

for dvi-gintl In d-vis, d-vellum,

d-vonus, d-v becomes b; bis,

bellum, bonus. SeeCicOr.45.

But duellum in Latin poetry :

Eng. duel. M. Lucr. il 062.

Seep. 15.

Gr. f-pobovy AeoL poodow.

Sk. v-arka-Sf Gr. Xvkos.

for st-lis (G. strett, Eng. strife);
st-lo-cus (Sk. siha-la).

Gr. a^op-, Sk. s-tar, * to strew J

Gr. ir-6aXXciv, Sk. s-^hoL

Sk. s-tha^y Gr. orr^w.

Sk. s-thSraSy ' strong ' : Eng. steer*

Sk. S'kUy to hide.

for other instances, see Corssen I.: also pp. 14-17.

a) Tuli, f!di, scldi, cast off the syllable of reduplication.

/3) Sum, sumus, sim...cast off the initial vowel e.

7) When the Verb-form est follows a word ending with a vowel
or m or with ■ after a vowel, it often loses e, and attaches itself
enclitically to the preceding word. This occurs chiefly in the Comic
poets, but also in later writers both of prose and poetry, and on
Inscriptions: itast, ibist, quomst, quidemst, temulentast,
nactust for nactus est, culest for qualis est (Plant).

The Second Person, es, is subject to the same change, but not
after m : homos for homo es, meritus for meritus es.

xxviii Loss of Final Letters (AiroKo/n]).

A) Final e is dropt :
a) By enclitic n6 :

men for menS, tun for tunS, dixtin for dixtinS : quin
(qui-n€), sin (sl-n6).

Sometimes the word before n5 loses ■ :

ain for aisne, vidSn for videsne, satTn for satisne :
d) In ceu, neu, seu (ce-ve, ne-ve, se-ve or sive).

c) In the Imperatives

die, due, file, ftr (dicfi, &c.)
So, in poetry, c o n g 6 r for congSrg ; i n g 5 r for ing^rS.

d) NeuterjSubsUntives in &le (&1Y-), ftrS (Ar-l) drop « (l) and

short^k a :

toril for torale ; calcS^r for calcare.
But they resume ft in the mcreasing Cases : toralis, calcaris.

Loss of

Final

Letters.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

46 Latin Soundlore. § "•

e) Many other I-nouns clip 1 in Nom. Sing., some without
taking ■: (par- i-) x par; others before they Uke the ■:
(stirpi-) X stirp-s, (arci-) x arx.
/) Facul for facile.

g) Acforatque; necforneque: mage for magis.
h) The Pronoun hie, with the Adverbs hlc, illic, istic, hinc,
illinc, &c, have dropt «. Thus illinc is for illimcg.

Note, Ab (iro), sub iyiro) have lost a final vowel.

jB) Final Consonants are sometimes lost :

a) Substantives with final dn drop n in the Nom. Sing.,

resuming it in the Oblique Cases :

ratio, virgo; Gen. ration-is, virgln-is.

b) A final Consonant has been dropt in Ace and Nom. S. by

the following Neuter Substantives :

cor (cord-) Gen. cordis (Gr. Kap^ia)

far (fars-) — farr-is (for fars-is)

fel (felt-) — fellis (Gr. x«^oc)

lac (lact-) — lactis (Gr. yd-Xarr-)

mel (melt-) — mellis (for meltis, Gr. fiiXt ficXcroc)

OS (ost-) — ossis (for ostis, Gr. otntov)

c) The Latin Ablative S. cast off final d :

(praeda-d) x praeda : (Gnaivo-d) x Gnaeo
(dictetore-d) x dictatore : (mari-d) x mari
(senatu-d) x senatu

Also Adverbs in C and some Prepositions :

{facilume-d) x facillime ; (exstra-d) x extr§.

d) On -I* for -rant and for -rt» in Verbs, see xxi.

vene-rfi for venS-nmt ; uta-r^ for uta-ris.

e) Particles often drop final letters in composition :

amb- am- for ambi ; co- for com- ; di- for dis- ; pro-
for prod- ; re- for red- ; se- for sed- ; tra- for trans.
Sohauforhaudor haut: hau-sciofor baud scio (Plaut).

Pos- (pos-tj drops ■ in pomoerium, pomeridianus.
The Prepositions a for &b, e for ex, are long by Compensation.

C) Consonant and Vowel, or Vowel and Consonant, are dropt
ddn, exin, proin for deinde, exinde, proinde, Cic. Or. 45.
nihil for nihilum : non for (noenum ne-unum) ; sat for satis.

0-nouns with Nom. er have dropt os (us) :
magister for magister-os.
famul {O.famel) for famulus, Lucr. iiL 1048.

Note, The three consonants oftenest final are m, s, t. All these
fell off freijuently in E, L. (Roscio for Roscius and for Ros-
cium)^ agam in L L., and ultmiately in modem Italian. See p. 26.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

nants.

i '*• Loss of Inner Consonants. 47

Final m, with its vowel, was so weak that poets took no note of
it metrically before a word beginning with a VoweL Thus in
Virgil's verse

xdKyasMum Aorrendum informs ingens cui lumen ademptum

the letters printed in italics do not count in the metre, and the
verse runs mus :

monstr orrend inform ingens cui lumen ademptum.

Final s, on the other hand, after a short vowel, was neglected by
poets as late as Lucretius before words beginning with a consonant,
as testified by Cicero in the following passage : * Ita enim loqueban-
tur : Qui est omnibu' princeps, non, omnibus princeps : et. Vita ilia
dignu' locoque, non, dignus. Or. 48. He also testifies that this
weakness of ■ had existed in common parlance even when the
vowel before it was long : * Sine vocalibus saepe brevitatis causa
contrahebant, ut ita dicerent, multi' modis ; vas' argenteis ; palmi'
et crinibus ; tecti' fractis,' Or. 45.

Final t also was often dropt in ancient Verb-forms: ded€ for
dedit See p. 26, and C. I. 188.

zziz. Loss of Inner Consonants by concurrence Lowof
with other Consonants.' cSSL

When this loss occurs for euphonic reasons, if a syllable pre-
viously long by position alone is left short by the removal of one
consonant, compensation is often made by lengthening the vowel :
(pic-nus) X pinus : but not always ; (lac-nius) x linius.
The sign of length (-) will here shew the compensated syllables.

A) Exclusion of Guttural Mutes.

1. A Guttural Mute is excluded in Verbal formations when it
occurs between a Liquid and one of the letters s, t, m.

(farc-si)xfarsi (Bglsi)) x^"'"

^differc-tum) x differtum ^fulc-tum) x fultum

(sparg-si) x sparsi (indulg-si) x indulsi

(torqu-tum) x tortimi (indulg-tum) x indultum

(torqu-menttmi) x tormentum (fiilg-men) x fulmen

2. Occasional instances of Gutturals excluded :
€ between n and a Dental Mute :

quint us (quinc-tus) quindecim (quinc-decim)

But quinctus may be kept, as tinctus, sanctus.
e before m : lama (lie-) ; temo (r£ic-) ; lumen (luc-).

€ — n : aranea {apax-ytj) ; lana (ISc-) ; planus (xXa*:-) ;
rana (rSc-) ; vanus (vSc-) ; deni (dgc-) ; luna (luc-) ;
quini (quinc-), in which n before c is also cast out

' Many combimitions are trouUesome to att«r: guttural with labial mute, or labial
mute with guttural ; surd with its sonant, or sonant with its surd, and so on. When the
addition of a suffix in derivation produces such combinations, they are usually avoided
by nrdnding the fint consonant: scalprum for scalp-brum, ful-crum for fulc-crum« &c

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^ v^pt i-V-

48 Latin Soundlore, § 12.

c before ■ : ursus (Sk. arkskas^ Gr. &pKTo^),

% — J : aio (Sg-io) ; maior (mSg-ior) ; Mtius (M5g-ius) ;
puleium (puleg-ium).

% — 1 : moles (fwy-) but mSlestus ; pTla, pillar^ pier (pig- ?
comp. peplgi).

% — m : contaminate (tag-) ; examen (ig-) ; flamen (flig-) ;

rima (rig-, ri«gi) ; iumentum (lug-, iuwgere) ; sumen

(sug-).
IT — ▼ : mavis, mavult (mig-e-) ; ISvis (leg-vis) ; brSvis (breg-

vis).

X — d : sedecim (sex-decim).
X — n : seni (sex-ni).
X — ▼ : seviri or sexviri.

* ~ * .'[tela (tex-), subtemen (tex-).*

The same principle applies in ala (ax-); mala (max-) ; palus, pala^
(pax-) ; talus (tax-). See Cic. Or. 45.

B) Exclusion of Dental Mutes.
I. Dental Mutes often fall out before ■.
i) In the Flexion of Nouns.
Dental Mute Stems, including Pres. Participles in D(t)%
are by far the most numerous class in the 3ra Declension :
and as all but a few take the Nom. S. ending s, they drop
the dental t or d before the sibilant :

(virtut-s) X virtu-s; (comlt-s) x comg-s

(custod-s) X custo-s ; (vid-s) x vas

(part-i part-s) x pars ; (dent-i- dent-s) x dens.

The rule of quantity here is, that long stems remain long,
short remain short, in the Nom. S. : excepting
(p€d-s) pgs with its compounds, (vSd-s^ vas,
abies, aries, paries for (abiSt-s, &c.)
with a few Greek words which drop n as well as t ;
elephas (elephant-s) ; Simols (Simoent-s)
See § aft. Syllabus.

' Since XBcs or gs, the changes finom x to s in Sestius (Sextias), sescenti (sexcentiX
mistus (mixtusX are really instances of the loss of a guttural mute before s : of c in the
first two examples, of g in the third (jLty-\, Again

discere (dic-sc-ere), misc£re (mig-sc-Sre;

are nmilar omissions before sc.

This seems to justify the assumption that when x falls out before 1, the c departs first,
then thes:

tex-la, tes-la, t€la
and so in the other instances.

That s would fidl out before I is shewn in qualus (quas-X pTla, mortar (fita-X and m
Fr. Bftle (BasleX Corssen however (I. 64) confines himself to saybg of these instances
that X falls out before 1, m, and that c does not fall out before L The altemati\'e above
stated he does not notice.

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§ 12. Loss of Inner Consonants. 49

2) In the Flexion of Verbs.

a) A certain number of Verbs throw out d, a few t, before the
Perfect Suffix s-i :
ardere (ard-si) arsi lud&'e ^lud-si^ lusi

ridere (rid-si) risi radCre (rad-si) rasi

sentire (sent-si) sensi flect&-e (flect^si) flexi

Assimilation occurs in
cedSre (ced-si) cessi and its compounds.
decutSre (decut-si) decussi, with other compou* Is of quatio.

Compensation occurs in none but

divIdSre (divid-si) divisi- ; mittSre (mitt-si) misi.

F) In the Supine formation also the Dental is often lost When-

ever t or d is brought before the suffix tmn, that suffix

is changed to smii. But whether stem or suffix parts

with its dental first, is a disputed point Corssen's order is

t-tom (or d-tom), -s-tmii, -smii.

However this be, t-tom (or d-tam) usually becomes -111111,
losing the Dental :

(vert-tum) versum ; (cud-tum) cusum ;
(sent-tum) sensum ; (rad-tum) rasum.

But -ssitm by Assimilation in a few Verbs :
s5d-ere sessum ced-Sre cessum £5d-€re fossiun
fit-eri fassum fi(«)d-5re fissum p&t-i passum

m€t-€re messum sci(«)d-6re scissimi grid-i gressum

Also mitt-Sre, missum, which drops t between two Dentals.

Compensation occurs in a few Verbs with their Compounds,
vid-ere visum €d-€re esimi 6d-€re osirni

c2Ld-gre casum fu(«)d-5re fusum (also gavisum from
divld-gre divTsum tu(«)d-&:e tusum gaudere = ga-vld-ere)

Obs, I. Observe also that -torn of the Supine becomes -sum after
these combinations, n, rr, re, r^ :

fall-6re falsum ; curr-5re cursum ;
parc-gre parsum ; sparg-€re sparsum.

Obs. 2. The euphonic rule for Dentals before the suffix -taiii in
Supines ^plies equally to Dentals before Noun-suffixes beginning
widi t in Derivation :

(tond-tor) tonsor; (vert-tura) versura; (ofTend-tio) offensio;
(cad-tus) casus.

2. Occasional Exclusion of Dental Mutes.

d before e : (h6d-ce) x hoc ; (qu6d-circa) x quocirca.

— — irn : a-gnoscere, a-gnatus, &c.

— — m : cae-menttmi (caed-) ; ra-mentum (rad-).

— — n : fl-nis (fld-).

— — ▼ : sua-vis (suad-).

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

50 Latin Soundlore. § la.

C) Exclusion of a.

n before o : When the Suffix -oXn is added to Nasal stems :
latro-cinium, sermo-cinari.

— — irn : i-gnoscgre, i-gnavus, &c. co-gnoscere, &c.

— — ■ : -Ss for -ens in Numeral Adverbs ; quoties, de-

cies, milies, &c., for quotiens, &c after the

Augustan age : before which time -ens was used.

(semen-stris) x semestris; mostellaria from

monstrum; rformonsus, formossus) x formosus ;

(sanguin-suga) x sanguisuga ; * (quam si, quan-si)

X qu^si.

Note, V before ■ was very weak in E. L. and R, L. Inscrr. give

the forms co-soly ce-sor^ castre-sis, &c. ; even as, es for the endings

ani, ens : infos, doles. So ItaL mese (mensis) ; Fr. peser (pensare).

nt before n : This omission is seen in Numerals when -eeiil is
written for -oentai: viceni.
— — s : -ceslmui -ffeslmiis for -oeiit-sliiiiu,-ir6Bt-simiit :

vice-simus, trige-simus, &c.
nd ' 1 : scala (scand-la).

Note. The exclusion of p seems doubtful Corssen cites S.-men*
turn, &-mes, as derived from &p-. (Ribbeck has ammentum.)

D) Exclusion of r :

T before b : fune-bris (funer-) ; mulie-bris (mulier). In fe-bris
(ferv-) rv fall out.

— — J • (per-iuro) x pe-i6ro.

— — ■ : pr5-sa for prorsa ; pe-stis for per(d)-stis.

— — t : sempl-temus (semper-).

E) Exclusion of s :

■ before d : iu-dex (ius-dicere) ; (is-dem) x Idem.

— — 1 : corpu-lentus (corpus) ; viru-lentus (virus) ; qua-lus

(quas-).

— — m : 6-men (os-) ; re-mus (res-, kptT'); du-mus (dus-);

Ci-mena (cas-) ; multf-modis.

— — n : cc-na (c§s-) ; ane-neus (ahSs-) ; pone (pos-ne) :

audin, vin, potin, satin, &c. for audisne, &c.

Lossof XXX, Loss of Inner Vowels before Consonants

Vowels. {"StXrfKOTrfj).

a : pal-ma (TraXdfi??, pal-u-ma) ; cup-ressus {k-virapKraoQ, cup-
e-rissus) ; nomenc-lator (c-a-lare, c-u-lare).
o : p-te for p6te : meopte :
suffix trlBo- for (-torino -tdrloo) : doct-rina, pist-rinum.

«: i) (man-u-ceps) x man-ceps ; (quat-u-or) x quat-er ; (man-u-
suesco) X mansuesco.

» Probably an I -noun sangui-s (shewn in exsanguis) was a byfonn of sanguis
(sanguen)sanguin-. So anguis, sho^, probably had a byfonn anguis anguin-
shewn in the Demin. a n g u i 1 1 a.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

J 12. Loss of Inner Vowels before Consonants. 51

2) The suffix -eolo-^ onleo- may exclude o :

orac-lum poet, for oraculum ; vinc-lum for vinculum ;

nuc-leus for nuculeus : so fig-llnus for fic-u-Unus.
The suffix pulo- loses o in some words :

discip-lina, temp-limi, extemp-lo ;
so amp-lus, dup-lus, &c.

3) All Deminutive words ending in -lius -lla -llum have ex-

cluded « before the second 1 : and then formed the as-
similation 11 :

whether Primary Deminutives :

agellus (ager-u-lus), olla (aul-u-la) ; villum (vin-u-lum) ;
uSus (un-u-lus) ; Stella (ster-u-la) ; hilla (hir-u-la) ;

or Secondary :
porcellus (porcul-u-lus) ; cistella (cistul-u-la) ;
quantillus (quantul-u-lus) ; tantiUus (tantul-u-lus).

4) The Verbal suffixes -bam, -bai, -b«, -bi», &c., have lost

n : being for fu-am, fu-as, fu-o, fu-is, &c.

-%: i) The Suffixes bSro- b«ri- o«ro- o«rl- t«ro- t«H often ex-
clude e in flexion and derivation :
creb-ro, celeb-ris, mac-rum, ac-riter, dext-ra, put-re.

Hence Nouns with suffixes bro- oro- fro- form Deminu-
tives regularly in e-Ilo- :
flab-rum, flabellum ; dolab-ra, Dolabella ; luc-rum
lucellum ; plaust-rum, plostellum ; cast-rum castel-
lum : (for flaber-u-lum, Dolaber-u-la, &c.).

2) e is often excluded when d, f, it, p, come before er :

Evand-rus, vaf-re, nig-resco, Ap-rilis, inf-ra.

Hence the regular formation of such Deminutives as
flagellum from flag-rum (flager-u-lum)
capella — cap-ra (caper-u-la).

3) In salictum for salic-etum, carectum for caric-

etum, e has been shortened and excluded.

4) The Suffix ffSno- excludes e in many words :

benig-nus, mali-g-nus, privig-nus : so g-nascou

5) E-verbs compounded with facere sometimes exclude e :

cal-facere, ol-facere.

Note, Ferris, 2nd Pers. Pres. Pass, of fero, ferre Infin. (for
fer-se), velle (for vol-se) from volo, and es-se (for ed-se), from
^do, if formed as classical Verbs in general, would be Tfer-g-ris,
fer-d-re, vol-6-re, ed-€-re). It cannot be said, however, tnat they
have lost e, but that, like esse, posse (from sum), they never

£ 2 uiyiiizedbyCjOOQlC

52 Latin Soundlore, § le,

l: i) The words nau-ta, nau-fragus, &c., au-ceps, au*
s p e X, &c., also c au - tum^ f au - 1 u m» &c. have excluded !•
But navl-ta, navl-fragus are used in poetry : and cav-
I-tum,fav-I-tuni, &c., are found in old Latin.

2) Fero forms fers, fertur, &c. not (fer-I-s, fer-I-tur, &c).

3) Edo forms es for ed-I-s, est for ed-t-t, estur for

ed-I-tur.

4) Volo forms volt, vult (vol-It), voltis, vultis (vol-I-tis).

The formation of vis is supposed to be
(volis, vol-s, vil-s) vis.

5) The vowel I is lost by

purgare (pur-Ig-are), iurgari (iur-Ig-ari) ;
audere (av-Id-ere) ; gaudere (gav-Id-ere) :

also in the suffix mno- nma for (mSno-) mlno- mXaa :
alum-nus^ Vertum-nus, colum-na, &c

6) Corssen derives

iuxta from (iug-ista, in nearest junction),
exta — {pL'VSX^ the most outward entrails).
praesto — (prae-isto, in most forwardness),

7) (ced-i-te) x cette ; (opi-ficina) x officina
(bidiv-um, tridiv-um, &c.) x biduum, triduum, &c. :
(posi-v-i) x posui :

Tsemi-caput, sim-ciput) x sinciput :
fmater-itera, second mother) x matertera :
inasi-torqu-t-iu-m) x nasturtium : see M. Lucr. iL 401.
(nep-I-tis weakened from nep-otis) x neptis.

8) Puer-tia is poetic for puerltia : misertus for mis-

erttus : -postus in compounds for-posltus.
Rarer poetic omissions of i are
lam-na, cal-dus, sol-dus, strig-libus, &c. for lamTna, &a

Balneum is more usual than baUneum ; audacter
than audacTter : vallde and valde are used, but
with some difference of meaning.

TTTJ. Elision, Contraction and Coalition of
Vowels.

Hiatus. Hiatus (the open concurrence of Vowels) is avoided within
words in three ways.

ElisioiL I) First : Hiatus is avoided by Elision (SvvaXoc^^), the cutting
off of the former vowel :

^ne-ullus) X nuUus (ante-ea) x antea

(ne-unquam) x nunquam ^quinque-unc-s) x quincunx

(ne-usquam) x nusquam (semi-uncia) x semuncia

In semianimis the 1 of semi becomes a consonant.

lOOgle

^ 12. Elisiofty ConzractioUy etc, of Vowels, 53

d) Elision includes the cutting off of m with its vowel within

a word as well as at the end of a word in metre,
(venum-eo) x veneo; (animum adverto) x animadverto; (septem-
unc-s) X septimx. So sept-ennis, dec-ennis, dec-ussis, &c.

b) The Preposition com (cum) in composition eUdes m only
before a vowel, leaving the vowel open :
co-€mo co-eo co-haereo

But com-Mo.

Circum does this before i : as circu-it, circu-itus ;
but keeps m before other vowels :

circumago circumerro

2) Secondly : Hiatus is avoided by Contraction (SwatpcaiCi Contiao*
Kpacric) : by which two concurring vowels unite into one long ^^
vowel, rarely into a diphthong.

a) \i the concurring vowels are the same, the same vowel

lengthened results from their contraction :
(c5-dpis) X copis (tibT-i-cen) x tiblcen

(pr6-61es) x proles de-eram x deram

(dii) X di de-ero x dero

filii X fill (Gen. S.) de-esse x desse

^) If the vqwels differ, the former usually absorbs the latter.

c6-alescere x colescere (semi-as) x semis

(pr6-6mo) x promo, (de-Igo) x dego fili-e x fill
victu-i X victii si-em x sim

(indu-itiae) x indutiae (ama-im, ame-im) x amem

In some instances, the latter absorbs the former :

(ama-o) x amo diei x dli as well as die

(fii-io) X fto (glacie-alis) x glacialis.

c) Remarkable contraction of ft with parasitic a appears in
cur for (quor) quare ; and culest (Plaut.) for qualis est.'

{On Contraction after exclusion of Spirants, see xxxiv.)

3) Thirdly : Hiatus is avoided in poetry by Coalition ; which Coaii-
grammarians called Svrifiytrto ' settling together,' or Swck-^wviy^if, ^°"*
* uttering together ; ' when, without written contraction, vowels were
scanned and uttered as forming one syllable : d8n, proin, aur^

omnia, Pel6b, pituita, antehac. See Prosody.

Note. D6ero, d6^ram, d€esse, are sometimes ranked here.

' Still more remarkable arc the instances (cited by C) where ¥, before a vowel, re-
Iffcsenu an old I contracted from iCi Oike fTo ; compare fieri). These are : (i) c I Tens
(cluiens); (a)industrius(endostru-Tus): and (3) the word noticed by Festus, inciens,
'propinqua partui ' (incu-iens ; compare Kvtw^ eyirvof) ; whence Fr. enceinte. This shews
the UAuadly received derivation of the latter word, incincta,incinta (given in Ducange's
Clossarium in voce) to be qiiite erroneous.

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54 Latin Soundlore, § 12.

Lossof zxzii Loss of Inner Vowels with Consonants..

Vowels

cjj** n- ^' (homi-ni-clda) x homicida ; (lapi-di-cidlna) x lapi-cidlna
auiSf*" (sti-pi-pendium) x stipendium ; (pau-ci-per) x pauper

(tru-ci-cTdare) x trucidare ; (tri-num-nundlnum) x trinundlnum
(no-men-cupo) x nuncupo ; ^prae-vo-co) x praeco
(ae-vi-tas) x aetas ; (manu-hi-biae) x manibiae.
(vene-ni-ficium) x veneficium ; patro-no-cinium x patrocinium.

2. (consue-ti-tudo) x consuetudo ; (mansue-ti-tudo) x mansuetudo;.

(hebe-ti-tudo) x hebetudo ; (calamit-at-osus) x calamitosus.

3. (bicipit-s, bicip-e-s) x biceps ; (praecipit-s praecipe-s) x prae>

ceps, &c. ; (locu-lo-ples) x locuples.

4. (unus-decem) x undecim ; (quinque-decem) x quindecim.

5. The second syllable of semi, half, and the first syllable of
decern, ten^ are often lost in the formation of numeral words:
se-squi- for semisque, selibra for semilibra : viginti for dvi-de-centi>
triginta for tria-de-centa, &c. : bi-c-essis for bi-dec-essis, &c.

6. (por-ri-gere) x pergere ; (sus-ri-gere) x surgere ;

sur-pui poet, for sur-n-pui.

7. possum = potis (pote) sum; potes = potis (pote) es, &c.
malo, &c. for (mage-volo, &c).

vendere for venumdare* : narrare (narare) for (g-nar-ig-are).

(re-ce-cldi) x reccTdi or recldi ; (re-pe-p5ri) x reppSri ;
(re-pe-puli) x reppuli ; (re-te-tuli) x rettuli.

Compounds of reduplicated Verbs drop the syllable of reduplica-
tion :

dif-fldi, in-cldi, ob-tlgi, pro-tendi.

Except those of disco, posco, and some of curro :
dedidid, expoposci, praecucurri.

8. The syllable %\ is cast out by Syncope from Perfect-stem
forms of Verbs, chiefly in Comic poetry, but also in that of the b^t
age:*

a) Perf Act 2nd Pers. Sing, and Plur.

dixti for (dic-si-sti) ; duxti for (duc-si-sti)
misti for (mi-si-sti) ; scripsti for (scrip-si-sti)
a c c e s t i s for (acces-si-stis).

b) Pluperfect Conj. :

exstinxemfor (exting-si-sem)
vixet for (vic-si-set)
erepsemusfor (erep-si-semus).

' A large number of examples of this omission, chiefly from the old Scenic poets, bat
many Augustan, are given by Cort»en, il 553. . . .

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

§ 12. Shortening of Vowels. 55

c) Infin. Perf. :

surrexe for (surreg-si-se) ; traxe for (trac-si-se)
d i V i s s e for (divi-si-se) ; i u s s e for (ius-si-se).

d) Besides the Verbs which classicaUy form a Perfect-stem with
the character s, some other Verbs did this in old Latin : cap -ere,
fac-ere, rap-ere, tan-gere, aud-ere. As the old formation of
the Perf. Conj. and Fut. Perf. with character ■ was ■i-slm, si-io,
sach Verbs, by dropping si, formed these tenses in aim, so :

faxim for (fac-si-sim) ; faxo for (fac-si-so)

c 1 e p s i t for (cfep-si-sit) ; a u s i n t lor (au-si-sint).

e) A-verbs in old Latin formed these two Tenses sometimes by
casting out a syllable and then doubling ■ :

negassim for (nega-vi-sim) : rogassit for (roga-vi-sit)
servasso for (serva-vi-so) : locassint for (loca-vi-sint).

A few such forms are found from E-verbs and I-verbs :
prohibessit « prohibuerit ; ambissint = ambiverint.

NoU, This Future in asso, mistaken, it would seem, for a Present,
gave birth to Infinitivesjn assere, used by Plautus :

impetrassere, oppugnassere, reconciliassere.
Sometimes even to Passive forms :

turbassitur, Cic. ; compare faxitur, Liv.

xzziii. The Shortening of Vowels in Latin. shorten-
ing of

I. Between the First Punic War (B.c 260) and the Augustan age
(B.C 30) the Quantity of Vowels underwent a generally shortening
process, especially in final syllables. This is shewn by comparing

The extant specimens of old Satumian Verse.
The fragmentary remains of the old Dactylic and Iambic poets
(Ennius, &c.)'

The Comedies of Plautus and Terence.

The poetic remains of Lucilius and Cicero.

The poetry of Lucretius and Catullus.

The Augustan poetry (Virgil, Horace, Ovid, &c.).

2. The Comedies of Plautus (b.c 180) are a most important stage
in this enquiry : because, though they contain a large number of
long syllables afterwards shortened, they also exhibit numerous
examples of the shortening process always going on : and among
these some which are repudiated by the taste of Augustan poets.

Such Plautine shortenings mark the direction in which the cur-
rent of popular parlance was setting, whilst in Augustan literature
these corruptive tendencies are suppressed for a while by the study
of Greek models and a fine sense of what was really good in
Roman antiquity.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

Vowels.

56

Latin Soundlore,

3. Examples of Final Syllables with Quantity varying in
Latin, in Plautus, and in the Augustan age.

1. a Nom. Fern.

2. a Neut PL .

3. e Abl. Decl. 3. .

4. e Infin.

5. at)

et [ 3rd Pers. S. .
it)

6. is Nom.

7. rU 2nd Pers. S. Conj.

8. but Dat Abl. PI.

9. mus ist Pers. PI.

10. ar in Nouns

11. ar in Verbs

12. or in Nouns

13. or in Verbs

E. L,

a
&
e

&

i
1

1

ft

&
&
5
5

&

Plaut.

& ft

& ft

(«) «

& tf

I \

I X

I

a tt

u tt

&

& ft
5

5 d

ft

§12.

Early

Aug.

ft
ft
«

ft
«
I
Y
!
tt
tt
ft
ft
d
d
ft

14. al in Nouns . .

Yet Augustan poetry, especially the Hexameter, supplies many
instances in which the antiquarian long quantity of a word was
adopted to suit metrical convenience: gr avia (Verg.) arat (Hor.)
videt (Verg.) veil t (Hor.) tondebat (Verg.) ignis (Hor.) pec-
toribus (Verg.) negabamus (Ov.) trahor (TibuU.), &c.

4. The words which Plautus shortens by the license of conmion
parlance are mostly Iambic words, which he thus slurs into
pyrrhichs, we might almost say into monosyllables. Such are

loci, merl, doll, bond, domd, vir6, domi, forSs, pedSs, herl,
probg, ami, rogS, put^ cavS, manS, tacS, valfi, abl, adi,
bibi, dedl, stetl, darl, loqut

Augustan poetry preserves the traces of this popular usage
(which generally it rejected^ in such words as benfi, mod 5, nisi,
quasi, mihi, tibi, sibT, ibi, ub!, putS, cave, vale, &c. : and to
its influence we may perhaps refer such abnormal quantities as
paliis, polypiis in those writings of Horace which he himself
calls * sermoni propiora.' *

Exclu.
sion of
Conso-
nants
with
Contrac-
tion.

xxxiv. Exclusion of Consonants followed by
Contraction of Vowels.

■ : dextans for (de-s-extans) = | of the as :*ni for nl-s-I.

i-cpnsonans : bigae for bl-i-ugae ; quadrigae for quadrl-i-dgae :
cuncti for co-i-uncti : aes for (Pr. ay as).

li : cors for c6-h-ors ; vemens for vS-h-Smens; prendo for
pre-h-endo; praeda for (prae-h-eda) ; nemo for (n€-h-6mo for
nS-hdmo) ; nllum for n€-hilum; nil for nl-h-il; mi for
ml-h-I; Imus for (I-h-taius for in-f-Imus); deb eo for de-h-Ibeo ;
p r a e b e o for prae-h-Ibeo.

* On this subject, besides Corssen, the student should especially consult Riischl's
Plautus and Opuscula ; C. W. Mailer's Plautinische Prosodie ; and Munro's Lucretius:
also the Prosody in this Grammar by the last-named scholar.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

§ 12. Exclusion of Cottsonants with Contraction, 57

4: dodrans (for deauadrans), | of the as, is formed by the
following process, according to Corssen (dequaxdequoxdoquo
xdocu- X doc- X do-).*

T : There are two modes of suppressing ▼ with contraction : and
in some words each mode would lead to &e same result.

r. The short vowel after ▼ may be excluded, ▼ vocalised (be-
coming v), and then contracted with the preceding vowel.

2. ▼ may be excluded and contraction ensue.

1. First Mode.

This is shewn where the diphthong an results :
auceps (iv-I-ceps); auspex (av-i-spex)
nautafor nav-I-ta; naufragus for nav-I-fragus
cautumfor civ-I-tum; fautum for fSv-I-tum
audeo (iv-I-deo); gaudeo (gav-T-deo)

and may be inferred (as shewn by lotum, lutum for lautum) in
most instances where d, a result (for ot = on or for uv » nu) :

fotum (f5v-I-timi) ; fdmentum (f5v-I-mentum)

motum (m6v-I-tum) ; momentum (m6v-I-mentum)

i u t u m j[iuv-I-tum) ; i u m e n t u m (iuv-I-mentum)

upilio, opilio (6v-I-pilio); prudens for prov-I-dens

curia (co-viria) ; d e c u r i a (decu-vlria)

I up iter (lov-I-piter) ; bobus or bub us (bov-I-bus)

bruma (brev-I-ma, breuma)

nunc (nov-um-cej ; nuper (nov-I-per)

iunior (iuv-€-nior) ; udus (uv-I-dus).

In nundYnae (nov-endinae, notmdinae), nuntio (nov-entio, noun-
tic), and contio (co-ventio, countio), the vocalization of ▼ seems
to take place before the exclusion of the voweL

2. Second Mode.

fl) (dis, Ter. once) for di-v-es; ditior for di-v-itior;

ditissimus for dl-v-Itissimus : oblltus (obli-v-itus) ;

hornus (ho-v-emus) :
praes (prae-v-T-des, prae-i-des, praeds) :
Cloelius (Qo-v-i-lius, Cloilius) :
malo, malle, &c for ma-v-olo, ma-v-elle, &c.
nolo, nolle, &c, (ne-v-olo, ne-v-oUe, &c.) :
sis for si vis; sultis, for si vultis, ehdes iv.

b) Many Adverbs are formed by the contraction of a Pronoun
or Particle with the Participle vorsus, vQrsum :

horsum (ho-vorsum) ; prors-us -um (provors-us
-um) ; hence prosa for prorsa (pro-vorsa) ; alior-
sum (alio-vorsum); rurs-us -um (revors-us -um) ;
s u r s u m (sus-vorsum) ; intrors-us-umfor (intro- vors-
us -um) : rusum, susum, introsum. M. Lucr. iii. 45.

' Bes, or betsis, bes-ses (dvi-essesX two thirds of the as, u another curious ftb-
bretiatioB: rcprntmingbis trientes, twice one third.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

58 Latin Soimdlore. § 12^

Contrac- ^) This form of Contraction prevails especially in the Perfect-

tion in stcni Tcnscs of Purc Verbs.

Perf.
Stem.

a. When the Perfect-stem ends in &▼, «▼, 5v, the ▼ may be ex-
cluded before is or er (but not before Sr<), contraction ensuing :

amasti for amav-isti; implessem for implev-is-

sem ; nosse for nov-isse.
amaram for amav-eram; implero for implev-ero;

norunt for nov-erunL

And in Lucr. ftt for avit : inritat, i. 7a

These contractions are not used in the forms of lavi, cavi, favi,
pavi, fovi, vovi : but in those of movi and iuvi they sometimes
occur in poetry :

adiuris for adiuveris; mostis for movistis ; admo-
runt for admoverunt ; summosses for submo-
visses.

)8. When the Perfect-stem ends in !▼, the ▼ is often excluded^
and contraction usually follows before is :

audl-eram for audiveram ; audl-ero for audiv-ero, audis-
sem for audivissem.

So, in eo and its compounds :

leram, lero ; issem, isse, &c.
Siris is used for siveris from slnSre, sTvi.

The contraction of -Ut into -it occurs ; obi t for obi it.
Anciently the Perfect ending it was itself long, being often ex-
hibited as eit in E. L.^ See M. Lucr. iii. 1042.

* Peculiar contractions are seen in the formation of the Tenses of Verbs.

A) Forms of (esum) sum, compounded with other Verbs :

Indie Mood. Fut. x. (eso) ero : Imperf. (esa-m) eram.

Conj. Mood. (Mood-vowel ia=ie). Pres. (es-ia-m, es-ie-m)siem» sim. ImpeiC
(esa-ia-m, esa-ie-m, es-ai-m, es-e-m) essem. Infin. es-se.

Forms of fuo (shewn in f5re=ftire» fuisse, &c.), compounded with other Verbs^
Indie. Mood. Imperf. ((uam). Perf. fu-i, whence fu-ero, fu-eram, &c.

J5) Tenses of amo (ama-o) :

Ind. M. Fut. X. (ama-fuo)amabo. Imp. (ama-fuam)amabam. Perf. (ama-fiu)

amavL Fut. a. (amav-eso) amavero. Plup. (amav-esam)amaveram.
0>nj. M. Pres. (ama-ia-m, am-ai-m) ameuL Imp. (ama-esera) amarem. Peril

(amav-esim) amaverim. Plup. (amav<.esem)amavissem.
Infin. (ama-se) a mare : (amav-ese) amavisse.

O Passive Present-stem forms are derived generally from the Active by adding se
(s*if)» smd making euphonic change :

Pres. Ind. (amo-se) amor ; (amas-se) amar-is ; (amat-se) amat-ur, &c.

D) Inf. Pass, (amase-se) amari-er, amari ; (regese-se) regi-er» regi.

The Conj. Pr«. endings am, as, at, &c of the Third O}i0ugation (regam, regas, &c.>
represent the Primitive Conjunctive in d ; and FuL forms in es, et, &c O'eges, regeC»
&c.)are contracted from a-to-x, &c., as in (esa-ia-s) esCs. See C. II. 739.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

; 12. Relations of Consonants^ etc. 59

Relations of the Consonants in Latin Rcia-
and kindred Languages. c^^^

ants.

I. The Guttural Surds c, 4. Gut-

i) c corresponds to Sk. x', ^, ^; to Gr. « or ir : c/q.

L. Sk. Gr.

centum s'ata l-Karov

decern da/an hUa

canis s'van Kvmv (icvi^-)

iecur yakart ilirap

voco va(/ Piwut,

2) q^ sometimes corresponds to Sk. s^v, Gr. n {k) r:

L. Sk. Gr.

equos as^vas Tmroc

lic/coc (for iicf oc.
More frequently qa corresponds to Sk. c\ k, Gr. v, r (r) :

L.

Sk.

Gr.

quattuor

(fatvdras

rirrapti (for riTpapto)
ir/avpcc (O.petora)

linquo

ruf

Xiir.

sequor

sac"

eir- for a-eir

que

ka

#COt T€

quis

kas

Trc(U.i>w).

Some think that kv should always be assumed as the primitive
of qn ; but Corssen maintains that o (k) could develop a after it in
ItaUan language as a transition-step to the labial p : and he thinks
that even in Indie kv is developed from >&.

3) The Labialism by which -k and p represent Pr. Jt, prevailed in
Umbrian and Oscan. U. /^///;2^«rj«j=^ quadruped i bus ; O.
/f//r/=quidquid. Hence Tfrom O.petora^ four) come the names
Petreius, Petron.ius: ana (from 0./^w-/-w = quinque) Pon-
tius («Quinctius), Pompeius, Pompeii, Pomponius, Pom-
pilius.*

4) In two instances o, qT seem to correspond to Sk.^, Gr. ir:

L. Sk. Gr.

coquo Pac' viw-rta

quinque panifa wivrty vifive.

Here some think the primitive roots were kak or kvak; kanka
ox kvtmkva. Fick, however, supposes coquo to be for (poquo),
quinque for (pinque), by assimilation.

5) In proof that qn could be developed from o, Corssen cites
huiusque for huiusce; inquilinus from incolo; inquinare

iiromcoenum; quom-cum; c^uerquetum for quercetum; Qui-
rites from Cures; sterquilinium from stercus.

' Perhaps other instances of Labialism (p for k) in Latin are dialectic (Sabine) : as
lupus (Sk. t«>r-^/». Gr. Avxos); popina for coquina : palumbesscolumba : EpSna
(for Eqii5oa) : sp o I i u m (Gr. aiatkop) : and one or two more doubtful, as p a v o (Gr. rout).

Of Dentalism in Latin (t for k) the traces are few and dubious : as talpa (for s-talpa,
s^alpa): stercus (Gr. axwp} ; studeo. studium(Gr. wcvdw, <ntov^).

uized by Google

66 Latin Soundlore, § 12.

6) ^ is found in E. L. for qn, chiefly before a, as pegunia,
qum, gur, quius : rarely before other letters : as ncqidtm^ qe,

7) To avoid qua, before the Aug. age oa was often used :

ecus, cocus, anticus, execuntur, secundus.

So locutus, secutus.

Ne-ciibi, si-cubi, ali-cubi, &c., take the place of ne-quiibi, &c.

8) ^n becomes in Greek kov^ kv, *:, sometimes «m) :
lo^KQvaro^y KovcpcvoC) TapcvKioc, TpayicvXXoc, Koivroc.

9) ^n was uttered as in English : o as k.^ Their sounds appear
in * come quicker,^

The assibilation or soft sound of oi, oe did not prevail in Latin
before the 7th century of our era.

' I. The following facts shew that the assibilated sound of ce, ci, was not used in C L.

I. Greek represented c by k before e, i|, i : as

KMvrvpCa, UUtvTt9, itii¥<r9t, ^«cir, Kuupmv.

3. Latin represented Greek ic by c before e, i, y : as

Cecrops, cerasus, Cilix, Cimon, cithara, Cybele.

3. Gotluc represents c by k before these vowels : as

kerker, keller, kirsche.

4. Qumtilian cites chenturiones as away of spelling centuriones.
An Inscription a.d. 396 gives

schenicos for scenicos, and also scenicorum.
Another, a.d. 408, has pache for pace.

5. Qu could not represent an assibilated c ; therefore such forms on Inscrr. in L. L. as
<on the one hand)

huiusque forhuiusce ; requiesquet for requiesdt

and (on the other)

sicisforsiquis; cintusfor quintus

shew that up to their date ce, d kept the hard guttural sound.

6. In the imitative verbs crocio« glocio, c must have had the hard sound.

7. Finally, no grammarian has told us that c was uttered in one way before e, i, in
another before the remaming vowels. This silence goes to prove that no such difference
existed in C L.

In the Umbrian and Volscian dialects there had existed a soft 9, as U. /afia, V.
/asia, for facia t

And in the late Imperial times such tendency dawns in a few words on Inscrr. :

provinsia for provinda; Luziae for Ludae ; Felissiosa for Felidosa.
But it was not until the 7th century a.d. that popular utterance so far relaxed its
energy as to adapt generally the guttural consonant to the palatal vowel, and propagate
that sibilant sound of ce, d which, for instance, transmutes the classical Kikero into

•
It. G. Fr. Eng.

Chichero Shishero Sisera

II. The asubilation of inner ti before: a vowel began earlier. It had existed in dialects :
as U. pttrdinfust for purdintiust : O. Bansat for Bantiae. The grammarian Pompeius
In the 5th century testifies that Titius, for instance, was sounded Titsius, Consentius say%
that etiam was pronounced eziam. In the next century we meet with ijcr^io for actio,
Constanzo for Constantio : soon after with iustiria, milizia, preparing the way for modem
Italian, which writes Firetue (Florentia)^ Piacenza (Placentia), paUzzo (palatiumX

uiyiuzeu uy x^j-v^ v^ -x i-X^

} 13. Relations of Consonants^ etc, 6l

II. The Guttural Sonant oi

1) o usually corresponds to Sk. J or 9, Gr. y :

L. Sic

Gr.

gen- jan
ag-o «/
teg-o sthag

ycr- yoi^

dy-

^<y-«

Sometimes to Sk. x', Gr. r :

viginti vinsfoH

fccffo^c

Sometimes to Sk. kh^ A, Gr. x, >:

unguis nakhas
li(n)go lih
ego aA/i;»

gi'vx-
X«i'X«
€y«

2) Parasitic a follows r in anguis, sanguis, unguis, lingua,
linquo, stinguo, tinguo, unguo, urgueo. In pinguis (ira-
yyi) « is a suffix.

In all these, except urgueo, the guttural n adulterinum
strengthens r> giving it a nasal twang : as in the Verbs cited p. 19.

3) O was guttural in C L.; as in '^rx^* go y gave ^ give y get ^ beget^
begin. Its ^datal assibilations before e, I, whether hard, as in
Eng. gentle y giant y ragCy It. gentil, Ginevray gioiayragione, or soft,
as in Fr. gentily giant y gUe, rage, began towards the 5th century
with the use, as in Italian, of r* ( = Eng. j) before another vowel :
Giovey Giuliay giallo,

III. The Aspirates : h, f. ^

It belongs not Only to Indie language but also to Greek to
aspirate the medial mutes p, d, b, as well as the tenues k, t, p.
Thus arise the medial aspirates pb, db, bb ; to which the partiaUy
corresponding sounds in Greek are x« ^> ^y severally. Latin has
ndther class of aspirates : the letters which it uses for the purpose
of correspondence are principally b, f, and the medial b.

I. B^ when sounded at all, was sounded as the Greek Rough H.
Breathmg, but corresponds to it only in words borrowed from the
Greek : Hebe> Homerus, hora, &c.

a) In some words b corresponds to Sk. A, Gr. x : ^

L.

Sk.

Gr.

hiemps

himam

X«T/io

heri

hyas

X»^C

veho (via)

vah

0X€«

ans-er (for

hansa

xhy, eoose

h-ans-er)

(=x«»'0*

* The Teutonic names of this bird, goose, gander ^ gos (Anglo- Sax.), gans (Germ.), com-
pared with the Greek x^v, seem to shew that ghans is the Prim. form. There can be no
doubt that Greek x indicates a Prim, gh in all these yrords : and this is also shewn in
the Latin Perf. of veho : vexi for ve^h-si.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

62 Lati7t Soundlore. 5 la.

h) B represents dialectic fin some words, as haedus, hario-
lus, hircus, hordeum, horreum, hostis, also in mihi.
So in Spanish, hijo^^W^is ; Aa^/d;r=fabulari.

c) B has no position in Latin metre ; and a tendency to get
rid of this aspirate, as a troublesome sound, is manifest
in the history of Latin. Hence the fluctuation in the
orthography of many words in MSS. and Inscrr. : harena,
arena; harundo, arundo; haruspcx, aruspex ;
have, ave; haedus (aedus); hariolus (^zw/wj) ; Ha-
dria {Adrid)\ heres (eres); h€rus, h$ra, and Srus,
drajhedera (edera) ; holus(olus); Hammon(Ammon) ;
Hister (Ister). But the forms humerus^ humor, &c for
umerus (iftor), umor (from uvere), are not good.

c) The loss of li was propagated in L. L. Hence in modem
Italian it is not soundec^ and has generally disappeared as
an initial letter.

F. 2. The Italian Labiodental Aspirate f is described by Quintilian

as a very strong rough sound : MUa quae est sexta nostrarum paene
non humana voce vel onmino non voce potius inter discrimina den-
tium efflanda est,* xii. 10. This description does not seem to imply
that the ancient pronunciation of f was materially different from
our own : but it does imply what is probable on other grounds,
that <b was different from our t, not, like this, labio-dentaJ, but a
pure labial aspirated.

r is seldom the inner letter of a root As an initial it
corresponds to Sk. M, Gr.<^, chiefly: Sk. dh, Gr. 9, some-
times; Sk.£h, Gr. X, rarely.

Gr.

1) fero bhar ^p^
<^«

^parnp

See bha, p. 16. To Pr. bh, C. also refers the f in many words :
fovere, favilla; favere ... ; famulus .,. {O, /aama,
/house*); fervere ... furere ... ; fldere .. ; fiber;
forare; furvus; fundus...; frequens: compare also
fagus (<l>nyoc); folium (^vXXov); frango (Fpay-);
frigus {fptyoo),

2) foris dvdr dvpa
fumus dhUmas Qvoq
rufiis {rudh) Ipv6p6c
firmus dAar (0a\- 0A-)'

From this last root C. deduces a large number of words : fere,
ferme, frenum, forum, furca, fulcio, &c.

' Lat •fendo, Gr. 9tum are referred to Sic kan. Probably on this account Prof.
Mooter Williams, in his Lexicon, refers Man to a Prim. dJkaM, though so many of its forms
indicate an original aAom. ^ i

Digitized by VjOOQ IC

L.

Sk.

fero

bkar

fui (fe-, &c.)

bhU

flag- (fulg.)

bhrdj

frigo

bhrajj

fugio

bhuj

frater

bhrdtar

J 12. Relations of Consonants, etc. 63

The Preposition af which appears in Latin Inscrr. is by Cors-
scn distinguished from ab,and derived from Sk. adhi,

I-.Sk. Gr.

^ fd (comp. bilis) (Jiari, ' greenish yellow *) ^oXiJ
fu(«)do (^^^'O X«/«

To Pr. gtk C. refers fulvus (helvus), hostis (fostis), hario-
lus ^'inspector of the hira or enlrail'), haedus (faedus),
hordeum (fordeum), fames, far, frio, furfur.

IV. The Labial Mutes p, to. Labials

P B

These were sounded anciently as in modem language.
9 corresponds generally to Pr. p, Gr. n. But see L

S corresponds often to Pr. by Gr. 3 ; but, as already shewn
(I. and III.), it has several other special relations.

Thus it is developed not only from dT (as in bis, bellum, bo-
nus, see p. 45), but also from rv :

L. Sk, jQt.

bos, bov- gaus fiovs

faba (M^, 'eat') <f>ay

(for fag-va)

As an inner Consonant to represents Sk. M regularly, dh rarely.

L. Sk. Gr.

nubes nabkas v€<f>os

uber iidkar oZBap

So to->^ (bh) in ambo {^/itfxo), ambi- (afA^O» glaber (yXa^vp-
^)f nubo (^yvfufajDf scribo (ypa^o>), sorbeo (fioffifa)^ umbilicus
(9/i^aXoff) : m the suffixes -tons (-^i), -toani, -too, -toro, -tora, -tonlo,
•torn, -tot (tibi, sibi, ubi, &c.), -toU (nobis, vobis).

Again to-^ {dh) in ruber (fpvd-), plebs {irX^Oos), and in abies,
arbor, urbs, verbena, verbum, barba, &c.

V. The Dental Mutes t, d, retain their ancient sounds, corre- Dentals
sponding to Sk. /, d (or dk), Gr. t, d (or 0). "^ ^•

d) The sonant mute stands regularly for the aspirate in medius
(Sk. madhyaSy Gr. yAtraros for fitd-yos), vidua (Sk. vidAavd), -d€re
(Sk. dAd, Gr. 6c). In latere (KaBelv), pati (wa^cii'), t seems to re-
present Pr. d/i ; but this is very exceptional.

d) Final d in C. L. is only used in a few particles (a pud, ad,
haud, sed), and pronouns (id, illud, aliud, quod, quid, quid-
quid, &c.). Some of these are occasionally found in MSS. and
Inscrr. with t for d, as aput, haut, set, aliut. This shews that
final d had a hard sound. On final t, see p. 26.

c) The assibilation of inner dl, as of tl, before a vowel, began
in the Imperial age, and is represented in Italian by ss, as puszo
for medio.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

64 Latin Soundlore. { 12,

Nasals VI. The Nasals n, m, correspond in sound to Pr. n and 7n^
N, M. Gr. V and ^.

a) W has in Latin a twofold use :

i^ As a Dental ; initial, final, and before a vowel :

2) As a Guttural (adulterinum) ; before g, e, qu. It is weak

and slightly uttered before s and ts, especially when these

are final See p. 5a

b) In Latin the Labial Nasal m often takes the place which
belongs to i' in Greek as a final suffixed Consonant :

{jiovoay) X musam ; (air^i^) x aberauL
lliova^'i^v) X musarum ; {iofAttv) x domorum.

In the First Pers, Plur. of Act Verbs s corresponds to v :

{€i^fi€y) X vidimus.
In the Third Pers. Plur. nt :

{iSnnjaay) x aberant

Liquids VII. The Liquids and the Sibilant

1) Though F (littera canina, the growling letter) is one ol
the roughest sounds, and 1 one of the softest, they are intiniately
related to each other. & is a lisped r : compare barbarus with
balbus, and Kopai with coXa^ (Anstoph.)

Accordingly the interchange of these letters is frequent in Indie,
Greek and Latin. Some roots have 1 in all three: iagk, ligk^
lu ; many have r in all : bhar, ptar, sarp^ star^ hard, &c.

2) The derivation in L. and Gr. of l from Pr. r is exemplified in

L.

Sk.

Gr.

linquo

ric'

Xcir.

luceo

ni(f

\VK«

cluo

s'ru

rXvin

volo

var

/JovX.

ulna

aratni

^XfVi}

sal

sara

axc

levis

raghus

cXa)(vc

See the derivatives ofsvar, p. 17.

Lat r from Sk /is shewn in rumpo from lup (old form rup),
3) Comparing Latin and Greek, we find, on the one hand,
lacer (^aicoc), lilium (Xtlpior): so luscinia (Fr. rossignol):

on the other^
grando (x^Xafa), hirundo (x^Xcfwr), arx (oXk-), vermis

(cX/uc), strigilis (tn-Xtyyig) :

with a great number of words in which the letters correspond,
especially those with 1 : as

leo (X««»'), levis (Xcioc), oleum (cXaiov), silva (vXij), &c.
bat also some with r : as

aranea {ap^X^)* i^ivus (poot), taurus (ravpos), &a

uiyiuzeu uy n^JVJvJVJ Iv^

§ 12. Relations of Consonants^ etc, 65

4) In Latin words the order Mute- Vowel-Liquid often appears
where the corresponding Greek forms have Mute- Liquid- Vowel :

baidus ifipahvi), caro (Kptas), cemo (icpiw), dulcis (yXvicvj), pulmo
(irXcvfi^r), sorbeo (j>o<fi€<o)y torqueo (rp^oo). So tri and ter,
trinus and ternus, porro for (protro), &c.

5) Frequent interchange is found between the Liquids and the
Dental d :

dandl:

lacrima (^pv, tear), lingua (E.L dingua, ' tongue *), levir (Sk.
devary Gr. dcnyp), olere (ododa, odor), Ulixes Codvcro-evr), adeps
(oXcfr^tt). Meditor (jitXrrda) is not so certain.

d and r:

meridies for (medi-dies); and ar- for ad in old compounds:
arbiter (ad-bitere), arcesso for (ad-ci-esso).

6) As to the sound of 1, we learn from Priscian the opinion of
the elder Pliny : * & triplicem, ut Plinio videtur, sonum habet :
exilem, quando geminatur secimdo loco posita, ut ille, Metellus ;
plenum quando finit nomina vel syllabas, et cjuando aliquam habet
ante se ^idem syllaba consonantem, ut sol, silva, flavus, clarus;
medium in aliis, ut lectum, lectus,' I. 7. 38.

7) The lightness of inner 1 caused it to be often sharpened by
doubling :

loquella, querella, &c

8) On its affinity to u, see xx. In French this goes so far that
« often takes the place of 1, forming diphthongs au, eau, eu, ou :

(ad illu) X au ; (ad illos) x aux ; falter) x autre,
(cheval-s) x ckevaux ; (chevel-s) x chei'eux,
(bel) X beau ; (castellum) x chateau ; (fol, mol, sol) y^fou, mou, sou,

a) No relation is more important in Latin Wordlore than that R and
which arose between the letters r and s, changing the sibilant ^*
between vowels into the canine liquid. Varro mentions it : * In
mulds verbis in quibus antiqui dicebant m postea dictum r, ut in
carmine Saliarium sunt haec : ... foedesum, plusima, meliosem,
asenam,' vii. 26. In the Carmen Arvale the Lares are called
Lases. Cicero says (Fam. ix. 21) that L Papirius Crassus was the
first to call himself Papirius (B.c. 336) : before which all his clan
were called Papisii. So the AuseUi became Aurelii, the Fusii
Furii, the Numisii Numerii, the Pinasii Pinarii, the Spusii
Spurii^ the Volesi Valerii, the Vetusii Veturii. Thus we have
Halesus, Falisci, and Falerii; Etrusci, Tusci, and Etruria.

Hence in roots these changes appear :

(asa) X ara; (asena, fasena) x harena; (fesiae) x feriae ; (nases)
X nares, comp. nasus ; (geso) xgero ; (hausio) xhaurio ; (seso)
X sero; (uso) x uro ; (hesi) x heri, comp. x^ccy hesternus.

So spes andspero; quaero and quaeso ; vis, vires; glis^
gliris ; flos, floris, &c ; nefarius from nefas, &c

F uiyiiizedbyCjOOQlC

66 Latin Soundlore, §.12.

Hence almost all the Noun-flexions in r-, as «r- »r- dr- *r- from
Nominatives in es, U, fts, 9s (or), as, belong to stems which are
really not r-stems, but s-stems : the old forms, many of which are
found in <dd Inscrr., being, for instance {flesis^ foedesis, pignosis
oxpignesis^ arbosemy floses/piusima, maioses\ &c

The Case-endings -arum -omm were {-asum, -osum).

The Verb-forms -eimm -aro were {-esam -eso), -rto -re -rl were
{-sis -se -St), In the Passive endings -or -u», &c., r represoits
the pronoun se.

Dir-imo is for dis-emo, dir-ibeo for dis-hibeo.

^ The F for s between vowels very often corresponds to the loss of
Greek a between vowels :

(ausosa) x aurora (av-wQ^ Sk. ihhas); (ausis) x auris (oS-ac^;
(visus) X virus (fi-oc, SlLvishas); (nusus) x nurus (woe, Sk. snusM) ;
(sosor) X soror {o-ap, Sk. yvasar, * sister*); (genesis) x generis
(ycFc-oc); (musis) x mu-ris (;iv-oc) ; (deasum) x dcarum (Ocd-w);
(esam) x cram (c-^v), &c.

c) M is for s before a consonant in Minerva (Sk. maHas,'mmd') ;
verna (Sk^vas, 'dwell*) ; veternus from vetus, diurnus, hodi-
ernus from dies :

And as final in the ending ir for os : color, honor, labor, &c,
for colos, honos, labos, &c.

S. aa) The Greeks, who avoided sibilation as much as possible, sub-

stituted generally the rough breathing for primitive s at the b^in-
ning of words. Not so die Italians. Hence Latin initial • before
a vowel corresponds often to Sk. s, Gr. aspirate :

salix (eX/ici?), sex (H), scdes (t^c), semi- (4ft/-), serpo (epru), si-
mul (fifta, ofiov)^ sollus (^Xoc), silva (vXij), se (?), suus (cfoj), suavis
(»i3vc), sub (vt6), super (vrcp), sudor (t3p«c), sus (vc), &c
Sometimes initial s corresponds to Greek * spiritus lenis : '
si (£1)1 sero (ttfw^), serum (opoc).

id) 80, sp, St initial generally correspond in Greek and Latin,
uhless s is dropt, as in t ego {trriyw). See p. 45.

cc) 8 initial was probably sounded more sharply than as an inner
letter : hence caussa as well as causa appears in MSS. and
Inscrr., and other occasional doublings of s are found.

dd) 8 falls out in Cereal is for (Ceresalis) ; in ver (t-ap for
fiffCLp) ; in vi-m, v-i ; in the cases of spe-s for (spe-r-es = spe-s-es),
in those of dies, diei for (die-s-i), &c., and in other forms.

fhe VIII. The soft Labial Spirant V.

spirant ^

a) v-consonans has the same relation to r that b has to p : it
corresponds to Pr. t, Gr. digamma, like which it was sounded :
and this soimd was probably that of £ng. w.> Corssen thinks its

* That Latin Y-conionans had the sound of English w always, is probaUe for the
following reasons :

1) By a slight change in the position of the speech organs the vowel i passes into
y-cons. By a precisely parallel change the vowel u becomes, not Eng. v, but Eng. w.

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^ v^pt i-V-

V.

5 II. Relations of Cofisonants^ etc. 6j

initial sound was that of £ng. ▼, its inner sound that^of Eng. w.

L.

Sk.

Gr.

vomo

vam

p€fiiit0

volvo

vat

PeXvu

voco

vcuf

fcTW

video

T/i'^CknowO

f*^

vestis

vasis

hoQiiQ

novus

novas

yifoQ

ovis

avis

oPtt

So vis (F«c), viola (Fiov), vinum (folvoc), bos bov- (/3ofc /3ovc),
navis (vafc, yavc), ver (f^f)), vespera {Pttnripay iairipa), Vesta
{fcffTta, itrria), radix {PplCay pi(a^ /3p/fa), &c.

^) As the Greeks lost the use of /, they represented initial t
sometimes by ov, sometimes by ^,

Varro {Oiappmv or Bdpp^v),

On the vocalization of t see p. lo ; on its omission, see pp. 57, 5S.

IX. I^onsonans (J). The

On the sound and uses of i-consonans (j), see viii. i, and xii. 6. jP*™**
It corresponds to Sk. y, sometimes to Gr. (, as iugum (Sk. jmj)
<}r. (vy6v).

a) A form of 1 taller than the adjoining letters (I), appears In
late RepubUcan and Augustan Inscrr. to express

1) longi-voc :*

DiVO, El, STIPENDlS.

2) 1-cons. ; both between vowels and inidaUy :

MAlOR, CViVS, EiVS ; IVS, IVLIA.

A more corrupt form il is also found :

CVlIVS, COlIVGI.

^ That which is merely a general fact, has been wrongly set
down as a rule of sound : namely, that a vowel before i-cons. is
long. Corssen has shewn that in all words which can be traced
(for ieiunus is obscure) where a vowel is long before l-cons., it is
so by its own nature :

a-io, Ga-ius, Ma-ius, pe-ior, p€-iero, &c.

a) Greek ov (as in Ov«A^a for Velia in Dion. Hal.) expresses Gr. digamma and Lat v ;
and this sound cannot be interpreted as Eng. v, but as w. The occasional substitution of
fi, by Plutarch chiefly, proves nothing to the contrary : but only means that, «v bang a
clumsy representation of f and v, fi was taken as the nearest labial instead.

3) A. Gellius cites a grammarian, who says that Deus Vaticanus presided over infimcy,
and that the two first letters of his name (Va) are that sound which the infant first utters.
The sound then is Eng. wl not v&, which the infant, having no teeth, cannot utter.

Corssen's opinion is that Latin bitial v may have had that middle sound between w
aad v, which German w has in some localities ; the upper teeth being brought near to
the lower lip, but not pressed upon it. This view we cannot accept.

* It was shewn (p. 33) that ei was long used to express I with a leaning to €. Ludlius
tried to mark long vowek by writing them twice, as Maarcus for MOrcus. This appears
on some Inscrr. but did not lart long. It was followed in Cicero's time by the Apex or
mark over a long vowel, like (0 or ('), which frequently appean on a, e, o, u ; not on L

^^ uyuized by Google

68 Latin Soundlore. j ,2.

Inbl-iugus, quadrl-iugus, tri-iuges, &c., », being naturally-
short, remains so.

c) Progressive assimilation has changed 1-cons. to 1 in cello,
fallo, pello for (cel-yo, fal-yo, pel-yo), as fiXAoc in Greek for
(aX-yoc), O'^aXAw for (o'^oA-yw).

d) On luppiter, luno, lanus, &c for D-iupiter, &c, see
p. 15. This passage from ^ to J shews distinctly how the assibi-
lation arose by which 1-cons., afterwards taking the sign J, became
& compound palatal sibilant in English and (with ^ for Eng. J) m.
Italian ; while in French it becomes purely palatal So, from Latin
diumus we get

Eng. IL Fr.

journey gtomo jourrUe

X. The Double Consonant x.

X ( = c») corresponds to Gr. f. See vii. 8.
Republican as well as L. L. Inscrr. shew zs :

deixserit^ duxserit^ vixsit
In L. L. X passed into m or s, and appears as u in Italian ; so
disse for dixit*

* A more ample list is here added of Latin words which have lost initial letters.

X. C : vapor, vapidus, vappa {kvaf) ; vermis : verrere : lamentum, laus, lusdnia ;
ludere {krf^', Ubum ; raudus (c-rudus, ' raw *) ; nidor {kvutviC^.

G. : lac (toAcuct-) ; nasci . . . ; narrare . . . ; noscere . . . ; Naevius ; niti ; vivere.

P. : lanx ; Uttis ; ISter ; laetus : livere ; linter.

D. : mere ; runa ; racemus ; bellum . . . bis . . . bonus ; viginti . . . ; iuvare . . . ;
luppiter* luno, lanus . . . ; iuvenln ; iam ; iacSre.

S. : cavus, caula, cavea, caulis, causa, cauda, casa, castrum, cassis, cutis ; cemere . . . ;
cortex ; culter ; carpere ; dlium ; caedere ; clavis, daudere ; cena ; gradi ; -gruere :
parcere ; pannus ; picus : pituita ; penuria ; pellere : puis ; palpare : palpebra ; parra ;
pulex ; palea ; pandere ; populate ; dallere ; fides ; fungus ; torus ; temetum ; tegere ;
tundere ; tonare ; taiurus ; tueri ; tergere ; torpere ; turdus : turba, tiu-bo, tunna ; trun>
cus : talpa ;. tuigere ; trux, tniddare : macula ; mordere : memor . . . ; minis . . . ;
mittere : ninguere ; nex : nare, nares, nasus ; nurus, nutrix : limus, linere, linea, littera^
Umax, lubricus ; rivus, Roma, Reate.

St : lis, iStus, locus.

V. : laqueus ; lacer, lacerare ; lupus.

3. Observe, on xxiz., that derivatives sometimes lose radical consonants belonging to
the words firom which they are derived : currus, curulis ; mamma, mamilla : o& ofella ;
quattuor, quater ; villa, vTlicus ; in-loco, llico ; stilla, stiliddium ; mille, mHia (but i
on the Ancyra monumentX See M. Lucr. i. 3x3, and, on religio, L 63.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

§ 13-14. Flexion of Words. 69

DIVISION II.

MORPHOLOGY,

Morphology or Wordlore treats of Words. ^-

It is subdivided as follows : —

CHAP. I. Words : their Parts, Kinds, and Flexion in general

— II. Nouns : their Parts, Kinds, and Declension.

— III. Verbs : their Parts, Kinds, and Conjugation.

— IV. Particles : their Kinds.

— V. Derivation and Composition of Words.

— VI. Supplement on the Uses of Words.

CHAPTER I.
WORDS AND THEIR FLEXION.

L Stem-fiexion. Flexion.

1. Words are called in Grammar the Parts of Speech,

Words are either Simple, as flagrare, flamma, or Compound, as
con-flagrare, flamm-i-fer.

Every Word has Meaning and Form. Form helps to determine
Meaning.

2. Every Word has Stem and Root,

Word, Stem and Root may be (but seldom are) the same : as tu,
tkoui 2i<\\X2Ly water.

Word and Stem may be (but usually are not) the same, while Root
differs : fi2imm2ij flame: Root, flag-, blase.

Root and Stem are often the same : ig-ere, to act. Such words
are called Radical or Primitive : all others are Derivatives.

A Compound Word has only one Stem, but as many Roots as it
has composing parts. Thus the Stem of conflagrare is con-
flagra-, the two Roots, cum and flag-.

3. Every true element in a word following the Root, is called a
Suffix: thus in flamma (for flag-ma) -ma is a Suffix; in flag-
rare -r, -a, -r© are Suffixes.

Suffixes may need a connecting Link or Vincular, which is not
elemental : reg-»-bus, quer-X-monia. The final Suffix, which
converts a Stem into a Word, is called an Ending, as -re in flag-
r-a-re. But the Suffix -ma in flam-ma is not called an Ending,
because fl am m a is itself a Word. When it forms fl am m a - s, s is
.an Ending, and, specially, a Case-ending.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

^o

Latin Wordlore.

§15^

4. A syllable placed before a Word to modify its meaning, not
being a root-word, is called a Prefix, Thus inte-tend-i, cin-
cinnus, -to and cln- are Prefixes. But Particles in composition^
asde- se-re-, are not called Prefixes, being themselves roots.

5. The last letter of a Root, as p in fiag-, is the Root-character.
The last letter of a Stem, as a in flagra- and flamma, is the Stem-
character : and this (being of chief importance in Grammar) is called
the Character of the Word.

6. Flexion, or Stem-flexion, is the method of inflecting a Stem^
that is, of making such changes in its form as may indicate changes
in its meaning and use. This is usually done by suffixing a
Flexional Ending to the Stem : flagra- re, flamma-mm. Such
sufiixed Endings sometimes need a Vincular, as f in reg-f -bus ;
sometimes they cause a mutilation of the Stem, as flamm-l« for
flamma-ls (which is for flamma-bns). Sometimes change in a
letter of the Stem itself is an inflexion : as flammft from flammiL
Sometimes both Letter-change and Ending are used; «g-, «g-l*
Sometimes Prefix, Letter-change, and Ending : c«n-, c«-cf n-L

7. How then is a Stem defined ?

A Stem is that part of a Word which is virtually contained in
every change of form, though the character is often liable to be
hidden through the operation of the laws which determine Letter-
change. So the character of flam ma is hidden in the form flam-
m-is ; the character of virgin- is hidden in the form virgo : the
character of dirig- in the form direxi.

8. And how is a Root defined ?

A Root is the primitive element in any word ; that part which the
word has in common with all oUier kindred words. Thus, in agito,.
the Stem is agita-, but the Root is ac-, which it has in common with
ag-o, ag-men and many other kindred words. The Root-cha-
racter and Root-vowel are more liable to be hidden through Letter-
change than even the Stem-character. Thus the Root ac- is con-
tained in the words actio, examen, redigo, but obscured in each
word by some mutation.

IS
Gasses

of
Words.

ii Classification of Words.
Words are of three kinds :
I. Nouns. IL The Verb.

in. Particles.

Nouns. I. A Noun (Nomen) is the name of something per-
ceived or conceived.

Nouns are of three kinds : Substantives ; Adjectives ;
Pronouns.

I. A Noun Substantive (Nomen Substantivum) is
a name simply denoting something perceived or con-
ceived : psittacus, the parrot \ nix, snow; virtus^
valour, virtue; Caesar, Caesar.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

§ 15. Classification of Words. 7 1

2. A Noun Adjective (Nomen Adjectivum) is a
name indicating a quality perceived or conceived as in-
herent in something denoted by a Substantive. Accom-
panying the Substantive, it is said to be an Attribute,
or in Attribution to it : psittacus loquax, the talka-
tive parrot \ nix alt a, tlie deep snow \ vera virtus,
true valour \ Caesar inclutus, the renowned Caesar.
In such examples it is also called an Epithet.

3. A Pronoun (Pronomen) is a relational Substantive
or Adjective which abbreviates discourse by avoiding the
repetition of Names. Thus a speaker avoids his own
name by using the Pronoun ego, /. He addresses an-
other as tu, tliou or you. A person once mentioned he
afterwards names as is or ill e, A^. He speaks of his
own horse as mens equus, my horse ; of his companion's
dog as canis tuus,^^7«r dog.

1) One Substantive may qualify another, and is then said to be
an Apposite, or in Apposition, to it: psittacus avis loquax,
theparroty a talkative bird, where avis, birdy is an Apposite, or in
Apposition, to psittacus, the parrot^

2) Names given to the qualities of things are called Abstract
(Abstracta) : candor, whiteness, virtus, valour. In contradis-
tinction to these, Names of things to which such qualities belong
are called Concrete (Concreta) : nix, snow; vir, a man.

3) Concrete Names Individual or Proper (Nomina Propria),
are such as can only be applied to single persons, places, or objects •
Caesar, Roma, Bucephalus, CerbSrus.

4) Names are called Appellative (Appellativa) when they be-
long in conunon to a ntunber of individuals which thus constitute a
class : vir, a many urbs, a cityy ager, afieldy canis, a dogy arbor,
a tree.

5) Names expressing in the Singular Number a plurality of things,
are called Collective Nouns or Nouns of Multitude: turba,
crowdy populus, peofilfy gens, clany exercitus, army.

6) A (juality, without a substantive name, may sometimes suffice
to descnbe an object That is. Adjectives may stand as Substan-
tives. In Natural History, the Adjective words Mineral, Vegetable^
Annual, Maanmal, express sufficiently the things meant So in
Latin: sapiens, a wise man (vir) ; calida, luarm water (aqua) ;
natalis, a birthday (dies) ; utile, the usejfuly convey their meaning
without Substantives.

7) Numerals (Numeralia) are a class of Adjectives expressing
Number: unus, one\ duo, twoy &c, centum, a hundredy mille, a
thausandy &c. These, like other Adjectives, can appear as Sub-
stantives: m'lVi^ m\x\i2L, many thousands. The ancients marked
tfiem as Pronouns.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

72 Latin Wordlore, § 15.

8) A Substantive, or any word put for a Substantive, is called a
Noun-term.

9) Nouns have a Flexion called Decle.vsion ; and four Acci-
dents (Accidentia) : Number, Gender, Person, and Case. A
Noun mflected through all its Cases is said to be Declined.

The II. The Verb (Verbum) is the Word which makes

'^^^' Predication, that is, which declares or states something
about a Subject, and so forms a Sentence : Rgo, I do ;
dicimus, we say: consul triumpavit, fAe consul tri-
umphed.

1. The Verb has two parts :

i) The Verb Finite (Verbum Finitum), which is personal;

2) The Verb Infinite (Verbum Infinitum), consistingof Verbal
Nouns : principally the Infinitive (Infinitivum), which
is a kind of Substantive; and Participles (Participia),
which are a kind of Adjectives.

2. The Verb has a Flexion called Conjugation, It has five
Accidents : Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person. A
Verb inflected through certain forms is said to be Conjugated.

Parti- III. Particles (Particulae) are the uninflected help-
^^ words of discourse ; arili are of four kinds : Adverb,
Preposition, Conjunction, Interjection.

1. An Adverb (Adverbium) is a particle which helps
to determine the force of a Verb or Adjective, sometimes
of a Substantive, sometimes of another Adverb : Quam
turpiter interfectus est Socrates, tam bonus civis et
v e r e philosophus ; how sham efu lly was Socrates put to
death, so good a citizen, and truly a philosopher.

1) Adverbs which ask and answer the questions, *when,where,
whence, whither,' &c., are Pronominal Adverbs :

quando t ubi 1 quo ? nunc hie illuc

2) Adverbs which ask and answer the question 'how often,' are
Numeral Adverbs :

quotiens? semel bis ter quater quinquiens

2. A Preposition (Praepositio) is a particle which,
used with a Noun-case, helps to define its relation to
some other Noun: Ego sto ad fores, tu in conclavi,
/ stand a t tlie door^ you in the apartment

i) Many Prepositions can be used as Adverbs : such are,
ante, before ; circum, around ; intra, within,

2) The Cases used with Prepositions are the Accusative and the
Ablative.

y Google

§ i6-i8. Nouns. Number. Gender. 73

3. A Conjunction (Coniunctio) is a particle which
helps to shew the connection of words, clauses, and sen-
tences: Oves et aves, sheep and birds \ edimus ut
vivamus, we eat that we may live.

4. An Interjection (Interiectio) is an exclamatory
particle used to express feeling or call attention :

O, O / heu, eheu, aias / en, ecce, lo /

The Parts of Speech, recounted, appear to be

1. Substantive 5. Adverb ^p^*^

2. Adjective 6. Preposition

3. Pronoun 7. Conjunction

4. Verb 8. Interjection
which are inflected. which are uninflected.

Not€. — Latin has no Articles : and, when a Latin Substantive is
to be rendered in English, the context and collocation alone shew
what English Article, if any, must be supplied. Thus : lux may
mean ' a light,' or * the light,' or * light ' in general, according to the
place in which it stands.

16

Parts of

CHAPTER IL
NOUNS.
Section I.
i Number in Nouns. nuU.

The Substantive is declined by Number and Case ; the
Adjective by Number, Gender, and Case, agreeing in
these with the Substantive which it quaHfies.

The Numbers (Numeri) are two: 1. Singular (Singu-
laris): mensS, table; 2. Plural (Pluralis): mensae,
tables.

Sanskrit, Greek, and Sclavonic have a Dual Number ; of which
in Latin the only traces are the words duo, two, ambo, both.

x8

ii Gender of Nouns. Gcndet

The Genders (Genera) are two: i. Masculine (Mas-
culinum) ; 2. Feminine (Femininum). A Substantive
which is neither Masc nor Fem. is said to be Neuter
(Neutrum), i.e. Neither of the two.

A Substantive which may be Masc. or Fem. is called
Common (Commune) of both Genders,

Digitized byCjOOQlC

74

Latin Wordlore.

§18.

Distinct
Generic
names.

(The lively imagination of the East ascribed sex to inanimate
objects, the sun, moon, stars, trees, &c. ' Hence the distinctions of
Gender in Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin : which are found not only
in the Romanic languages, but also in German and other Teutonic
dialects, English alone excepted.)

A, The Gender of words which imply sex is expressed in Latin
in four ways.

I . First : Distinct words are used, as in English, for many of the
most familiar relations :

man
male

husband

homo
mas

maritus >
vir ^
pater
frater
vitricus
gener

patruus uncle
avunculus uncle

senex

verna

taurus

aries

vervex

catus

verres \

maialis )

haedus

father

brother

stepfather

son-in-law

( on father's )
t side i
( on mother's >
^ side '

old man

house slave

bull

ram \

wether^

he-cat

boar
kid

mulier
femina
uxor I
femina '
mater
soror
noverca
nurus

amita

woman
female

wife

mother

sister

stepmother

daughter-in-law

aunt

matertera aunt

anus

ancilla

vacca

ovis

fel-es(is)

scrofa

capella

old woman

maid-servant

cow

ewe

she-cat

sow

Homo {human being) ^ though never used with a feminine epithet,
may comprehend woman as well as man.

Mulier is the Roman law-term for woman, especially for a mar--
ried woman, distinct from virgo.

T evaiTiSijfemcde {h <^vovaa, genetrix), is applied to all animals.

Maritus and uxor are the law-terms for husband and wife,

Vir is constantly used for maritus, as Mann in German.

Senex (with its comparative senior) is the only word corre-
sponding to Fem. anus. It occurs rarely as a Fern. Adjective.

Sub- II. Secondly : Many words, called Substantiva Mobilia, have

UoV^ a Masculine and a Feminine form, as in English, lion, liomssy &<:•
Such are

i) avus, 2. grandsire avia, i. grandmother

nepos, 3. grandson neptis, 3. granddaughter

puer, 2. boy puella, i. girl

socer, 2. father-in-law socrus, 4. mother-in-law

So, ^otX2L poet, poetria; cliens client, clienta; rex king-,
regina; caupo vintner^ copa; ^^Xc^n, lute-singer, fidlclna^

uiyiuzeu uy -N^JVjwVt l\^

§iS.

Gender.

75

xXblztVL fluU-piayer^ tiblcYna; leo liottj lea, leaena; gallus
cocky gallTna ; Cres Cretan^ Cressa ; Threx ThradaHy Thre»
issa; Libys Libyan, Libyssa; Cilix Ciliciany Cilissa;
Phoenix, Phoenician^ Phoenissa; Laco Laconian^ Lacaena;
Tros Trojan, Troas : and others.

2) Many Masculines of the Second Declension in -os -ar have
Feminines of the First Declension in -a -ra :

ars-wi a
vitul-iis a
'. arbit-erim
magist-erim
minist-er im
cap-er im
coiub-0r ra

3) Verbals of the Third Declension in -tor -tor often have
Feminines in -trlx, as vic-tor, vic-trix. So

adiu-tor -trix moni-tor -trix expul-sor expul-trix

crea-tor -trix fau-tor -trix ton-sor ton-strix, &c.

4) Patronymica, or Names formed from those of parents or
ancestors, have the following Endings :

Endinz of Patronymic Ending

Parent Name "' "^

a, de-OS a

domin-Qs a

cerv-nsa

div-Qs a

er-iisa

equ-Qs a

fili-iis a

serv-iui a

luvenc-Qs

nat-iisa

hbert-iis a

lup-Qsa

marit-iisa

patron-vs a

mul-iui a

spons-«s a

/3. agn-iis a

pore-OS a

pnvign-iui a

asm-OS a

simi-«s a

-us, 2. and some of Decl. 3.
-eus (eve)

-ius, 2. and some of Decl. 3.
-as, I. and some of DecL 3.

Masc

-Ides
-Ides
-iSdes
-Sdes

Fern.

-rs

-i^s

Examples :
Tantal-Ides

son

Tantal-Is
daughter

Thest-iades
son

Thest-ias
daughter

<?/" Tantalus.

Thes-ides Thes-eis

son

daughter

^Thestius.

Anchis-iades, son ^Anchis-es.
Aene-ides, son ^Aeneas.

^t/" Theseus.

Other Female Patronymic Endings are -in©, 5De :
Neptunine, daughter of Neptunus, Acrisione, daughter of
Acrisius.

III. Thirdly: Substantiva Communia, Words Common of
both Genders, are of two classes.

I. Appellatives used of both sexes. Such in English are the
words parent, child, infant, cousin, companion, guide, guardian,
hostage, witness, &c.

These include names of animals, found Masc. or Fem., without
change of form : gender being shown either by the epithets applied
to them, or by their apposition to other words : bos, s us, &c.

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^v^pt ix^

Sob-

stantiva

Com-

^6 Latin Wordlore, § iS.

2. Words having no relation of sex, but varying their gender
according to sense or usage : dies, dayy callis,/<i/A.

I. Appellativa Communia.

I) Appellatives of Common Gender should not be grouped in-
discriminately : conmiunity of gender being in some the rule, in
others an exception. When the sexes are included in the Plurals,
the gender is Masculine by the rule which gives priority to that
sex: ^ sacer dotes casti,' chaste priests^ in Virgil, including both
sexes.

Coniunx, wife^ is usual ; coniunx, husband^ poetic.

The following words are freely used of either sex :

auctor author municeps burgess

civis citizen nemo nobody

comes companion parens parent

custos guardian sacerdos priest (priestess)

dux guide, leader satelles body-guard

exul banished one vates seer

The following are usually Masculine, but occasionally Feminine :

adulescens young person hostis enemy

antistes president infans infant

hospes host {hostess) iuvenis young person

Yet the Feminine forms antistita, hospita, are also found.
The following, usually Masculine, rarely take Feminine epithets/

affinis

akin

iudex

judge

artifex

artist

interpres

interpreter

augur

augur

miles

soldier

contubemalis

tent-mate

patruelis

cousin

heres

heir

testis

witness

incola

inhabitant

vindex

avenger

index

informer

The following, usually Masculine, are found in apposition to
females, but not with Feminine epithets :

accola dweller-near obses hostage

advena new-comer opifex worker

auriga charioteer praeses president

auspex omen-taker transfuga deserter

homo human being

Add to these successor, rector, sponsor.

2) Nomina Animantiimu

a) an i mans, Masc, a rational being \ Fem. or Neuter, ojf

aninuU,
quadrupes (properly Adjective) is usually Fem., but in

several places Masc, rarely Neuter,
ales, bird (properly Adjective), is generally FenL, yet

often Masc

Digitized by VjOOQIC

§i8L

Gender,

77

ff) The following are of both genders, preferring thati subjoined :

anguis
anser
bos
camelus

snake (m.)
goose (m.)
ox or cow (m.)
camel

grus
perdix
serpens
sus

crane (f.)
partridge
serpent (f.)
swine (f.)

canis
damma

dog
deer

tigris

tiger or tigress (£)

c) accipiter, hawk, Masc, is once Fern, in Lucretius,
bubo, owl, Masc, is once Fern, in VirgfiL
elephantus, Masc, is once Fern, in Plautus.
lynx, Fem., is once Masc in Horace,
talpa, mole, Fem., is once Masc in VirgiL

2. For Common Nouns of the second kind see the Declensions.

IV. Fourthly : Names of Animals only found in one gender, which Epicoc-
necessarily comprises both sexes, are called Epicoena (cTr/fcocva^ ""•
common to doth).

Among Masculine Epicoena are :

crabro hornet

pavo

peacock

cycnus, olor swan

piscis

fish

glis dormouse

stdio

lizard

mugil, mullus mullet

vermis

worm

mus mouse

vespertilio

bat

jKipilio butterfly

vultur

vulture

I all not before specified

in -us, -ex.

-er: corvus.

rook,

with

milvus, kite, turdus, thrush, culex, gnat, passer, sparrow.

The reading ' fecunda© leporis,' Hon ^S". ii. 4. 44 cannot be relied
on. Lepus, hare, is therefore a Masculine Epicene.

Among Feminine :

avis bird apis bee

anas duck vulpes (is) fox

with all not before specified in -a, -ix, -do : aquila, eagle, ra,n2i, frog,
comix, raven, coturnix, ^uail, hirundo, swallow, &c.

If the sex must be expressed, this is done by using the words
femina, mas (mascula): 'femina piscis,' Ovid.: 'vulpis
mascula,' Plm. So in English, he-goat, she-goat, cock-sparrow,
hen-sparrow, Sec ^ y s , s > f 7

B, The Gender of Latin substantives which do not imply sex is Gender
often shewn by the meaning or the form of the word.

I. The general correspondence of Gender with Meaning is as fol-
lows : —

shewn

Mean-
iug.

(i) Masculine

Males

Months (mensis m.)
Winds (ventus m.)
Mountains (mons m.)
Rivers (fluvius m.)
People (populus nx)

(a) Feminine

Females
Plants (planta f )
Countries (terra f )
Islands (insula f.)
Cities (urbs f.)

(3) Neuter

Indeclinable words.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

78 Latin Wordlore. I ,g.

Examples
Masc. : lulius, Aprilis, Notus, Haemus, Liris, AchivL
Fern. : Andromache, laurus, Gennania, Cyprus, Athenae.
Neut : fas, instar, alpha, vivere.

Exceptions to the Rules of Gender 2s shewn by Meaning:

A) Mountains :
Fem. :

DecL I. Aetna ; Hybla ; Ida ; Oeta ; Calpe ; Cyllene ;

Pholoe ; Pyrene; Rhodope.
DecL 3. Alpis (usually Plur.) ; Carambis.

Neut :
Decl. 2. Pelion ; and Plurals implying mountain ranges
(iuga): Gargara;Ismara ;Maenala;Taygeta ;and
others.
DecL 3. Soracte.

B) Rivers :

Fem. :
DecL I. Allia ; Albula; Druentia ; Duria (f?ie Dora) ; Ma-

trona; Lethe.
DecL 3. Styx.

AA) Plants :
Masc. :

DecL 2. acanthus; amaracus; asparagus; boletus; ca-
lamus ; carduus ; hyacinthus ; intubus ; iuncus ; mus-
cus ; narcissus ; oleaster.

Neut. :

DecL 2. Nouns in nm: apium;ligustrum;lilium;thymum.

Decl. 3. acef ; cicer ; papaver ; piper ; robur ; siler ;
siser ; suber ; tus.
Common :

DecL 2. balanus; cytisus ; lotus; rubus; spinus.

DecL 3. larix ; rumex.

BE) Countries :
Masc. :
DecL 2. Pontus.

Neut :
DecL 2. Nouns in vm :

Illyricum ; Latium ; Noricum ; Samnium.

CC) Cities :
Masc. :
DecL 2. All Plurals in t :
Corioli ; Delphi ; Gabii; Puteoli ; Veii ; Argi (for Argds).
AlsoyCanopus; Orchomenus; Stymphalus.

uiyiiized by CjOOQ IC

|i8. Gender. 79

DecL 3. Nouns in as ant- : Acragas; Taras ; «s, et :
Tunes; several in 5 5ii- : Frusino; Hippo; Narbo
(Martius};Sulmo;Vesontio; someindn-: Brauron;
«• nut- : Hydrus;Pessinus.

But of this last class most are Fern. : Amathus ; Opus;

Myus; Rhamnus, && Selinus is conunon.
Martial has * Narbo pulcherrima,' of another Narbo.
Croto (also Croton, and Crotona f.), Marathon are

common.

Neut :
Decl 2. Nouns in mn, ttn, & (PL) :
Tarentum ; Tusculum ; Ilion ; Arbela ; Leuctra ; Susa.

DecL 3. Most in •, or, oa :
Caere ; Bibracte ; Reate ; Tergeste ; Tibur ; Argos.

Also Praeneste, which Virgil and Juvenal have Fem. in
AbL by Svnesis. Anxur is Masc in Mart with reference
to the hil^ 'candidus Anxur;' Neut. in Hor. with re-
ference to the town; 'impositum saxis late can-
dentibus Anxur.'

'AmphipoliSy Trapezus are Neut in Pliny with re-
ference to ' oppidum.'

Some have double form and gender : Sagunt-us£-um, n.

NoU I. Names of precious stones are, some Fem. in reference
to gemma, others Masc in reference to lapis.

Fem. :
amethystus; sapphirus : — iaspis; onyx; sardonyx (usually).

Masc. :

ber>'llus : — adamas.
Common :

chrysolithus ; smaragdus, emerald.

Note 2. Synesis (agreement with meaning, not with form) some-
times gives to a Noun an attribute of a different Gender :

* Eunuchus acta est ' (i.e. fabula Eunuchus), Ter. ^ Cen-
tauro magna' (i.e. nave Centauro), Verg. * Alta cre-
mata est Ilion,' Ov. Met. xiv. 466.

So, Female names in mn of DecL 2 are Fem.: 'Mea Glycerium,'
Ter. ' Mea Silenium,' Plaut

Note 3. Some Fem. and Neut words imply men without changing
their gender :

operae, workmen ; excubiae, nighi sentinels ; vigiliae,
watchmen \ auxilia, auxiliaries: so mancipium n.
means a slave , considered as a piece of goods.

Similarly, prostibulum, seortum are Neuter words contemp-
tuously applied to profligate women.

2. Correspondence of Gender with Form appears in the De-
clensions. ^oooIp

8o Latin Wordlore,

%^%

19 iiL Case in Nouns.

Case.

I. The Cases (Casus) in each Number are sixr
Nominativus, Vocativus, Accusativus, Genetivus, Dati-
vus, Ablativus. (On the Locative Case see below, and
§20.)

Answers the question Example :

i) Nominative . Who or What? Quisdedit? . . iVir,

Who gave? . . )A man,

2) Vocative (Case of one addressed) | ^ ^^

3) Accusative . Whom or what ? Quern video ? . . Virum,

Whom do I see?) A man,

4) Genitive . Whose or where- Cuius donum ? \ Viri,

of? Whose gift f . SA maf^s.

5) Dative . . . To or for whom Cui datum ? . . Viro,

or what ? To whom given? i To a man,

6) Ablative . . "By, with, &c., A quo datum ? ^ A viro,

whom or what ? By whom given? \ By a man,

2. Case (Gr. irrw^tc) is the form given to a Noun or Pronoun to
shew the relation in which it stands to some other word. Gram-
marians represented that form which a Noun takes when it is the
Subject of a sentence, by an upright Hne, and likened the other
forms to lines falling av/sy from 3ie perpendicular. These they
called Casa (cado) : and their series, Ihe declension, or sloping-
downy of the word. Afterwards, the Nominative was called Casus
Rectus, M/ Upright Case, and the others (except the Vocative)
Casus Obliqui, Oblique Cases; whereas the Stem is more pro-
perly the upright line, and the several Cases, mcluding the Nomi-
native and Vocative, are deflections from it. So, from the Stem
nuc- {walnut-tree) the Cases are : Nom. V. nuc-* («nux), Ace
nuc-em, G. nuc-U, D. nuc-1, Ab. nuc-e. ^

3. The Relations which Cases fail to express are supplied by-
Prepositions ; and in the languages of modem Europe the use of
Prepositions prevails, and Declension is comparative^ rare. Thus
the Romanic languages have only one Case-form in each Number
for Nouns ; English, two ; but the Possessive in English is of very
limited use. Sanskrit has the six Latin Cases and two more, the
Instrumental and the Locative. Greek has only five ; but it pre-
serves traces of the Instrumental and the Locative. Latin retains
many fragments of the Locative Case.*

* The order in which the cases were ranked by ancient Grammarians, imitated, as it
has been, by modem writers, is vicious and misleading. The Vocative has been separated,
from the Nominative, with which it is almost identical, and has thus assumed an im-
portance which ought not to be given to it. The Accusative, so often concurring with
b(^h, has been separated from both. The Dative and Ablative, so often identical in
form, have been thrown apart. The only motive for this misarrangement was the desire
to place the Genitive next to the Nominative, because its variations indicate those of
Declension. But this is better done by giving the Stem and Character, which appear in
the Genitive Plural of Nouns: thus homo, homin-, shewn in homiN-um.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

I aa The Five Declensions. 8 1

iv. The Five Declensions. ^^

Five

There are Five Declensions of Latin Noiins, which ^^^'
shew the Character of their Stems by the letter before
-rum or -mn in the Genitive Plural.

1. A-stems have Character . A , . mensA-rum.
II. O-stems — 0 . . dominO-rum.

"^•^Tmn - a Consonant ' ;vi,^5-um.

I-stems — I . . ovi-um.

IV. U-stems — U . . gradU-um.

V. E- stems — E . . diE-rum.

d) The Declensions fall into two groups : namely

(I) The A- E- and 0-declensions (i. 5. 2.)

(II) The Consonant and Semiconsonant (I, U) declensions (3. 4.)

(I) The primary vowel a is appropriate to Fern, words (Decl. ij ;
w^ikened to e, it forms anomer more limited Fem. DecL (5) ;
weakened to o (which in a later age partly became «), it forms a
Masc DecL (2) in o-s («-•), including aJso Neuters in o-m (u-m).

(IT) In Consonant Nouns the stem and suffix are often linked by
the vowel 1 : duc-I-bus. Sometimes this happens in the Nom.
Sing. : can-i-s, iuven-i-s, which thus appear like I-nouns. On the
other hand, I-nouns often drop that light vowel in the Nom. Sing.
and so wear the appearance of Consonant Nouns: stirp-s, par-s.
These causes made it so hard for grammarians to draw the line of
distinction accurately between these two classes that they included
them in one Decl. (3).

U-nouns (4), which contract some cases, escape this confusion,
but are liable to another ; for the affinity of n and o has caused
some of their case-forms to be often mixed up with those of the
O-DecL (2).

Obs, Pronouns are peculiar and irregularly declined Nouns,
which are with most convenience treated separately.

b) I. In Neuter Nouns, the Nominative, Vocative, and Accusa-
tive are the same in each Njmiber severally ; and in the Plural
they end in ft. The A- and £-declensions have no Neuters : the
U-dedension has very few.

2. The Vocative in words no^ Greek is the sanie as the Nomina-
tive, except in the Singular of Nouns in -us of DecL 2, which have
Vocative-ending e : domin-«, fill (for fili-«).

3. The Dative and Ablative Plural are always alike.

* The Consonant before •mn is the Character in Consonant-nouns. This may be any
Mute (except iL* q), Nasal, or Liquid ; or the Sibilant represented by r.

uiyiiized by CjOOQ IC

82 Latin Word/ore. 82a

forma- ▼• ForiTiation of the Cases.

fhe" °^ The Cases are generally formed by suffixing an Ending to the
^^***^ Stem;. a vincular t is sometimes required in Consonant-noims ;
while in many instances Letter-change occurs in the formation.
" See Bucheler (Lat. Declension).

Nominative Singular : Primitive ending s.
Decl. I. A-nouns, except Greek Masc names, do not take s :
jnensS: but Gr. Borea-s, alipte-s.

Decl. 2. 0-nouns, not Neuter, take •: dominii-s for domi-
n6-s.

But some stems in -«po- drop o, rejectmg s :

puer for puer5-s, tener for tener6-s.

And nouns, in which -ro follows a mute or f, drop o, reject s, and
insert e before r:

magist-e-r for magistr-6-s, nig-e-r for nigr-6-s.

DecL 3. Mute Consonant-nouns take s :

iudexfor iudic-s; pes forped-s; princep-s.
liquid and Nasal nouns do not take • : consul, passer, virgo
(virgin-). Hiem-p-s alone takes s, inserting p.

In numerous words with Nom. in s, inflected in €r-, 6r., 6r-,ur, s
belongs to the stem and is not a Case-ending; its place in flexion
being taken by r : flos floris for (flosis), aes aeris for (aesis).
I-nouns take s if the vowel is not dropt :

avi-s, nube-s* for (nubi-s), gravi-s :

also when the vowel is dropt (which happens in many stems) if the
Consonant before the Character is a Mute :

audax for (audaci-s), serpen-s for (serpenti-s).
If the stem ends in rt- after a Mute, 1 is dropped, and e inserted
before r: imb-e-r for (imbri-s), ac-e-r for acri-s: but the forms
in lis are also used by Adjectives.

Decl. 4. U-nouns take • : gradu-s.
DecL 5. E-nocms take • : die-s.

Accusative Singular : Primitive Endmg m, Greek y or a.

All Declensions take the Ending m for Masc. and Fem. Nouns,
o passing into «, and 1 generally into e : Cons.-stems insert e :

1. mensa-m 3. virgin-e-m 4. ffradu-m

2. dominu-m for domi- tussi-m 5. die-m

no-m nube-m

orbe-m

* Corssen, referring to the Noun pub-es -is, with its byform puber -&is, also to
such Nouns as Cer-es 4his, pulv-is >eris, &c., contends that I-nouns in -Ss, Hko
nubesy sedes, were originally S-stems.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

5 2o. Formation of the Cases, 83

Obs, In an Neuter Nouns, the Nominative and Accusative have
the same form. See iv. b. This^ in O-noims, is •-m^vaii
bellum for bell-onu

In Cons-^ I-, and U-nouns it is the Noun-stem :

3. siser, marmor, sinapi ; 4. cornu ;

often with vowel-change : genus for (genes), frigus for (frigos)
melius for (melios), mar€ for (marl-) : or dropping t : animal for
(animall-), calcar for (calcarl-).

Genitive Singular : Primitive Ending generally as.

As the Greek, so the old Latin language weakened as into 6s ;
which was fiirther weakened into Is This ending is taken by
Consonant-, I-, and U-nouns :

3. virgin-is, tuss-is for tussi- 4. gradus for gradu-is.

That A-nouns anciently had it, argued from f am ilia- s in
paterfamilias, &c, and similar forms found in E. L. That it
was used in £-nouns is shewn by the form Diespiter,and rabies
(Gen.) in Lucr. iv. 1079. But the endings (a-l) ae, (o-t) I, and e-l
were afterwards taken by A-, 0-, and E-nouns severally.

A-l remained long in use, and abounds in Lucretius, as vita-i,
and is used in a few words by VirgiL (O-l) is not found in use ; it
passed into 1 at an early time, and is also found as (el) in R. L. till
near the Augustan age. Lucilius proposed to reject Gen. S. (el) and
write Nom. PI. (el) ; but his distinction was not observed.

In E-nouns a-i remains. Hence

I. mens-ae. 2. domin-i. 5. die-i.

Dative Singular : Primitive ending aL

This Ending is only taken by A-, 0-, and E-nouns :

I. mensae (anc. mensai) for (mensa-ai) ; 2. domino (anciently
dominoi) for (domino-oi) ; 5. diei for (die-ei).
In the rest the Locative I has superseded the Dative Ending :

3. virgin-i tuss-i for (tussi-i) 4. gradu-i

Locative : Primitive Ending L

The Locative Singular remains in Latin in such forms as

militiae, belli, domi, humi, vesperi, ruri, Tiburi, luci;

the Adverbial forms ubi, ibi, &c.

and in the names of tovms, &c, of the A- and 0-declensions :

Romae for Roma-i, Tarent-i, Milet-i, &c.

The Loc. Plur. is confounded with Dat and Abl. in u or l»iu.
The Sing. Loc in Cons.-nouns often passes into the Abl. S ; C ar-
thaginS for CarthaginI, Lacedaemone for Lacedaemoni.

VesperS also is used for vesperi.

Ablative Singular : Primitive ending t.
In Oscan and old Latin this ending became d :
i. sententia-d 2. poplico-d 3. conventioni-d mari-d 4. senatu-d

G2 T

uiyiuzeu uy ■v^j ^^^ xJVt Iv^

84 Latin Wordlore. §20.

This d (often noticeable in Plautus) was dropped after ac 186, and
the Ablative became the Stem of the word, lengthened in the
Vowel-Declensions (though I is often weakened into < : urb-€),and
in the Consonant-Declension ending inS: contion-&

Nominative Plural : Primitive ending as.

This became -es in the Consonant-, U-, and E-declensions :

3. virgin-es 4. gradus for (gradu-es)

o r b - e s for (orbi-es) 5. d i - e s for (die-es)

Instances of es in the 0-DecL occur in £. L.
But in the A- and 0-declensions, by dropping • and contracting
vowels, as in the Gen. Sing., the endings ae, 1, were obtained :

I. mensae for (mensa-es). 2. domini for (domino-es).
The form (el) for I occurs in Latin as late as the age of Caesar.

Accusative Plural : Primitive ending s, added to the Accu-
sative Singular in Masc. and Fern. Nouns.

The change of m into n before • makes the Latin forms ans,
oas, (e)as, fas, aas, eas. Hence, by excluding the weak nasal,
with compensation, are obtained &s, 5s, 5s, is, lis, 9s :

1. mens-as 3. virgin-es 4. gradus

2. domin-os orb-Is 5. dies

This shews why the Accus. Plural of I -nouns is correctly written
-IS, though the analogy of the Nom. has led to the use of 9s (sis).

The Primitive ending of Accus. Nom. and Voc Plural in Neuter
Nouns was 4, which was weakened into ik in Greek and Latin :

2. bell -a. 3. nomin-5, reti-5. 4. cornu-i.

Genitive Plural : Primitive endings Am, sAm.

The former of these became -am in Consonant-, I-, and U-nouns :

3. virgin-um orbi-um 4, graduvum

The latter, as -sam, was adopted in A- O- and E-nouns :

1. mensa-rumfor (mensa-sum) 5. die -rum for (die-sum)

2. domino-rum for (domino-sum)

Dative and Ablative Plural : Primitive ending bhsrAs.

This, corrupted into bas (for b-los), became the ending of these
Cases in Consonant- I- U- and £-nouns :

3. virgin-l-bus orbl-bus 4. arcu-bus 5. die-bus

and occasionally in the A-nouns :

6. dea-bus, filia-bus, &c.

But in most A-nouns, it became (als)ls : i. mensls.
In O-nouns, (oss, oU)ls, usually (els) before Augustus, after
whose time is prevailed ; 2. dominis; bellis.
We find U contracted : pecunis (Cic), provincis (Inscr.).

.0

gle

I«.

Endings of the Declensions.

85

>

«

w

;*<
O

O

w
-)
u
w

>

a:

H

;><

0

w
O

w

H
If

W

2

y^y~^ A'-^

a .

0)

>*

0

z !|q

rS

Z

«n«iSii

£

H

1

,Q

« ^iz

Sun

ii.

« n u

i) T

CO

s s

1!^

u 6

0

5S«S

if

b

<<^

S

ta^l

_!5

vg

jilj

•2^;;

'^ J^Z

IZZ

CA*

«-II II

H, II n

i;^

S5

0

^^ * IM IM IM

SS II

-1

^

•^

i

25

Z c

.

JHA

•s'«

■^r

,

u3

^ c'z:i

zz

ss-S

55

^11 D

j«i II n

>«

D

a

e 0

0

• v«*

Si^

Is

c/l

1

>• IK 5© M

7 >N II

^ .

a

3 ^r-

)s

:

C/3 3

8

»u

3 0.

!;iS

D
0

0 U H

M 10 10 IN

zz

>tf II u

i 0

6

24

.

^5,0,1

z

,. II «

eg

•sw

»*1

0

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i slJJ

s
Q

4

w 6 d 0 c ti-^'?

^ i c3 0 G tJ-4

»-^

0 0 0 4> rt ^ ^

0 0 S 53 rtS

"5'"

86

Latin Wordlorc,

§22.

First
Declen-
sion.

Section II.
i. First Declension: A-Nouns.

The First Declension contains Latin and latinized
words with the Nominative Singular in &. These are
Feminine: Musa, «/«j^, mensa, /o:^^; excepting Male
Names and Appellatives: Messalla, BelgS, Belgian^
scriba, secretary, poetiy poet; also Hadria, Adriatic-
gulf'y which are Masculine.

It also contains Greek Appellatives and Names^
Proper and Patronymic, in Ss, fts. Masculine : aliptes,
a trainer, Aeneas, Atrldes; in i, &, &, Feminine:
crambe, AgSve, Nemea, Iphigenia.

[In Tables of Declension and Conjugation byfonns of equal
authority are placed beside others : aa am ; byforms compara-
tively rare are added between brackets : hn (am).]

ii.

Table.

Singular.

I. iahU, f.

2. secretary, m. 3

. goddess, f.

4. son ofAtrtMs, m-

Nom.

mens-*

scrib-ft

de.»

Atrld-ea (»)

Voc.

mens-a

scrib-a

de-a

Atrid-« & (*)

Ace.

mens-am

scrib-am

de-am

Atrid-«n

Gen.

mens-ae

scrib-ae

de-ae

Atrid-ae

Dat.

mens-a«

scrib-aa

de-ae

Atrid-ae

AbL

mens-ft

scrib-«

de-ft

Atrid-«&

fc» -

-

Plural.

Nom.

mens-a«

scrib-ae

de-ae

Atrid-ae

Voc.

mens-ae

scrib-ae

de-ae

Atrid-ae

Ace.

mens-as

scrib-aa

de-as

Atrid-as

Gen.

mens- Aram

scrib-Arum

de-Amm

Atrid-am

Dat.

mens-ls

scrib-U

de-&biM

Atrid-la

AbL

mens-to

scrib-U

de-&biui

Atrid-I»

Fem. Adjectives in &, as bon&, tenertt, nigrft, are declined as
mens*.

iii. C^ses in the First Declension.

a) The old Gen. S. in aa remains in the phrases paterfamilias,
materfamilias, filiusfamilias, found in good writers from.
Terence to Suetonius : and in the Plur. patres (matres. filii)
familias. Familiae is also used with pater, &c., by Livy always :
and familiarum is written with patres, &c^

b) The old Gen. S. in at appears in Inscrr. It is used as a di-
syllabic &l by Ennius, Plaut Lucr. Verg. (aulal, auraf, aquai, pictai).

* Alctim?na-s(0«n.) is cited from Plautus. The Gen. form in
late Inscrr. of I. L. or later R. L., may be an imitation of Gr. n«.

found chiefly in

uized by Google

§22.

The First Declension,

87

(which

i) The GeiL Plur. is formed in -vm rather than -1
can however be used), by the following :

1) Patronymic Names in -des,

Aenea-des, Aenea-dum.

2) Many Names of Tribes, People, &c.,

Lapith-ae, Lapith-imi.

3) Compounds of col-gen- (in poetry),

caelicol-a, caelicol-um ; terrigen-a, terrigen-um.

4) Amphor-um from amphor-a, drachm-um from drach-

m-a, when used with Numerals :

terna milia amphorum, '^oooampkors; milledrach-
mum, 1,000 drachms,

d) The form in ftims of Dat AbL PL might serve to distinguish
the Fern, from the Masc. not only in dea, but in many other Sub-
stantiva Mobilia. For this purpose it is ascribed by grammarians
to numerous words :

filia, nata, liberta, conserva, domina, era, mima, nympha,
asina, equa, mula, anima :

and in some of these, especially fili a, nata, liberta, it often occurs
in Inscrr. and legal forms. But, generally, there is little authority
for the use of this Case-ending by classical authors, in any words
butdeabus, duabus, ambabus.

e) The Locative Case in ae (for •-!) is formed in the Sing, by
militia, and Names of Towns :

militiae, at ike wars, Romae, at Rome,

inu by Plural Names of towns :

Athenis, at Athens.

iv. Greek Nouns in First Declension.

Singular.

Nom.

M. alipt-es • .

Pers-es ik .
Aeet-es &

Aene-a« . .
Marsy-as (&)

F. music-& (€) .

cramb-€ • .

Helen-« (&) .

Agav-« . .

Neme-& . .

Iphigem-li .

£lectr-& . .

Voc

Ace

9&

9n(am)

«&

9n am

€&

9n(am)

&

ftnam

&li

am An

»(«)

am (9n)

9

to

9li

9n am

9

Sn

ft

ftn (am)

ft

team

&

&11 am

Gen.

Dat.

ae

ae (8s) ae

8s ae
8s

AbL
8 (ft)
8&

8 (ft)

ft

ft (8)

8

8ft

8
ft
ft
ft

Greek
Nouns

DecL I.

The Plural of Appellatives follows that of mens a,

a) Many Greek Nouns of this Decl. were latinized early, and
seem to have soon exchanged the Greek endings 17C) oc^ 17, oi first

uiyiiized by CjOOQ IC

88 Latin Wordlore, § 22.

for a, then, as shortening came into vogue, for ^ following the prac-
tice of the Aeolic dialect :

Masc. pirate (xci/jar^c) Fern. aurS. (avptx)

poet2l (voiijr^c) epistul^ (eiruTToXif)

Such words are :
Masc, like scriba :

athleta, bibliopola, citharista, nauta, &c.
Fern., like mens a :

ancora, apotheca, aula, bibliotheca, comoedia, tragoedia,
scaena, &c.

d) Words introduced later have much variety, fluctuating between
the Greek and Latin form; and poetic usage in these often differs
from that of prose.* Thus we find :

A) Masc Greek Nouns :

i) Patronymics, like Atrid-€» & :

Aeneades, PeUdes, Tydides, &c (4 being rare).

2) Appellatives, like aliptes :

anagnostes, geometres, Olympionices, sophistes.

3) Gentile Names, like Pers-«» * :

Scyth-©« a, Sauromat-©*, Sarmat-a ;
with many in ites itft, 5tes 5t& :

Abderit-es a, £pirot-es a.

These sometimes pass to DecL 3. with Accus. S. em, Sn.

4) Like Aeet-«* & :

Anchis-es a, Lycamb-es a, Orest-es a, Thyest-es, a.

5) Like Aeneas :

Anaxagoras, Diagoras, Lysias, Boreas, &c

6) Like Marsy-&s & :

Cinyr-as a, Dam-as a, Damoet-as a, larb-as a, Leo-
nid-as a, Mid-as a.

B) Fem. Greek Nouns :
i) Likemusic-&« :

dialectic-a e, grammatic-a ©, physic-a ©, rhetoric-a e.

2) Ltke crambe :

aloe, epitome, hyperbole, &c

3) Like Helen-«» :

Alcumen-ii, Erigon-ft, Hecat-ft, Led-*, Nymph-«,
Semel-&; which also take € : Circ-«, Cybel-8, Dirc-«,
Europ-«, Eurydic-«, Penelop-«; which also take ft.

* CUcero, as a rule, prefers Latin fonns to Greel^ and sometimes introduces the latter
with acknowledgment of their origin ('quae hyperbole dicitur*), or with an apology, as
£//. ad Ait. vii. 3 : ' Reprehendendus sum quod homo Romanus Piraeea scripsi, non
Piraeeum; sic enim omnes nostri locuti sunt '

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

§23.

The Second Declension.

89

Also local names^ Aetn-^ Cret-S, Id-^ Ithac-S, Liby-&;
may take « for ft in poetry.

4) Like Agave :

Calliope, Danae, Euterpe, Hebe, Lethe, Melpomene, Oenone^
Persephone, Procne, &c.

5) Like Nemea :

Malea, Midea.

6) Like Iphigenii:

Medea ; and the local Names Aegina, Lema, Ossa.

7) Like Electra :

Cassandra.

Note, Many Nouns in es, which in Greek belong to the First
DecL, having the form of Patronymics without really being such,
pass over to the Third Decl. in Latin, forming Gen. -!• ;

Alcibiades, Euclides, Euripides, Miltiades, Simonides.

Yet these and many other names^ Greek and barbarian, which
take Gen. Is, fluctuate between the First and Third Declension in
the ending of the Accus. S. (Sn, em). Such are :

Achilles, Aristoteles, Archimedes, Artaxerxes, Cleanthes,
Datames, Diogenes, Diomedes, Euphrates, Mithridates,
Phrahates, Polynices, Polycrates, Socrates, Tiridates, Xer-
xes, &c.

Section III.

i Second Declension: 0-Nouns.

The Second Declension contains
i) Latin and latinised Nouns in lb (for d«) chiefly
Masculine: dominus, /c^rrf;

2) dipt Masculine Nouns in fit (for ir-ds, r-d«; see
p. 82): puer, boy, magister, master \ to which add vir
(for vlr-os), man ;

3) Neuter Nouns in nm: bellum, war.

4) Greek Nouns in 68, Masc. and Fern. ; in 6s, Masa ;
in 611, Neuter ; used chiefly by the poets.

ii Table:

SINGULAR.

hrdjtoi.

boy, m.

masteKf m.

war, n.

Norn.

domin-iis

puer

magister

bell-v

Voc.

domin-e

puer

magister

bell-w

Ace

domin-vm

puer-vm

magistr-um

bell-tt

Gen.

domin-t

puer-i

magistr-l

belU

Dat

domin-o

puer-o

magistr-o

bell-o

AbL

domin-o

puer-o

magistr-o

beU-o

as
Second
Declen-
sion.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

90

Latin Wordlore.

S2S.

PLURAL.

Irregu-
lar
DccL

Nom.

Voc.

Acc

Gen.

Dat.

AbL

Nom.

Voc.

Acc.

Gen.

Dat

AbL

Nom.

Voc

Acc.

Gen.

Dat

Abl.

domin-l

domin-i

domin-os

domin-Omm

domin-is

domin-ls

tOHf xa,

fiH
fUi-nm
fll-t (U)
fUi-o
fUi-o

fili-t
fili-os
fili-(
fili-to

puer-l

puer-1

puer-os

puer-Omm

puer-is

puer-ls

magistr-t

magistr-t

magistr-os

magistr-Omm

magistr-ls

magistr-ts

SINGULAR.
bushelt m.

medimn-tts

medimn-©

medimn-vs

medimn-t

medimn-o

medimn-o

Godf TCL.

de-tts

de-tts

de-nm

de-t

de-o

de-o

bell-a

beU-«

beU-a

bell-Omm

beU-to

bell-to

imperi-nm

imperi-nm

imperi-nm

imper-1 (il)

imperi-o

imperi-e

PLURAL.

medimn-t

medimn-i

medimn-os

medimn-nn

medimn-ls

medimn-ls

di (de-i) * imperi-a

di (de-1) imperi-a

de-OS imperi-A

de-Pmniy de-nm imperi-Orom
dis (de-Is) imperi-is

dis (de-Is) ' imperi-is

Vxx^a man ; Acc. S. vtrum, &c. ; Gen. PL virorum or viruoL
And its Compounds, semivir, decemvir, triumvir, &c.

SINGULAR (no Plural).

seUf n. venom, n. common-peopUt n. (m.)

N.V.Ac. pelag-tts vir-ns vulg-ns

Gen. pelag-i vir-1 (rare) vulg-l

D. AbL pelag-o vir-o vulg-o

Pelag-«, seas^ occurs in Lucr. ; vulgus has an Acc us. vulg-nm, m.
Pelagus (xcXayoc, PL TfXay-ca, iy) is a Greek Neuter Noun.

iii Cases in the Second Declension.

i) The endings os, om were used even to the Augustan age, after
F, Q, qn, as shewn by Inscrr. and MSS. Thus were written av-6s,^
av-om, div-om, mortu-ds, mortu-om, aequ-om, &c

2) The Vocative in « is a weakening of 6 (Pr. «), and resembles
English forms in 1©, y (Willie, Johnny, &c).

Male names in ins contract this case into t : Claudi, Mercuri,
Demetri, VergilL Pompel (from Pompeius) is further con-
tracted by Horace into Pompei. So Vult©i, fromVulteius. Filius,
son^ is Uie only Appellative which forms this contraction. Others
are regular : flu vie, O river', and Ac^ectives : Cynthie, O Cyn-
thian (Apollo). But meus (for mius), Voc mi for mie.

' Dii, diis are sometimes written, but pronounced as dl, df».

uiyiuzeu uy ■n^JVJvJVJ Iv

§ 23. Tfie Second Declension, 91

3) The Gen. Sing, of Substantives with Nom. tnsy turn, was
contracted into t (by prose-writers as well as poets) till the Au-
gustan age, and is so written by Virgil and Horace. Propertius
and Ovid are the first who wrote 11, which then became the usual
form ; but the poets Manilius, Persius, and Martial prefer L

4) Humus, ^nw/«^, bellum, war^ vesper, evenings and Sin-
gular Names of towns, form the Locative Case in t :

humi, on the ground Ephesi, at Ephesus

belU, at the wars Mileti, at Miletus

vesperi (vesperS), ai evening Tarenti, at Tarentum

Plural names of towns form the Locative in u : Gabiis, at Gabii ;
Veiis, at VeiL

5) The Genitive Plural Ending mn is preferred to <
a) by words signifying coins, sums, weights, and measures :

Gen. PL firom Nom. Sing.

nunmium . . . nummus, a coin

denarium . . . denarius, ten-as-piece

sestertium . . . sestertius, sesterce

talentum .... talentum, a talent (a sum and weight)

stadium .... stadium, /wr/£7«[^

modium .... modius, /«rr/&

medimnum . . . medimnus (also um, n.), bushel

^ by many names of people: Argivum, Danaum, Pelas-
gum, &c from Argivus, &c.

^) as a licence, chiefly in poetry, by a great number of words,
such as deus and its compounds, divus, vir and its com-
pounds, faber, engineer^ socius, ally, liberi, children^
&c. : also by numeral and compound Adjectives : ' denum
talentum'; 'magnanimum Rutulum'; 'omnige-
numque deum monstra.' — ^Verg.

f7. Clipt Nouns in «r. Noun*

i) The Clipt-nouns from Stems in «ro-, like puer, are
gencr, son-in-law vesper, evening

socer, father-in-law Liber, Bacchus

adulter, paramour {lascivious, Adj.)

and Adjectives,

asper, rough (rarely aspr-) miser, wretched

lacer, torn prosper, prosperous

m)er,/ree (whence liberi, children of tener, tender
freemen)
with the many compounds of fero, gero ; frugifer,^i(^/, cor-
niger, homed. Add satur, satura, saturum, fully satiated.
Ib€r (Hiber), Celtiber, Spaniard, form their cases in ir-o- :
Iberum, Celtiberum, &c.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

92 Latin Wordlore. §23.

2) Clipt-nouns from Stems in po- after a mute orf, like ma-
gister :

2^tx^ field cancer, crab faber, architect

aper, wild boar caper, he-goat liber, book

arbiter, umpire coluber, snake minister, attendant

auster, south-wind culter, knife

With Proper Names, as Ister or Hister, the Danube^ Alex-
ander, Euander, Teucer, &c. ; and these Adjectives :

aeger, sick macer, lean sacer, sacred

Afer, African niger, black scaber, rough

2Xtx^jet-blctck piger, slow sinister, on left hand

Calaber, Calabrian impiger, active tsieter, foul

crober, jfreguent integer, entire vsifer, cunning

glaber, smooth puldier, beautiful noster, our

ludicer, sportive ruber, red vester, your

o) Mulciber, Vulcan^ and dexter, on the right hand, are de-
clined with and without e in the other forms :

Mulcib5r-i or Mulcibri (also Mulcibgris, Mulcibris 3.) ;
dexter, dextSra or dextra, dext2rum or dextrum.

/3) Some Substantives use the form in us as well as that in er :
Euander or Euandrus (whence Voc. EuandrS) in Virgil;
Maeander or Maeandrus: puerus (anc).

Green V. Grcck Nouns in the Second Declension.

Nouns

in Singular.

Deci. 2. j^Q^ Del-6«, f. Ath-6«, m. Androge-d« (&•), m. Peli-ttn, n.

Voc. Del-« Ath-6« Androge-6« Peli-ttn

Ace. Del-611 am Ath-6n (6) Androge-6 5n (dnii) Peli-»n

Gen. Del-1 Ath-6 Androge-6 (l) Peli-I

D.Abl. Del-o Ath-6 (6ii«) Androge-6 Peli-o

a) The Greek Nom. and Accus. forms of Personal and Local
Names, with a few Appellatives, in 6s, 6n, Masc. Fem., and 611,
Neut., are frequently used in Latin poetry, but rare in prose :

MeleagrSs ; scorpids ; Cnid6s ; TroilSn ; Sam6n ; IliSn, &c.

Virgil has Ath6n (as from Ath6s) : Chads n. 3., Abl. Chad :
and Panthu, Voc of Panthus.
On Nouns in ens see § aft.

/3) The Greek Genitive Plural in on (wv) is found in Latin.
Sallust has 'colonia Theraeon,' 'Philaenon arae,' for The-
raeorum, Philaenorum. So Georgicon for Georgicorum,
from GeorgicS, the Georgics,

o^„d„ vi. Gender in the Second Declension.

in

Deci. a. Besides the Nouns of which the meaning determines the Gender,
as stated in S 18. ii., only four genuine Latin words in this DecL
are Fem. They are :

Digitized byCjOOQlC

5^3.

Adjectives in DecL IL and L

93

alvus, paunch humus, ground

colus, dntaff'{Stt Decl. 4.) vannus, wtnnowing-fan

The following Greek words are Fern. :
arctus, the bear-constellation dialectus, dialect
atomus, atom^ C. Fin, i. 6. pharus, lighthouse^ Stat. 5*. v. loi,

carbasus, linen curtain or sail

and many others are cited by grammarians, but without good
classical authority for their use.
Barbitos, lute^ is common.

vii Table of Adjectives in Decl. II. and I. TaWeof

A4jec-

Adjectives of three Endings, in -ns -a -am, -er -Sra -Smm, tivesin
and -er -ra -mm, follow the Second and First Declensions. J^d*

and

Masc

Fem.

Neut.

First

Dcclen

sions.

like

likemensa

likebellum

dominus . bonus

bona

bonum

good

puer . . . tener

tenera

tenerum

tender

magister . niger

nigra

nigrum

black

SINGULAR,

M.

F.

N.

i) N. bon-n»

bon-a

bon-nm

V. bon-e

bon-a

bon-nm

Ace. bon-mn

bon-am

bon-nm

G. bon-l

bon-ao

bon-l

D. bon-o

bon-ao

bon-o

AbL bon-o

bon-ft
PLURAL.

bon-o

N. bon-l

bon-ao

bon-a

V. bon-l

bon-ao

bon-a

Ace bon-o«

bon-as

bon-a

G. bon-omm

bon-ara

m bon-omin

\

D. bon-u

bon-ls

bon-l»

AbL bon-ls

bon-i»
SINGULAR.

bon-ls

M.

r.

N.

2) N. tener

tener-a

tener-nm

V. tener

tener-a

tener-um

Ace. tener-um

tener-an

1 tener-nm

G. tener-i

tener-ao

tener-l

D. tener-o

tener- ao

tener-o

AbL tener-o

tener-ft

tener-o ^ .

uiyuizedbyLiOOQle

94

Latin Wordlore,

§24.

PLURAL.

M.

F.

N.

N.

tener-1

tener-ae

tener-a

V.

tener-4

tener-ae

tener-a

Ace

tener-o«

tener-as

tener-a

G.

tener-omm

tener-amm

tener-on

D.

tener-i«

tener-i»

tener-i»

AbL

tener-l«

tener-la
SINGULAR,

tener-u

3)N

niger

nigr-a

nigr-nm

V.

niger

nigr-a

nigr-um

Ace.

nigr-um

nigr-am

nigr-mn

G.

nigr-l

nigr-ae

nigr-l

D.

nigr-o

nigr-ae

nigr-o

Abl.

nigr-o

nigr-*
PLURAL.

nigr-o

N.

nigr-l

nigr-aa

nigr-a

V.

nigr-l

nigr-ae

nigr-a

Ace.

nigr-o«

nigr-a»

nigr-a

G.

nigr-omm

nigr-amm

nigr-orui

D.

nigr-is

nigr-la

nigr-l«

Abl.

nigr-is

nigr-U

nigr-io

24

The
Third
Declen-
sion.

Section IV.
i. Third Declension: CONSONANT- and I-Nouns.

The Third Declension has two chief Divisions :

1. Nouns with Character a Consonant, either

Mute, Nasal, Liquid, or Sibilant.
II. Nouns with Character I-vocalis.

A few Consonant-nouns, as canis, iuvenis, vates, seem as if
they were I -nouns; many I -nouns, as parens, cohors, seem
as if they were Consonant-nouns; and many appear to fluctuate
between the two divisions, as civitas, serritus. The cause of
this uncertainty hes in the unstable nature of i-vocalis ; which,
being sometimes staminal, sometimes vincular, easily changed into
«, easily lost, does not always furnish a sure criterion of the class
to which the Noun belongs, by its presence or absence.

I. CONSONANT STEMS.

ii Nominative Endings in the Cons. Declen-
sion.

i) In this Declension the Nominative-endings are numerous;
the chief being s, n, I, r (Sibilant, Nasal, and Liquids)^ of which a,
including z (os), is the prevalent enc^ng.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

iH-

T/ie Third Deckfision,

95

2) Nominatives which end in o have dropt n.

Those in e, t, m, e, are Neuter words without final suffix.

3) The vowel of the true Stem is often shewn both in the Noun-
stem and the Nominative: dux due-, fax fXc-, &c Sometimes
the Noun-stem, and not the Nominative, shews the root-vowel:
iudex iudic- (true form die-), comSs comit- (true form it-).
Sometimes the Nominative, and not the Noun-stem, shews it:
auspex auspic- (true form sp^c-) ; obses obsTd- (true form sSd-).
Sometimes neither of the two: rem ex remlg- (true form is ilg-,of
which the ik is weakened into \ in the open syllable, to S in the
close). So auceps auciip-, princeps princYp- (true form in each
cip-), nomfin nomin- (Primitive ndman).

iii Syllabus.

In the following Syllabus the chief stems are given, with
Nom. endings, and distinctions of Gender (M. F. N. C.). Greek
stems which include no true Latin words, are kept separate : but
where the same stem comprises words in both languages, Greek
are added to Latin words, and marked with an asterisk. This
stands before the Gender when all of that Gender are Greek words.

A. Mute Guttural Stems.

To form the Nom. S., the stem adds s, with which the guttural
mdts into x, \ being generally changed into S.

i) Latin Guttural Stems, with a few Greek marked *.

Stem. Nom. S.

-ax F. fax, torch : *M. Corax.

-ax F. i^Xy peace: iomaiXy furnace; M. Aiax; C. llmax,

snail.
♦M. Thrax, Thracian ; Phaeax, Phaeaciany thorax,

breastpicUe.
F. nex, death ; (prgc-),/r^>'^r,has no Nom. G. Sing.

Adj. faenisex, haycutter,
(Variant C. ; s5nex, old person^ inflected s6n- for
sen5c-. Demin. senec-io.)
-ex (-ec) M. vervex, wether, N. halec, fish-pickle (also F.

halex).
-ex M. apex, peak ; caudex or codex, trunk, writing-

book, &c.; cimex, bug\ culex, gnat; extispex,
entrail'Viewer ; frutex, shrub ; latex, liquid; mu-
rex^ purple-shell, purple; podex; i^Mtyi, thumb ;
pontifex, pontifi"; pulex,jf^^; pumex, pumice; ra-
mex, bloodvessel ; saurex or sorex, shrew-mouse ;
vertex or vortex, summit, eddy,
F. carex, sedge ; ilex, scarlet oak : paelex, concu-
bine ; vltex (a shrub).
C. cortex, bark; forfex, shears; illex, decoy er;
imbrex, /r//; rumex, J^?rr^/; sTlex, basalt; with
words applicable to either sex ; artifex, auspex,
camifex, index, iudex, opifex, vindcx. See p. 76.

uiyiuzeu uy ■N^Jv-/v_-'>t Iv^

Syllabus
ot Cons.
Stems.

Sc-
ac-

&.

€c-
Ic-

96

Stem.

Ic-

IC-

iic-

eg-
»g-
fe-

ug-
ug-

Zrtf/w Wordlore,

§24.

N om. S»
-ix

-ix

-ox

-ux

-ex
-ex

-ex
-ox
-unx
-ux

M. dOix, cup ; fornix, arch ; *Cllix, Cilician,

F. appendix ; coxendix, hip ; niix, /^r« ; fiilix,

gull ; natrix, water-snake ; ycn^ pitch \ sMix, wi/-

/^Tw; struix, A^^l/ ; (vTc-is), rA<z«^/(noNonLS.);

♦hystrix,/«7rrw//;i^.
C. 12.rix, larch ; varix, swoln vein.
F. cervix, «^<r>&; cicatrix, scar \ comix, raven \

coturnix, quail '^ lodix, blanket:, meretrix ; nu-

trix, nurse ; radix, root ; vibix, weal ; and many

more.
♦M. Phoenix, Phoenician (also a name) ; phoenix

(a fabulous bird).
F. vox, voice,
F. crux, cross ; nux, walnut-tree, M. tradux, layer

(of vine) : C. dux, leader, guide,
F. lux, light. M. Pollux.

M. grex, herd; Lelex ^one of the LelSges).
M. rex, king ; F. lex, law.

Adj. exlex (Ace exlegem), outlawed,
F. strix, screech-owl; M. Ambiorix, Dumnorix,

Biturix, &c (Keltic names).
M. remex, rower,

M. Allobrox, Allobrogian (Keltic tribe).
C. coniunx or coiux, wife; husband, p. 76.
F. {ixng-)yjri4it, produce : no Nom. S.

2) Greek Guttural Stems.

5c-

yc-

yc-

Jch-

nc-

yg-

ng-

-ox

-yx

-yx
-yx
-nx
-yx

-nx

M. Cappadox, Cappadocian,

M. cilyx, budy husk ; Eryx.

M. bombyx, silkworm ; Ceyx.

F. 6nyx ; sardonyx ; (both precious stones).

F. lynx (M. in Hon).

M. lapyx (a wind) ; Phryx, Phrygian,

F. Styx (river in hell).

F. pfaiklanx ; s^nx ; Sphinx.

B, Mute Dental Stems.

The Stem adds s in Nom. S., before which the Dental is ex-
cluded : aetas for (aetat-s), nox for (noct-s).

Sometimes n is excluded with t: elephas for (elephant-s).

Short \ may become « ; milSs for (milit-s).

i) Latin, with Greek words.*

Nom. S.

-as F. anas, duck (Cic. N,D. ii. 48, anitum ova : var. r.

anttum).

-as F. aetas, time^ age ; aestas, summer ; calamitas,

calamity ; civitas, citizenship, body of citizens^
city ; cupiditas. cUsire ; -^xqXzs, piety ; tempestas.

ilt-

at-

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

§24-

The Third Declension,

97

Stem*

tt-

Noin.&

-€8

It-

-Is
-es

it-

6t-

6t-
ut-

ut-
ct-
nt-i

ad-

€d.

aed-
Id-

-ilt

-as

-ds

-us

-us
-c-x

-ns -rs

-as

-es

-aes

season^ weather y storm ; voluptas, pleasure ; with
many other Derivatives. See p. io8.
M. Maecenas.

M. aries, ram ; paries, house-wall, F. abies,yfr/rw;

M. (indigSs), native (no Nom. S.).

F. segds, corn-crop ; teg€s, mat.

C. interprSs, interpreter.

M. amSs, pole \ caesp^, lurf\ coclSs, one-eyed
person ; cael^s, celestial ; equSs, horseman^ on
horseback ; pedds, foot-soldier ^ on foot ; fomSs,
f^l ; gurggs, whirlpool ; limSs^ boundary ;
palm^SjTnne'tendril ; poplgs, >6«^^; stipSs, /r#^«^ ;
termCs, bough (cut off) ; tramSs, cross-path ; velSs,
skirmisher.

F. merges, j^/^7/C

C. antistSs ; com€s ; hosp^ ; milSs ; satellSs. See
p. 76.

Adj. alSs, winged (AbL S. I, «), used as Subst
birdy (Gen. PL in poetry alituum for alitum);
divfis, rich ; praepgs, fast-flying ; sospSs, safe ;
superstSs, surviving. Ako CaerSs, of Caere.

M. Dis, P/w/^.

F. quies, rest ; inquies, restlessness {only Nom. S.) ;
requies, repose (also declined as an E-noun, Ace.
requiem, Abl. requie). Adj. inquies, restless.

*M. lebes, chaldron \ magnes, magnet \ Cres,
Cretan\ also Names of men which have a second
form in 9s, Is : Chremes, DarSs, Thales.
Adj. locuples, wealthy.

N. caput, head; with its compounds occiput, sin-
ciput. See p. 109. 5.

Adj. Compounds of captit in -ceps for -cip6s
(-cipit-s), cipit- : biceps, triceps, praeceps, &c.

M. nepos, grandson ; ♦Eros ; ♦Aegoceros ; ♦rhi-
noceros.

F. dos, dowry. C. sacerdos, priest ox priestess.
Adj. cortv^Sy possessing ; imp5s, without power.

T.iyxvexiXyiSy youth \ senectus, old age ; salus,a/^a/,
safety; servitus, slavery; virtiis, virtue^ valour.
Servitus admits Gen. PL servitutium.
Adj. intercus, under the skin.

N. lac, milk. See p. 107. M. Astyanax.

M. Arruns ; Acheruns, Plant ; Ufens ; Mars,
Mavors.

M. v2iSy personal surety.

M. pts/foot. F. Its compound {com^s\ fetter^ is

Fem. (with reference to catena). C. quadrupes

(also N.). Adj. bipes, tripes, alipes.
F. merces, hire , pay. C. heres, heir.

Adj. exheres, disinherited
M. praes, bondsman (in money).
C obsSs, hostage ; ^rzkiftSy president.

Adj. des$s, la^ ; res6s, reposing.^ ^^^^ ^^ GoOglc

98

Latin Wordlore.

§24.

Stem. Nom. S.

Id- -ts

od-
iid-
ud-

aud-
rd-

-OS

-us
-us

-aus
-r

M, lapYs, j/^?«^. F. cassis, helfmi ; cuspXs, point;

promulsis, aniepast. Adj. tricuspls.

(On Greek words in \%^ Xd-, see below.)
C. custos, £i4ardian.
F. pecus, nead ofcattUy beast,
F. vcizxiLS^anvil ; palus, tnarsh^pool (Livy has Gen.

PL paludium).
F. fraus, deceit ; laus, praise.
N. cor, heart. Adj. compounds concors, discors^

excors, misericors, socors, vecors, are I -nouns.
Note, C. vat-es, seer, has the form of an I -

noun ; but its root is vat-, Gen, PL vat-um.

2) Greek Dental Stems.

at-

-a

rt-

€th-
ant-

-rs

-es
-as

ent-
ont-

-is
-oni
-6 ;

unt-

-us

nth-
&d-

-ns
-&s

W-

-rs

N. aenigmS, riddle \ emblem^, mosaic; epigramma,
ejhigram ; poemSi,Poem; toreuma, embossed-work,
CLc, Such words are irregularly declined in
the Plural : having G. PL -t-onmi or -t-um, D.
Abl. -t-is (sometimes -t-Ibus), as G. PL emble-
mat-orum, D. PL emblemat-is. Martial has the
Greek Gen PL epigrammaton.

F. Charts, a Grace,

M. Pames, (a mountain).

M. adamas, adamant; elephas, elephant. The
Names Atlas, Calchas, Pallas (sonof Mezentiusin
the Aeneid), &c. have Voc. a ; Atla, Calcha,
Palla. Corvbas, CorybantSs (PL), (the priests of
Cybele).— Ace S. -antem or -antd. Ace PL «an-
tes or -antds,

M. Simols, (river of, Troy in the Iliad).

M. chamaeleon ; Anacreon, Charon, Creon, Phae-
thon, Xenophon. Attempts were made (Plant.
Ter. Cic.) to latinize this form by writing o for
on ; Xenopho, Creo, Antipho, Ctesipho, De-
mipho. Terence inflects the three last in dnl-.

Names of towns : F. Opus, Trapezus, &c. M.
Pessinus. C. Sdinus. Sometimes latinized
into 2. n. -nntam, -ontuin : Hydruntum (Hy-
drus), Liv., Sipontum (Sipus), Cic.

F. Tiryns.

F. lampas, torch (PL Nom. lampadSs, Ov.) ; Pallas,
Dryas, Maenas, Nai&s, &c. Ace. S. d (em),
Dat r in poetry. D. Abl. PL -dsf, -Osin in
poetry, as Troasin, Ov.

M. Areas, Arcadian, PL Nom. ArcadSs, Verg.
Ace. Arcadas, Cic.

This form comprises numerous words. Some are
Appellatives ; F. aegis, amystls, aspis, pyramis,
tyrannis, &c The rest are Names :

i) Local : {a) towns : F. Aulis, Chalcis, &c ; {b)
countries ; F. Doris, Locris, Persis, &c. (really
Adjectives) ; {c) rivers : M. Phasis, Thybns, &c.

2) Personal: {a) F. Patronymic: BriselSi Chry-

uiyiuzeu uy x^jv^v^pt ix^

824.

The Third Declension.

99

NooLa

M-

-us

yd -ys

sels, Colchis, Minols, Nergts, Titanls. ip) F.
Amaryllis, Bacchls, Chrysis, Lycorls, Phyllis,
Semiramls, Thais, Thetis. Classes (^z), {b) take
Ace. S. -ftdem or -ida generally : but some ako
take-/>f, Im : Alcestln, Isin, Trim, (^r^ M. Adonis,
Alexis, Anubis, Busiris,Daphnis, Osiris, Phalaris,
Paris, Thyrsis, Zeuxis. Ace. ^,\mtn\ or Idem
Idd.

The Voc. S. of all these stems is in t\ ColchI,
Phylll, Alexl, Osirl.

Many fluctuate between the Cons, and I-declen-
sion : tigris, tigri- or tigrid- ; Thybris Thybri-
or Thybrid-.

M. tripus (rpiirovc), tripod ; Melampus ; Oedipus.
The last name is variously declined ; (i) as an
0-noun, Voa Ace. OedipS, Oedipum. (2) as an
A-noun, Oedipod-es, Ace. -en^ AbL -/. (3) as
here ; Oedip-us, Ace. Gen. -6dem or ddd^ -6dis.

F. chlamjs, mantle ; pelamjs, tunny-fish.

M. lapys, PL lapjdes (an Illyrian race).

C. Mute Labial Stems.

The Stem takes • in Nom. S.

i) Latin Labial Stems (Greek marked *).

Stem.

Nom.S.

ap.

-aps

F. (daps), banquet (no Nom. S.). M. *Laelaps
(name of a dog in Ovid).

ip-

-eps

C. adeps (also adips),y&/; and the compounds
from capio; forceps, tongs \ municeps; parti-
ceps ; prineeps. See p. 76.

^p-

-ips

F. (stips), a small coin^ dole.

up-

-eps

M. auceps,/>«//fr ; manceps (both from capio).

6p-

-ops

F. (ops), help (no Nom. S.).
♦M. Pelops ; *Aethiops, Ethiopian.
Adj. inops, resourceless^ AbL S. inopi.

2)G

ireek Sten

IS.

op-

-ops

M. hydrops, dropsy ; Cyclops : (Ace. S. em, Oj PL

ds).
M.grfps, griffin.

yp-

-abs-aps

ib-

M. Arabs (Araps).

yi>

-ybs

M. Chalybs.

D.

Nasal Stc

;ms.

There is only one m-stem, hiem-p-s; which takes • in Nom. S.,
inserting euphonic p, according to the best authorities, w takes
s in one Latin word only, sangui-s for sanguin-s : it remains
the Nom. Ending in all Neuter, and many Masc. words : in all
Fem. and some Masc. words n is dropt, and the Nom. Ending
becomes o ; but in Neuter and some Masc. Nouns In- becomes Sb.

H 2

uiyiuzeu uy x^jv^v^pcix^

100

Latin Wordlore,

§24.

Stem.

i) Latin Nasal Stems.

Nom. S.

In-

!h-

-m-p-s
-€n

6n-

F. hiemps, winter,

M. flamCn, priest (of some deit>') ; pectin, comdy
and the compounds of cinere, fidtcen, lutist ;
tiblcen, flute-player \ llticen, clarion-player \
tublcen, trumpeter ; oscen, ominous (bird).

N. gluten, gluey and numerous Verbal Substan>
tives : agmen, carmen, culmen, nomen, numen,
regfmen, semen, stamen, tegmen, volumen, &c.

M. sanguis, blood \ i^oWxs) mill-dust, powder. Other
forms are sangu^n, pollfin : and probably I-
stems, sangui- polli-, existed ancientiy.

M. homo, human being (homon- hemon- are old
forms) : turbo, whirlwind, top ; Apollo.

C. nemOj nobody,

F. Many in -do, -^ : grando, hail ; harundo,
reed\ hinmdo, swallow, hirudo, leech, testudo,.
tortoise ; indago, net-, ongo, origin ; roh'igq, mil-
dew ; virgo, virgin ; Carthago, &c. : and nume-
rous abstracts : cupldo, libido, fortitude, mag-
nitudo, vicissitudo, &c

Caro, flesh ; cam- (for carin- or caron-), be-
coming an I -noun. Gen. PL camiimi.

M. cardo, hinge ; ordo, order ; Cupido, the deity
Cupid \ C. margo, margin,

M. Concretes in 5 dn- : agaso, groom ; baro,
simpleton ; bibo, toper-, bufo, toad; carbo, coed
crabro, hornet ; epulo, banquetter ; latro, robber
leo, lion ; ligo, spade ; mucro, point (of dagger) ;
upilio or opilio, sliepherd ; papilio, butterfly
^x2AAQ,pirate ; pugio, poniard; sermo, discourse
stelio, lizard; tiro, recruit ; vespertilio, bat ; also
unio, pearl ; temio, tre, senio, sice, &c., in dice-
play : Names; Capito, Cicero, Naso, PoUio,
&c, but F. luno.

F. Abstracts in to ion : (a) from Adjectives : com-
munio, perduellio, treason, rebellio ; (b) from
Pres. Stem, of Verbs : Iggio, rggio, &c ; (c) from
Supine Stem, a very large class : actio, dictio,
lectio, positio, &c Some take concrete mean-
ing : natio, a nation ; oratio, a speech, &c

Note, C. Can-is, dog, iuven-is, young person^
are really Nasal Stems (Pr. kvan,yuvan) : but
take i in Nom. S. Their Gen. PL is in -

2) Greek Nasal Stems.

Stem. Nom. 9.

an-

gn-

-an

-en

M. Acaman, Acamanian; Pan; Paean (name of

Appllo : hvmn to Apollo) ; Titan.
M. ren-es, PL kidneys, reins, loins (Gen. PL nm,

or turn) ; splen, spleen, milt (for which liSn is r.

Latin form) : attagen (a bird). The river AniO

is inflected Anien- from a byfonn Anien.

r. Siren. uiymzeuuy 'v__j^^^>^-:< i_v^

$24.

The Third Decleksicf>i:\

lOI

Stem.

in-
on-

^n-

rioin. S.

-en
-In -Is

-on

M. Hymen ; Philopoehieri/ * * ' • % • * •

M. delphln, dolphin (also delphin-us, 2.)

F. Eleusis, Salamls.

M. Sol6n, Tekmon, Triton, &c. Cithaeron, Heli-
con. Names of men were generally latinised by
taking Nom. S. o : Hiero, Milo, Plato, Zeno,
&c But Alcon, Cimon, &c. keep n.

F. Babylon ; Calj^don ; Marath5n, &c.

M. Arion; Amphion; lason; Ixion; Memnon,
&c

F. Amazon ; Gorgon ; sind6n,yf«^ linen.

Rarely latinised with Nom. S. in o : M. Macedo,
Macedonian,

Note, Greek Nasal TJouns have Ace. S. d or
•m (Pan always PanS) ; PL ds generally.

E. Liquid and Sibilant Stems.

& and r proper do not take s in Nom. S. : as consul, aequor.
Sibilant Stems are numerous, many of them retaining their • in
Nom. S. and changing it to p in the inflected cases: Venus,
Veneris ; flos, floris, &c. Others change s to r in the Nom. S.
also : lar, ISris ; meliSr, melioris. Vowel-change often occurs
in Nom. S. : fibur for 6b5r.

I) Latin Stems (Greek •).

Stem.

n-

Nom.S.
-al

61-

fii-

^1
-ul

ell-

-SI

-ar

arr-

-ar
-5r

M. sal, salt (rarely N.) ; Hannib^U, HiempsSl, &c.

M. pugfl, boxer; vi^l, watchman ; mugll (also
mugili-s), mullet.
Adj. vigil, wakeful, Abl. S. i.

M. sol, the sun.

M. consul; pr^iesuiy president ; C exul, banished
one.

li.fel, gall; m^l, honey ^ &c.

M. Caesar ; lar, household-god (anc PI. Lases).

N. par,/rt/r; baccar (a plant) ; inhar, sun-beam ;
instar, likeness (only Nom. Ace. S.) : ♦nectar,
nectar. (Adj. par, with compounds, is an I-stem.)

N. i2XyJlour.

M. acipens-er or acipensis, sturgeon ; agger, mound;
anser, goose ; asser, pole ; career, prison (PL
starting place); later, brick; passer, sparrow ;
with the Plurals Celeres, the knightly body-
guards ; proceres, nobles; see p. 127.

F. mulier, woman. C. tuber (a fruit tree).

N. Seer, maple ; cadaver, carcase ; cicer, chickpea ; .
papaver, Poppy ; piper, pepper ; slier, withy ;
stser, skirret ; suber, cork ; tuber, a hump, a
truffle; uber, a teat; also Iter or (itlner),y£7//r-
fuy, Gen. itineris; PL iugera, acres; (verber),
stripe, AbL S. verbSre, with full PL ^^^^.T^

102 •

'Latin Wordlore.

§24-

5r-
6r-

or-

6r.

ur-

-ur

as-

-as

aer-

-aes

fir-

-es

gr-

-rs

«r.

-us

•NeJiJs;'

-er
-6r

.6r
(anc.-6r)

The'M. fonh vesper-^, i, seems to be of this DecL,
but its other cases (vesper, &c.) are of the 2ncL
Plautus uses vesperi (and luci, temperi, mani)
with Prep. : * de vesperi suo,' &c. And Corssen
does not consider them to be Locative but true
AbL Cases. Virgil has vespere AbL: 'vespere
ab atro,' Aen. v. 19.
Adj. degener, degenerate ; pauper, /(7ar.

N. ver, spring,

N. aequor, level surf ace^ sea ; marmor, marble^ sea ;
ador, spelt (whence F. adorea, i.e. donatio, a
dole of spelt given to victorious soldiers : hence
^ victory y ^ glory '), has only Nom. Ace S.

M. Archaic words, as Marcipor (Marci puer), slarue
of Marcus : Lucipor, slave of Lucius, &c

M. ol6r, swan : with a large number of Verbal
Substantives, some formed from root or Pres.
stem : amor, love ; ardor, heat; calor, ic/armtk ;
dolor, grief y pain, &c. ; others, very numerous,
from Supme stem: cultor, tiller, worshipper \
domitor, tamer ; victor, conqueror^ &c.

F. soror, sister ; uxor, wife.
Adj. Acc.S. primorem, Pi. primores, chief per sons.
6bur, ivory ; fSmur, thigh ; iScur, liver (also
iecin6r- iocinSr- iocinSr-); robur, hardwood,oak
(old form probably robus, whence robustus).

M. furfur, bran ; (lemur) goblin (chiefly Plur.) ;
vultur, vulture ; turtGr, turtle-dove ; •Ligiir or
Ligus, Ligurian ; C. augur.

N. guttur, throat ; fulgur, lightning ; murmur; sul-
fur, sulphur. — Adj. cicur, tame.
M. fur, thief.

N. vas, vessel (PL vasa, vasorum, vasis) ; fas,
(divine) right ; nefas, wrong, impiety : (both
words have only Nom. Ace. S. ; but V. uses
fandi, nefandi, as their Gen.).

N. aes, copper, brass, bronse.

F. Ceres feoddess of com).
Adj. pufe (pubSris), of ripe age-, impubes (im-
pubSris), under age. See p. 115.

M. cucumis, cucunwer (also cucumi-) ; vomis (vo-
vol^x), ploughshare \ acipensls.

C. cinfs, ash, cinder ; pulvis, dust.

F. Venus.

N. foedus, treaty ; funus, funeral ; genus, race^
kind', glomus, ^/z// (of thread, &c.) ; holus (plus),
green stuff-, lILtus, side ; xa}xxiyx&,gift, bffke (Nom.
Ace. PL munera or munia) : onus, burden ; pon-
dus, weight ; raudus (nidus), bit (of brass, &c.) ;
scelus, crime, wickedness ; sidus, constellcUion ;
vfXiy\%,fleece j (viscus, rarely Sing.), ^^m/^"/; ulcus,
sore ; vulnus. wound. SScus, sex (only Nom.
Ace. S.). This OS is for anc. os. ^

uiyiuzeu uy ■N^Jv-/v_-'>t Iv^

§24.

StevL ri oin* S«
dr- -iis

The Third Declension,

103

5r.
6r-

or-

fir-
tr-

-6s -6r
-OS -dr
(anc or)

-t&

M. lepus, hare,

N. corpus, body ; dScus, grcicey dedecus, disgrace ;
facinus, deed, crime ; fenus, usury , interest (also
gr-) ; fngus, f ^/^ ; litus, shore ; ngmus, forest,
grove; pectus, breast; pignus, pledge (also
Sr-) ; stercus, dung ; tempus, /iw^y temple (of
head) ; tergus (also tergum 2.), ^^i^r>&. Tnis us
was anc. os.

F. arbos or arb6r, tree,

M. colos, usually col6r, colour, complexion ; bonds
orhondr, honour, office ; l3.bos or ISbdr, toil ; lepos
or lep6r, wit, good humour. So od6r, scent;
pav6r, alarm ; rumSr, report (rarely odos, &c.).
See p. 102.

M. ^Q^, flower ; mos, custom ; ros, dew,

N. OS, mouth, face.
On comparatives meli6r, melius (anc. melios),
see pp. 21, 42.

F. tellus, land, earth,

N. crus, leg; ius, r/^A/; ius, gravy, broth ; pus,
foul matter; rus, country ; ins, frankincense.

M. ^?iXer, father ; frater, brother; accipiter, ^fla/>&.

F. mater, mother.

2) Greek R-Stems.

er-
«r-

6v.

M. aer, atmosphere (Ace. S. aSr3. or aifrem) :
aether, sky (Ace S. aetherS).
-er M. crater, mixing-bowl. (Ace. S. d, PL dty.)

-6r M. rhetSr, Castdr, Hect6r, Nestdr, &c. (Ace. S. d

or em, PL ds). This dr is latinized from Gr.

and v-Stems.
-us I C. grus, crane ; sus, swine (Dat Abl. PL subus or

suibus).
M. luppiter I6v-, lupiter.
C. bos bdv-, ox or cow (Gen.

Abl. bobus or bubus).

PL boum; Dat

G, Greek B- O- and T-Stems.
5- .5s

N. epos, <^V poem ; melos, (j^nV (Gen. S. -eosy
Nom. Ace. PL n'cle, contracted from melfia). So
cete, whales ; pelage, seas ; Tempe, (a vale in
Thessaly). Chads belongs here : but Virgil
has AbL Chao, 2.
-ds M. herds herd-, hero (Ace. S. herdi, Nom. PL

herdSs, Ace. herdSs).
F. echd (Gen. echus for echd-ds ; the other cases
in ^ ; so lo, Ino. Dido, Sappho, also form on-),
y- -ys M. Cotys Coty-; Phorcjs Phorcy-; Tiphys

I Tiphy- ; F. Erinys Eriny-, Ace. S. -df. PL -ds,

(A few Adjective and other I -stems are included in the foregoing
tables, on account of their connexion with other words.)

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^v^pt i_v^

104 Latin Wordlore. §24.

i-stcms. iv. I -stems.

Nouns of the Third Declension are either (i) Imparisyllaba
(unequal in the number of their syllables), having more syllables
in the Gen. Sing, than in the Nom. : or (2) Parisyllaba, having
the same number of syllables in those Cases.

Of Imparisyllabic Substantives, the greater number are Con-
sonant Nouns : but many are Clipt I-nouns : especially those
which have a Labial, Nasal, or Liquid before % in the Nom. Sing,
as urbs, bidens, cohors, pars. Of Parisyllabic Substantives,
all are I-nouns but a very few, already cited : canis, iuvenis,
senex, vates : pater, mater, frater, accipiter, &c.

Adjectives of both kinds in this DecL are 1-nouns except a few.*

V. Grouping of I-nouns.
T-nouns come under four chief Heads :

A) Parisyllabic I-nouns, with Nom. Sing. ¥-• (a few «r for

-rl-) : Fern. Masc. or Common.

B) Parisyllabic I-nouns in S-« («-•) perhaps from original

sibilant-stems : chiefly Fem.

C) Neuter I-nouns of Adjectival nature, Parisyll. in «, Im-

parisylL in lU, ttr.

D) Clipt I-nouns Imparisyllabic : Fem. Masc or Common.

A) I-nouns under the first Head are grouped according as they
form the Accus. Sing, in im or em, and the Abl. Sing, in i or «.

I. Ace. S. im : Abl. I.
l) F. •cannabts, hemp (AbL S in Persius) ; tussTs, cough;
sitis, thirst (S. only) ; burTs, ploughtail (only Ace. S.) ;
ravis, hoarseness (only Ace S.) ; * tigrifs, tiger (also as a
Consonant Noun, tigrid-).

Names of Towns: Hispalls, Seville; Neap oil s,
Naples; Amphipolls; Memphis.

V\Sy force (an S-stem), Ace. S. vim, Abl. vi, casting out •
(Gen. Dat. wanting) ; PI. vires, &c., changing • into r.

* Greek I-nouns: poe sis, /^^/ry; mathesTs, science;
Charybdis: Voc. S. t. Ace. tn or Im ; poeaY, poes-In
(Im).

The Greek Gen. in eds is rare : poeseSs : and Gen. PL
edn: metamorphoseon.

' Many Latin I-nouns correspond to Pr. I-nouns: anguis, ignis, ovi^ Ars,<lo^
gens, mens, and others. In some I represents Pr. a: axis, foris,imbri8, nabet
panis, pellis, penis, unguis. In others I b a Latin suffix to a Pr. root: can-i-s
iuven-i-s, Iov4-s, vat-i-s: mitis, turpis, brevis, gravis, ISvis, piiigui%
Buavis, tenuis. In mensis (Gr. m^Oi *I is suffixal. In a few, as arx, daps, thera
is a Pr. root with Nom. suffix ft. In some of these forms I, not belonging to the original
Kom., has been developed in the other Cases ; but in most of the Imparisyllabic I-oouns
it has been dropt in Nom. Very many Latin I-nouns, etpedaUy the greftt bulk, of
Adjectives, have been formed in accordance with prevalent analogies. ^ j

uiyiuzeu uy ■n^JVJvJVJ Iv

524- The Third Declension. 105

Observe the adverbial phrases ad amussim, examus-
sim, by rule, accurately \ ad fatim, aff^tim, abun-
dantly^ from disused nouns amussis, fat is. Hence it
is probable that adverbs in tim, slm, partim, sensim,
&c, are similarly cases of lost I-nouns.

2) M. : cucumis, cucumber (also inflected as a Cons.-noun
cucumer-, like Ceres, piilvis, cinis).

Names of Rivers: KW\s,the Elbe; Tiberis, Tiber \ Liris,
Phasis, &c

2. Ace. S. Im or •m. AbL i or 1$.

This group is wholly Feminine :

F. puppis,/^<?^; febris,ySrt/^r ; turris, tower : im (em) ; «, I.

restis, rope ; im (em) ; 6
clavis, key ; em (Im) ; I «
navis, ship ; Im, em ; I, S
pelvis, /^M ; im, em ; 1$ I

securis, hatchet ; im (en^) ; f
messis, harvest ; em (im) ; 6
sementis, seed-time \ em (im) ;

3. Acc S. em ; AbL S or 1.

M. axis, axle; % (l) ignis, y?r<fj 1, %

fiistis, cudgel; «, i unguis, claw; % (l)

F. bilis, bile; classis, fleet; avis, bird; S (l)
strigUis, scraper ; I («)

Supellectilis (res), furniture, properly an Adj., is dipt
in Nom. S. into supieUex. In AbL S. it has l or 6.

C. anmis, river ; h (l) civis, citizen ; I («)

finis, end ; 9 (l) anguis, snake ; h (l)

Finis, originally Fem., is so used only in the Sing., and rarely.

a) M. imber imbri- tcl shower, AbL i, «.

The Month-names September, October, November,
December ; AbL I : are used adjectively.

b) Many Adjectives have Substantival use :

M. aedilis, edile, ft (i) ; aequalis, contemporary, i ; annalis, 1
(chiefly Plur. annals) ; aqualis, water-can, i ; natalis, birth"
day. i («) ; rivalis, rival, h (l) ; familiaris, intimcUe friend,
I («) ; molaris, grinder, i (chiefly Plur.).

F. bipennis, double axe, 9 I ; noYdXis, fallowed Jield, « i ; trire-
mis, trireme, i 9 ; volucris, bird, 9.

C. affinis, kinsperson, 1$ i ; iuvenis, young person, ^ ; contu-
bemalis, tentmate, S i ; patruelis, cousin on father's side,
6, 1 ; sodalis, companion, i h ; canalis, canal, channel, I.

i) Any such Adjectives, if they become Proper Names, have
AbL Sing, in 9: luvenale, Latiare, Maluginense,
Martiale.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

io6 Latin Wordlore, §24.

d) In this group must be ranked the Masc. and Fern, forms
of Adjectives in U, U, «, and in «r, U, « : as tristis. Is,
g; ac5r, acrls, acrg. But the Neuter forms tristS^
acre, belong to Head Q. All have AbL S. I, very rarely «,

4. Ace. em : AbL 6.

M. orbis, circle, world', fascis, bundle ; piscis, JisA ; caulis,
stalk ; coUis, hill ; follis, bellows ; vermis, worm ; climis,
hind-leg \ crinis, hair\ panis, loaf\ torris, brand \ ensis,
sword ; mensis, month \ postis, door-post ; vectis, ^^^r ;
uter, leathern bottle ; venter, ^^//^ ; with the Plural words
casses, nets ; zntes, Jront vine-rows ; manes.

F. scobis (or scobs), saw-dust ; rudis,y2?//; sudis (no Nom,
S.), stake ; trudis, pike ; ninguis, snow (Lucr.) ; con-
vaJlis, hollow vale; pellis, hide; Alpis, Alp ; aipis, bee;
auris, ear; irauris, earring ; naris, nostril; cutis, cuticle;
n&^Mxs, granddaughter ; ptstis, plague ; rsLt\s,ra/i; vestis,
garment ; vitis, vine ; ovis, ^«/^ : with the Plur. words
fores, door ; grates, thanks ; nates ; fides, lutestrings (has
AbL S. fidS).

C. corbis, basket ; callis,^/^ ; funis, rope, cable ; torquis
(es), collar ; hostis, enemy ; pedis, crawler ; scrobis (or
scrobs), ditch ; testis, witness ; linter or lunter, boat ; also
sentis, thorn ; vepris, bramble}

>B) Nom. S. •«, Ace. em, AbL S.

All Latin words of this form are F. except M. verres, boar-pig.

F. aedes, temple (VX, house) ; caedes, lopping, bloodshed;
cdM\,ts, rock ; asL&ts, defeat ; compsiges, structure ; fames,
hunger (AbL 8); feles, cat; indoles, native disposition;
labes, fall, mischief; lues, pest ; meles, badger ; moles,
pile; nubes, cloud; palumbes, pigeon; plel^s, the com^
mons ^also plebs : see DecL 5) ; proles, offspring (Gen.
PL nm) ; pubes, young population ; rupes, crag ; saepes,
hedge; sedes, j^/i/; s(K>oles or suboles, ^^^n>i^; sordes,
dirt (PL meanness) ; strages, slaughter ; strues, heap ;
tabes, taint, consumption (no PL) ; valles, vcUe ; vulpes,
fox; and the Plural words \axX^s,*small entrails ; ambages,
evasive language or coTiduct (has AbL S. «, Gen. PL um).

Several of these have a byform in U : aedis, caedis, felis,
melis, vallis, vulpis, and some more.

The older words are supposed to be S-stems converted into
I-stems by exclusion of staminal • (as puber-is pubes).

C\ Neuter Nouns : Nom S. « (for ¥-) ; &l (for ail-) ; &r (for
art-). AbL I. Neut PL i&.

* Isolated variatioiis of Case occur in some. Sec M. Lucr. i. 978. iixx. Vaxro says
that ovi as well as o ve was used in his time. NeptI is found in Tac.^ ^

uiyiuzeu uy ■n^JVJvJVJ Iv

S 24. The Third Declension, 107

^) N. mSre, j-^^x ; rete, net ; aplustre,yf<^|'; conclave, apartment \
insigne, ensign ; praesepe, stall y cnb ; ancile, small shield ;
bublle, oX'Stall'y caprile, goat-house; cublle, bedchamber,
couch; equlle, stable; hastlle, spear; mantile, napkin;
monlle, necklace; ovile, sheep/old; focale, neckwrapper;
TiGiSTilty fallow ; penetrale, inner shrine ; cochleare, ^on ;
altaria (PL), high altar ; talaria (PI.), ankle-rings. Also
caepe, onion (takes Plur. from byform caepa, f. i).
Lac, milky is for lac-te, like rete.

Retis c is a rare form for rete; praesepis, f. for praesepe.
Some local names ending in tS take Abl. 9 usually: Bibracte,
Reate, Soracte.
AbL marS for mari is in Lucr. Ov. AbL retg is frequent.

2) N. animSl ; cervical, bolster ; minutSl, minced meat ; torSl^

sofa-cover; tribunSl; vectig^l, tolly revenue. See Bacca-
nSl, bidenta.1, capital, Lupercil, MinervSl, puteil
in Dictionary.

3) N. calcir, spur ; exemplar, pattern ; lacunar, laqueSr,

ceiling; lupanir ; piAwinikry cushioned seat ; torcu^yie/ine-
press.

Observe par, pSri-, pair.

Note, Almost all words in C) except mare, rete, are evidently
Neuter Adjectives, derived from Substantives. Those in 2) 3) have
dropt ^ : toral for torale, exemplar for exemplare. This
makes it probable that mare, rete are likewise adjectival.

D) Clipt I-nouns ; Gen. PL l-w

The vagueness of the distinction between Clipt I-nouns and
Cons.-nouns has been noticed already, see p. 94. One test of an I-
ncmn, I before nm in Gen. Plur., may fail, if an I-noun loses l (as
inapum, volucrum), if a Cons.-noun takes I (as in civitatium,
paludium), or if no Gen. Plur. is found, as in many words, chiefly
monosyllabic in Nom. Another test, is ( = 6», •!•) in Ace. PL m.
f or t» n., may not occur in MSS. or Inscrr. The safest course,
therefore, is to rank Imparisyllaba with Cons.-nouns (as pax, lux,
sol, &c.), where no test of an I-noun is ascertained : unless some
strong analogy points to an exception.

Guttural before i :
F. faex faecl-, lees ; (faux) faucT-, jaw ; calx calcl-, heel ;
falx falcl-, pruning'hooky scythe ; lanx land-, dish ; arx
arcl-, citadel ; merx mercl-, merchandise. Add nix nivl-,
snow.
M. Deunx deunci-, quincunx quincunci-, &c., (parts
of as).

Labial before I :
F. stirps stirpT- (also stirpes and stirpis), rarely M., trunk ;
trabs (or trab-es) trabT-, f. beam ; urbs (or urps) urbl-, f. city.

Nasal before 1 :
F. caro cami- (for carlni-),^^^. See Cons.-Nouns.

uiyiuzeu uy ■>

lOogle

iq8 Latin Wordlore, §24.

S (for •) or • before I :
M. glis glirl-, dormouse ; mus muri-, mouse \ and, by probable

analogy, mas mirl-, male; as assK
F. vis yiri-f force : see p. 104.
N. OS ossi-, done (but Nom. PL ossa for oss-ia).

Dental before I :
These are the most numerous : many bemg Adjectival.

a) M. Gentile words in &s ftti-, is m- (dipt from ati-s, Itis) :

Aquinas, man of Aquinum ; Arpinas, man of Arpinum ;
Quiris, (man of Cures) Roman ; Samnis, Samnitey &c. ;
(optimas, primas, summas, used in Plur.) ; Penat-es (Plur.),
household gods.
Adj. nostras, of our country ; vestras, of your country ;
cuias, of what country,

b) F. lis litl-, strife,

c) Nouns in ans antl-, ens entl-, mostly participial

M. amans, lover ; dextans, dodrans, quadrans, sextans, triens
(parts of as) ; cliens, client ; dens, tooth, and compounds,
(but F. bidens, sheep) ; oriens {so\)yeast\ occidens (sol),
west I rvid&asycable \ torr^nsy torrent,
F. gens, clan^ nation ; lens, lentii; mens, mind, intehecl,
C. animans ; infans ; parens ; serpens. See p. 76.

All words in a) c) not being monosyllabic in Nom. S., can drop i
in Gen. PL ; as optimatum for optimatium, infantum for in-
fantium, parentum for parentium.

d) Nouns in ons oatl- :

M. ions, fountain ; mons, mountain ; pons, bridge,

F. {tons, forehead] {s^ons), free choice (only AbL sponte).

e) Nouns in U l«-, rs rtX-, os («) oti- ; Fem.

F. puis, pulse \ ars, ari\ pars, part; cohors, cors, cohort,
court; fors (S.), chance; mors, death; sors, lot; nox,
night,

f) Nouns in ns ndl- : Fem.

F. frons, leaf; glans, acorn ; iuglans, walnut.

Notes vi. Notes on the Cases.

on the

I. Instances occur of a Gen. PL in inm from Cons. Nouns in
&• &t-, fis fit-, fts ud- : more rarely from those in j^ p« : civita-
tium (always in Livy, sometimes in Cicero), aetatium, simultat-
ium, &c., servitutium, virtut-ium, palud-ium, fornac-ium,
forcip-ium. Alituum for alit-um m Virgil is a bold license
for the sake of metre.*

Cases.

* Old poets often dropt, metrically, the s of Gen. S. : as

Qmd dubttas quin omni' sit haec ratloni ' potestas ?— Lucr. ii. 53.
On the dropping of final m in Ace S. anciently, see pp. s8, 46^

uized by Google

§24- The Third Declension. 109

No Gen. Plur. is found of the following words : bes (bessis),
cor, cos, fel, fors, glos, lac, lux, mel, nex, os (or-), pax, pix,
praes, pus, ros, rus, sal, sol, tus, vas (vadis), ver, (vix). Canis,
luvenis, strues, vates, have Gen. PL um: also panis, in the
opinion of some grammarians: apis, volucris have Gen. PI. mn,
sometimes inm. Sedum occurs from sedes ; mensum (rarely
mensuum) from men sis ;^ but also turn.

Some Plural words in Ufa, lUa, &ria, especially names of
festivals, follow Decl. 2. in their Gen. Plur. : as Compitali-orum;
vectigali-orum, Suet; ancili-orum, Hon; lacunari-orum,
Vitr.

Vas vas- forms its Plural as DecL 2. vasa, vasorum, vasis.

2. The Accus. Plur. in is ( «= ••, eU) is proper to I -nouns, as
civis, parentis, and is found side by side with 9s, els till the
Aug. age, after which es prevailed. So tris or tres.

A Nom. PL in Is or els occurs sometimes in the MSS. of Plautus
and Lucretius; aedis, auris, familiaris, &c. ; and in old Inscrr.
A Gen. S. in os and es is archaic only, as {patrus, Apolones),

3. The Dat Sing, had an old form in S, retained in some classical
phrases: *triimiviri auro argento acre flando feriundo.' See Cic
F'am, vii. 13. ' lure Romae dicundo,' L. xlii. 28. Virgil has or 6
for ori, G, L 43a Another old form is et So urbei, uxorei, &c.
On the tomb of Scipio Barbatus is ' forma virtutei parisuma.'

4. On the Locative case in i, see § 20. Instances are luci, ruri,
temperi, Carthagini, Tiburi (also Tiburg, AbL), PL Gadibus.

5. Forms of dipt I-nouns with Abl. S. i are found ; sorti fre-
quently (Nom. sortis, Plaut) ; parti, Plaut. Ten : some even of
Cons.-nouns, capiti (CatulL Tib.), occipiti (Pers.) ; and others.^

■ It is noUble that of Nouns which have Gen. S. of the form ^j v/ (ducb) the great
majority take mn in Gen. PL : facum, ducum, crucian, nucum, precum, gregum, pSdum.
apam, ^nim, dmtim, scnum, pStrum, L2rum, buum, gruum, suum, struum. But of

those which have Gen. S. of the form - v/, the great majority take lum in the Gen. PI. :
faldum, Htium, artium, &c : exceptions are vCcum, ISgum, rSgum, and a few others. So

Gen. S. ~vrv/orv>syv/ gives Gen. PI. in um : supplTcum, principura, vigTlura.
(Compos) compedium is an exception. But a trisyllabic or plurisyllabic Gen. S. with
\onz penult gives in most Adjectives Gen. PL in lum : ferac-ium, felic-ium, &c. :
and in Substantives often leads to the fluctuation noticed above, (z a). Comparatives are
an exception, because io-r-ium would be a bad combination. The same is trueof io-n-ium.
Hence mel-io-rum, act-io-num, &c.

■ Giender is shewn in the lists. The general results arc (not including those settled by
meaning):

F. Mute Latin Cons, stems, and dipt I-stems with mute before 1.

N-stems in do : go ; io (abstr.) ; with caro. Also merges ; hiemps ; tellQs ; arbor.
ParisyU. I-nouns in Ts, is : pp. 105, zo6. See Exceptions below and in lists.

M. Most in ex, Isi- ; Ss It- ; ns.; sill in unx ; Concreta in 0 : Nouns in 1 ; er &- ; is &- ;
Is Iri- : ter tri- ; 8r Or- ; Os fir- ; Qr : Greek Appellatives, ex<%pt those in Ss, Is, j^
(F.): S,oSy 2 (N.). Also calix, fornix, grex, paries, p€s, lapis, sangufs, turbo,
cardo, ordo, pecten, furfur, turtiir, vultiir, lepus, mOs, Ss : with the pazisylL I-nouns
marked M. in pp. 105, zo6.

N. Nouns in en fai- ; S : &r ; SI &Ii- ; Sr Sr- ; ur Sr- ; ur iir- ; us er- : us or- ; fls Or-. Also
haJec, caput, lac, c5r, mei, fel, v€r, itSr, cadaver, uber, verber, ps^>avSr, acer,
cic&, pip^*, &c (see p. loi), aes, far, Os (OrisX 5s (ossbX v£s (vOsisX

C. These will be found in the lists: and many on p. 76.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

no

Latin Wordlore.

§24.

vii. Table:

I. CONSONANT-NOUNS.
I. Masculine and Feminine.

I) MUTE GUTTURAL STEMS.
SINGULAR.

judge, c

rvot, f. wice, f.

ktMg^m.

N.V.

index

radix vox

rex

1

Ace.

iudle-

radlc- voc-

reg-

em

Gen..

iudic-

radic- ' voc-

reg-

Is

Dat

iudie-

radic- voc-

reg-

%

AbL

iudie-

radic- voc-

PLURAL.

reg.

S

N.V.A.

iudie-

radio- voc-

reg-

8s

Gen.

iudiC-

radiC- voC-

reG-

am

D.AbL

iudie-

radic- voc-

2) MUTE DENTAL STEMS.
SINGULAR.

reg-

IbQS

summer, t

coMpanhn, c. virtue, t

/ooi, m.

N.V.

aestas

comSs virtus

pes

Ace.

aestat-

comit- virtut-

p6d-

em

Gen.

aestat-

comit- virtut-

ped-

Is

Dat.

aestat-

comit- virtut-

ped-

I

Abl.

aestat-

comit- virtut-
PLURAL.

ped-

6

N.V.A.

aestat-

comit- virtut-

ped-

Ss

Gen.

aestaT-

comiT- virtuT-

peD-

ma

D.Abl.

aestat-

comit- virtut-

ped-

IbQS

3) LABIAL-MUTE, NASAL, AND F-STEMS.
SINGULAR.

ckieff c

^am, f. itoHf m. virgin, f. crane, c

N.V.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat
AbL

princeps
princlp-
princip-
princip-
prineip-

trabs
trab-
trab-
trab-
trab-

leo

leon-

leon-

leon-

leon-

PLURAL.

virgo

viigln-

virgin-

virgin-

virgin-

grus
gru-
gru-
gru-
gru-

N.V.A.

Gen.

D.AbL

princip-
prineiP-
princip-

trab-
traB-
trab-

leon-

leoN-

leon-

virgin-

virgiN-

virgin-

gru-

grU-

gru-

I

n»«s

* For Nom. S. Endings, see | ao and p. 94.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

824.

The Third DecUftsion.

Ill

N.V.
Ace
Gen.
Dat
AbL

Inet m.

amdr
amor-
amor-
amor-
amor-

4) LIQUID AND SIBILANT STEMS.

SINGULAR.
VHnnan, f.

muli€r

dew, m.

ros
ror-
ror-
ror-
ror-

muli€r-
mulier-
mulier-
mulier-

cinder, c /other, n

cinis pater

cinSr-
ciner-
ciner-
ciner-

patr-
patr-
patr-
patr-

i

PLURAL.

N.V.A. amor- ror- mulier- ciner- patr-

Gcn. amoR- roR- mulieR- cineR- patR-

DJVbL amor- ror- mnUer- ciner- patr-

Ibus

head

N.V.A. caput

Gea caplt-

Dat capit-

AbL capit-

2. Neuter,
singular.

right

nom^n ius

nomin- iur-

nomin- iur-

nomin- iur-

tiHfrk

opus
opSr-
oper-
oper-

body

corpus
corp6r-
corpor-
corpor-

i

N.V.A. capit-
Gen. capiT-
DAbL capit-

PLURAU

nomin- iur-
nomiN- iuR-
nomin- iiu*-

oper- corpor-
opeR- corpoR-
oper- corpor-

Ibtts

II. I-NOUNS.
I. Masculine and Feminine.

SINGULAR.

eeufh,{.

shipyl

harueUy t

^re, m.

shcwer, m.

N.V. tuss-to

nav-l»

mess-l«

ign-Is

imb-»F

Ace tuss-lm

nav-im em mess-em (im)

ign-em

imbr-em

Gen. tuss-¥»

nav-ls

mess-X»

ign-le

imbr-I«

Dat. tuss-l

nav-l

mess-l

ign-l

imbr-i

AbL tuss-l

nav-l e

mess-e

PLURAL.

ign-le

imbr-l (e)

N.V. tuss-S.

nav-««

mess-8«

ign-S»

imbr-««

Ace tuss-«» u

nav-2« le

mess-«» le

ign-Se Is

imbr-Ss is

Gen. tuss-Xmn

nav-Xom

mess-Xom

ign-Xom

imbr-Zmn

DAbLtuss-lbns

nav-ilme

mess-ibos

ign-ibos

imbr-lbu

uiyiuzeu uy '

.O

»gle

112

Latin Wordlore.

%^

SINGULAR,

ewe.K,

chnd.t

tootkf m.

ciiy, f.

moMse.m,

N.V.

ovis

nubes

dens

urbs

mus

Ace.

OV-

nub-

dent-

urb-

mur-

em

Gen.

OV-

nub-

dent-

urb-

mur-

to

Dat

OV-

nub-

dent-

urb-

mur-

I

AbL

OV-

nub-

dent-

PLURAL.

urb- '

mui'-

«

N.V.

OV-

nub-

dent-

urb-

mur-

«•

Ace

ov-

nub-

dent-

iirb-

mur-

«sto

Gen.

ov-

nub-

dent-

urb-

mur-

Xum

D. AbL

ov-

nub-

dent-

urb-

mut-

Ibfts

The ending of the Accusative Plural of I-nouns fluctuates in
MSS. between Is and «•, the form is prevailing.

ntt

N.V. A. ret-«

Gen. ret-t»

Dat. ret-t

Abl ret-1 (6)

N. V. A. ret-la
Gen. ret-lom

D. Abl. ret-lbns

2. Neuter,
singular.

sofa-cover

toril
toral-u
toral-l
toral-1

PLURAL.

toral-la

toral-Xmn

toral-tbQS

s^ttr

calc^
calcar-ls
calcar-i
calcar-i

calcar-ta

calcar-Xmn

calcar-ibuB

home

6s

OSS-U

oss-t
oss-e

oss-a

oss-Zmn

oss-ibvs

Greek

Nouns.

viii. Greek Nouns in Decl. 3.

Nominative Sing.

The tendency to latinise Greek names is shewn by dropping
the V in such words as Plato, Macedo, Antipho, and in
Apollo Apollln- (Gr. 'AttoXXoiv-), draco dracon- (Gr. IpaKovr-) :
but Nej)os retains n in Cimon, Conon, Dion, Timoleon, &c. :
and it is usually kept in local names: Babylon, Lacedaemon.
Gr. wp becomes dr:Hect6r, rhetdr; Gr. ti^ becomes Ts: Simols
Simoent- ; Sardis (Plur.). Other endings are kept

Vocative Sing.

The Nominatives Ys, j^s, fts, ens, ۥ give
Vocatives ¥, f , &, «a, 9 («•)
Pari, DaphnT, Thybri, Phylll ; CotJ^, Tiphy ; Atla, Palla ;
Pelcu, Theseu ; Chreme^(es), Pericle (es), Hercules.

uiyiiized by CjOOQ IC

} 24- The Third Declension, 1 1 3

Accusative Singular (Greek a, |.).

Prose writers, rarely poets, latinise this Case by using the Latin
ending m : lampadem, tyrannidem, Phrygem, Paridem,
Osirim. But the Greek A is used in some words by both : aethera
(always), a era (rarely -Mn). Cicero writes Pana, hebdomada:
and in poetry names of persons and places in A abound: Aga-
memndn^ Hectdrd, Pallad^ Phyllidii, Babylon^ Sala-
minS, &c ; likewise appellatives: hero^ Cyclop^ lampad^
tyrannid^ aegidS, &c.

Names in is fluctuate between the formations im tn and Ydem
MA, Patronymics: Briseis, Nais, Nereis, Aeneis, &c., and
many Female names, Amaryllis, Phyllis, &c. have idA\ but
exceptions occur; Ale est in, Mart.; Isin, Ov. ; Irim, Verg., &c.
On Nouns in u Im ifn) see p. 104.

Names in 8s s«- (or 9«, I-) also fluctuate. From Dares Daren,
Daretii (Verg.), Daretem : Chremes, Chremem (en) and
Chremetem \a) ; Thales, Thalen and Thaletem {a).

Similarly Gen. Sing. Stis and Is.

Many names in hm have Ace S. em {in) : Socratem ipi) ;
Xerxem {iri) : others em only : Aristotelem, Cic.

Names in cl8« have em or /^, rarely in : Pericles^ Periclem
•r Pericl^a : rarely Periclen.

Of Names in eve see the Decl. below.

See also the Syllabus of Cons. Nouns.

Genitive Singular.

Poets often use Gr. -ds for Ye : Palladfis, Thetid6s, Pelefis.
A Gen. in 1 is taken by many Names in ens, te.
See Table of Declension.

Dative Singular.

The short i is sometimes found in poetry : DaphnidI, Palladl.

Nominative Plural

Poets sometimes use the Greek is\ Arcades, Phryggs,
Naiades, ErinySs (Verg.).

The Neuter Plural words Tempe, cete, mele, pelage (/ for
e<C) are occasionally found.

Accusative Plural.

Prose writers sometimes have As\ Arcadas, Cyclopas, Cic. ;
Senonas, &c., Caes. ; Macedonas, Liv. Poets often: as he-
Tois, lampad&s, lyncSs, Naiades, Nereidis, Erinyes.

Genitive Plural

Catullus has Chalybon for Chalybum; Curtius Malieon
for Maliensium; Martial epigrammaton for epigramma-
tum : but Cic has poematorum, transferring the word to Decl 2.

Dat Abl Plural

The Greek ending st (ji«) is very rarely used by poets : TroSsin,
Dryisin, Charlsin, Lemniisin, Ov.

Nouns in mA are declined in the Plural after Decl. 2 : Cic uses
pocmatis, aenigmatis, emblematls, &c.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

114 Latin Wordlore. §24.

Greek ix. Gtcek Table. (Greek Endings italic.)

Table,

I) Consonant Stems. See Syllabus.

Sing. Nom. V.— ; Ace. Ma {it) ; Gen. \% (ds) ; D. I (0; AbL &
Plur. Nom. V. ifs ; Ace. ds (es) ; Gen. nm; D. AbL.lbQs (^rare).

Examples :
M. Phryx Phifg-, lebes lebet-, gigas gigant-, aer aSr-, hcros
hero-. So Atlas Atlant-, but with Voc S. a. See p. 98.
F. chlamys chlamj^d-, lampis lampid-.
C. lynx lync-.

On Neuters fa md mdt-. as poema, see p. 98.
On Neuter E-stems and Fem. O- and Y-stems, see p. 103.

II) I-stems. See p. 104.

Sing. Nom. Is ; Voc. i' ; Ace. Im i^n ; Gen. U {eds) ; D. AbL t
Plur. Nom. V. Ss ; Ace l« Ss ; Gen. iom {edn) \ D. AbL Ibns.

Examples :
F. basis, poesis, Charybdis, Nemesis, Lachesis, Syrtis.
M. Anubis, Albis, Athesis.

Acinaces, m. scimiiary is declined as nubes : but Names in
9b are subject to flexional variations.

III) Heteroclite or Fluctuating Declension.

i) Third DecL mixed with First and Second.

d) Nom. S. 9b ; Voc e\ Ace. em {in) ; Gen. Is, l ; D. I ; AbL 8.

Examples :
M. Aristoteles ; Archimedes; Demosthenes ; Euripides; Thucy-
dides ; Xerxes.

Hercules has Voc. te and AbL 9 (Hon).

b) Nom. S. clSs ; Voc clSs cli ; Ace clem {cletC)^ cUd \ Gen.

dU, oU ; Dat cli ; AbL cl8.

Examples :
M. Callicles, Damocles, Pericles, Sophocles, Themistocles.

c) Nom. S. etls ; Voc. ^ ; Ace emu, ia \ Gen. «l, a, i i^ds) ; D.

«o,^,a; AbL«o,^.
Examples :
M. Nereus ; Orpheus ; Peleus ; Perseus ; Theseus ; Tydeus.
Ace, ea^ ih occur in poetry : Idomenea, Orph^ (Verg.).
The Greek Gen. ^ds is confined to poets after the Aug. age.
With this DecL of Perseus compare Perses, p. 87. Livy

uses the former for the last Macedonian king : Cicero the

latter.

d) The two Masculine names Achilles, Ulixes, have a

peculiar flexion :
Nom. S. «• ; Voc. i\ Ace em,^;f, ia\ Gen. U, Hds^ «i, i; D. ^
I; AbL S«,i.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

1^

Adjectives in the Third Declension,

115

2) Consonant Declension mixed with I-declension :
a) Nom. S. h% ; Voc. e ; Ace. em (^«), Stem, ita ; Gen. to,
etU ; D. I, StI ; AbL 8, «t4$.
Examples : M. Chremes, Dares, Laches, Thales.

d) Nom. S. U ; Voc. r; Ace. Im, fn; Idem, i^a^; Gen. Idls
(ms); D. Idl; AbLld«.

Plur. Nom. V. es, Ides ; Ace. Ss, Is, /^/d!^ ; Gen. lum, Idum; D.
AbL n»iis, Idibne (^rare).

Examples : tigris ; Paris, &c. See p. 98.

Fern, names, especially Patronymics, follow chiefly the Cons.-
forais : but with much variance. See Neue {Fortmnlehre^ I. 300,
&c).

X. Adjectives in the Third Declension.

•* Adjec-

tives in

I. The Declension of Adjectives is distinguished from that of i>«cL 3.
Substantives only by having Case-endings which represent different
Genders. Therefore Consonant Adjectives which have no distinct
generic Case-forms are merely declined Hke corresponding Sub-
stantives. They are a very small class, of which the principal are

(caeles) caeWt-
div6s divlt-
sosp§s sosplt-
superst^s superstlt-
des^s desld-
resfis resld-
compos compSt-
impos imp5t-

keavenly particeps particlp- sharing Cons.

rich princeps princlp- chief ti^^

safe caelebs caellb- m. unmarried

surviving paupSr paupSr- poor

;|^ E^ws'"'''" '^^'

unpllfllLg imJuSs } i^P"b€r. not of age

An I-noun im pubis (Is, 5) is more frequently used.

Sospes is once Neuter in luv.: *Nec lunquam depositum tibi
sospes erit,' xiii. 177.

Dis (Ter.) contracted from dives, becomes an I-noun, AbL diti;
Ne»t PL ditia ; Gen. PL ditium.

Table

SINGULAR.

N. V.

Ace.

Gen.

Dat

AbL

divSs
divlt-
divit-
divit-
divit-

paupSr
paupdr-
pauper-
pauper-
pauper-

em

U

1

PLURAL.

N. A. V. divit-
Gen. divit-
D. AbL divit-

pauper-
pauper-
pauper-

Ytas

I 2

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

ii6

Latin Word lore.

§24-

l-npuB . 2. Adjectives and Participles, not purely Consonantal, may be
^djec- classed in four groups, shewn in the following Table : —

Singular.

Nora. Voc

Ace

M. F. N.

em S

Gen.

1

Dat. 1 AbL

M. F. N.

I. I. u «

I

i

2. €r T'tu r-«

r-em r-8

T'U

r-f

r-I

II. s(ziis ...)

em •(zns ...)

u

I S(«)

III. 6r tts

em As

u

1 «

IV. r,l,....

em —

u

t
1 I

Plural.

Norn. Voc.

Ace

Gen.

lou

i

Dat. Abl.

M. F. N.

I. h% la

' M. F. N.

esls la

IbQS

II. e« la

S« i« la

loin

i

mas

III. SB ii

9«ls &

joaaa

i

Ybiis

IV. Ss —

esis --

un

es bet\

Evei

. «: N

IbQS

The Ending of Accusative Plural fluctuat
els) and es, as in Substantival i-stems.
tives have both forms, though with Abl. S

veei
1 C
eut.

1 IB (for
ompara-
PLft.

I) The first group contains

i) A large number of Adjectives declined as I-nouns with Nom.
Is m, /,, 9 n. : dulcis, sweet; pinguis, y2i/ ; mitis, mild\
tristis, sad\ grandis, great; viridis, green ; turpi s, base ;
segnis,/^^ ; sublimis, lofty; z.gi\\s, active ; nobilis, ll^7^/^ ;
aequalis, equal; MqMs, faithfitl; sernlxs, slavish ; vul-
gans, common ; ISvis, light ; levis, smooth, &c.

Instances of Ablative in S are very rare in this class : * nobild
viro,' Cic. ; ' caelestg, bimestrS, perenn$,* Ov.

2) A small ntmiber in «r, -rts, -r« : as ac6r, acrTs, acrS, keen.
Celer, celSris, celSrg, swift, is the only Adjective of this kind

uiyiiized by CjOOQ IC

S 24. Adjectives in tlie Third Declension. 1 17

which retains • before r through all the Cases. Its Gen. PI. ends
in iom when it is merely adjectival, but in um when it signifies the
ancient body-guard at Rome, called Celeres.

The Adjectives which, besides acer (acris), cast out e before r
in the Cases, are

cele-ber -bris -htQ famous eques-ter -tris -tre on horse

salu-ber -bris -hxt healthy pedes-ter -tris -tre on foot

ala-cer -cris -ere brisk palus-ter -tris -tre marshy

volu-cer -cris -ere swifl^ winded pu-ter -tris -tre putrid

campes-ter -tris -tre of the plain terres-ter -tris -tre of land,

5ilves-ter -tris -tre woody of earth.

The forms in -bris, -erU, -tri«, may be Masc. ; but -ber, -oer,

-tor are usual in prose. These latter forms were also of Common
Gender anciently.

September, October, November, December, are like celeber, but
have no Neuter Cases.

The Masc. and Fem. forms of this group are like ignis^ imber
(AbL i) ; the Neuter like rete.

II) This group comprises many Adjectives :

I) Adjectives in as ftcl- ; ox 5cl- ; tx ioY- :

audax, bold, i&[zx,fruitful, &c. ; ferox, haughty, velox, swift, &c. ;
felix, happy, pemix, Jfeet : including words in ix, Fem. in Sing,
but taking also Neuter endings in Plur. : victrix, PL vic-
trices, victricia. So ultrix, corruptrix.

Adjectives under i) rarely take AbL S. «.

Like these are declined :

a) Compounds of caput : anceps, double; biceps, two-headed;
praeceps, headlong, &c. (for -cip€s) -cipit!-.

Jf) Compounds of cor: concors, agreeing; discors, dis-
agreeing; misericors, merciful; socors or secors,
stupid ; v e c o r s, insane : - c o r dl -.

•c) par par!-, equal; hebes hebetl-, dull (no Gen. PL);
teres teretl- (no Gen. PL), smooth-rounded; praepes
-^xik^-^^W-, fast-flying; trux truci-, cruel.

But the compounds of par, dispar, unlike, impar, unequal^
take AbL S. « or I, Gen. PL

2) Adjectives and Participles used adjectively in ns ntl- m rtY- :

ingens, huge ; prudens, sage ; prsiesens, present; absens, absent;
recens, fresh ; sapiens, wise; praestans, excellent; insons, in-
nocent; iners, inactive; expers, void, &c. In these the AbL
in «, though less frequent than 1, is often found.

-a) So those in &s ftti- : nostras, vestras, cuias, &c. Sec

uiyiiized by VjOOQIC

Ii8 Latin Wordlore, §24*

b) Numerals in ptox plloY-: simplex, duplex, multiplex^.

&c.

c) Derivatives of dens: tridens trident T-, three-pronged^

these have no Neut PL

d) Locuples locupletl-, wealthy ; Abl. S. 6 (i) ; Gen. PI. om or

Note. Present Participles, when they keep their Verbal force,
take % in Abl. S. : for instance, when used absolutely : regnante
Romulo, imperante Augusto : if used as mere Adjectives they
usually take AbL S. I.

But rare instances occur of Participles with Abl. I used verbally,,
and of Participles with Abl. % used adjectively.

Obs, The Gen. PI. in ntt-um, rtl-nm, ati-om, •ti-mn is liable
to an occasional loss of ¥ : recentum, sapientum, locupletum,
amantum, nostratum, &c.

III) This group contains Comparative Adjectives in 6r or- m,/.
us or- n. : melior, praestantior, sapientior, &c,

Abl. S. ^ as a rule, rarely 1.

Vetus vet€r-, ancient, has the same endings : AbL S (rarely i) ;.
Neut PL ft, Gen. PL mn.

IV) Group IV. has no Neut. Plur. AbL S. i, Gen. PL um.

a) Compounds of pes ; alipes, AbL S. alipedi. As a Neuter

Subst. quadrupes has PL quadrupedia.

b) Compounds of color : concolor concolor-, of the sa^nr

colour ; discolor discolor-, of different colour, Neut.
PL t& (rare).

c) algs allt-, winged (Ovid has alitS).

degener degengr-, degenerate uber uh^r-, fntitful

inops in6p-, destitute vigil vigTl-, wakeful

memor memdr-, mindful
immemdr, unmindful

d) redux rediic-, returned I aw q « x
supplex supplTc-, suppliant > ^°*' ^- ^' **

Obs. The Neuter Comparative plus plur- has AbL S. plurS,,
Neut N. V. A. plura. Gen. PL plurium.
Its compoimd complures has complura or compluria.

Adjic-**'^ Table of Adjectives not purely consonantal :

**^^ SINGULAR.

N.V. trist-U trist-« * fdix

Ace. trist-em trist-« ! felic-em felix

Gen. trist-¥« felic-¥«

Dat trist-l

Abl. trist-l

felic-l
felic-l

M. F. M.

ingens
ingent-em ingens
ingent-to
ingent-l
ingent-l («)

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

Ms.

The Fourth Declension.

119

N.V. trist-«« trist-tt
Ace trist-te Is trist-i&
Gen. trist-lnm

D.AbL trist-ibns

PLURAL.

felic-«s felic-tt
felic-Ssis felic-i&
felic-imn
felic-iba»

ingent-8» ingent-l«
ingent-«su ingent-lft
ingent-lnm
ingenMbus

SINGULAR.

M.

acer

N.V. celer celer-u celer-o [

Other cases of Sing., and the Plural, as tristis.

acr-i»

acr-o

SINGULAR.

M. F. N.

N.V. meli-dr meli-tt«

Ace. melior-em meli-tts
Gen. melior-X«

Dat melior-i

AbL melior-« (i)

SINGULAR.

M. F. N.

N.V. inops
Ace. indp-em inops
Gen. inop-I*
D. AbL inop-l

PLURAL.

M. F. N.

melior-€» melior-4

melior-es (i») melior-4

melior-mn

melior-ibus

meHor-lbns

PLURAL.

M. F.

inop-es
inop-es Is
inop-um
inop-ibus

Section V.

t The Fourth Declension: TT-Nouns.

U-Nouns add ■ to the Stem in the Nominative Sing, of Masc.
(Fern.) words, gradii-s ; but not in that of Neuter words, which
are thiree only : comu, horn ; genu, knee ; veru, spit The endings
of the other Cases, uncontracted, appear in the declension of grus,
p. no ; but the forms, contracted as in the following Table, are
«sed by all U-nouns except grus, sus.

•5

Fourth
Declen*
sion.

ii Table.

SINGULAR.

ttep.xsi.

tribe, i.

kne^Vk.

N.V.

grad-tt«

trib-tt»

gen-«

Ace.

grad-nm

trib-nm

gen-n

Gen.

grad-*»

trib-fts

gen-fl»

Dat

grad-ia«

trib-ia«

gen-«

AbL

grad-ft

trib-«
PLURAL.

gen-«

N.V.A.

grad-fts

trib-iU

gen-ua

Gen.

grad-Vnm

trib-inim

gen-vnm

DJVbL

grad-Ibos

trib-ttbu»

gen-Xbns

uiymzeu uy ^.j^v^-i in

120

Latin Wordlore, § ^S*

iii Confusion of 0- and TT-nouns.

d) On account of the near relation of the flat vowels o, u, the
U -declension is invaded by many forms of the 0-declension, 2,

Thus senati, tumulti, occur in Sallust ; and in poets from the
earliest time down to Lucretius many such forms are found : ad-
venti, aesti, fructi, geli, gemiti, ornati, piscati, quaesti
(frequent), sumpti, victi, &c.

b) Ficus, f. Jig-ireej an 0-noun of DecL 2., fluctuates in

Gen. S. I or iu, Abl. S. o or n.
Nom. PL i or us, Ace. PL os or as.

Laurus, f bay-tree, cupressus, cypress-tree^ are similarly declined :
also pinus,^/«i?, but with AbL S. in « only : and comus, cornel,
but with Gen. S. in i only.

Myrtus, f. myrtUy an 0-noun, has Nom. PL I or *• ; Ace. PL
58 or fks.

Quercus, f. oak, is a U-noun, but Gen. PL quercorum, Cic.

Colus, 2. f. distaff, Gen. S. I or &•, D. o, AbL o or u. Nom. PL
fis, Ace. iU or OS.

So domus, f. house, fluctuates between DecL 4 and DecL 2.

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

N. V. domus domus

Ace. domum domos (us)

Gen. domus domuum, domorum

Dat. dom-ui, o domtbus

AbL dom-o u domtbus

Domi (or domui), at home, is the Locative. It can be used witK
an Attribute ; domi meae, at my house ; domi Caesaris, cU Caesar's
house. Also domui alienae, at another's house,

P ecu, 4. n. is a disused Nom. ( = pecus, pecoris), cases of which
are found : Dat S. pecui. AbL pecu. PL Nom. Ace pecua (Dat
AbL pecubus ?).

Gelus, 4. m, frost, is a disused Nom., Gen. S. geli. AbL gelu.
Gelum, 2. n. is also extant

Tonitrus, 4. m. AbL S. tonitru. Nom. Ace. PL tonitrus (also
tonitrua from ab)rform tonitruum 2. n.). Dat AbL tonitribus.
(Ossua, ossuum, from a disused ossu, 4- n. ** os bone, are only found
in old Inscrr.) Sub diu for sub divo, Lucr. v. 211.

iv. Cases in the Fourth Declension.

i) The Gen. Sing, of Neuter Nouns is now shewn to be like
that of others, in <|f , though old grammarians held it to be in «.

lOOgle

f 26, The Fifth Declension. 121

2) The Dat. ni is generally contracted into 11 : usu for usui :
*parce metu ;' * victu invigilant,' Verg. It is much used with esse,
habere, &c., * usui esse,' to be useful ; *derisui habere/ &c.

3) In the Dat. AbL PL ttbos is generally weakened into n>iis.
The only Nouns which exclude nms, are acus, arcus, and
tribus : ttbos is however usual in artus (PL), limbs ; lacus; partus,
birth'y portus, harbour % specus, cave\ veru: and found in genu,
tonitrus, Quinquatrus. Other nouns have Ibas alone.

V. Gender in the Fourth Declension.

The Feminine Nouns of the U -declension (besides those deter-
mined by meaning as females or plants) are : acus, needle ^ point ;
domus, house \ manus, hand\ porticus, /^^r^:^ ; tribus, //7^^ ; Idas
(PL), the Ides (of the month) ; Quinquatrus (PL), a byform of
Quinquatria, the feast of Minerva,

Specus, m. is rarely f. (PL specua is found in E. L.).

Obs, Most Nouns of this DecL are Derivatives ; either from
Substantives: consul-atus, magistr-atus, sen-atus, &c., signi-
^ing office : or from the Supine Stem of Verbs, with abstract mean-
ing : actus, auditus, eventus, visus, &c. To these latter often
correspond forms rather less abstract in -to 3. f., actio, auditio,
visio, &c. ; and others concrete in vm 2. n. : (actum), eventum,
visum, &c.

Section VI.
L The Fifth Declension: E-Nouns.

E-nouns add • to the Stem in the Nominative : in .the other Fifth
cases closely corresponding with dea in the First Declension. Dcdcn-

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

DecL I. dea dea-m dea-i I deae dea-rum dea- bus
DecL 5. die-s die-m die-i | die-s die-rum die-bus

ii Table.

SINGULAR.

day.c.

thins, f.

faiihy f.

N. V.

di-Ss

r-«s

fid-«s

Ace

di-em

r-em

fid-em

Gen.

di-«l

r-ci

. 6d-et

Dat

di-el

r-ci

fid-el

AbL

di-«

r*
PLURAL.

(id-«

N. Ac. V.

di.««

x-hm

none

Gen.

di-emm

r-«nim

Dat. AbL

di-$ba»

r-«biis

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

122 Latin Wordlore. §a6.

iii Cases in the Fifth Declension.

i) Dies and res are the only nouns fully declined Acies,
edgCy armVy fsLCies, /ace, effigies, image, glacies, ice fVerg.), series,
species, firm, spes, hope, have the first three Plural Cases.* All
others are Singular only : being in sense either abstract or col-
lective. Many are byforms of A-nouns :

materia, i., materies, 5., mother-stuff, matter
mollitia, i., moUities, 5., softness, effeminacy.

So amaritia, es ; avaritia, es ; barbaria, es ; duritia, es ; luxuria^
es ; segnitia, es, &c.

Other words are caesaries, {clipf) hair j caries, rot (in wood) ;
congeries, mass\ esuries, hunger; macies, wasting disease; pau-
peries, poverty ; pemicies (or permities), bane, ruin ; progenies,
offspring; rabies, fury, madness; sanies, corrupt matter, gore ;
scabies, the scab, mange, or rot; superficies, surface; temperies,
climate, temper, moderation ; intemperies, immoderation (PL in-
temperiae of the ist DecL).

2) A few Nouns of Decl. 3. confiise some cases with DecL 5.
Thus fames, hunger, has AbL fame; tabes, AbL tabe, in
Lucr. Requies, rest, has Ace requiem and requietem. Gen.
requietis, Dat requieti, AbL requie. Plebes or plebs has
Gen. plebis, plebei, plebi, Dat plebi or plebeL

3) An example of the old Gen. Sing, in Ss survives in Lucr. iv.
1083 : * Quodcumque est rabies unde illaec germina surgunt'

4) The e of Gen. Dat. el is long after t: diei, progeniei \
jut short, classically, after a Consonant : fid-5i, rgi (sp€i f). But
in old Latin it was long in these also : * plenu' fidei,' Enn., Lucr. ;
rei (or reii). Plautus and Terence make ei in r^, spei coalesce
by synizesis.

5) » was also contracted into 8, anciently into I, diei, die, dlf ;
plebei, plebi. * Constantis iuvenem fide ;' * commissa fide,' Hor.
*Munera laetitiamque dii/Vere^. A. Gellius cites from old Latin
authors such instances as acii, fanu, luxurii, pcmicii, progenii, &c.

6) the phrases 'die crastini,' 'die proximi,' *die septimi,* are
examples of the Locative Case in this DecL So cotidie, postridie.*

iv. Gender in the Fifth Declension.

All £-nouns are Fem. except dies, which, when it means a day^
is usually, and in the Plur. always, Masc. So its compound meri-
dies, noon, is Masc. classically. But, if it means time^ dies is
Fem. : ' Longa dies illi quid profuit ? ' luv. x.

*^ Some other forms appear anciently or in post-classical writings, as sperts fiw sp csr
fiiderum ; specierunip speciebus.
* No Adjectives belong to the 4th and 5th Declensions.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

§ 27- Irregular Nouns. 123

Section VII.
L Irregular Nouns. irrc?u.

i) Irregularity (aVui/xaXca) is said to exist in a word if it de- ''""**
parts in any respect nrom the normal constitution of its class.

2) A Substantive is normally constituted when it has two Nmn-
bers, with six Cases in each^ all of the same gender, following one
pattern of Declension. A Substantive is said to be irregular, so far
as it departs from this constitution.

3) Irregularity may consist in Abundance (more forms than
osoal) or Defect (fewer forms than usual).

A word may be Abundant in one respect and Defective in an-
other. Thus, vulgus, 2, is Abundant in having two Genders and
two forms of Accusative : Defective in having no Plural.

VL Abundance in Substantives. Abun-

dance.

Abundance is shewn in

i) Substantives which, with the same Clipt-stem and meaning,
are formed after more than one Declension. See § 2S. 6.

a) With difference of Gender :

Decl. I. f. and 2. n.

alimoni-a um, nurture ; cingul-a um (us, m.), belt ; essed-a
um, chaise ; margarit-a lun, pearl ; mend-a um, fault\
mulctr-a um, milking-pail.

Note ostrea, oyster y f. ; PL ostrea, oysters y n.

DecL I. f. and 2. m.
vesper-a, vesper, evening ; acin-a, us, berry

DecL I. f. and 3. m.

cratera, crater, mixing-bowl.

DecL I. f., 2. n., and 3. n.

gausap-a, urn, h^ frieze cloth or coat.

DecL I. £ and 3. n.
caepa, caepe, onion (PL from caepa).

DecL 2. n. and 5. f.
diluvi-um, es, deluge.

DecL 2. n. and 3. f.
consorti-um, o, companionship ; contagi-um, o, contagion.

DecL 2. n., 3. n., and 3. f.
praesepium, praesepe, praesepis, crib^ stall (PL 3. n,).

DecL 2. n., 3. n., and 3. m.
tapetum, tapete, tapes, carpet.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

124 Latin Wordlore, §27.

DecL 2. n. and 3, n.
tergum, tergus (or-), back (rarely 2 m.)

DecL 2. n. and 4. m.
angiport-um,us, latu\ conat-um, us, endeavour \ event-um,us,
issue \ event {^, 121, Obs,); incest-um, us, /«^:^J/ ; suggest-
um,us,/«^/V. Fretum,^'M, has an ancient form fretus, 4,

Obs. The old root pen-, interior (whence penes, penitus, penetrare,
penetrale, penates), has a Substantive exhibited in several forms, all
classical : penu-s, 4. f., penu-s, 2. ntL, penu-m, 2. n., and penus
penor-, 3. n., provision, store of food-, as, 'magna penus,' LuciL ;
* penus annuus,' Plaut ; * penum erile,' Afran. ; * fnunenta penus-
que,' Hor.

b) With the same Gender :

DecL I. and 3. f.

cassida, cassis, helmet ; fulica, fulix, coot\ iuvent-a, us,youtA ;
senect-a, us, old age.

DecL 2. and 3. m.

delphinus, delphin ; elephantus, elephas ; Mulciber (beri, bri,
and beris,bris) ; Oedipus (i and odis) ; scorpius, scorpio.

DecL 3. and 5. f.
coUuvio, coUuvies, conflux \ paupertas, pauperies, /^n/^r/^.

DecL 2. and 3. n.
iugerum (iuger), acre\ nihilum, nihil, nothing, Necessus,
necessum, necesse, necessity. See Corssen, iL 238.

DecL I. and 5. (see § 26).

On Greek names of two Declensions, see § 24. ix.

Obs, Names of trees have Nom. us, f., their fruits urn, n. usually.

cerasus cherry-tree cerasum cherry

prunus plum-tree prunum plum

So malus, apple-trecy malum, apple ; 'p\x\x% pear-trecy pirum,/^«r :
but amygdala, atmond-trecy amygdalum, almond.

2) Substantives, chiefly of DecL 2, which vary their Gender, and
with it their Case-forms, in the Plural.

a) locus, place, m, . . . loci, m loca, n.

(loci often means topics, places in books, but not exclusively)

iocus, Jest, m. ... ioci, m ioca, n.

sibilus, hiss, m« . . . sibili, m sibila, n.

carbasus, canvas, f. . . (carbasi) .... carbasa, n.
Tartarus, hell, m Tartara, n.

Like Tartarus are formed many names of mountains, referred in
Sing, to mons, m., in PL to iugai, n. :

Ismar-us, PL -a; Maenal-us, PL -a; Tayget-us, 4>L -a.

uiyiuzeu uy ■n^JVJvJVJ Iv

5 27- Irregular Nouns, 125

b) rastrum, harrow^ n. . . rastri, m. . . rastra, n.

frenum, bit, n. ... freni, m. . . frena, n-

caelum, keavetty n. . . caeli, m. (Lucr.)

porrum, leek, n. . . , porri, m.

r) In Decl. 3 :

siser, skirret, n. . . . siseres, m.

Many examples of words in one Decl. which borrow cases from
another are given in §§ 21 . . . 26 : plebes, fames, requies, domus,
fraus, &c See especially § 2S.

Note, The compounds respublica, commonwealth, iusiurandum,
oath, decline both elements : rempublicam, reipublicae, republica,
&c ; iurisiurandi, iureiuranda

iii Defect in Substantives. Defec-

tiva Nu-

Defect is of Number or Case. "**""*•

A. Defectiva Numero are :

I) Nouns which have no Plural Number (Singular only). Singular

only.

1. Words which seem, by their nature, to need no Plural, are
Nomina Propria, Abstracta, Collectiva, and Materialia.

Yet Proper Names may take a Plural, when several of one name
are mentioned, duodecim Caesares, the twelve Caesars ; Cn. et L.
Scipiones, the Scipios Gnaeus and Lucius ; also if, as types of a
class, they become Appellatives : * Non omnes possumus esse
Cicerones,' we cannot all be Ciceros, * Sint Maecenates, non
derunt, Flacce, Marones,' Mart.

Abstracta take a Plural, when various instances of their occur-
rence are implied : odia, hatreds, amicitiae, friendships, invidiae,
etrineSy impietates, &c.

So Collectiva may take a Plural, if several instances are implied :
populi,>^^/?j, sendXviS J senates, mundi, worlds, &c.

Materialia may take a Plural, when more than one kind is im-
plied : vina, wines. Also when objects made of the material are
meant : cerae, waxen tablets or waxen busts ; aera, bronzes ; mar-
roora, works in marble. Other metals, as aurum, gold, argentum,
silver, are not used in the Plural, because objects of show were not
usually made in them. Argentum, Sing., is used for the collective
silver plate of an owner.

As we say fish, meat, lamb, cheese, &c., so the Romans expressed
objects of ordinary constmiption in the Singular : * Villa mea
abundat porco, haedo, agno, gallina, caseo, melle,' C. Faba,
Sing., is used for beans, rosa for roses, glans for acorns, &c.*
Similarly, miles for milites, eques for equites : genrnia,
jewelled cups, tegula, tiles.

On the other hand, poets use in the Plural many words which
might appear to confine their meaning to the Singular : mella,
tura, farra, hordea, nives, grandines, rores, soles, rura, corda, colla,
pectora, ora, silentia, crepuscula, ligna, &c. So they pluralize local

' The word/ra in En|^sh is a modem corruption of the true form * Peat* L. pis-um,
Fr. pois. In Shakespeie we find ' a peas or a bean. ' The plural is ptase oftpeasnt.

uized by Google

126

Latin Wordlore.

§a7.

names : Esquiliae, the Esquiline hill ; Capilolia, the Capitol,
Palatia, the Palatine^ &c.

2. Generally, in Latin, the Plural has a large and liberal use.
Yet the following words may be mentioned as Singular only, no
good authority or analogy sanctioning a Plural form :

acetum

vinegar

lac

milk

pus

matter

ador

spelt

letum

death

salus

safety

aether

sky

limus

mud

sanguis

blood

argentum

silver

meridies

noon

supellex

furniture

aurum

gold

merum )
nectar i

wine

venia

pardon

fames

hunger

ver

spring

ferrum

iron

oleum

oil

vesper

evening

garum

pickle

plumbum

lead

virus

venom

humus

ground

pontus

sea

vulgus

populace

It is unsafe to say of Abstracts, like pietas, infantia^ pueritia, ex-
perientia, sapientia, that they are Singular only ; because, if any
such words are not found Plural in classical authors, so many Plurals
are found resembling them that the possibility of their Plural use
cannot be confidently denied.

Abstracts of the Fifth Declension are not, however, used in the
Plural, but their corresponding forms of the First Declension.

Plural II) Nouns never, or rarely found Singular (Plural only). These

only- are numerous in Latin.

i) Names of People or Tribes, individuals of which are seldom
mentioned : Aborigines; and the three original tribes of Rome,
Ramnes, Titles, Luceres. But most of such names may occur
as Singular : Arpinas, Samnis, Gallus, Saxo ; thus Hor. *infi-
delis Allobrox ;* * Marsus et Appulus ;' * Dacus et Aethiops.*

2) Mountain, Island, &c. groups : Alpes (Alpis rare) : Acrocer-
aunia (iuga) : Aegates, Baleares, Cyclades (insulae). So the
street Carinae (the Keels) at Rome; Tempe, (vale in Thessaly).

3) Many names of Cities and Towns are Plural, as consisting of
parts: i. Athenae, Baiae, Cumae, Mycenae, Syracusae,
Thebae;' 2. Argi, Delphi, Gabii, Philippi, Pompeii, Veii :
Ecbatana, Leuctra, Susa; 3. Cures, Gades, Sardis; or from
the name of the people, asLeontini:*or from a Plural Appellative,
as Aquae Sextiae, Fundi, Ostia, Centumcellae.

4) Names of recurring Calendar days : Calendae or Kalen-
dae ; Nonae ; Idus, 4. And of Holidays, Festivals, Games, ^c :
as Latinae, Sementivae (feriae), Quinquatrus; nundinae
(feriae), market day \ Circenses(ludi); Feralia, Floralia, Libe-
ralia, Megalesia, Dionysia, Nemea, Olympia, Pythia, Sa-
turnalia (festa). To this class belong nuptiae (epulae), wedding ;
repotia (festa), feast after a wedding; sponsalia (sacra or

* Cicero writes Cyrenae, Mytilenae for the Greek forms in €.

' Most of the considerable towns in and around France take their names frcnn the old
Gallic tribes of which they were the capitals: Paris (Lutetb Parisiorum); Amiens

SAmbiani); Limoges (Lemovices) ; Bourges (Bituiigesi; Orleans (Aureliani): Tours
Turones); Rouen (Rotomagi); Soissons (Suessiones) ; LAnnes (Lingones); Sens
Scnones) ; Nantes (Nanneusi; Treves (Augusu TreverorumX «c.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

S 27. Irregular Nouns. 1 27

festa), betrothal ; iusta (ssLcn), /umrat rites; parentalia (festa),
funeral banquet ; i n f e r i a e (epulae), offering to the dead,

5) Neuter Greek names for treatises or poems : ethica, ethics ;
metaphysica, metaphysics \ Georgica, the Georgics, &c. (scripta).

6) Masculine Collective Names of persons seldom or never so
named individually : Decl. 2. gemini, twins ; liberi, the children of a
free Roman; one being unus (una) eliberis or liberorum : inferi,
dwellers below ; superi, gods above ; posteri, posterity ; DecL 3.
maiores, ancestors; minores, descendants; csLciiteSf heavenly deities;
lemures, goblins; penates, household-gods; optimates, primores,
proceres, chiefs, nooles (the last six rarely S. ; *Agnosco procerem,'
Inv.) ; manes,^ ghost or ghosts,

7) Parts of the human body, subsisting plurally, and seldom or
never separately mentioned : cani (capilli), grey hairs ; cervices 3.
neck (also cervix) ; lactes 3, small guts ; exta 2. (outermost) en-
trails ; intestina 2, viscera 3. entrails (viscus used) ; ilia 3. groin,
bowels ; praecordia 2. midriff, heart ; pantlces 3. paunch. The
words genae, cheeks ; tempora 3. temples ; fauces 3. jaws ; renes 3.
Jndneys, imply that the Sing, may be used, if necessary. Hence
gena (Suet), tempus (Verg.) : AbL fauce often in poetry (Hon
Ov. &C.) : ren is not found in classical Latin ; but can be used
technically.

Artus 4. the limbs ; Sing, once in Lucan.

8) Many other words, which may be generally distinguished
thus:

/i) Plural Nouns implying individuals, which are not cited in the
Singular except in rare instances marked (s.) :

DecL I. anX3Lt, pilasters ; cliteUac, packsaddle ; dirae, curses^
furies (s.); gerrae, (wattled twigs) «^«jr«j^^; habenae, reins
(s. in Hor.) ; pl&gae, nets ; scalae, stairs ; thermae, warm
oaths; valvsLCy folding doors.

DecL 2. fori, hatches (of a ship) ; acta, transactions; arma, arms ;
bellaria, dessert; crepundia, (rattling) toys; cibm2L,food;
mimia, duties ; pascua, pastures ; sata, cornfields ; scruta,
second-hand wares ; tesqua, wilds,

Decl. 3. antes, tcl front vine rows; casses, m. nets (s.) ; com-
pedes, f. fetters (s.) ; fides, f. lute-strings (s.) ; obices, c.
bars (s.) ; sentes, c. thorns (s.) ; vepres, c. brambles (s.) ;
magalia, mapalia, n. huts, village,

b) Pliural Nouns implying parts not similar and separable.

DecL I. balneae, bath-house (balnea, baihs) ; bigae, chariot and
pair; cunae, cradle; divitiae, riches; epulae, banquet; ex-
seauiae, burial; exuviae, spoils {stript from the dead);
induviae, clothes; lapicidinae, sionequarry; manubiae

^ The word Manes belongs to Italian, probably to Etruscan, religion. Departed spirits
were <>etfied under the title of di manes or manes ; and the word is sometimes used, as

• true Plural, of all such spirits ; sometimes as a Singular- Plural, of the spirit or ghost of an
iiuHviduaL Thus, * Quae "vis deorum est manium,' Hor. ; * Sunt aliquid manes,' Prop. :

• Callimachi manes,' Prop. ; * Veiginiae manes,' Liv.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

128

Latin Wordlore.

§27.

or manibiae, prize money (in war) : phalerae, trappingf ;

parietinae, ruins ; quadrigae, chariot and /our (s.) ; quis-

quiliae, rubbish ; reliquiae, remnant;, salinae, saliwork ;

scopae, besom^ broom, .
DecL 2. cancelli, rrt///«^ (in court) ; ^^S^xn^ graiing\ codicilli,

ledger \ adversaria, notebook \ compita, cros^-road or roads

(s.) ; cunabuU, ^r^z^//(f ; donaria, treasury, multicia, ^»r

raiment'^ stTX3Ly wreath, garland.
Decl. 3. ambagesj (circuits) e^^asive language or conduct; fraces,

f. oil-lees ; fores, f. door (s.) ; pugmares, m. writing-tablet ;

sordes, f. dirt, meanness fs.) ; altaria, high altar ; brevia,

shoals; moenia, town-weals.

c) Plural Nouns implying repetition or continuation.

Decl. I. angustiae, straits (s.) ; argutiae, subtleties, acuteness ;
blanditiae, flattery (s.) ; decimae, tithes ; deliciae (s.), de-
light, darling ; excubiae, nightwatch ; facetiae, pleasantry
(s.) ; feriae, holidays ; ineptiae, follies (s.) ; inimicitiae,
enmity (s.) ; insidiae, ambush, treachery ; minae, threats ;
nugae, trifles ; praestigiae, jugglery ; primitiae, firsts
fruits ; tricae, tricks ; tenebrae, ^kness ; vindiciae, clcdnt.

Decl. 2. fasti, annals; flabra, blasts (also flamina); lamenta,
lamentations ; o\AW\2i, forgetfulness.

Decl. 3. grates, f. thanks ; verbera, stripes (s.) ; tormina,
gripes.

Varu-
uon of
Mean-
ing in
Plural.

Ill) Nouns which vary their meaning in the Plural.

aedes

aqua

auxilium

bonum

career

castrum

castellum

cera

comitium

copia

facultas

finis

fortuna

gratia

hortus

SINGULAR.

temple

water

help

good{2Lhs\x.)

prison

] fort

wax

Asseffibly-place

plenty

faculty

an end
fortune
favour
garden

PLURAL.

aedes

aquae

auxilia

bona

carceres

castra

cerae

comitia

copiae

facultates

fines

fortunae

gratiae

horti

house

mifieral springs
auxiliary forces
goods, property
starting-place (s)

camp

waxen tablets or busts
the Assembly at Rotn^
forces, resources
means
boundaries
gifts of fortune
thanks (s)
pleasure-grounds

impedimentum hindrance impedimenta baggage

littera a letter litterae epistle, literature

loculus .box loculi money-case

ludus play ludi public games

lustrum five years lustra lairs, dens

natalis birth-day natales origin

opera exertion operae workpeople (s)

opis (Gen.) help opes power, wealth \f action

pars a portion partes part in a play; side i:ir

^^.v

§27.

Irregular Nouns.

129

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

Tostram

beak

rostra

the Roman pulpit

sal

salt

sales

wit (s)

tabula

board

tabulae

writing tablets

torus

couch

tori

muscles

balneum, 2

. bath

balneae, i

bath-house

epolum. 2.

sacred fecLst

epulae, i.

banquet

B, DEFECTIVA CASIBUS. Dcfec.

ttvsi CJsi*

In many Nouns the exigencies of language have called into use sibus.
a portion only of the ordinary Case-forms.*

A) The following Nouns have the full Pliu*al ; but in the Singu-
lar diey have only

a) Four Cases :
N.V. vis, Ace vim, AbL vi ; force, 3. f.

Ace

PL vir-e» lorn, &c.

Nom. Ace Gen. Dat

(dap-) em is t
(&ug-) em U 1

b) Three Cases :

(op-) em U —
(prec-) em — t
(sord-) em !• —
(vie-) em !• —
visc-ns SrU —

AbL

e
dre

banquet, 3. f.
Jruit, 3. f.

help, 3. f.
prayer, 3. £
dirt, 3. f.
change, 3. f.
entrail, 3. n.

j^ PL •■ am, &c

}PLe.

PL ••,

PLes
PL a

am, &c.

lam, &c.

— , &c.
am, &c.

c) Two Cases :

(verber-) — Is — 9 stripe, 3. n. PL a am, &c.

d) One Case : being Ablatives of Decl. 3 :

ambage, f. | casse, m. | fauce, f. | obice, c. | compede, f. | iugere, n.

B) Many Nouns with full Singular have only N. V. Ace. PluraL
Such are farra, mella, murmura, rura, tura, &e., 3. n. ; metus, situs,
&C., 4. ro. ; acies, effigies, facies, species, spes, 5. f.

A St us, cunning, 4. m., has Nom. AbL Sing, and Nom. Ace.
Plur.

C) The following Nouns, without Plural, have in the Singular
<i) Four Cases:

Nom-V. Ace. Gen. Dat AbL

(dicio on-) . em is t « power, 3. f.

— — e wasting disease, 3. £

— — « (I) morning, 3. n.

lu-e«
man-<

em

' Words having one Case only in either number were called by the old grammarians
MoNOPTOTA ; those with two, Diptota ; those with three, Triptota ; those with
four, Tbtraftota : (from irrw<ri(, case^ and the several numerals).

1^ uiyiuzeu uy 'v-j v^v^ pt IN-

130 Latin Wordlore. J27.

Gen. Dat. AbL

— fort-o chance, 3. f.

— — right {by divine law\ 3. n,

— — wrong {py divine law), 3. ru

b) Three Cases :

Nom.V.

Ace. (

fors . .

• ""^

fas . .

. fas

nefas •

. nefas

c) Two Cases :

Norn.

instar .

. instar

nihil, nil

. nihil, nil

opus

. opus

_

venum

— — — likeness, 3. n.

— — — nothing, 3. n.

— — — need, 3. n.
impetis — \vcl^^\a force, 3. m.

— veno — sale, 2. n.

d) Nouns using only one Case are numerous :

Nom. glos, 3. f. sister-in-law \ inquies, 5. f. restlessness.

Ace. secus, 3. n. sex, with epithet virile or muliebre,

pessum, to the bad (for ped-sum), 4. m. in connexion with
Verbs (pessum dare, pessum ire, &c.).

Gen. die is (causa), 3. for form's sake: non nauci, 2. not
worth a nutshell, worthless.

Dat despicatui, frustratui, ludificatui habere, to de-
spise, baffle, ridicule', indutui gerere, /(? wear', ob-
tentui esse, to be a show, &c, 4.

AbL sponte (mea, sua, &c), 3. f. by choice, spontaneously.

accitu, admonitu, iussu, iniussu, coactu, concessu, ductu,
hortatu, mandatu, permissu, rogatu, &c. 4.

noctu, by night; diu, lucu, b^ daylight, 4.

in promptu esse, in procinctu stare, to be in readi-
ness, 4.

natu maior, elder; natu mmox, younger, 4.

pondo, 2. by weight, understands librarum, and is used
with any Numeral : corona ducentum pondo, a crown
of 200 pounds' weight.

D) The following Nouns, without Singular, have in Plural

a) Two Cases :

N. Ace. suppetiae, -zs, succour ; grates, thanks (gratibus, Tac).
Gen. repetundarum, Abl repetundis, i. f. extortion (under-
stand rerum, rebus').
Ace. foras, out of doors, AbL foris, abroad, i. f.

b) One Case :

Ace ad incitas redigere, to drive to extremities, i. £
— infitias ire, to deny, i. f.

AbL (gratiis) ^nX\%, freely ; ingratiis, against will, i. £

-£) Indeclinable, with one form for any Case, are
Names of letters ; alpha, beta, &c.
Various words from other languages : Adam.
Infinitives: amare, vivere.

* Necesse 3. n. (Nom. Ace.), necetsity. Gen. necessis (Lucr.) ; Plautus has necessum*
neoewis. See p. »04, and M. Lucr. U. 710^ vL 81^ ^ j

uiyiuzeu uy ■n^JVJvJVJ Iv

28

1 28-29. Comparison. 131

iv. Irregularity in Adjectives.

I) Some Adjectives have two forms, one like bonus, the other Adj^
like tristis or ingens : dva

acclivto («•) steep imbecillu* is weak dailSL

biiugto («•) two-yoked imberbu («•) beardless

tSttimm (!•) unbridled inermiui %m unarmed

unanimms !• 0/ one mind opulentus (opulens) wealthy

hilarto («•) cheerful violentus (violens) violent

So exanim-u», U ; semianim-ms, is ; sublim-ls, us ; and others.
The Adverb luculenter implies an old form luculens.

II) ^j. Some are Defective in Number : Y^tH^*
pauci,y2?w, is rarely Sing. (Hor. ad Pis, 203). "^
pier i que, most^ is found Sing, with Collective words :

*pleraque nobiUtas' (for plerique nobiles), SalL

b. Some are Defective in Case and Nimiber :
d) Two Cases :

Nom. S. pern ox, AbL pemocte, all night,
b) One Case;

Nom. S. damnas, condemned^ for damnat(u)s, with esto ; but

used also idiomatically as Nom. PL with sunto ;
exspes, A^^/4?jj ; potis, ^ot^, able, possible,

c. Of some the Nominatives are not found, but other Cases only:
(sons), guilty ; sontes, the guilty : but insons, innocenty has full
Cases.

Macte, Voc S., macti, Voc PL, are used with esto, este, be
blessed^ be lucky ^ &c : * Macte (macti) virtute esto (este),* good luck
to you for your valour y Liv, See M. Lucr. v. 1339.

d. The dat. S. frugi {for good) is used as an indeclinable Adjec-
tive of all Cases : frugi servus, a good honest slave. Opposed to
this is the indeclinable Adjective li^^yiaim., good for nothing \ pro-
bably for ne quam frugem (habet), no good. See pp. 129, 133.
These idioms are drawn from the colloquial language of Italian
farmers in early times.

SECTION VIII.
i Comparison of Adjectives. Compa-

rison of

The same quality may be perceived in several ob- Uv^*^"
jects. If three be taken, the quality may be perceived
in the second more than in the first, and in the third
most of all. These relations are expressed by the
flexion called Comparison in Adjectives and Adverbs.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

132

Latin Wordlore.

§29-

The Degrees of Comparison are therefore three :

I. The Positive D^ree shews quality absolutely
perceived: vir procerus, a tall man; or
equally in two: vir tarn procerus quam
Lucius, a man as tall as Lucius,

II. The Comparative Degree shews quality per-
ceived more in one of two than in the other :
vir procerior quam Lucius, a man taller
than Lucius,

III. The Superlative Degree shews quality per-
ceived most in one of several : vir omnium
procerissimus, the tallest man of cUl,

The formation of the Comparative and Superlative is explained
in p. 42, Note,

Cora-
pariaon
of Ad-
•cctivcs.

ii. Examples:

Pos.

Compar.

dur-us

hard

trist-is

sad

fel-ix

happy

lib^r

free

nig-er

black

salub-er

healthy

simil-is

like

dur-tor

trist-lor

felic-ior

lib-er-ior

nig-r-lor

salub-r-loi

simil-lor

harder

sadder

happier

more free

blacker

healthier

more like

Superi.
dur-lssima»
trist-Ustmiu

felic-iMlmiu

lib-er-rlmiis

nig-er-rlmns

salub-er-rlmns

simil-

hardest

saddest

happiest

most free

blackest

healthiest

most like

Like similis are formed facilis; gracilis; humilis; diffi-
cilis ; dissimilis. But utilis and others have Sup. -Isstmns.
Maturus, early^ has Sup. maturrimus or maturissimus.

iii. Notes on Comparison.

d) The Comparative may imply a degree too high (excess) :
durior (i.e. durior aequo), too harsh,

b) The Superlative may express not only the highest, but a very
high degree (Elative sense) : * vir doctissimus,' a very learned man
(i.e. in the highest grade of learning).

c) The Superlative form before the Augustan age was generally
-ttmiu, after which -imas prevailed : maxumus, maximus ; optO*
mus, optfmus. See p. 31, C

d) Participles Present and Past often have Comparative Flexion
like other Adjectives :

amans amantior amantissimus

paratus paratior paratissimus

uiyiuzeu uy ■N^Jv-/v_-'>t Iv^

§29.

Comparison,

133

better

optimus

best

worse

pessimus

worst

less

minimus

host

more

plurimus

most

iv. Irregular Comparison.

i) Forms from various Roots.

bonus £Ood melior

malus bad peior

parvus small minor

multus much (plus, n.)

The Comparative of multus has no M. F. form in the Sing., but
fiill Plural : plur-es a, pltur-ium^ plur-ibus.
Lucr. has parvissima^ L 615. See M.

?) Variant Stem-forms.

mag-nus, ^^tf/ ; rtv^xQX^ greater \ mzykmyx^^ greatest

frugi, honest ; frugalior, frugalissimus.

nequam, worthless \ nequior, nequissimus.

^^^^l rich divitior divitissimus

(dis) / ^^"^ ditior ditissimus

Adjectives compounded with -aiovs -fleas -▼dins (from dico^
&cio^ volo) form their comparison in -entior -entlsalmiis, as if
^-om Participles in -ens.

maledTcus slanderous maledicentior
magniftcus splendid magnificentior
benevSlus benevolent benevolentior

maledicentissimus

magnificentissimus

benevolentissimus

Similarly :
egenus,
providus,

needy,
foreseeing,

egentior,
providentior,

egentissimus
providentissimus.

T. Defective Comparison.

i) Comparison without Positive Form :

a) The Comparison of Position springs from Prepositions, and
is not fully represented by Positive Adjectives :

Preposition.

Positive AcU.

Comparative.

Superlative.

e, ex out of
intra within

(exter)
(inter)

exterior
interior

extremus
intimus

supra above
into below

(sup«:)
(infer)

superior
inferior

supremus, summus
infimus, imus

(prae) before

post after

ds on near side

ultra beyond

prope near

de down from

(poster)

(citer)

(ulter)

(deter)

prior

posterior

citerior

ulterior

propior

deterior

primus •

postremus (postumus)

citimus

ultimus

proximus

deterrimus worst

aa) Of the Positive forms, (inter, citer, ulter, deter) are not
used.
Super(us), infer(us) are used in Neut Sing, with mare
(mare superum, mare inferum) ; and in BlpL&ed by dooglc

134 Latin Wordlore, §29^

Exter(us) is rare in Sing., but not infrequent in Plur.

Poster(us) is used (but not in Norn. Sing. Masc) : pos-
tera aetas ; postero die : and Plur. posteri. See
p. 127.

Prior, primus are from a lost form pri-s. Some derive
them from irpo : (pro-ior) = prior ; (pro-imus) « primus.

bb) Of the Comparatives, deterior means worse (than some-
thing good, \,t. fallen off) ; peior worse (than something
bad).

cc) Of the Superlatives, summus has the sense ^highest'/
or supremus,poet Ontheotherhand,supremusisused
for ^lasl,* and summus, poet. : 'venit summa dies,' Verg.

Postremus, hindmost {last) : postumus, coming after^ last born^
born after thefather^s death.

Four Superlatives can express the notion ' last : ' ultimus {yon-
dermost,ftirthest),txXxtmvis {outermost); which are most
usual: also postremus and supremus.

To these Comparisons may be added :

dexter, on the rights dexterior, dexterrimus or dextimus.
sinister, on the Tefty sinisterior, (sinistimus).

b) — ocior swifter^ ocissimus swiftest.

— ^oXiox preftrabUy potissimus.

In the Greek dKVQ (ocis), swift, and the Defective Adj. potis,
pote, are shewn the original Positives of these forms.

2) Comparison without Comparative Form.

The Adjectives bellus, consul tus, di versus, falsus, in«
clitus, invictus, invitus, meritus, novus, par, persuasus,
sacer, are found with Superl., but without Comparative.

Vet us. Sup. veterrimus (veterior, Plaut. ; but vetustior is
usual).

3) Comparison without Superlative Form.

a) senex old senior —
iuvenis young iunior (for iuvenior) —

Senior has a kind of Pos. force : * one who has become oldJ
Elder is expressed by natu maior, or maior : eldest by
natu maximus, or maximus. So younger is natu
minor, or minor; youngest, natu minimus, or mini-
mus.

b) Adjectives in bnis have Comparative without Superl. :

except a few : amabilis, mobilis, nobilis : amabilissimus,
&c

c) Also the following :

adolescens, aequalis, agrestis, alacer, arcanus, astutus, ater,
caecus, capitalis, civilis, crispus, declivis, diutumus, deses,
exilis, longinquuf, opimus, popularis, proclivis, pronus,
propinquus, regalis, rusticus, salutaris, satur, segnis, serus^
supinus, surdus, tacitumus, teres, vicinus, &c.

Note, (satior) satius, better j Jitter, is a Comparative from the Ad*
verbial word satis, enough, ^ r\r\ci\c>

§30^

Comparison,

I3S

4) Absence of Comparative Flexion.

A great number of Adjectives have no Comparative Flexion :
some being incapable of it by their meaning (Incomparabilia) :
merus, vernus ; some unsuited to it by their form : memor, tre-
mulus ; while for others no reason can be assigned but usage.^

Among Adjectives excluded from Comparison by their form are
most of those in ens, liis^ nus : idoneus, anxius, arduus ; (but
not those in ^pa«s : antiquus, antiquior, antiquissimus).

Rare instances occur of Comparative Flexion by such Adjectives :
assiduissimus, Cic. ; strenuissimus, Tac. And luvenal has * Egre-
gius cenat meliusque miserrimus horum/ xi. 12.

,^y Adjectives, not Incomparabilia, can be modified Compara-
tively by the addition of the Adverb magis : 'Quid mag is est
durum saxo, ^uid mollius unda,' Ov. ; and Superlatively by the
Adverbs maxime, summe, also admodum, perquam, valde,
and others.

Ti Comparison of Adverbs.

Adj.

Adv.

dignus

digng

worthily

dignius*

dignissime

v^er

vaJre

cunningly

vafrius

vaferrime

tutus

tuto

safely
easily

tutius

tutissime (6)

facilis

facile

facilius

facillime

fortis

fbrtiter

bravely

fortius

fortissime

constans

constanter

firmly

constantius

constantissime

audacter

boldly

audacius

audacissime

But

meritus

merito

deservedly

meritissimd (e)

uber

(ubertim)

abundantly

uberius

uberrime

30

Coou

parison

ofAd-

i) Adverbs in fi, 6, 6, tdr, derived from Adjectives, veriw.
often follow their Comparison, with Comparative End-
ing tU, Superlative 6 (0, nm) :

Exam-
ples.

* Adjecdva Incomparabilia are too numeroas to be set down at full, and are indeed best
laamt by reaifing and practice. Among tbem may be mentioned : (i) those which expreu
colooTp matter, time, place, nationality, descent: albus (but viridis has Compar.
flezioiiX aureus, aestivns, campester, Romanus, paternus, &c. (a) De-
minntives paryulus, vetulus, &c (3) Compounds of e, per, sub, ve: egeli-
dos, perfacilis, snbobscurus, vesanns, &c. (many compoundi<tf prae are
coaqanble, as praeclarior). (4) Compounds of animus, arma, color, genus,
grados, inguen, lex, modus, sonus, somnus (but the compounds of ars,
cor, mens are comparable : inertior, misericordior, dementiorX (5) Com*
pounds of fero, gero: signifer, belliger, &c. (6) Most adjectives in -Tcus,
-Tmns, -Tnus, -tnus, -Orus, .Ivus, -bundus, -ftris, -Alis, •His; exceptions are,
divinus, familiaris, hospitalis, liberalis, civilis, and a few more.
(7) Also the following with many more : almus, canus, caducus, calvus, claudus, compos,
impos, dcur, dispar, impar, ferns, fessus, gnarus, gnavus, ieiunus, beer, lassus,
mancus, mediocris, merus, minis, mutilus, mutus, nefastus, rudis, sospes, trepidus,
trux, ragns, virus, volucer, volgaris, &&

Comic poets invent jocular forms of Comparison : exdusis^mus, ipsissimus, oculisti-
nns, patnriTf^"*"S ridiculissimus.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

136

Latin Wordlore,

§31.

2) Irregular Comparison is in most forms represented adver-
bially :

Adj. Adv.

bonus benS well

malus malS ///
magnus magnoper6^r(?<z//K

r.o^r,,o fpaulum a little

P^^^ Iparum toolittle

multus multum much

intus
post
prope

Also :
saepe
diu

penitus
satis
secus
temperi
nuper

Magis means

Compar.

melius

peius

magfs

plus
ocius

— prius

— potius

better
worse
more

less

more
quicker

sooner |

rather

SuperL

optime

pessime

maxime

minime

minimum

plurimum

ocissime

primum

primo

best
worst
most

very little
least

very much
very quickly
first
atfirst

within

after

nearly

deterius worse
interius —
posterius —
propius —

potissimum preferably

deterrime very badly

intime

postremo

proxime

often saepius — saepissime

long diutius — diutissime

de^ly penitius — penitissime

enough sitius — —

otherwise set\us — —

betimes temperius — —

lately — —

^ more in degree \^ plus,

* Lucio magis cams sum : ' * Lucius me plus diligit'

nupemme

more in quantity.^

3»

Pro-
nouns.

Section IX.
i Pronouns (Pronomina).

1. A Pronoun, being a substitute for a Noun, may be

(i) Substantive : (2) Adjective: (3) Capable of being both.

2. A Pronoun may be

{a) 1st Person : (b) 2nd Person : {c) 3rd Person ; (</) Of all
Persons.

ii. Classification of Pronouns.

A, The Pronouns purely Substantival are:

1. The Personal Pronouns ego, /, nos, we, of the
First Person ; and tu, thou, vos,^^, of the Second.

2. The Reflexive Pronoun, se, himself, herself, or
t/ietnselvesy which has no Nominative, and is always re-
ferred to a Subject of the Third Person, Singular or
Plural.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

§31. Pronouns. 137

B. The Pronouns Proper purely Adjectival are:

The Possessive Pronouns, which correspond to the
Personal and Relative Pronouns :

meus, myy mine corresponding to . . . ego

noster, our — nos

tuus, thy, t/Une — tu

vtster, your — vos

suus, hisy Jtery or their own — se

cuius, whose — qui

with the Gentilia, nostras, of our country ^ vestras, of your
country \ Q\\\2c&y of what country }

Suus, like se, is referred to a Subject of the Third
Person.

C The remaining Pronouns are Adjectival, but often
used as Relational Substantives. These are :

1. The Demonstrative Pronouns (of the Third
Person) :

!s, ea. Id, that (or he^ she, it)

hie, haec, hoc^ this (near me)

iste, ista, istud, that (near you)

ille, ilia, illiid, that, yon (aloof from us).

2. The Definitive Pronouns (of all Persons) :

ipse, ipsa, ipsum, self
Idem, eadem. Idem, same,

3. The Relative Pronoun (of all Persons) :

qui, quae, qu5d, who or which.

Akin to this are :

a. The INTERROGATIVE Pronouns :

quis, quid } qui, quae, quod } wfio or what f
liter i whetfier of two ?

b. The Indefinite Pronouns :

quis, qua (quae), quid ; qui, quae, quod, any.
titer, either of two.

c. The various COMPOUNDS of quis, qui, uter.

4- Pronominalia, or Adjectives of a Pronominal
nature: as alius, alter, &c., talis, tantus, &c., qualis,
quantus, &c., aliquantus, &c. See v.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

c^^nri^"-

138 Latin Wordlore, §31.

Tables iii Tables of Declension of Pronouns.

ofDe-

A, PERSONAL (OF either Gender).

First Person,
singular. plural.

Nom. ego, / nos, we

Ace. me, me nos, us

Gen. mei, of me nostri, or nostrum, of us

Dat. mihi, to or for me nobis, to or for us

AbL rat /from or with me nohis, from or with us

Second Person.
N. V. tu, thou voSyye

Ace. te, thee vos, you

Gen. tui, of thee vestri, or vestrum, of you

Dat tibi, to or for thee vobis, to or for you

AbL ttyfrom or with thee vobis, from or with you

Reflexive.

singular and plural.
Nom. (none).

Ace. se, or sese, himself herself itself or themselves.
Gen. suij of himself &e.
Dat sibi, /^ himself &c.
AbL se, ^r sese, 8ic.,from himself &c

^. POSSESSIVE.

i) declined in Gender, Number, and Case, like bonus :

suus, sua, suum, his, &e., their, ovm\
cuius, cuia, cuium, whose.

meus, mea, meum, my, mine ;
tuus, tua. tuum, thy, thine ;

meus has Vocative Masc. mL*

2) declined in Gender, Number, and Case, like niger :
noster, nostra, nostrum, our\ \ vester, vestra, vestrum, j'^wr.

The Demonstratives have no Possessives corresponding to them ;
but their Genitives supply the want : eius vacca, his {her) cow,

3) Gentilia (of 3rd DecL) :

nostr-as -ati- ; vestr-as -ati- ; cui^as -ati- ?

The affix met {self) may be appended to all the cases of ego,
tu (except the Plural Genitives and the form tu itself), also to se,
sibi: egomet, nosmet, temet, vobismet, semet, sibimet:
often with a case of ipse added : nobismetipsis, semetipsum.
Tu takes affix te, -tute ; also tutemet The affix met is
appended to the cases of suus, after which a case of ipse often
follows : ' Intra suamet ipsum moenia compulere,' they drove
him within his own walls, L. vL 36. Also meamet : SalL, Plaut

The sdlix pte is appended to the Ablatives Sing, of the Pos-
sessives: 'Meopte mgenio,' Plaut 'Suapte manu,' with his
own hand, Cic. See M. Lucr, vL 755.

' The only Pronouns capable of haviijg a Vocative are tu« vos ; ancUaeus^nocter.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

§31.

Pronouns.

139

C. I. DEMONSTRATIVE.

a.
N. is
Ac eum
G.
D.
Ab. eo

SINGULAR,
r.

ea
earn

eius

d
ea

a, Unemphatic.

Is, thai, or he^ she^ it.

PLURAL.

N.

M.

p.

K.

id

ei(ii)

eae

ea

id

eos

eas

ea

eorum

earum
eis (lis)

eorum

eo

eis (iis)

b. Emphatic
Hie, this {near me), or he, she, it.

singular.

PLURAL.

N. hie

haec

hoc

hi hae

haec

Ac hunc

hanc

hoc

hos has

haec

G.

huius

horum harum

horum

D.

huic

his

Ab.hoc

hac

hoc

his

Iste, that (^aryi

ou\ or he, she, it.

SINGULAR,

PLURAL.

N. iste

ista

istud

isti istae

isU

Ac istum

istam

istud

istos istas

ista

G.

istius

istorum istanmi

istorum

D.

isti

istis

Ah. isto

ista

isto

istis

IUe, that {yondci

r), or he, she, it.

SINGULAR.

PLURAL.

N. iUe

ilia

illud

illi iUae

ilia

Ac ilium

illam

illud

illos illas

ilia

G.

illlus

illorum illarum

illorum

D.

illi

illis

Ab.illo

Ula

illo

2. DEFI
1} Iden

illis

NITIVE.
n, same.

SINGULAR.
Nom. idem eadem Idem
Ace eundem eandem Idem
Gen. eiusdem

Dat eidem

AbL eodem e^em eodem

PLURAL.

ndem eaedem e^em

eosdem easdem eidem
eonmdem earundem eorundem
isdem or eisdem
isdem or eisdem ^

uiyiuzeu uy ■N^Jv-/v_-'>t Iv^

I40

Latin Wordlore,

§31.

SINGULAR.

2) Ipse,^^/

PLURAL.

Nom. ipse ipsa
Ace. ipsum ipsam
Gen. ipslus
Dat ipsi
Abl. ipso ipsa

Plautus has the forms

ipsum
ipsum

ipso
eumps2,

ipsi ipsae - ipsa
ipsos ipsas " ipsa
ipsorum ipsarum ipsorum

ipsis

ipsis

eampse, eapse, &c. Also reapse.

in reality^ for re ipsa.

a) The affix -o (for tf^ is added to iste and ille, making a
pronominal declension as follows : —

N. istic
Ace. istunc
AbL istoc

istaec
istanc
istac

SINGULAR,

istoc or istuc
istoc or istuc
istoc

illic

illunc

illoc

illaec
illanc
iliac

N. Ace. — —

PLURAL.

istaec | —

illoc or illuc
illoc or illuc
illoc

illaec

C6 sometimes appears at full : istiusce, illosce, &e.

So from hie, hunce, huiusce, hosce, &c. : and hicine ? hocine? &c

b) The Interjection ecce, lo I coalesces in comic poetry with
cases of is, ille, iste : ecca, eccum, eccam, &c. ; eccilla, eccillum,
&c. ; eccistam, &c. En, lo ! also coalesces with ille into the
Accusative forms, ellum, ellam, ellos, ellas.

3. RELATIVE.
Qui, who or which.

SINGULAR.
Nom. qui quae quod
Ace. quem quam quod
Gen. cuius

Dat cui

AbL quo qua quo

PLURAL.

qui quae quae

quos quas quae

quorum quarum quorum

quTbus or quis

quibus or quis

a) Interrogative.

b) Indefinite.

Quis ? qui ? who or

which f

Quis, qui, anyone.

SINGULAR.

SINGULAR.

Nom.

Ace.

Gen.

quis

qui quae
quem quam
quem quam
cuius

quid )
quod'
quid \
quod>

quis (qua) quid \
qui quae (qua) quod'
quem quam quid \
quem quam quodi
cuius

Dat.

cui

cui

Abl.

quo qua

quo

quo qua quo

In the Plural like the Relative.

Indefinite PL Nom. Qui, (]uae, qua or quae.

The forms Quis, quid, are Substantival ; Qui, quod^ AdjectivaL

"d'"

§ 31. Pronouns. 141

a) Add to these Uter? whether of the twof

SINGULAR.
Nom. uter utra utrum
Ace. utrum utram utrum
Gen. utrlus

Dat utri

Ab. utro utra utro

PLURAU

utri utrae utra

utros utras utra
utrorum utrarum utrorum

utris

utris

Uter is also Indefinite : either of two.
Neuter, neutra, neutrum, neither of the two, is declined as uter.

c) Compound Pronouns.

1. a) quisnam^ quidnam : quinam, quaenam, quodnam, whOf

what?
S) utemam, utranam, utrumnam, whether of the two?

2. ecquis, ecqua, ecquid : ecqui, ecquae, ecquod, anyone f
So numquis, siquis, ne quis, &c.

3. d) aliquis, aliqua, aliquid : aliqui^ aliqua, aliquod, some one,
h) alieruter, one or other; Gen. alterutrius or alterius utrius, &c.

4. quispiam, quaepiam, quippiam (quodpiam), anyone (positively).

5. quisquam, qulcqaamy anyone at a/t (with non, haud,vix, &c.).

6. quidam, quaedam, quiddam (quoddam), a certain one,

7. «) quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, whosoever, what"

soe^^er,^
B) utercumque, utracuraque, utrumcumque, whichever of two,

8. quisquis, whosoever, quidquid, whatsoever ; Ace. (quemquem),

quidquid;(G. cuicuimodi); AbL (guoquo, quaqua^ quo-
quo), &C, ; PI. D, Abl. (quibusquibus). Some of these
forms are rare.

9. a) quivis, quaevis, quidvis (quodvis), any you will,

d) utervis, utravis, utrumvis, whether of the two you will,

«o. a) quilibet, quaelibet, quidlibet (quodlibet), any you please,
b) uterlibet, utralibet, utrumlibet, whether of the two you please.

n. a) quisque, quaeque, quicque (quodque), each,

b) unusquisque, imaquaeque, unumquicque (-quodque), each

one : Ace. unvunquemque, unamquamque, &c. Gen.
uniuscuiusque, &c.

c) uterque, utraque, utrumque, both, each of two,

Obs. These Compounds are declined as the Simple forms, the un-
declined affix or prefix accompanying each Case : Gen. cuiusnam,
alicuius, cuiuscumque, utriusvis, &c. &c.

* Poets often dugotn the aflSx cumque from the Relative : Quae te cumque domat
Venus, Her.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

142

Latin Wordlore,

§31.

4. PRONOMINALIA.
Alius, another.

SINGULAR.
Nom. aitus alia aliQd
Ace alium aliam aliud
Gen. alius

Dat alii

Ab. alio ali^ alio

PLURAL.

alii aliae alia

alios alias alia

alionim aliarum aliorum

aliis

aliis

Alter, one of two {the one^ the other).

Nom. alter altera alterum

Ace. alterum alteram alterum

Gen. alterlus

Dat alteri

Ab. altero altera altero

altera
altera

alteri alterae
alteros alteras
alterorum alterarum alterorum

alteris

alteris

Solus, alone.

Nom. s5lus sola
Voc sole sola
Ace. solum solam
Gen. solius

Dat soli

Ab. solo sola

solum
solum
solum

solo

soli solae sola

soli solae sola

solos solas sola
solorum solarum solorum

solis

soils

Totus, whoUy is declined like solus : also, unus, one, ullus, any at
all, nuUus, none. See Numeralia.

Nrhfl, nothing (N. Ace) is undeclined.

Nemo, nobody. Ace. nemlnem ; G. nulUus ; D. nemini ; AbL
nullo. Plural, nuUi, &c.

The Plural word plerlque, most \ from an E. L. Adj. plerus.

Nom. plerique pleraeque pleriique

Ace. plerosque plerasque pler&que

D. Abl. plerisque

The Gen. in use is plurim-orum, arum, orum.

The phrase plerique omnes=paene onmes, almost all.

Also the following words, with their compounds :

qualis, of what kind} talis, such (like tristis).
quantus, how ^r eat 1 tantus so great (Uke bionus).
qudt, how many) \h\.,so many (undechned).

iv. Observations on certain Pronouns.

I. The Interrogative forms quis? qui? (Indefinite quis, qui)
differ in this respect : quis is substantival, asking usually die nature,
name, &c. ; qm adjectival, asking quality. Quis is also Fem. in
the comic poets, and grammarians refer the Fem. quae to the form
qui. Quid always has a substantival, quod an adjectival use :
quod vinum? but quid vini? what wine f

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

{ 31. Pronouns. 143

2. Quis, qui, Indefinite, is rarely found except as Enclitic after
a particle, as ecquis, siquis, numquis, &c; or with a second
case of its 0¥m : ' siquis quern fraudavit' It enters into com-
position with the prefix rnXk- one or other (aliquis), the indefinite
affixes -plam -Qiiam (quispiam, quisquam), and the distributive
-^pie (quisque) ; qui takes the definitive -dam (qui-dam).

3. The Interrogative quis, qui becomes Universal {-soever) by
sefi^uplication (quisquis), and by taking the affix -enrnqne or
-ena^iie (quicumque, ^uicimque). It is also modified by the
appended Verb-forms, vis, you will^ libet, it pleases (qui vis, qui-
libet). It becomes Emphatic by adding the precative affix -nam
(quisnam ? quinam ?). Some of these affixes are likewise taken by
the Interrogative Pronominals quaUs, quantus, quot, and the Inter-
rogative Adverbs ubi, quo, quando, quotiens, &c See v.

4- Uter (for cuter = icorcpoc), whether of two y with its compounds,
forms a dual series parallel to quis, &c. But the Relative qui is
used in correlation to it. It takes many of the same affixes as qui.*

* The following note treau chiefly of the cognate and ancient C^ase-fonns of the Latin
ProDouns.

L The Personal Pronouns and the Reflexive.

1. Nominative Singular.

The Prim, roou of the two Personal Pronouns and the Reflexive are severally ma^ in

(«" tva\ sva^
How the root ma connects itself with the Nom. Sing. Sic aJkam, Gr. jyw, L. ego, is

a doubtful question.
Pr. tu (Sk. ttfam) becomes Gr. rv (<rv), L. tQ.

2. Accusative Singular.

Sk. mdm or md, Gr. ft.4 (cmO» L. m€.
Sk. tvAm or tvA, Gr. (re for rft) vi, L. t€.

Gr. c (for (rf«), L. sS. point to a Pr. svdnu But Sanskrit has only an undeclined
form svayantf which may be joined to cases of Personal Pronouns.

3. Dative Singular.

Sk. tna-hyam (for Pr. ma-hhyam) becomes L. mihf (U. ftuhi^ E. L. mike, mihtt).

Sk. tn-bkyam becomes L. tibf (U. tefi^ E. L. tibt, iibei^
Hence wb! (E. L. sibc^ sibci) points to a Pr. but not extant {sva-bkyam),

4. Ablative Singular.

Sk. and Pr. ma-t, tva-t and by analogy (Pr. sva-t) become in E. I* ftu-d, U-d, tt'di

afterwards mc, le, s€.
The<>e forms in -d were also used for the Accus. Sing, in £. L.

5. Nominative and Accusative Plural

Unaccented Accus. forms in Sk. no* (for masH) and vat (for tvas), appear to be the
originals of the Latin cases nOs, vOs. See Schleicher, % 966. In the Carmen
Arvale etws appears for Ace. nos.

6. Dative and Ablative PluraL

Schleicher explains the suffix blS {-hei-s) in nObIs, vObls. as the Plural of bl (belX
attached to the stems nos- vos- (see above), which become nO> vO-. Festus cites
a form (jtis).

7. Genitive Singular and PluraL

The Sk. Gen. S. is (i) tnama, («) tavs. But Pr. forms mas, tvas, itvas) are trace.

able in very ancient L. forms mis, tis.
The forms classically used for these cases are nothing more than the J^uter CTcni-

tives of the Possessive Pronouns : mei, tui, sui ; nostri, vestri ; nostrum (for

noAtrorum), vestrum (for vestrorumX Thus * vive memor met (nostri) * is lit. Ikf*

tnhid/ul cf-a^kAt zs mine {purs) : Le. o/m$ (laX

Digitized byCjOOQlC

144 Latin Wordlore. §31^

V. Correlation of Pronominal Words.

A) Certain Pronouns, Pronominal Adjectives and Adverbs, are
correlated to one another in several classes : namely

II. The Possessive IVonouns.

ITiese arc derived from the Personal Roots.

Tuus, suus correspond severally to Gr. rt6i (for Tf«6c or Ttfoc), «fe (for <rf «<k or tnfvsX
E. L. forms are ((wos, sovos. The scenic poets use the cases as monosyllables.

Noster, vester are formed with the Comparative Suffix ter (like dexter, sinistcrX as are
Gr. Tuii-Ttp-ot, iffii-Ttp-iK.

III. The Demonstrative, Relative, &c. Pronouns.

The Flexion of these Pronouns has many features in common.
I . (i) Nominative Singular Masc

a. The stem T-, as an I-noun, takes the ending s, forming the Nom. Is. It correspond&
to Sk. so, Gr. o. In E. L. we find (,Bs). It has an O-stem (uh) for most cases.

Its comp. Idem has E. L. forms (JRsdemt Udem, (Idem).

Is-tc, another compound (stem isto-), has in Plautus the form is-tMS.

I-pse, also a compound (for is-pse), is found as i-ps-us.

Ille is for oU-us (stem olio- or illo-), from an Italian root.

The stem ho- or hi- takes in most cases the affix -ce (cX becoming in Nom. S. Masc
h i c (for hi-ce or his<e). An E. L. form is {kec).

h. Qui qui-s Interrog. and Indef. (stem qui- or quo-) corresponds to Sk. Intcrrog.
Aa, kas ; Gr. rtV, O. pis.

Qui, as the Rebtive, is p«culiar to Latin. E. L. forms are {que, quei). Quei con-
tinued in use to the time of Caesar. Queique is an old form of quisque. Quir-
quir is cited by Varro for quisquis.

c. Alius has an old I-form eUis, olid.

Uter (for cuter) corresponds to Pr. katara^ Gr. xorcpot : quot, tot, to Sk. koH. tatt.

(a) Nom. S. Fern.

Ea U by assimilation. for ia from stem (w-) : the same change from I to 6 U made
m most cases of is, idem.

An old form {sapsa) for ea ipsa is cited from Pacuvius.

Ista, ipsa, ilia are regularly formed from the O-stems, but quae (O. /«/, E. L. quai\ ha«^c
(E. L- *««^) are irregular flexions in which the forms h<i qud tire strengthened by the
vowel 1 The analogy of these is followed by istaec, illaec (for ista-ce, nia^ce). Qui is
kept usually mthe Indef. Pronoun and its compounds : siqua, numqua, ecqua, aliqua.

(3) Nom. Accus. S. Neuter.

The foUowing Pronouns weaken the Prim. Neuter suffix t into d : id ; Idem (for id-dem) •
qui-d : quo-d : and lUud, Utud, aUud (anc. alid) : in these three O is also weakened into
U. Hoc IS for (ho-d-ceX The rest take um ; ipsum, utrum, alterum, &c.

3. Accusative Singular.

E. L. forms of to (ent, im from the I-stcm ; sum, sam from the Pr. sa) are cited from
the old poets for eum, earn, severally.

Also eumpse, eampse occur for eum ipstmi, eam ipsam.

Hunc U for {Ju>m<e, hotu) ; banc for {ham<e). Quem belongs to the I-stem qui •
quam and quod to the O-stem quo-.

3. (lenitive Singular.

The flexion of this case in all these Pronouns is a variation of Sk. asya. They
strengthen the stem with I and then take US for the C^ase-ending. Thus are obtained
ip-us) by dissimilation eius (in E. L. ti-ius, elus).

{illoi-HS, tlUi-us) iUlus or OHus. So ipsTus, isdfus, unTus, nullfus, totlus • utrlus •
allns : alterius ; soUus : (altetTus, soUus occur rarely). ' *

(Aoi-us) huius ; (quai-us) cuius.
In the scenic poets quoins is used as one syllable, suppressing n : hence the forms q aoi-
modi for (quoismodiX and cuicuimodi for (cuiscuismodiX

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

§31. Pronouns. I45

(i) Interrc^tive; (2) Demonstrarive ; (3) Definitive; (4) Inde-
finite ; (5) Relative.

Examples :

(i) <juis? Q^xiwho^ whatl (2) is, he^ thaty &c. (3) ipse, self\

idem, the same ; alius, another ; (4^ quis, c^ui, any ; quis-

piam, anyone ; aliquis, some or other ; quisquam, any at

all (used only with non, haud, si, num, &c); quidam, a

certain one ; (5) qui, who,
(i) uter? whether of two? (2) is ; (3) alter, one of two, the

other ; (4) alteruter, one or the other ; (5) qui.
(i) qualis ? ojf what kindf (2) talis, such \ (3) — ; (4) — ;

(5) qualis, as,
(i) quantus? how great f (2) tantus, so great*, (3) tantusdem;

(4) aliquantus, of some size ; (5) quantus, as {great).

4. Dadve Singular.

The Locative ending 1 appears to have been generally used instead of the Dative
coding el in all these Pronouns ; but the ending el occurs in old forms.

The fonns in use are : i) e-i (also anc. eiei eet) ; illi (for illo-i), &c., huic (for hoi-ce) :
a) cui (for gno-if or qmhti^ which is found in E. L.X

The O-Doun forms of the CSen. and Dat Sing, of some Pronorainak occur rarely : as
nulli conaiH, Ter. : aliae pecudis, Cic ; loquitur alterae, Ter. ; toto orbi. Prop. : also
Ocn. ilU, iUae, isti, ipsi, &c. u Plant and Lucr.

5. Ablative Singular.

This case follows the O-stem. But qui is used advarlnally (4^ ; also when the Pr»
pOiitioQ cum follows it : quicum for quocum : quique for quOque in Lucr.

6. Nominative Plural

«) From is, E. L. forms before Plautus are {eeist UiSt eis) : afterwards in R. L. lei» ei :
in the scenic poets 8 (iX In !• L. ii (pronotmced i) was allowed.

From idem the forms fisdtm, isdrm, Stdem are found as Nominatives Plural before
Caesar. Once in Plautus Sdem. lidem was admitted in I. L.

From hie the fonns (Am, keisct, hisct) appear in E. L. ; hei in R. L. to the Aug. age :
then hi ; which, like the irregular Fern, form hae (for ka*)^ rejects c (ce) to avoid con-
fusion. But the forms (Aa^, illa^, »/a«r) are found in E. L. as FesL Nominative Plural

The Neut PL haec is strengthened with 1, being, as well as the Fem. S«k for {ha'i<e).

^ An dd PI qnes fix>m quis is found in Senatus-consultum de Bacchanal ibns, ftc.
Pacavius, and Cato : but quei in R. L. is PI. of quis and oui ; also qui, which became
general : and Fem. quae (for ^imu)> The Neat quae, like baec, is a strengthened forai :
qui remains often in the lodeL, and always in aliquJL

Grammarians tell us that in plebeian speech the initial vowel was often cast off in such
fonns as istae, istuc, &c., which were sounded stae, stuc, &c.

7. Accusative Plural

These f<»ins are regular from O- and A-stems Except the Neuter forms haec, quae.
See 6.

8. Genitive Plural

This Case is formed m all as from 0-nouns. Horumce, harumce appear in the scenic
poets as horunc, harunc ; once in Plant quoiom seems to be Gen. PI from qui ; and also
in two andent laws.

Dative Abbtive Plural

a) From ' is ' the forms are various. Thus, from I-stem, I b u s, PlauC. iTbus,Lucr. :and
Fem. e&bus. Cat From 0-stem, (E. L. eieis, eeis) ; ieis in R. L. to Aug. ; ^ or Ts in the
scenic poets and Lucr. ; once in Plant €is. Under Aug. we find Is for iis (ieis) pro-
nounced as one syllable.

So, from idem, €lsdem or Tsdem, once in Juv. JHsdem : iisdem (disyll) is found.

From hie, hibus is dted once from Plaut : usually his (E. L. Aeisce).

From ille (£. L. olaes, m. o^t, f.) illb (pUnt, itteis). Old forms in ibus are dted.

by Frmn qui, quis, the only forms are quTbus (from I-stenO And quis (from 0-stem) in
an (lenders. ^ t

L uiyiuzeuuy ^jOOQIC

146 Latin Wordlore, §31.

(i) quot? how manf^f (2) tot, so many; (3) totidenif /us/
so many; (4) aliqiiotf some ; (5) qnot^ as (many).

Derived from this are :

quotus, one of how manyl (Demonstr. tdtus, Lucr. v. 652.)

quotusquisque-^(?w/5fw? Demonstr. pauci,y5fw.

quotiens^ how often ? Demonstr. totiens, so often ; Inde£ ali-

quotiens, several times : ReL quotiens, as {often),
(i) ubi, where} (2) ibi, there; hie, here^ &c. ; (3) ibidem, in

the very place ; alias, elsewhere ; (4) ubi, in any place ;

alicubi, in someplace ; (5) ubi, where,
(l) unde, whence ? (2) inde, thence ; hinc, hence^ &c ; (3)

indidem,^(t?»f the same side ; aliunde ; (4) ymA^^ from any

quarter ; alicimde, from some quarter ; (5) unde, whence,
(i) quo, whither "i (2) eo, thither; hue, hither^ &c. ; (3)

eodem, to the same place ; alio, to another place ; (4) quo,

anywhither ; aliquo, somewhither ; (5) quo, whither.
So qua, in what direction ? ea, in that d ; hac, in this d,, &c
(i) quam, how} (2) tam, ita, so ; (3) itidem, in the same way;

aliter, otherwise ; (4) aliquam ; (5) quam, as.
With other series, as quando, when ? tum, thcn^ &c,

B) The Universal Pronouns (6) also are severally correlated to
the above, and to other forms which imply (7) Choice ; (8) Distribu*
tion ; (9) Exclusion ; (10) Inclusion.

Examples :
(6) quisijuis, quicumque, whosoever, whatsoever; (7) quivis,

quihbet^ cmy you will; (8) auisque, ectch; (9) nemo,

nobody ; nullus ; (10) omnes, all.
(6) utercumque, whichever of two ; (7) utervis, uterlibet, which

of two you will ; (8J uterque, each of two ; (9) neuter,

neither^ (10) ambo, both,
(6) qualisqualis, qualiscumque, of whatever kind,
(6) quantusquantus, quantuscumque, how great soever; (7)

quantusvis, quantuslibet, as great as you will,
(6) quotauot, quotcumque, as many as, however many ; ^7)

quoUibet (rare) ; (8) unusquisque, sing^i, each one ; (9)

nuUi, none ; (10) universi, the entire number,
(6) ubiubi, ubicumque, wheresoever; (7) ubivis, ubilibet,

where you will ; (8) ubique, everywhere ; (9) ausquam,

nowhere,
(6) undeunde, undecumque, whencesoever ; (7) undevis, un-

delibet, whence you will ; (8) undique, from every side

(utrimque,^<?»i both sides),

(6) quoquo, quocumque, ivithersoever ; (7) quovis, quolibet,
whither you will. (So quaqua, quacumque ; quavis, qua-
libet : usquequaque, &c.)

(6) quamquam, quamcumque, howsoever; (7) quamvis, quam-
libet, how you will; (8) — ; (9) neutiquam, in no way ;
(lo) omnino, in every way,

(6) quandocumque, a/^^//j^^z'^; (7) quandolibet; (8) quando-
que; (9) numquam, never; (10) semper always,

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^ v^ pt ix^

S 33-33. Numerals. 147

Section X.
L Numeralia.

3*

Numerals (Numeralia) are Nouns and Adverbs used Numo-
in the expression of Number.

raha.

Sym-
bols.

il Latin symbols of Number:'

I V X L C IDorD CIDorM
I 5 10 50 100 SCO 1000

By these symbols the Romans exhibited any required Number.
A smaller symbol before a larger is subtracted : IV ■ 5 — i.
A smaller alter a larger is added : VI - 5 + i.
Equal symbols are added together : II - 1 + i ; XX - 10+ 10.
But a smaller symbol before M multiplies M : IIM -2000.
UsuaUy such a number was expressed by words, not by symbols :
^uo mOia or bis mille.

The symbol ID is multiplied by ten as often as D is subjoined.
TTius,

133- 10 X 500-1 5,000
IDDD - 'o ^ 5>ooo - 50,00a
As often as the symbol C is prefixed to I, equalling the number
'Of suffixed D, the total is doubled. Thus,

CID" twice 500- 1,000
CCIDD -twice 5,000- 10,000
CCCIDDD -twice 50,000-100,000 &c.

lit The four chief Numeral Series: ^^^

ral

I. Cardinal Numerals (Cardinalia), which are series.
Adjectives answering the question Quot,
Aow many?
II. Ordinal Numerals (Ordinalia), which are Ad-
jectives answering the question Quotus,
which in order of number f

* The Numeral symbob were not originally letters, except, peiliaps, M» the initial of
mille. The sign of unity was a perpendicular line, afterwards I. The sign of lo was
crudform, and became X, of which the half (5) passed into V. These three signs iu«
Ibund in Etruscan inscriptions. Then, to represent so, 100, and xooo, the Romans took
three Greek letters, which they did not use in their alphabet, Chi, Theta, and PhL An
old figure of Chi, in the shape of a right angle, became L, 50. 9 was corrupted into C,
the initial of centum, xoo. •, which stood for xooo, was broken into the form CID ; and
iMlf of this, lO, was taken for 500^ sometimes closing up into the form D. (See Momm-
sen, UnteritaU*cke DiaUkten^ pp. 19, 33, and Ritschl, Rkrin. Mtueum, 1869, p. x«, &c.)
KtichI also considers M to be modified from the symbol CiD. It is generally adinitted
that the words d e cem (Sk. da^an, Gr. filxa) and digi tus (SixrvAof) are cognate : and
Cuxtius adds^o these dextera (Sk. daksMina, Gr. 5t^^), referring to the verb S^x^f^^
tc receive ; but Pott, more speciously, to the verb of shnvrng or teaching^ doceo (Sk.
di^, Gr. d«ur-). This pcunts to the fact that numeration began with counting the fingers,
and indicates the origin of the decimal system. It is therefore not unlikely that the imit
«sn I represeatcd the outstretched forefinger, and X the hands or forefingers crossed.

L 2 uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^ v^pt i-V-

148 Latin Wordlore. §33.

III. Distributive Numerals (Distributiva), which
are Adjectives answering the question Quo-
teni, how many each or each time f

IV. Numeral ADVERBS (Quotientiva), answering
the question Quotiens, how often ?

iv. Numeral Series of minor extent:

1. MULTIPLICATIVA, compounded with a root of number and the
suffix pile-. They answer the question quotuplex, how many fold f
and only nine are classically known : though many more might be
formed by analogy :

simplex simple triplex quincuplex decemplex

duplex double quadruplex septemplex centuplex
Also sescuplex or sesquiplex.

2. Proportionalia, formed from a root of number and the-
suffix piU-o=plo- {more) J answer the fj^esiioTiO^oWxpluSy how many
more f The words in this series classically used are :

simplus triplus quincuplus octuplus

duplus quadruplus septuplus
Also sescuplus, as muck and half as muck more^ from sesqui (for
sinsemisque, ij).
Sesquialter has the same meaning as sescuplus.

3. From the Ordinals come

Adjectives in uiiui, which often imply a soldier of the legion
designated by the Numeral : primanus . . . decumanus
. . vicesimanus, unaetvicesimanus, &c.* a soldier of tks-
1st, lotk, 2otk, 2ist, &*c. legion.
But note also : tertiana, quartana febris, a tertian, quartatt
ague or fever ; decumanus ager, Htkepaying land \ decu-
manus, a tithe farmer ; decumanus fluctus, the tenth (i.e.
largest) wcnfe : hence decumana porta in a Roman camp,.
the largest gate (at the back, remote from the enemy).
Adjectives in miivs, implying class or rank : primarius, secun-
darius, &C.
Obs. Miliarius lapis, a milestone \ because the Roman 'mile'
measured ' mille passus,' 1000 paces = 5000 feet.

4. From the Distributives come

Adjectives in miins, which mean ' containing or consisting oj'
so many each : ' binarius, temarius, &c. Numerus binarius,
the number 2. Versus senarius, septenarius, octonarius, a
verse of 6,7, 8 feet : nummus quinarius, denarius^ a coitt
of $, 10 asses. In Plautus, lex quina vicenaria is used
to express the law which made debts irrecoverable if con-
tracted by youths under 25 years of age.
Singularis, from singuli, means unparalleled, remarkable,

5. Substantives and Adjectives compounded with the Numeral
roots exist in great number :

^ It is remarkable that una of unaetTicensima 0^;io) and analogous Fem. forms
remain in these Adjectives.

uiyiuzeu uy K^JVJvJVJ Iv

§33' Numeral Series, 149

bimus, two years eld; trimus, three . . . quadrimus,y&»r . . . ;
from him- winter, with bi- tri- &c.

bimenstris, trimenstris, semen stris, *^2, 3, 6 months (also
written bimestris, &c.), from mensis and bi- tri- &c

biennis, triennis, quadriennis, quinquennis . . . decennis, ^of
2, 3> 4, 5 • • • 10 years* from annus with bi- tri- &c 5
but quinquennalis, * happening once in 5 years*

luennium, triennium, quinquennium . . , decennium . . . 2. n.
* a term 0/2, 3, 4, 5 . . . 10 years*

biduum, triduum, quatriduum . , , *a term /t/" 2, 3, 4 . . .
days (for bidium, &c.), from dies with bi- tri- &c.

binoctium, trinoctium, &c. are rare.

bivium, trivium, quadrivium, * a place where 2, 3, 4 roads
(viae) meet*

Compounds of as, assis are tressis {of 3 asses), quinquessis,
octussis, nonussis, decussis, centussis, &c.

The official terms duimivir, triumvir, &c., one of a commission
oftwOy three, &c, are used in both numbers : but may
also be written in Plur., duoviri, tresviri, &c.

To these may be added a very large list of Adjectives simi-
larly compounded :
biceps, triceps . . . biformis, triformis . . . biling^s, trilinguis . . .
bicolor, tricolor . . . bifidus, trifidus . . . bipes, tripes . . .
bicorpor, tricorpor . . . biiugis, triiugis . . . biremis, triremis . . .
bidens, tridens . . . bilibris, trilibris . . . bisulcus, trisulcus . . .

The word ^balance* is derived from bilanx (double-dish).

6. The Verbs fari, partiri with the Quotientiva form two series
of Adverbs implying partition :

bifariam, trifariam, quadrifariam, &c.w «

bipartito, tripartite, quadripartito, &c. r" ^* ^> ^ ^^' P^^
Ods. The words unio (whence EngL onion), binio, temio, qua-
temio, senio, are post-classical. But senio is used for the sice'
throw (called also Venus) in dice-play.

7. The Ordinals form two series of Numeral Adverbs implying
sequence :

primum . . . tertium quartum . . .
primo . . . tertio quarto . . .

Primum may mean ' /;/ the Jirst place,* or ^for the first time?

When it means *in the first place,' it is usually followed by
deinde, in the second place ; then by other adverbs, tum, deinceps,
leading up to postremo, lastly, or denique, in fine.

When it jneans ^for the first time* its sequence is : iterum,^/>ft^
second time, tertitmi, quartum . . . postremum.

Some of these words are used with titles of office to express the
second, third, &c. time of a man's holding it: *L. Com. Scipio
consul iterum . . . tertium consul,' &c

Primo usually means * at the beginning* at the first, and may be
followed by dein, next, post, postea, &c. But primo is sometimes
3sed like primxmif in the first place , followed by dein, tertio, quarto,

uiyiuzeu uy x^jv^wVt Iv^

150 Latin Wordlore, §35..

V. Declension of the Numerals.*

M. P. N.

i) Sing. Norn, un-n* a tun one. Plural

Voc. un-e a vm as

Ace. un-«m am «m bonuSr

Gen. un-lns

Dat, un-t

AbL un-o ft

Like unus : ullus (for unulus), any ; nuUus (for ne unulus), none.
The Ordinalia and Distribudva are declined as bonus.

NUMERAL

Arabic

Roman Symbols

Cardinalia

X

I

untis, Af um

9

II

duo, ae, o

3

III

tres, tria

4

IV

quattuor

5

V

quinque

6

VI

sex

\

VII

septem

VIII

octo

9

VIIII<»rIX

novem

10

X

decern

XX

XI

undecim

xa

XII

duodedm

X3

XIII

tredecim : decern el tres : tres et deeora

14

XIV

quattuordecim ; decern et quattuor

IS

XV

quindecim

x6

XVI

sedecim ; sexdedm : decern et sex

17

XVII

decern et septem ; s. et d. ; septemdecini

18

XVIII

duodevi^u (decern el octo)
undeviginti (decern et novem)

19

XVIIII^rXIX

ao

XX

viginti

.2'

XXI

unus et vi^ti ; y^inti unus

22

XXII

duo et v^uti ; viginti duo

28

XXVIII

duodetrismta (octo et vi^nti)

29

XXIX

undetrigmu (novem et viginti)

30

XXX

triginta

40

XL

quadraginta

SO

L

quinquaginta

60

LX

sexaginta

g

LXX

septuaginta

LXXX

octoginta

90

xc

nonaginta

98

lie

nonaginta octo : octo et nonaginta

99

IC

too

c

centtun

xox

CI

centum et unus ; centum unus

X36

CXXXVI

centum ct triginta sex ; c. tr. s.

200

cc

ducenti, ae, a

300

ccc

trecenti . . .

400

cccc

quadringent! . . .

500

ID^D

quingenti . . .

600

IDC ^ DC

sescenti . . .

ss

IDCC or DCC

septingenti . . .

lDCCC<»rDCCC
iDCCCC^^rDCCCC

o<:tingenti . . .

900

nongenti . . .

lyOOO

CID^M

mille

a,ooo

ClDClD<»rMM

duo milia (bis mille)

5,000

IDD

auinque milla
decern milia

TO.OOO

CCIDD

50,000

lODO

quinquaginta milia

XOOyOOO

CCCIDDD

centum milia : centena milia 1

x,ooo^ooo

CCCCIDDDD

deciens centum milia ; dedens^

L

r\r\rAo '

* Seei

note on page 15a. a > ^

133.

Declension of Numerals,

151

2) Plur. Nom.
Ace
Gen.
D.AbL

duo

duae

duos (duo)

duas

duorum

duarum

duobus

duabus

N.

duo two.
duo

duorum
duobus

3) Plur. N. trcs, tria ; Ace tris (tres), tria ; G. trium ; D. Abl
tribus.

4) Plur. Nom. Ace milia; G. milium ; D. Abl. milibus.

Duo for duos is classical Duum is a form of Gen. much used
with weights, measures, numbers ; as duum nummum ; duum am-
phorum ; duum milium.

TABLE.

Ordinalia

DiSTRIBUTIVA.

QUOTIBNTIVA

-VM, -a, -mn

-1, -a©, -a

(-tens or -ies)

primus

singuli

semeL

secundus (^ alter)

bim

bis.

tCltJUS

ternii^trini

ter.

qnartus

quatemi

quater.^

<pnntus

quini

quinquiens or quinquies.

sextos

seni

sexiens.

sepdmns

septeni

septiens.

octavus

octoni

octiens.

noons

noveni

noviens.

deciinns

deni

deciens.

imaecintus

undeni

undeciens.

duodeni

duodedens.

tertius decimus (decimus el tertius)

ternideni

lerdeciens tfr tredeciens.

qnartus decimus (decimus et quartus)

quatemi deni

quattuordeciens (TT quaterd.

quintus decimus

quini deni

quindeciens /?r quinquiens d.

seni deni

iiedeciens or sexiens deciens.

sepdmus decimus

septeni deni

septiensdeciens.

duodeviceni

duodeviciens <w octiens d.

undevicensimus (noous decimus)

undeviceni

undeviciens or noviens d.

Yiceosimas (vijgensimus) or vicesirous

viceni

viciens.

tmus et ▼iccnsimus (primus et vie. ; vie. pr.)
alter et vicensinusCv. a. ; duo et vie.)

viceni sin^U

semel et viciens or v. s.

viceni bini

bis et videns or v. b.

duodetriceni

octiens et viciens.

UDdetriccnsimus (noous et vicensimu:»)

imdetriceni

noviens et viciens.

tricensimus (trigensimus) or tricesimus

triceni

triciens.

quadrageni ^

quadragiens.

qumquagensimus

QunnQtmiFcyn

quinquagiens.

sexagensimus

sexageni

sexagiens.

septuageni

septuagiens.

oaogeni

octogiens.

noaagensimus

nonageni

nonagiens.

nonageni octoni

nonagiens octiens.

uodecentensimus

undecentcni

undccentiens ?

centeni

centiens.

centensimus primus

centeni singuli

centiens semel.

centensimus trincensimus sextus

centeni triceni seni

centiens triciens sexiens. 1

duceni

ducentiens. !

trecentensimus

treceni

irecentiens. \

quadringentensimus

quadrin^eni

quadringentiens. |

quingemeitsimus

quing;em

quingentiens.

sexcentensimus ; sesc.

seceni

sescentiens.

septingeni

septingentiens. j

octingentensimus

octingeni

octingentiens.

nongeiii

nongentiens.

singula milia

miliens.

bis milknsirous

bina milia

bis miliens.

qnioquiens millensimus
dcciens millensimus

quina milia
dena milia

Quinquiens miliens.
deciens miliens.

quinquagena milia

quinquagiens miliens.

centiens millensimus

centena milia^

centiens miliens.

quingentieos millensimus

auingena milia
decies centena milia

Quingentiens miliens.
deciens centiens miliens.

Bdlieiis millensimu<(

152 LaUn Wordlore. §33-

Ambo, both, is decUned as duo : but without contraction.
Mille, thousand, is undeclined.

Other Numerals come from these.
Formation of Numerals.

uL?fS««<l in Lad. by two form.: (.) u-nu-s: W .i»-. wbich .pp«« b.
singuli, simplex, semel.

N TT e /v T ^Um^^ seems to be the Demonstr. Pronoun i gunized (becoming ai,
- "^ ""oi^a) and XgX su^ no-, so as to imply ^ consisting '^ 'J^^J^
^icofSi^of^. The Sk. word for on* is ekas, the same pronoun impounded
with the interrogative Pron. ka, * who or what/ meamng tAai wkattotver. la
Zand the form is aiva or afvth corresponding to Gr. olo«, oiiHK, aum€,
a) S i m- represents Sk. sa-ma, which is the SuperL of the Demonstr. Pron. to, thu«
expressing * that especially.' Singulus(for sim^ulus). a deminutive expressinff
* that particular: ' that small unit; is used as Plural ; very rarely Smgular. It
would seem as if singulu s and un us had changed places in usage : for although
singulusiswcll suited to the Cardinal scries, it belongs to the Distributive,
which having in every other instance the suffix no- (bini, term, &c), might daua
unus'as its proper head. This however only occurs when Pluralia-tantum are
numbered: as una (bina, trina, &c.) castra; unae (bmae, trinae, &c) ht-
terae, aedes, &C.
From Sim- comes sem-e-l ; also sim-u-l, sim-ili-s: w»w is contained also in Gr.
€l« (€!'-«), fUa, \v, in which the Masc. sam-s, becoming san-s and so ew, passes mto •U,
and the Fem. sam-ya becomes sm-ya, m-ya, and so fua.
For the names of the Cardinalia from a to xo see Table.

The Cardinalia from ii to 17 are additive Compounds of the first mne with decern, xo :
un-decim, duo-decim, &c , . . . , i^ \ j •

The principal forms for 18, 19 are Subtractive: duodevigmti (a off ao); undevi-
ginti(i off 20) ; and these forms reappear in 28, 29 ; 38, 39. &c. to 99, undecentam :
98 only being excepted. . . ,. . ^ j r .u t^t

The Cardinalia, which are multiples of 10, are multiphcativc Compounds of the Nume-
rals a .. . xo with decent! or degenta (10) :— ao (d-videccnti axio=) vigmti ; 30
(triadecenta 3X io)=triginta ; 40 (quatoradecenta 4 x 10=) quladragintfl, &c. ; but in
70, septuaginta, a byform septuo isusedfor septem ; and in 9o,nonaginta, nona-
secms to be contracted from no vena. It must be observed that all these forms in a a»
probably Neuters Plur. which classically retain the ancient long a. Centum alone is
Ncut. Sing, and stands for (decen- decentum 10 x 10), dropping the first three syllables, as
in English the word w«' has dropt the two first syllables oi periwig. The Sk^form is
sfata {=Jkata), Gr. jxar^y, perhaps for (Uxa- ddxarov), , , ^ . <..,

The Multiples of centum from aoo to 900 are Compounds of the first nine Numerals
with the form -centi, among which quadr.««-genti is strangely formed on the analogy
ofquingenti, &c. ; octingcntigoesback to the Pr. form(<»*/att) ; andnongenti is
for (novingenti).

The form expressing 1000 is different in the several branches of the Aryan family : Ind.
sakasra : Gr. x^Xwi : L- mill* : Goth, tkusund, &c.

The root of mille is questionable. Some refer it to Sk. milt Gr. ft^fuA-, to assodaU,
assemble,

B) Ordinalia:

Primus (Sk. pratAamas, Gr. vpSnot) h SuperL of prae, pro (Sk. pro, Gr. v|mS.
Compare irptV). « /^ . \

Secundus is Present Participle of sequor (Sk. sat, Gr. «»-).

The next four assume the Superl. suffix (ta) to-, euphonized in tert-i-u-s(for ter-tu-s,
TpiTO*), by inserting i. Octa-v-us (6y«ofo«) seems to be the Adj. of Sk. atktau : and
the retention of av (rather than ov) is a remarkable instance of dissiooilation. Noaus is a
contraction of novenus, a Distributive form in this instance appearing among the Ordi*
nals, as anilft (see above) among the Cardinal numerals.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

•S34.

Use of the Numerals!

153

VL Use of the Numerals.

A) Cardinalia.

d) Since the Singular itself implies unity, unus without other
I^umerals always has emphasis : * Amicitiae vis est in eo ut unus
■quasi animus fiat ex plunbus,' the essence of friendship is that one
soul as it were is formed of several^ C. LaeL 25. But, * Matronae
^nnum, ut parentem, Brutum luxerunt/ the matrons mourned
Brutus for one year^ as a father y L. ii. 7.

b) Unus may take a Superlative force, or emphasbe Superla-
tives : * Demosthenes unus eminet inter omnes oratores,' Demos-'
thenes stands unrivalled among orators ^ C. Or, 29^ * P. Nigidius,
unus omnium doctissimus,' Publius Nigidius y the most learned of
tneny C. Fam. iv. 13. It is likewise used emphatically with some
Pronouns and Pronominals : *Hoc non quivis unus ex populo
poterat agnoscere,' // was not any individual from among the
people that could recognise thiSy C. Br, 93. *Nemo unus erat vir
quo magis innisa res Romana staret,' tJiere was no one man on
whom the Roman commonwealth more leaned for its snpporty L. ix.
16. On the Plural use of unus see p. 155. The Voc. Sing, une is
used by Catullus, xxxvii. 17.

c) Mi lie is used (i) as an undeclined Substantive; rarely with
Sing. Verb: *Amphus mille hominum cecidit,' more than one

In the Ordinals of ao^ 30 .... to 90 the SuperL ending -s!mu-s -sumu-s is taken, fonn-
ing -ent-simus (or ent-sumus), -en-simus (or -en-sumns), before the Aug. age, afker-
'wards -Csimus: as vicensimus (or vicensumusX vicesimus, &c.

This form is adopted, by mere analogy, in cent-ensimus and its Compounds,
-dncentensimus, &c., and in mill-ensimus.

O Numeral Adverbs.

Semel: see A)', bis for(d-vis); ter by transp. for tri: quater (for quat-v-or).
AH others are formed with the final suffix -lens : q ft i n q u i e n s, &c In the multiples
of xo^ -tolls takes the place of -lata : viciens, triciens, quadragiens, &c In
100 and its multiples it follows nt : centiens, ducentiens . . . From mille,
miliens.

After the 'Aug. age n usually fell out, and the forms became quinquiei. . . .
milies. So toties, quoties: in R. L. totiens, quotiens.

27) Distributiva.

Singuli : see^) : bi-ni(for d-vi-ni), ter-ni or trT-ni: quater-ni :qui-ni(for
qmnc-ni), s e - n i : septe-ni, octo-ni, nove-ni, de-ni (for dece-ni), &c
Afterwards the suffix -enl is taken by all Distributiva below z,ooa
The form m i 1 1 en i is not used, but instead of it m i 1 i a is multiplied by the previous
Distributives: singula milia, bina milia, &c See Numeral Table.
Ningulus, an E.L. word (for ne-angulus),=:nullus.

The following table shews the resemblance of the Numerals in seven Indo-European
languages : Latin, Sanskrit, Greek, Lithuanian, Welsh (Cymraeg), (}othic, and Oerman.

34
Use of
the Nu-
merals.

Lat.

Sk.

Gr.

Lith.

W.

Goth.

Germ.

tmus

ekas

.u

v^na

un

aina

eins

duo

dvi

bi<^

dva

dau

twai

zwei

tri-

tri

Tpt-

tri

tri

thrija

drd

quattuor

c'atvSras

rirfaptK

ketiui

pedwar

fidvdr

vier

quinqiie

panc'an

Wkt« (W/Mr«)

penki

pump

fimf

ftinf

sex

shash

€-^

szeszi

chwech

saihs

sechs

septem

saptan

«VTa

septyni

sibun

sieben

octo

ashtau

Sktu

asztuid

wyth

ahtau

acht

novem

navan

ivvtfa

devynl

naw

niun

neun

■decern

das'an

UKa

desrind

deg

taihun

lehn

<:entum

s'ata

iitarif

srimta

cant

hund

hundei

uiy

mzeuuy^^^^p^.

1 54 Latin Wordlore. § 34.

thousand men fell, Nep. Dot, 8: frequently with Plural verbr
*Mille passuum erant inter urbem castraque/ there was a9t
interval of a mile between the city and the camp, L. xxL 61. So
mille nummum. (2) As undeclined Adjective constantly: *Mille
rates,' a thousand ships, Ov. Met. xiL 7.

The Plural milia (or millia) is only a Substantive, followed
•usually by a Genitive: 'Quattuor milia hominum et quingenti
Capitolium occupavere, four thousand five hundred men seized the
Capitol, L. iii. 15. If smaller Numerals intervene between milia
and the Substantive, the latter may agree with the smaller : * Tria
milia et septingenti pedites ierunt,' there marched 3,700
infantry, L. xxxv. 40.

* Mille as AbL is peculiarly used in the following place :
'Cirni octo milibus peditum, mille equitiun,' L. xxi. 61.

d) The Numerals sescenti and mille are idiomatically used
by Latin authors to express indefinitely large numbers : * Ses-
centas uno tempore epistolas accepi,' / received 600 letters at once,
C Att, vii. 2. *Aiaxmilies oppetere mortem quam ilia perpeti
maluisset,' Ajax would rather have died 1,000 times than have en-
dured that treatment, C. Off, i. 31. * Mille pro uno Kaesones
exstitisse plebs querebatur/ the plebeians were grumbling that for
one Kaeso there were now 1,000, L. lii. 14.

Poets use centum for this purpose. 'Non, mihi si linguae
centum sint oraaue centum,' not if I had a hundred tongues and
a hundred mouths, Verg. G, ii. 44. ' Caecuba servata centum cla-
vibus/ the Caecuban wine guarded by a hundred keys, Hon C. ii.
14. 26.

Tres stands for a few in Plautus. *Te t rib us verbis volo. Vel
trecentis,' / want three words with you. Three hundred if you will,
Trin. iv. 2.

E) Ordinalia.

fl) Alter may be used for second : * Alter ab undecimo tum me
iam ceperat annus,' my twelfth year (lit. next from the eleventh) had
then commenced, Verg. B, viii. 39. * Unus et alter,' one or two,

Secundus expresses no more than the numerical order : alter
implies that the second is in kind the same as the first So, * De-
nique haec (Pelopidas) fuit altera persona Thebis, sed tamen
secundaita, ut proxima esset Epaminondae,' /// short, Pelopidas^
was the second personage in Thebes, but holding the second rank so
as to be very near Epaminondas, Nep. Pel, 4. See Hon C L 12. 18.

b) Ordinals are used in computing time : * Anno post urbem
conditam septingentensimo quinquagensimo quarto natus
est Christus,' Christ was born 754 years after the foundation of
Rotne, *Ab illo tempore anniun iam tertium et quinquagen-
si mum regnait,' from that time he has now been reigning 53 years,
C,p L, Man. 3. Hora quota est ? what o^ clock is it t Hora prima,
secunda, tertia, &c, 7, 8, 9. 6r*c. d clock, HorS. nona, at 3 d clock.

c) The Ordinals are used with quisque : * tertio quoque anno,*"
every third year, &c. But ' altemis diebus,' every otner day,

C) Distributiva.

d) These apply the Number they express to each of several
persons or things or times : ' Data ex praeda militibus aeris

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^v^pt ix^

S 34, Use of the Numerals, 155

octogeni bini sagaqae et t\imc2Li^y the soldiers received from the
sfoil ei^kty-two asses eacky with cloak and tunic, L. x. 30 (i.e. mili-
tibus singulis). ' Gennani singulis uxoribus contend sunt/ the
Germans are satisfied with one wife each^ Tac. C?. 18 (Le. Gennani
singuli). • Ursae pariunt plurimum quinos/ bears bring forth at
most five cubs at a birth, PL N. H, (i.e. ursae singulae).

B) When the Distributive singuli is expressed in Latin with one
Noun, the Cardinal can be used with the other : * Singulis censo-
ribus denarii trecenti ad statuam praetoris imperati sunt,' each
censor had yx> denars imposed on him for the statue of the praetor,
C Verr, iL 55. But the Distributive is much more usual in this
position : 'Verberibus mulcant sexageni singulos,' they punish
with stripes, 60 soldiers each centurion, Tac Ann, i. 32. * Antonius
quingenos denarios singulis militibus dat,' Antonius gave each
soldier 500 denars, C. Fam. x. 31.

Singuli incedunt, they advance one by one. Singulis diebus
eadem fiunt, the same happens every day,

Quotannis may be used for singulis annis, every year;
cotidie for singulis diebus ; and viritim, man by man, for any
Masc. case of singuli.

Plautus has 'singulum vestigium/ Cist, iv. 2.

c) The Distributives are often multiplied by the Adverbs : * Bis
bin a quot sunt?' how many are twice twof Cic. * Decrevere
pontifices ut virgfines ter novenae per urbem euntes carmen
canerent,' the pontifis decreed that three choirs of maidens, nine in
tack, should sing in procession through the city, L. xxvii. 37.

d) Uni (not singuli), trini (not temi), and the Distributives
bini, quaterni, quini,&c.,are used with Substantives of Singular
sense and Plural form : *Una castra iam facta ex binis videban-
tur/ one camp seemed now to have been formed out of two, Caes.
B, C, i. 24 : * trinis castris,' Caes. B, G, vii. 66. So, *unae nuptiae/
unae litterae, &c. ; but, 'tres liberi/ three children. On this principle
the following expressions are legitimate: 'uni Ubii/ the Ubit
alone, Caes. : *unos sex dies/ six days only, Plaut. ' Lacedae-
monii iam septingentos annos unis moribus 's\vmvlX^ the Lacedae-
monians have now been living 700 years with one set of habits, C,p,
Flacc, 26.

e) Bini is used to express a pair \ 'Pamphilus binos habebat
scyphos sigiUatos/ Pamphilus had a pair of embossed cups, C. Verr,
iv. 14. * Bina manu crispans hastilia,' brandishing a couple 0/
tpears, Verg. Aen, i. 317.

f) Poets sometimes use the Distributives in a multiplicative
sense : * Septeno gurgite/ with sevenfold torrent, Lucan. viii. 444.
Frequently for the Cardinals : ' centenas manus,' a hundred hands,
Veig.

But when Virgil writes Per duodena regit mundum sol aureus
astra, the golden sun through 12 signs guides the world, the Dis-
tributive is correct, because each year is implied, G, i. 231.

g) The Gen. PI. of Cardinals and Distributives is usually con-
tracted into vm : * quingentum iugerum ; ' ' senum septenumve
annorunu'

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

156 Latin Wordlore. §34.

<^„. vii. Compound Numeration.

??Sie. a) In the Table of Numerak the most approved forms are set
•***• down ; those less usual but not inadmissible are bracketed.

b) In Compound Numbers above 20, either the smaller number
with et precedes the larger, or the larger without et pre-
cedes the smaller: *Romidus septem et triginta regnavit
annos/ Romulus reigned 37 years, C. R^. il la * Macedp Alex-
ander tertio et tricensimo anno mortem obiit/ Alexander of
Macedonia died in his thirty-third year, C. Ph. v. 17. * Septuaginta
et tres amissi/ 73 were lost, L. xxxv. i. * Plinius sCripsit sub
Nerone naturae historiarum libros triginta septem/ Plinius in
the reign of Nero wrote 37 books of natural history, Plin. Ep, iii. 5.
* Dentes triceni bini viris attribuuntur/ thiriy-two teeth are as-
signed to a man, PL N, H, viL 16. But *et' occurs after the larger
Numeral : * viginti et duos annos/ C. Cat, M, 9. Also the smaller
occurs before the larger without et : *Quattuor quadraginta
illi debentur minae/ 44 minas are due to him, Plaut Most, iiL i.
^Septimo quinquagensimo die vera coidtcxf I finished the affair
in S7 days, C, Fam, xv. 4. U n u s, when it occurs with viginti, &c,
generally stan''' first, and the Noun last : unus et viginti ho-
mines; unum et triginta miUia. But exceptions occur: 'Vi-
ginti unus tribuni/ L. xxii. 49. 'Viginti unam muscas,' 21

flies, Y\.N, H, XXX. la * Diebus viginti uno,' PL N, H, xxix. 6.

c) In Compound Numbers above 100, the larger with or without
et generally precedes the smaller: *Leontinus Gorgias cen-
tum et septem complevit annos,* Gorgias of Leoniini completed
107 years, C, Cat, M, 5. * Annum magnum esse voluerunt omnibus
planetis in eundem recurrentibus loctun, quod fit post duodecim
milia nongentos quinquaginta quattuor annos,' they would
have a great year to be when all the planets come back into the same
place, which happens after 1 2,954 years, Cic *Sescentensimum
et quadragensimum annum urbs Roma agebat, cum primimi
Cimbrorum audita sunt anna,' Rome was in its 6/^th year when
the arms of the Cimbri were first heard, Tac. G. 37. * 01>'mpiade
centensima quart3.decima Lysippus i\x\t,^ Lysippus lived in the
114th Olympiad, PL N. If, xxxiv. 8. *Aristidis arbitrio quadrin-
gena et sexagena talenta quotannis Delum sunt collata,'
under the control ofAristides ifio talents were annually contributed
to the treasury at Delos, Nep. Ar, 3.

d) The multiples of i/xx) are expressed by the Cardinals (or
Distributives) multiplying milia: duo, tria, &c., ; decem, vi-
ginti, &c. ; centum, ducenta, &c. milia ; (or bina, terna, &c),
milia.

Poets and some prose writers of the silver age use bis, ter, &c
with mille : *bis mille equos,' Hor. ; *quinquiens mille quad-
ringenta stadia,' PL N, H, And so with smaller Numerals : * Hie
(Caesar) deciens senos ter centum et quinque diebus addidit/
Caesar added 60 days to 305, Ov. F, iiL 163.

e) The multiples of 100,000 are expressed by the Numeral Ad-
verbs joined to centum milia or centena milia, as stated in the
following passage : * Non erat apud antiquos numerus ultra centum,

uiyiuzeu uy x^jv^v^pi i_x^

Frac-
tions.

J 34, Numeral Expression of Fractions. 157

mllia; itaque et hodie multiplicantur haec, ut deciens centena
milia ant saepius dicantur/ the ancients had no number beyond
\QfXfxo ; wherefore to the present day these figures are multiplied^
so as to use the form * ten tifnes a hundred thousand* and the like
in progression^ PL N, H, xxxiiL 10.

Thus we find : 'viciens centum milia passuum/ 2,000,000 ^miles^
Caes. : * bis ettriciens centimi milia passuum/ 3,200,000 miles, Suet
*quinquiens miliens centum milia,' 500,000,000, PL; 'octagiens
quihquiens centena sexaginta octo m ilia,' 8,568,000 PL In cipher
the thousands were written with a line above them, and the himdied
thousands with side lines also. Thus 999,999 in writing is : noviens
centena nonaginta novem milia nongenti nonaginta novem; in
cipher: | ix | xcix loccccxcix.

aa, Unus is often used in Compound Numbers for the Ordinal
primus : ^ Plato uno et octogensimo anno scribens mortuus est,'
Plato died while writing in his Zistyear, C. Cat. M, So unetvicen-
simus, unaetvicensima or imetvicensima. Duoetvicensimus is rare.

▼iii Numeral Expression of Fractions.
The Romans expressed fractions in the following ways : *

i) If the ninnerator is i, it is not expressed : as dimidia pars a |,
tertia pars - 1, &c.

2) If the numerator is greater than i, and less than the denomi-
nator by more than i, it is expressed as in English, suppressing
' partes : ' duae quintae = | ; tres septimae » |, &c.

3) If the numerator is less than the denominator by i only, the
latter may be suppressed, * partes ' being expressed : duae partes
=» I ; tres partes « f ; quinque partes « |, &c.

4) A fraction may be expressed by the multiplication of two
fractions: dimidia tertias-|x| = | ; quarta septhna =» J x J « i^

&C.

5) A fraction may be expressed by the addition of two fractions :
as pars dimidia et tertia =| + J-|; pars quarta et septima =} + f

6) The Roman unit of weight, length, or measure was called as.

The 'as' (unit) of weight, called Vibni, pound

— — — of length — pes, foot

— — — of area — lugernm, acre

was in each case divided into 12 parts, called unciae.*

Hence fractions of 12 were named, according to the number of
Tmdae they contained, as follows : —

^ Dimidio maior means ' half as nntch larger,* altero tanto maior, as large again, Le.
twiee as large. The following passage from PI. N, H. vi (cited by F. Schultz) may be
a nsefixl exercise in fractional computation, while it shews the great ignorance of geography
which existed in Pliny's time : —

' Apparet Europam paulo minus dimidia Anae parte maiorem esse quam Asiam ; ean«
dem sdtero tanto et sexta parte Africae ampliorem quam Afiicam. Quod si misceantur
omnes sommae, liquido patebit Kuropam totius terrae tertiam esse partem et octavam
paulo amplius, Asiam veio quartam et quartamdedmam, Africam autem quintam et in-
nper sexagensimam.'

' Hcscc Mc4 as well as mtnet is derived from unda.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

158 Latin Wordlore. §35-3^

uncia = i unc i gf the unit septimx « 7 unc .— of the unit,

sextans «2 — J „ „ b€s - 8 — I

quadrans =3—1 „ „

triens -4 — I „ „

quincunx =5 — o » w

semissis =6 — \ „ „

bes - 8 — .

dodrans =9 — |

dextans =10 — |

deunx -11 — ij

By this notation inheritance was calculated : ' heres ex asse,*
universal heir : * heres ex semisse/ heir to half the estate ; * heves
ex dimidia et quadrante/ heir to three-fourths^ &c.

The Uncia was also subdivided, viz. : —

scripulum «x*j unc. ^-^ of unit I sicilicus =i unc. =^ of unit;
sextula =1 — «^ „ 1 semuncia -| — if>^ „

Sescuncia or Sescunx (uncia semisque) = i| uncia = J of unit.
Sesquialtera ratio » i| : i » 3 : a.

CHAPTER III.
THE VERB.

Section I.

VcA i- The Verb Finite and Infinite. Seepage 72.

Finite

Jjfjj°- I. The Verb Finite is so called, because its forms
are limited by Mood and Person, as well as Tense.

II. The forms of the Verb Infinite are not limited*
by Mood and Person.

Note, Any Finite fomi is called a Personal Verb, because it
agrees with a Nominative in the ist, 2nd, or 3rd Person.

Voices. ii. The Voices of the Verb.

There are in Verbs two classes of form, which gram-
marians have called Voices (Voces, Genera) :

i) The Active Voice (Vox Activa), fromagere, to do.

2) The Passive Voice (Vox Passiva), from pati,
to suffer,

i) The Active Voice indicates that a Subject is or
does something :

sum, / am amo, / love

valeo, / am well moneo, / advise

uiyiuzeu uy ■v^j ^^^ xJVt Iv^

f 36. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. 1 59

2) The Passive Voice indicates generally that a Sub-
ject suffers something {has something done to it) :
amor, / am loved moneor, / am advised

iii Deponent Verbs.

Many Verbs, though Passive in most of their forms,
have an Active meaning :

venor, I hunt vereor, I fear

These are called by grammarians, Deponent Verbs
^Deponentia).*

iv. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. Transi-

tive and

i) In order that it may be fuUy conjugated (like a mo and sSlw^
moneo), in both Voices, a Verb must be Transitive. Verbs.

Intransitive Verbs are fully conjugated in one Voice only.

2) A Verb is called Transitive when its action passes on (tran-
sit) to an Object in the Accusative (Objective) Case : moneo
Ludum, / advise Lucius \ Lucius me audit, Lucius hears me,
A Deponent Verb may be Transitive, though conjugated in the
Passive Voice only : venamur lepores, we hunt hares ; lepores nos
verentur, hares fear us,

3) An Intransitive Verb, Active or Deponent, requires no
Object : surgo, / rise ; proficiscor, I ^0,

Those .which express state or condition are called Static Verbs :
a^oto, I am sick ; sto, I stand', irascor, I am angry.

An Accusative Object, called Cognate or Contained,.may be
joined to an Intransitive Verb, if it expresses the function contained
in the Verb itself : ludere ludum insolentem, to play a haughty
^ame ; aegrotare minim morbum, to be sick of a strange disease.
See Syntax (Accusative).

The construction called Impersonal allows Intransitive Verbs
to be used in the Third Persons Singular and in the Infinitive of
the Passive Voice : surgitur (a nobis or ab illis being understooc^,
'We {they) rise (Uterally, there is rising by us or ty them). See § 5a

4) The Subject of a Transitive Verb may become its Object :
(ego) verto me, / turn myself \ (tu) vertis te, you turn yourself',
fis) vertit se, he turns himself This Pronoun Object is sometimes
omitted, as in English, and the Verb is thus used intransitively :
iam verterat fortuna^ fortune had now turned, Liv.

On the other hand, the Passive, like the Greek Middle Voice, has
often a reflexive use : vertor, / turn myself-, lavor, / wash myself.
Probably this was the primary sense of the Passive.

Some Deponents originate thus : glorior, / boast {myself) ;
vescor, I feed {myself). Others grow out of Passive Verbs : gravor,
I grudge^ am loth (lit, am grieved).

* The term 'Deponent' is bad, though invetexate in Latin grammar. Medial (Media)
woold be a better name for these Verbs.

uiyiuzeu uy '

»gle

l6o Latin Wordlore, §37.

V. Quasi-Passive and Semi-Deponent Verbs.

i) A few Verbs, of Active form, are used in Passive sense, and
are called Quasi-Passive Verbs :
exsulo, I. I am banished,
vapulo, I. I am beaten

fio, / become or am made^ Passive of facio, / make,
pereo, / am lost or destroyed — perdo, / lose or destroy,

veneo, I am on sale — vendo, I selL

liceo, 2. / am put to auction (but liceor, / bid at an auction).

The Participles perditus and perdendus, venditus and
vendendus, are in use. Verbero, /beat,h3s a Passive verberor,,
but vapulo often took its place in popular speech.

2) Some Verbs, otherwise Active, take a Passive form with Active
meaning in their Perfect Participle and the Tenses derived from it :

3Ludeo, 2, / dare ausus svan, I dared

gaudeo, 2. / rejoice gavisus sum, / rejoiced

soleo, 2. 1 am wont solitus sum, I was wont

fido, 3. I trust fisus siun, I trusted

fio, I become f actus sum, /became

These are called Semi-Deponent Verbs.

3) Some Verbs have an Active Perfect, with a Passive Perfect-
Participle, active in sense :

ceno, cenavi, I supped cenatus, having supped

iuro, iuravi, I swore iuratus, having sworn

prandeo, prandi, / dined pransus, having dined

nubo, nupsi, / wcu wedded nupta, wedded

Other Passive Participles from Active Verbs are :
adultus, grown up, from adolesco, adolevi
cretus, sprung — cresco, crevi

suetus, accustomed — suesco, suevi (with compounds)

obsoletus, out of date — obsolesco, obsolevi
-phicitasy pleasing — placeo, placui

potus, having drunk, from an old stem po-
perosus, hating, from perodi ; exosus, hating or hated utterly
pertaesus, tired, from pertaedet
Also coalitus (coalesco), deflagratus, exoletus, initus, inveteratus^

propensus. See M. Lucr, iL 383 ; iii. 772.

Mc^s. vi- The Moods of the Verb.

Moods (Modi) express the manner of action in a
Finite Verb.

There are three Moods of the Verb Finite :

i) The Indicative Mood declares a fact or condition
as real or absolute :
gaudeo quod (si) abest, I am glad that {if) he is absent,

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^v^pt ix^

838. The Tenses of the Verb. i6i

2) The Conjunctive Mood states a fact or condi-
tion as conceived or contingent :

gaudeam si dihsity I shall be glad if he be absent \
veil m absit, / would wish he were absent :
vellem abesset, I could wish he had been absent

This Mood, in principal construction, we caU the Pure Conjunc-
tive, gaudeam, velim, vellenL When it depends on another
Verb, it is called Subiunctive, absit, abesset

The English version of the Conjunctive generally requires the
use of an auxiliary Verb, mayy mi^kt^ would^ should^ shall^ &c.

The Subjunctive is often rendered by the English Indicative :
nescio quid velis, /^<7W not what you wish; tarn stulti sunt ut
nihil intellegant. t/iey are so foolish that they understand
nothing \ also by the English Subjunctive : dubito num in telle-
gat, I doubt if he understand', but often it must be expressed by
an auxDiary verb tnay^ might \ Sdimus ut vivamus, we eat that
we may live.

The right rendering of this Mood is not learnt from tables, but
by exemplification, reading,' and practice.

3) The Imperative Mood is for command and en-
treaty: hue curre, run hither) memento venias, you
must remember to come. See p. 163.

viL The Tenses of the Verb. Tense*

Tenses (Tempora) are forms which indicate the time
of action or state in Verbs.

1. Tense-forms are either Inflected or Combinate.

An Inflected Tense-form is a distinct word obtained by modi-
fying the Stem of the Verb : ama-bo, ama-v-eram.

ACombinate Tense-form is obtained by connecting a Par-
ticiple of the Verb with a Tense-form of an auxiliary Verb. The
only auxiliary Verb ordinarily used for this purpose in classical
Latin is the Verb of Being, sum, esse, to be, which, combined
wiA the Participles in us, supplies various Tenses, especially the
Perfect Tenses in the Passive Voice : amatus sum, fui, &c.

2. The English language has very few inflected Tenses ; as

Pres. love, lovest, loves ;
Past loved, lovedst :

but its Verb is enlarged by combining with Infinitive and Parti-
cipial forms nine auxiliary Verbs and several Prepositions : namely,

a. be (am, was, &c.) have (had) must

do (did) let shall (should)

can (could) may (might) will (would)

/a. to; about to ; by ; in.

M

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

i62 LMttn Wordlore. §38.

Hence English is richer in its power of expressing Time than
Latin ; and most Latin forms admit various English equivalents. As
grammatical tables cannot supply all the EngUsh equivalents for
each Verb-form, a thorough knowledge of the Latin Verb is gained
only by the practical work of reading and intertranslating.

3. Time is Present, Past, or Future.

Action or .state may be simply present, past, or future.

For each simple time Latin has an inflected Indicative Tense-
form in the Active Voice ; and, in the Passive, inflected forms for
the Present and Future, and a combinate form for the Simple Past
TTius, in the Indicative Mood,

Bdiplb Pbbbbmt. Sdcpli Past. Siicplb Futubb,

Active.
2Uno, I love amavi, loved amabo, sltall love

Passive.
Ibnor^ / am loved amatus sum, was loved amabor, shall be loved

4. But it IS often necessary to describe action and state with
more complex relations of time; and this the English language,
by its numerous auxiliary verbs, can do more fliUy than Latin.
Such rdations are (in the Indicative Mood) :

▲OIIVB. Pabsivx.

I. Present in

(Present am loving* am being-loved*

Past was loving was being-loved

Future shall-be loving* shall-be (being) loved*

IL Past in

/Present have loved* have-been loved*

J Past had loved had-been lovedf

(Future shall-have loved shall-have-been lovedf

III. Future in

(Present am about-to-lovef am about-to-be-lovedj

Past was about-to-lovef was about-to-be-lovedj

Future shall-be about-to-lovef shall-be about-to-be-loved:t

Latin has inflected Tense-forms for three only of these relations
in the Active ; and for one only in the Passive :

Indie. Act. amabam, / was loving

— — axnaLvemrLl had loved

— — amavero, I shall have loved

— Pass, amabar, / was being loved

To express the English marked *, the Simple Tense-forms are
used : amo, amor; amabo, amabor; amavi, amatus sum (fui).

To express that marked f , Combinate forms are needed : amatus
cram (fueram) ; amatus ero (fuero) ; amaturus sum, fiii, ero (fuero).

uized by Google

J:

The Tenses of the Verb.

163

For the English marked Xi ^^^ other temporal relations still more
complex, the help of particles is required in Latin :

the woman is about to be killed

in eo est mulier ut trucidetur :

the woman was about to be killed

in eo erat mulier ut trucidaretur.
If this be thrown into oblique statement (I thinky I thought that^
&c), the Passive Infin. iri with Supine may be used; or fiiturum
(fore) ut with Subjunctive :

puto ^utavi) mulierem trucidatum iri
puto niturum ut mulier trucidetur
putavi fore ut mulier trucidaretur.

5. Action is either Incomplete (Infecta) or Complete (Perfecta).
The names of the Finite Tenses are :
i) Of Incomplete Action :

Present ; Future Simple ; Imperfect

2) Of Complete Action :

Perfect ; Future Perfect ; Pluperfect

The subjoined Table shews their form in the three Moods of
each Voice. (See Scheme.)

FlBBIVS

Indie

Conjiuic. 1

amem

Imper.

Indie

Conjnnc.

Imp«r.

I) Present
FutS. .

amo

ama

] amor

amer

amare

amabo

amato

amabor

amator

Imperfect

amabam

amarem

amabar

amarer

2) Perfect

amavi

amavenm

amatus
sum

amatus
sim

FutP. .

amavero

amatus
ero

Plupcrf.

amaveram

amavissem

amatus
eram

amatus
essem

The Imperative to-iouas are generally r^^arded as strengthen-
ing varieties, implying must. Some (as Madvig, Ferd. Schultz,
■^c) treat them in this sense as » Future forms. We do the same,
but merely for the sake of convenience.

' Gosarau {X^Utm. SprackL 1 146) rightly says that the Conjunctive Tenses are not
Umporal'ysi die same sense as those of the Indicative ; the Pluperfect being the only one
which never loses its proper expression of time. But his mode of escape from this
<Iifficulty is so £ur from commendable, that to discuss it would be lost time. The distinction
used in this grammar, of Pure Conjvmctive in a principal sentence, and Subjtmctive in a
dependent clause, seems to be the simplest and easiest as far as it goes. But the difficulty
still remains of having to call the Conjunctive (or Subjunaive) forms Dy the names of the
■Indicative Teues* from which some of them divei^ge in use so widely. The only way of

M 2

.0

gle

164 Latin Wordlore, §39-4ot

Obs, The defbcts of this Tense-system are in part supplied by
the Combinate or Periphrastic Conjugation of sum with the Parti-
ciples in -rus, -dus (see § €T) :

amaturus sum ero eram fui, &c. sim essem fuerim, &c
amandus sum ero eram fui, &c. sim essem fuerim, &c.

6. Tenses are Primary or Historic,

The Primary Tenses are the Present and the Futures: the
Historic are the Imperfect, Pluperfect, and Simple Past {J loved).
When Present-Past (/ have loved), the Perfect is Primary.

It is a great advantage of Greel^ as compared with Latin, that it
has inflected forms for both these relations :

Simple Past (Aorist) . . i^ikrura, I loved
Present Past (Perfect) . Tc^Xiyca, I have loved

39
Number viii. Numbcr and Person in the Verb.

and

crson. ^j^^ Tenses of the Finite Verb have two Numbers^
Singular and Plural; with three Persons in each
Number, distinguished by Pronominal endings.

The First Person expresses one or more speaking ;
The Second „ „ „ spoken to ;

The Third „ „ „ spoken of :

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

ego am-0, / love nos ama-mus, we love

tu ama-8, tkou * lovest vos ama-tis, ye * love
is amS-t, he loves ii ama-nt, they love

The o in a mo represents a Primitive form d-mi. Hence the cha-
racters of the three Persons are severally m, s, t. Pronoun Nomi-
natives, being understood in the Personal endings, are commonly
omitted : am-o, / love ; ama-s, you love ; ama-t, ^ loves, &c.

In the Imperative Mood there is no First Person ; and in its
Present Tense the Second Person only is used.

40
The ix. The Verb Infinite contains:

Verb

1. Infinitive, Gerunds, and Supines ; which are Sub*

stantival ;

2. Participles, which are Adjectival.

avoiding it seems to be, to use for the Conjunctive fonns, when cited in Syntax, a

numerau notation easy to be remembered :

amera ; mooeam : regam ; audiam : q^ qp g^

sunaverim : monuerim ; rexerim ; audierim : C, or S,

amarem ; monerem ; r^;erem ; audirem : C, or S,

amavissem ; monuissem : rexisiem ; audissem : C« or S«.
* English usage has adopted >0« for the Second Person of both Numbers instead of

ihfiu and ye^ which are now used only in prayer or by poets.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

S40.

The Verb Infinite,

i6s

I. A) The Infinitive (Infinitivum) describes action infiai-
or state in a general manner, without personal relation. '^''"

It has Tense-forms :

i) For Incomplete Action (Present and Imperfect) :

Act. ama-re, to lovg, be loving^ have been loving
Pass, ama^, to be loved,

2) For Complete Action (Perfect and Pluperfect) :

Act amav-isse, to have loved

Pass, amat-us, a, um, esse, to have been loved,

3) For Future in Present Action :

Act. amat-urus, a, um, esse, to be about to love
Pass, amat-um iri, to be about to be loved (where amatum,
being Supine, is invariable).

4) For Future in Past Action :

Act amat-urus, a, um, fuisse, to have been about to love.

B) The Gerunds (Gerundia) are cases of a Verbal ^^
Substantive with suffix -ndo-, Decl. 2. n.

The Gerundive (Gerundivum) is a Participle or
Verbal Adjective with the same suffix :

Gerunds.
Ace. ama-ndmn, loving

Gerundive.

Nom. S. ama-ndns, a, nm {meet)
to be loved

declined as bonus.

Gen. ama-ndi, of loving
Dat ama-ndo,y27r loving
AbL ama-ndo, by or in loving

The Gerundive is used to express meetness or necessity, either
impersonally, as eundum est, ofie must go ; or personally : vita
tuenda est, life should be protected. If a Case of the Person is
added, that Case is usually the Dative : eundum est mihi, I must
go ; vita nobis tuenda est, life should be protected by us. '

C) Supines (Supina) are Accusative and Ablative of supbe*.
a Verb-noun of DecL 4, with suffix -tn (su) or -to (so) :

ama-t^um, to love ama-t-fi, in loving

2, Participles (Participia) are so called because they Panid^
take part of the properties of Verbs, and part of the '''***
properties of Adjectives. Besides the Gerundive, three
other Participles are found in Verbs :

Active Pres. and Imperf. ^cccvai-wiyloving , . . . as in gens

— Future . . . , zmdi-x-^riSkMy about to love 1 ^s bonus
Passive Perfect . . , . amaL-t-ikM, having been loved) ^ ,

uiyiuzeu uy ■N^JVjvJVt Iv^

1 66 Latin Wordlore. §41.

a) The three Participles wanting may be thus supplied :

Act Part Perf. having lovedy cum amavisset (or by AbL Absolute)
Pass. — Pres. being loved^ qui amatur, or dum amatur
— — Fut about to be loved, qui amabitur.

b) Some Verbs form Participials in -imndiui or -ouidvs, express-
ing * fulness/ as vagabundus, wandering, iracundus, wrathful \

in -bnts, expressing 'possibility/ poxzhXiiSy procurable ;
in 'XUMy expressing ' capacity/ docllis, teachable ;
in -ax, expressing * inclination/ loquax, talkative ;
in -Idns, expressing ' active force/ rapldus, hurrying, cupldus,
desirous,

c) Deponent Verbs, though of Passive form, have the Active Par-
ticiples m -ns, nnifl, and sdso use their Perfect Participle in an
Active sense :

Pres. vena-ns, hunting

Fut vena-t-urus, about to hunt

Perf. vena-t-us, having hunted

But many Deponents use their Perfect Participle passively as
well as actively, as ^o\\\c\t\xs, promised or having promised, from
polliceor, I promise. Others of this kind are abominatus, auspicatus,
adeptus, comitatus, commentus, conatus, confessus, dignatus, di-
mensus, effatus, emensus, expertus, exsecratus, fabricatus, frus-
tratus, imitatus, impertitus, machinatus, meditatus, mentltus, merl-
tus, moderatus, modulatus, nactus, oblltus, opinatus, orsus, exorsus,
pactus, partltus, populatus, professus, ratus, sortltus, testatus, testi-
ficatus, ultus, velificatus, veneratus, &c.

Section II.
The' i- The Conjugation of Verbs.

three

vw£"* I) In order to conjugate a Verb of Active form, three
elements must be known :

1. T\\Q Present Stem, , . ama-

2. l[hQ Perfect Stem. . . amav-

3. The Supine Stem . . . amat-

2) To conjugate a Verb of Passive form (which has no
Perfect Stem) the Present Stem and Supine Stem must
be known :

t. Pres. Stem . . . vena-
2. Sup. Stem . . . venat-
The last letter in each Stem (a, v, t) is its Character.

o) From the Present Stem are derived :

Present, Future Simple, Imperfect, Imperative, Infinitive

Present, in each Voice ;
Gerunds, Gerundive, and Participle Present in the Active

Voice.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

§ 42. The Conjugation of Verbs. 167

/3) From the Perfect Stem are derived :

Perfect, Future Perfect, Pluperfect, Infinitive Perfect, in
the Active Voice.

7) From the Supine Stem are derived :

Supines, Future Participle in the Active Voice ;
Perfect Participle Passive ; and therefore all die Combi-
nate Tenses in the Passive Voice.

43
ii The Verb of Being, sum,^ esse. The

Before other Verbs, it is convenient to shew the con- «^
jugation of the irregular Verb of Being, sum, esse,
fui, to bey which enters into their Combinate Tenses as
an auxiliary Verb.

This Verb is formed from two roots :

es- (Sk. as) to be ;

fu- (Sk. bhA) to be or become.

The forms of the Present Stem (except forem, fore)
belong to the first of these ; the Perfect, Future Par-
ticiple, and Future Infinitive, with forem, fore, to the
second ; the other Tenses are compounded of both.

' The Root of Being, Sk. as Or. iv- L. es-, is found in all branches of the Aryan
family, variously modified,
i) The root * es- ' forms

Present Indie

L. s-u-m &(fores-8) est

Sk. tu-nti as-i as-/i

Gr. cqM(fl<ryu) fll({o^<r0 ^^

FuL Indie L. &o (for et-ioX Gr- ico-iiai.

Imperf. L. 2ram (for es-am), Sk. (simple Aor. in am), Gr. Hfp (for iv-^p^y,

Pres. Conjunc. L. (siem) nm (for es-iem\ Sk. s-ydm, Gr. «-iijr (for ivniv^

The forms siem, sies, siet are occasionally found.
Imperl Conjtmc L. essem. See p. 58.

Imperatire. _

Pres. Future

S. PL

L. Ss este

Sk. e-dhiiSot as-dhi) s-ta

Gr. uT'Bi <0T€

The Infinitive cs-se is. as that of every Active Verb, the Dative (or Loc) Case of a
Verb-noun,
a) The Root fu-, Sk- bhU^ Gr. *y- forms
Imperf. Conjunc forem (fory«-*r«) : Infin. fore (fory«-«>
Fut. Partic. fut-urus.
It abo forms the Perfect Stem (u- (for fuv-), and iu derived Tenses, byagRlutinatingtho
tenses of sum- Sec p. 58. , . , . ,

The English forms 'am,' 'art,' *U,* 'are/ belong to the rooto*: *be to the root

sSmus

es-tis

sunt

s-mas

s-tAa

s-anii

i<,lA4^{i<r,ih)

i<rri

•I<rt(«VO

S.

PI.

esto

estote

sunto

astu

t-aniu

ivru

lOTWV

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

i68

Latin Wordlore,

§4^

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

143- Conjugation of the Verb. 169

iii Latin Verbs are customarily divided into four coijl
Classes, called Conjugations, according to their Pre-
sent Character, that is, the last letter of tiieir Present-
Stem.

a) One of these Conjugations, having for its Present-Character
either a Consonant or the Semiconsonant q, is called the Strong
Conjugation, because it keeps that Character in all Present-Stem
forms, without suffering contraction :

reg-/-re indu-/-re.

Consonant Verbs, which, with a few exceptions, are the oldest in
Latin, ought, strictly, to be the First Conjugation ; but from ancient
times they have been named and ranked as the 3rd, which title
they cannot now lose without great inconvenience, on accoimt of
the large number of Dictionaries and other books of reference in
which they, like the Declensions, are cited numerically.

b) The other three Conjugations are called Pure, because their
Character is a Vowel (•, e, I). They are also called Weak, or Con-
tracted, because in some Present-Stem Forms the Vowel Character
unites by Contraction with a following Vowel: amS-o, amo;
am^-im« amem, &c. So

ama-/-re, am&re ; mone-/-re, monSre ; audi-<?^re, audxre.^

^r) A- verbs are called the ist Conjugation.

E-verbs — — 2nd —
I-verbs — — 4th —

Consonant and U-verbs being the 3rd Conjugation. See a),

d) The Character of the Verb is therefore the letter which stands
before re of the Infinitive in the Weak Conjugations, or before ^-r«
in the Strong Conjugation :

Conj. I. amA-re, Zw^ ^ . rreG-^e, rw/^

— 2. monE-re, advise ^' ^ 1 indu-^?i•e, put on

— 4. audl-re, hear

e) In Conjugation 3 are included some Verbs which exhibit I in
many Present-Stem forms : cap-/- o, pax-/- or; this 1 not being,
however, the Character of the Verb.

' Althooi^ the assumption of a Vincular absorbed by contraction would account for
Aost of the forms in whkh the Characters A, e, 1 are long before a Consonant, it cannot
safely be affirmed that this is the true principle of formation. It is perhaps more correct
to say that these Characters are generally strengthened in this position. The practical
rules are:

x) The Characters e, I are short before a Vowel : monSam, audTes. But ft with a

following Vowel forms Contraction : ama-o, am-o, ama-im, amem.
2) The Characters, a, e, I are long when final : ama, monS, audi ; or before a
Consonant: amfts, am&miis; monSs, monSmus; audls, audlmus (an-
ciently anf&mOs, &c>. Exceptions are : (x) before t final, though originally long
(am&t, mon€t, audit), these Characters become short in Latin usage: amSt.
monSt, audit; (9) the Verb dS-, give^ keeps a short before a Consonant :
dSre, dSbo, dSbam, dSto, butdS.
3} The Mood-vowels, a, e, 1, follow generally the same law as the Characters :
audias, audi&mus; amCs, amar£mus: veils, vellmus; but audilt

amarSt, vellt (anciently audiftt* amarCt, vellt).

.0

gle

170

Latin Wordlore.

§43*

f) The three Stems in each Conjugation are as follows : —

Method
of Con-
juga-
ting.

ACTIVE VERBS.

DEPONENT VERB!

Present

Perfect.

Supine.

Pres.

Sup.

I. amA-

amav-

amaT-

venA-

venaT-

2. monE

monu-

monlT-

verE-

verlT-

3. rcG-

rex- (for reGs)

recT-

UT-

us-

4. audi-

audiv-

audiT-

partl-

partiT-

The Present Stem of a Pure Verb, without its Character, is
called aCliptStem: am-, mon-, aud-, ven-, ver-, part-.

g) A Latin Verb is sufficiently described by naming —

(i) the Present Indie, ist Person;
(2) the Infinitive Pres. ;
^3) the Perfect Indie, ist Person ;
(4) the Supine in nm :

amo, amare, amavi, amatum ;
but it is useful, in conjugating, to mention some other forms.

1 Pers. Ind. Pr.

2 Pers. Ind. Pr.
Infinitive . .
Perfect . . .
Gerund in dnm

— dl.
— - ^ do.

Supine in um

— a .
Partic. Present

— Future

CONJUGATION
ist Conj.

. am-0
. am-as
. am-are
. am-avi
. am-andum
• am-andi
. am-ando
. am-atum
. am-atu
. am-ans
. am-aturus

OF THE ACTIVE VOICE.

and Conj.

mon-eo

mon-es

mon-ere

mon-ui

mon-endum

mon-endi

mon-endo

mon-ttimi

mon-Itu

mon-ens

mon-Iturus

3rd Coiy.

reg-0

reg-Is

reg-€re

rex-i

reg-endum

reg-endi

reg-endo

rect-um

rect-u

reg-ens

rect-urus

4thCoi^.

aud-io

aud-is

aud-Ire

aud-Ivi

aud-iendum

aud-iendi

aud-iendo

aud-itum

aud-Ilu

aud-iens

aud-Iturus

CONJUGATION OF THE PASSIVE VOICE.

xst Conj. and Conj. 3rd Coiu- 4* Cocg.

1 Pers. Ind. Pr. . am-or mon-eor reg-or aud-ior

2 Pers. Ind. Pr. . am-aris mon-eris reg-Sris aud-Iris
Infinitive . . . am-ari mon-eri reg-i aud-Iri
Perfect .... am-atus sum mon-Ttus sum rect-us sum aud-Itus sum
Partic. Perfect . am-atus mon-Itus rect-us aud-itus
(ierundive . . am-andus mon-endus reg-endus aud-iendus*

Deponent Verbs have Passive Conjugation, but Active meaning.
Gerunds, Supines, and Participles Active. As Intransitive Verbs
have no personal Passive, so Intransitive Deponents, as vagor, i.
wander^ have no Gerundive Adjective.

* The Gerundive is ranked under the Passive Vmce because none but Transitive Verbs
can use it adjectively. But we agree with Pott, that it may be ascribed to both voices. If
a horse is * ferox ante domandum,' "iiaild be/ore beiMg broken m, his rider is ' cautus ante
domandum/ cautious hefort breaking him in. To the bees is ascribed ' amor habendi : * of
their wax may be said what Virgil says of rich soil, 'ad digitos lentescit habendo,' it yields
t0 th€ fingers in being handUd, uy uzeu uy ^^ ^ v^^ l^

«43.

Conjugation of the Verb.

171

CONJUGATION OF DEPONENTS.

h$mt

fear

use

I Pers. Pres. Ind.

ven-or

v€r-eor

ut-or

2 Pers. Pres. Ind

ven-aris

ver-eris

ut-6ris

Infinitive Pres. .

ven-ari

ver-eri

ut-i

Perfect . . . .

ven-atus sum ver-Itus sum

us-us sum

Gerund in diim .

ven-andum

ver-endum

ut-endum

— dl

ven-andi

ver-endi

ut-endi

— do

ven-ando

ver-endo

ut-endo

Gerundive . . .

ven-andus

ver-endus

ut-endus

Supine in um. .

ven-atimi

ver-Itum

us-um

— n . .

ven-atu

ver-Itu

us-u

Partic Pres. . .

ven-ans

ver-ens

ut-ens

— Perf. . .

ven-atus

ver-Itus

US-US

— Fut . ,

ven-aturus

ver-Iturus

us-urus

dixnde

part-ior

part-Iris

part-iri

part-Itus sum

part-iendum

part-iendi

part-iendo

part-iendus

part-Itum

part-Itu

part-iens

part-itus

part-Iturus

Verbs in /-o of the Third Conjugation, in their Present-Stem
forms, retain this / generally ; but not before I, final e, and short
«r. These are the following Verbs, with their compounds :

FiSgib, fac/o, and iScK),
Compounds of sp^c/b and llic/o,
Pteb, fbd/o, and quSt/o,
Cupib, c^p/o, rSp/o, s^p/o ;
(Deponents) grSd/or, pSt/or, mdr/or,
An^ in some tenses, pdt/or, dnbr.

Their form of Conjugation is ;

1 Pers. Pres. Ind.

2 Pers. Pres. Ind.
Infinitive I^s.
Perfect . . .
Gerund in dnm

— dl .

— do.
Gerundive . .
Supine in mn

Partic. Pres.

— Perf.

— Fut

Active.

cap-i-o
cap-Ts
cap-€re
cep-i

cap-/-endum
, cap-/-endi
cap-/-endo

capt-um

capt-u

cap-/-ens

Passive.
cap-/-or
cap-€ris
cap-i
capt-us sum

cap-j-endus

capt-urus

capt-us

Deponent

pat-/-or

pat-gris

pat-i

pass-us sum

pat-i-endum

pat-/-endi

pat-/-endo

pat-/-endus

pass-um

pass-u

pat-/-ens

pass-US

pass-urus

Note I. — In the Scheme, Latin forms are given at full, with the
corresponding English of one Verb. English must be supplied, on
the same principle, to the other Verbs.

Note 2, — ^The Masculine Participles amatus, amati, &c., are
set down alone to avoid confusion ; but the Gender of a Participle
follows that of the Noun with which it agrees :

is auditus est, ea audita est, id auditum est,

he was heard^ she was heard^ it was heard.

And so in all Persons and Cases of both Numbers.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

172

Latin Wordlore, 544-

SCHEME OF THE

ACTIVE VOICE.

*

'

Indicative Mood

Singular. ^

Plurau

I. 2. 3-

1.

2.

3-

' u

/ thou hey &c

we

y^

they

love lovest loves

love

love

love

am -(a)o -as -St

-amiis

-atls

-ant

,

m6n -©0 -es -St

-emiis

-etls

-ent

rgg -o -/s -ft

-/mfis

-ms

-unt

aud -10 -IS -It

-Imus

-las

-iunt

shall wilt will

shall

will

will—love^ &c.

\ f

ama -bo . _^y .^^j^
none -bo >

-bimus

-Wtls

-bunt

i C/3

: ^

reg -am . .g
audi -am )

-emus

-etls

-ent

(x«

1

was wast was

were

were

were — loving^ &c

1

ama -bam

mone -bam
rege -bam

-bas -bit

-bamus

-batis

-bant

audie -bam ,

loved lovedst loves

loved

loved

loved, &c

or have hast has

have

have

have—loved, &c

^

amav -I \

*«

monu -1 -isti -It

-Imus

-istis

-erunt

rex -i
audlv -i

or -erg

\

shall wilt will

shall

will

will— have loved, &c.

amav -€r6

monu -gro v »^ v^^
rex -gro " "^'^^ "^^^

-grrnius

-grftis

-grint

th

audlv -6r6

A^ hadst had

had

had

had— loved

*C

amav -gram \

1

monu -Sram ^ _g ,g^
rex -gram

-gramiis

> -gratis -grant

audlv -gram

_

I. Examples of Indicative and Imperative Moods.

A) (Prcs. and Fut. Active) : ISgo, / re€ui: quid Sgis? what are you doing? lego, / am
reading: lege sis, read, if you pleau: lego, / do read: iamdiu lego, / have been readtng
long: quid fades? what will you do ? legam, / sktUlread: leges IliSdem, you will read the
Iliad, I hope: legam, Twill read it: cum iCgero semel, when I shall have read it once:
relege sodes, read it again, pray : relegito, you must read it again : de manibus son depo-
sueris antequam rel£geris, you will not put it out qfyour hands till you have read it again*

B) (Past Tenses Active) : quid agebas heri? what were you doing yesterday t legebam, /
was reading: quid agebas rurif what did you do in tht country f legebam, I used to read:
legebaxn dum liuc erat, / read while it was light: legere te iusseram, / told you to read:
legebam, I did read: legeres Iliadem, you were to read the Iliad: Ifgi heri, / read it yep^
terday: legisiine Iliadem? have you read the Iliad* l6gi, I have read it : W^ere debui*^,
you ought to have readU : l€gi. / did read it: Wgeram pridie, / had read U the day before.

lOOgle

§44.

Conjugation of the Verb.

m

FOUR CONJUGATIONS.

PASSIVE VOICE.

Indicative Mood.

Singular.

I

am
am -dr
mon -edr
reg -dr
aud -idr

thou
art
-arls
-eris

-Iris

3-

kCy &C.

is
-atfir
-etur
-ftiir
-Itur

we

are
-amur
-emGr
-/miir
-Imiir

Plural.

3.

are

-amTnl
-emini
-ibiTni
-Imini

3-

they

are — loved^ &c.
-antur
-entur
-imtur
-iwntur

shall

wilt

r;a:£}-'^-'«(^)

will shall will will — be loved, &c.
-bltiir -bimur -bimini -buntur

3i '.^r 1 '^^"^^ (^) "^^^^ -emur -emlni -entur

audi -2t

was
ama -b&r
mone -b&r
rege . -b2u:
audie -bSr

wast

was were were were — being loved

-bar-Is (g) -batfir -bamQr -bamlni -bantur

was wast was

have hast has

amatus, monltus, rectus^ auditus

sum
(fui)

gs
(fuisti

est
(fuit)

were were were — loved
have have have — been loved
amatr, monttl, recti, auditl

— — V—

sQmils
(fulmus)

estTs
(fuistis)

sunt
(fuenint, <£) \

shall will will

amatus, monltus, rectus, auditus

Sro
(fiigro)

6ris grit
(fudns) (fuSrit)

had hadst had
amatCs, monltfis, rectus, auditus

V ^^ f

€ram $i^ 6rit
(fuSram) (fiifiras) (fu€rat)

shall will will — have been \

amati, monltl, recti, auditi [loved
V ^ /

grimus gritis grunt '

(fugnmus) (fugrftts) (fligrint)

had had had— been loved

amati, moniti, recti, auditl

\ ^ t

gramus gratis grant
(fugramus) (fugratis) (fugrant)

NoU'x. — In the Second Pcrs. Pres. Ind. Passive it is not so usual to write r5 for rTs, on
account of the confusion with Infin. Act. and Imperat Pass. Cicero has very few instances,
chiefly Deponent forms, though in the other tenses he decidedly prefers the forms in -re.

a.— Poets sometimes write the Simple Futures of I-verbs, Act. -iSo, -Ibis, So, Pass.
4bor, 'Iberis (e), &c : and the Imperfects, Act. -Ibam, -Ibas, &c, Pass, -ibor, -Ibaris (e),
&c ; as audlbo, audibor; audlbam, audlbar. These were the andent forms. M. Lucr. v. 934.

3.— The Perf. Partic used with sum expresses that something was and is complete :
with fui, that something was complete at some past time: ' leges quae latae sunt . . . quae
prooulgatae fuenmt,' C /. Sest. 35. See Madvig, Opusc. vl p. 3x8.

4.— On the exclusion of ▼, followed by contraction, from Perfect Stems in Sv-, §v-,
8v-, ttv-, Iv-, see p. 58. The forms in -ii, -ieram, -iero, -issem, -isse, arc used in prose as
well as poetry. lit, from eo, is found : bat most disyUaU>ic fonns keep ▼ : as quivi, sivL

ju, zed by Google

174

Latin Wordlare. §44,

SCHEME OF THE
ACTIVE VOICE.

Imperative Mood.

Present.
S. a. PL a.

love thou

am -a

mon -e

aud -1

-ate
-ete
-ne
-ite

Future.

S. a. S. 3.

thou he,'&c.
am -ato -ato
mon -eto -eto
reg -/to -ito
aud -Ito -ltd

PI. a. PI. 3. by
jfe they, &c. c
-atote -anto |
-etote -ento ^
-ftote -unto 3
-Itote -iimto S

Conjunctive Mood.

am -em
mone -am
reg -am

audi

-am

Singular.
a.
-es
-as
-as
-as

Plural.

3-
-St
-at

-at
-at

I
I

ama -rem

mone -rem

regS -rem

audi -rem

-res

-r6t

X.

-emus
-amus
-amus
-amus

-etis
-atls
-atls
-atts

3-
-ent
-ant
-ant
-ant

-remiis

-retts

-rent

amav -Srim\

monu •^rim I

rex -grim I

audiv -grim)

-€ris -grit

-grfaiiis -grftls -grint

amav-
monu-
rex-
audiv-.

-isses

-issgt

-issemus -issetis -issent

II. Pure Conjunctive.

A) (Potential and Conditional use) : mirum fortasse videatur, perhaps it may seem
ivondeyful: ita amicos pares, thiu you may gain friends : quaerat quispiam, same mu
may ask: dixerit aliquis, somebody may {might) say: pace tua dixerim, / would say
with your leave : pro certo affimutverim, / can aver /or a /act : crederes victos, you
would have supposed them vatt^uished: velim esse tecum, / would like to be with you :
nolim te abtre, / should not like you to go away : nollem id factum, / couU wish it had
not been done : mallem aliud iactum, / would rather something else had been done.

B) (Dubitative use) : quid faciam ? what must (can, shall) Idof quid fisicerem? what
should (could) I have done t iav^as tu hosti f mttst {should) you/avour an enemy t

C) (Concessive use) : naturam expellas, you may drive out nature : fuerit sapiens, n^.
Pose he were wise : ne fuerit sapiens, suppose he were not wise : fiiisset anceps fortuna,
/ortune might have been doubt/ul.

Z>) (Optative use): vivas, may you live: valeant cives mei, may my countrymen
Nourish : di bene vertant, heaven prosper it: moriar (ne vivam) si mentior : may I die if
I speak /alsely i ita vivam ut te amo, so may I live as I love you^upon my Itfe I lomo
you.

E) (Hortative use) : imitemur bones, let us imitate the good: de»nant furere, Ut them
(or they should) cease to rave : rem tuam curares, 'you should have been minding your
own business : mortem pugnans oppetisset, he should have died /igkting.

y Google

S44.

Conjugation of the Verb.

175

FOUR CONJUGATIONS.

PASSIVE VOICE.

]

Imperative Mood.

Present.

Future.

s.

2. PL a.

S.a.

S.3.

PL 3.

be

thou ye-^ovedy &c.

thou

h€

they c|
-ntSr %»^

ama

-re -mM

ama -t6r

-t6r

mone -re -mini

mone -t6r

.t6r

-nt6r ^"g"

reg

-ire -/mini

r€g -itfir

-n6r

-«nt6r § 1

audi

-re -mini

audi -tdr

-t6r *

-imtdr 5*^

Conjunctive Mood.

S1NCULA8.

Plukal.

I. 3.

3-

X.

a.

3.

am

-gr -er-ls(6)

-etilr

•emCir

-emlni

-entilr

mone

-ar -ar-Is(6)

-atiir

-amiir

-amlni

-antur

"^

-&r -ar.rs(€)

-atilr

-amur

-amini

-antiir

audi

-ir -ar-Is(6)

4ltur

-amur

-amlni

•antur

ama

-r6r

mone

-i«r
-rCr

.-rer.Is(€)

-retiir

-remilr

-remini

-rentflr

audi
amatus

-r&rJ

^ monltus, rectus, auditi

is amat
simus

[, monltl, recti, auditi
sltls sint

sim sis

sTt

(fu&rim) (fugris)

(fugrit)

(fugrimiis

) (fugrftis) (fuSrint)

amatils, monltus, rectus, auditi

is amati, monltl, recti, audltl
essemtis essetis essent

essem esses

essgt

(fuissem) (fiiisses)

(fuissg

t) (fuissemiis) (fuissetis) (fuissent)

III. Subjunctive.

TvL at aegrotem, it happens that I am sich : evSmt ut aegrotarem, it/eU out that
Ivutskk: necesse est eas (necesse erit easX you must go : opus est ut eas (oportet
«as), it behoves you to go : opus erat ut ires (oportuit ires), it behoved you to go: metuo
wttzi^T/earyouwiilgo: metuebam ne ires, I feared you would got metuo ut eas,
I fear you are not going i nietuebam ut ires, I feared you were not going i cuxaut
eas (£ac eas), mind you go : sine ea mu s, su^er us to go : oro ut taa, / begthatyougo:
onvi ut ires, I begged you would go : utinam eas ! O that you may go! utinam ires ! O
thiU you had been going ! utinam ne isses t O that yon had not gone I sciocurveniat,
/ know why he comes: scio cur venerit, / know why he cam* : sciebam cur veniret,
I knew why he came: scicham curvenisset, / knew why he had cotne: non tarn
amens est ut eat, he is not so mad as to go : non tarn amens fuit ut iret, he was
net so mad as to go: edo ut vivam, / eat that I may live : vivebant ut ederent,
they lived that they might eat: laudant me quod earn, they praise me because
i go: laudant me quod ierim, they praise me beca$ise / went : laudabant me quod
irem, they praised me because I went : laudabant me quod issem, they praised me
buause I had gone : quae ciun ita sint, ibo, since this is the case^ / will go : quae cum
ita essent. ivi, since this W€u the case, T went : aegrotabam cum irem, / was ill when I
tornt: comrahii cum issem, / got well when I had gone: exspecta dum redeam,
*«r tin I return : ntatquam ibo antequam r e d e a t, / will go nowhere b^ore he returns :

uiyiuzeu uy ■v^j^^^xJ'

gle

176

Latin Wordlore. §44.

SCHEME OF THE

VERB

Active Voice.

Infinitive.

Pr. Impf.

Pcrf. PIup. Future

to love, &c.

to have loved, &c. to be about to love, &c.

ama -rfi

amav -iss6 amat -uriXs \

mone -rS

monu -issS monit -urils

ess€

reg/ -rg

rex -issS rect -uriis

audi -rg

0

audlv -iss5 audit -uriis -

Gerunds.

Supines. PSurdc Pres. Partic. FuL

loving, of. by,
&c

to love, in loving, loving, about to love, &c

&C. &C.

amand -um -I

-6

amat -um -u ama -ns amatur -Os -i -um

monend -um -1

-6

monlt -um -u mone -ns monitur -us -& -um

regend -um -I

-6

rect -um -u reg-^ -ns rectur -us -4 -um

audiend -um -i

-6

audit -um -u audi-^ -ns auditur -us -4 -um

ut peccaverit, cams est tamen, though he has sitmed^ yet he U dear: quamvis pec-
casset, cams fuit, though he kadsinnedf he was dear : damas tanquam surdus sim, jnnt
6awif as though / were deaf : clamabas quasi surdus essem, >vm were bawHngt as if f
had been deaf : emo Ubros quos legam, / buy boohs to read : emi libros quos lege rem,
I bought boohs to read: non i$ sum qui te deseram, / am not one to/orsahe you : non
b fuit qui me deserere t, he was not one tojbrtahe me : quis est quin fleat aliquandof
who is there that weeps not sometimes F nemo fuit quin fleret, there was no one but
wept : nihil dubito quin gaudeant, / hai^e no doubt they rejoice : non dubitabam quia
gauderent, / had no doubt they rejoiced: nihil obstat quominus earn, nothing hittderr
me from going: per me stetit quominus ires, I was the cause of your not going: ve-
titus est ne i re t, X^ was forbidden to go: dubito an verum si t. / doubt it may be true :
nescio an verum sit,/ rather thinh it is true : felicem esse puto qui rei nuUius i n d igeat,
/ consider him to be hafiPy who wants nothing : ais te cum r ed eam adfuturum, you say
you xoii/ be present when /return : ait se cum redierim adfuturmn, he sayshewiU be
present when I have returned : aiebant se cum re d i i s sem adfore, they said they would
be present when I had returned : nego quicquam esse utile, quod non s i t honestum, /
say that nothing is expedient which is not morally right: aedes quas emisset ez-
omari iussit, he ordered the house which he had bought to be decorated : exprobratur mihi
quod lliadem nondum lege r i m, / am reproached with not having yet read the Iliad :
exprobratum est mihi quod lliadem nondum 1 e g i s s e m, / was reproached with having not
yet read the Iliad : Themistocles noctu ambulabat, quod somnum capere non posse t»
Themistocles used to walh by nighty because {he said) he could not sleep.

IV. Pure Conjunctive and Subjunctive in Combination.

VcUm rescribas, / should wish you to write bach : vellem adesses, / could wish yom
were here : nollem accidisset, / could wish it had not happened : mallem quidvis fiicera,
I would rather you did anything : mallem aliter fecisset, I would rather he had dome
otherwise : quidvis potius paterer, quam mentirer, / would suffer anything rather than
tell a falsehood : praestes quod receperis, ^ot* should perform what you have under-
tahen : praestaret quod rcccpisset, he should perform what he had undertahen : eant
quo velint, they may go where they will: irent quo vellent, they might go where they
' would : quis miretur quod homines liberi servire nolint ? who can say he wonders that
free men do not loish to be slaves ? eam si iubeas, eam si iusseris, ierim si iusseris, / shall
go if you bid me : irem si iuberes, / would go if you bade me : issem m iussisses, / would
have gone y had you told me : non iturus essem, nisi tu iussisses, / should not have been
about to gOf unless you had bidden me.

(Examples of this kind, noted and imitated, teach the right rendering of the Conjunc-
tive Mood, in its variotis uses, better than English given in Tables.)

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

144-

Conjugation of the Verb.

177

FOUR CONJUGATIONS.

Passive Voice,
infinite.

Pr. Inqjf. Perl Plop. Future.

to beloved^ &c tohave been loved^ &c. to be about to be loved, &c
amS, -rl amat -ii8\ am&t -um\
mone -ri monit -(is ^^ - monit -urn , .
reg .1 rect -iis ' ^^ rect -urn "^
audir -I audit -ttsj audit -umi

GenuMuve.

Panic Perf. Phip.

(meet) to be loved. Sec

loved or having- been loved, 8cc

amand -iis -& -um
monend -fls -i -um
r^end -iis -& -um
audiend -iis -& -um

amat -iis -i -um
monit -lis -i -um
rect -tis -i -um
audit -iis -i -um

ACTIVB.

le^ere utile est

ip ruut is ■useful

Ubrum legere coepi

/ have begun U read the book

memini me legere

/ reemaiiber tXat I read

aiome legisse

/ say thai I have read

memiperamme legisse

/ remembered thai I had read

videorinihi lecturus esse

/ thinh I am going to read

aioinelecturnm esse

/ say thai I will read

ime lecturumesse
/ said that I would read
aiebam me lecturum fuisse
J said that I would have read

putor lecturus fuisse

U is supposed / should have read

legendum est nobis

zm must read

ctmsuetndo 1 ege n d i

the habit of reading

cnpidus sum legendi

/ am desirous of reading

aqicnsest Iegendo(ad legendum)

me is fit for reading

inter legendum

in the course of reading

oblector legendo

/ amuse myself with readiftg

in legendo versor

/ sum engaged in reading

CO lectum Diadem

I mm going to read the lHad

lecturus sum lUadem

/ am aboiU to read the Iliad

Ifiadem legensoblector

i am charmed with reading the Iliad

The Verb Infinite.

Passive.
le^ i libros utile est
it u useful that boohs be read
liber leg! coepit
the book has begun to be read
memini librumlegi
/ remember the booh being read
aioUbrum lectum esse
I say that the booh has been rettd
memineram librum lectum esse
/ temembered the booh had been rea^f
didtur liber lectus esse
the booh is said to have been read
aio libros lectum iri )

aio futurum ut Ubri legantur f
/ st^ the books are going to be read
aiebam fore ut libri legerentur
/ said that the books would be read
aio futurum fuisse ut legerentur
/ say they would have been read

legendus est liber
the book must be read
cupido librorum legendorum
the desire ^reading books
cufHdus sum libri 1 e g e n d i
/ am desirous ^reading the book
aptus est libris legendi s )
aptus est ad libros legendot f
he is fitted/or reading books

oblector libris legendis

/ amuse myself with reeuUng bookt

in Ubru legendis versor

I amengagedin readingbooks

Kbrum unicuique legendum

a booh to be read by everybody

fibrum utilem lectu

a book useful to read

Iliade lecta gaudeo

I rejoice in having read the I Uad j

178

Latin Wordlore.

§45-

«s.

SCHEME

OF

THE

deponent

I

Indicative Mood.

Singular.

Plural.

1. a. 3.

X. a. 3.

/ you he, &c

we ye they

^

ven -dr -ar-Is(€) -atur

-amur -amini -antur \

(3

1

vgr -edr -er-rs(S) -etur

-emur -emini -entur

£

ut -6r -ii--Is(€) -rtur
part -idr -ir-Is(e) -Itur

-Imur -Imini -«ntur

t

-Imur -Imini -iwntur J ^

1 ^ •

1

Tert :£l-^-w -«»"

-bimur -bimini -buntur

1<S

1

?arti i I-^'--'^^^) -^^

-emur -emini -entur

tll

!

venS -bir
vere -bar
ute -bar
partie-bar

-bar-is(e) -batur

-bamur -bamini -bantur

5 •••

1

venatus, vWtiis, usiis, partitus
sum Ss est

venati, vgria, usi, partlG

1-

sumus estis sunt

(fili, &c.)

; « '

^^:^

1

venatus, veritus, usus, partitus

venati, veriti, usi, partiti

-^1

»

• ^►^

£

grp eris erit

erlmus eritis erunt | "^ §

1 (fuero, &c.)

i

venatus, veritus, usus, partitus

venati, veriti, usi, partiti, v ^i

eram eras erit
(fueram, &c.)

eramus eratis erant ^ §

Imperative Mood.

Present

Future«

S. a. PL a.

S.a.

S. 3. PI. 3.

huntySLcthou ye

thou

he '^ V d

vena -re -mTnl

vena -t6r

-t6r -nt6r

15^

vere -re -mini

vere -tor

-tor -ntor

i^'^

ut/ -re -^-mini

ut/ -tor

-tor -«ntor

S §

parti -re -mini

parti -tor

-tor -«ntor '^

NoU.-^oxtM Deponenu have an Active form also, as comitari or comitare.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

S45.

Cofijugation of the Verb.

179

FOUR CONJUGATIONS.

VERBa

Conjunctive Mood.

* Singular.

Plural.

I. 2.

3-

I. 2.

3.

w

ven -$r -er-Is(€)

^tur

-emur -emini

entur

u

vere -ir -ar-is(e^

-atur

-amur -amini

antur

ut -ar -ar-is(e)

-atur

-amur -amini

antur

parti -ar -ar-is(e)

-atur

-amur -amini

antur

vena-r6r\

^

J

partl-rer.

-retur

-remur. -rcmini

-rentur

CO

venatus, veritus, usus, partitus

venati, veriti, usi

, partiti

sim SIS

sU

simus sitis

sint

(fuerim, &c.)

.J

venatus, veritus, usus, partitus

venati, veriti, usi

, partiti

1

essem esses
(fuissem, &c.)

ess€t

essemus essetis

essent

Pres. Impf.

VERB INFINITE.

iNFINITIVEi
Pcrf. Pkip.

Future.

venat-iis
verlt -us
us -us
partit-us

esse
esse
esse
esse

venat-urils
verlt -urus
us -urus
partrt-urus

esse
esse
esse

esse

14

-5 c>

Tena -ns
vere -ns
ut-^ -ns
parli-tf-ns

Pr. Impf.

Participles.

Genmdivc Pcrf. Plup.

venand
.^ verend
'•5 utend -usj ^
I partiend-usj |

Future.

venat-uriis
verlt -urus
us -urus
partlt-urus

V-S

5^

Gerunds.

Supines.

venand
verend
utend

partiend -um

venat-um
verit-um
us-um
partit-um

N2

Digitized by VjOOQ IC

i8o

Latin Wordlare.

§4M^

46

Verbfin

VERB in t-O OF CONJUG. III.
(Present-Stem Forms.)

ACTIVE.

Indie Pres. cSp/-o, cap-Ts, -It, -Imus, -ftis, cap/-unt

— Fut cap/-am, -cs, -fit, -emus, -etis, -ent

— Imperf. capz-fibaim, -ebas, -ebat, -ebaxnus, -ebatis, -ebant.
Conj. Pres. cap/-am, -as, -it, -2unus, -&tis, -ant

— Imper£ cap-firem, -fires, -firet, -firfimus, -firetis, -firent
Imper. Pres. cap-fi, -Itfi.

— Fut cap-Ito, -Itotfi, -i-unto.
Infin. Pres. cap-firfi.

Gerund. capt-endum, -endl, -endo.

Part Pres. capi-ens.

DEPONENT.

Indie Pres. p&t/-or, pat-fins, -Itur, -Imur, -Imlnl, -/-untur.

— Fut paU-ar, -er-is(fi), -etur, -emur, -emini, -entur.

— Imperf. pat/-ebar, -ebar-Is(e), -ebatiir, -ebamiir, -ebamini^

-ebantur.
Conj. Pres. paU-Sr, -ar-is(e), -atur, -amur, -§mini, -antur.

— Imperf. pat-firer, -firer-Is(e), -firetur, -firemfir, -firemini, -firen-

tur.
Imper. Pres. pat-fire, -Imini.

— Fut. pat-Itor, -t-untor.
Infin. Pres. pat-I.

Gerund. pat/'-endiun, -endi, -endo.

Gerundive. pat/-endus.
Part Pres. pat/-cns.

The Passive of cap/-o is similar, omitting Gerund and Part
ii) Pdtior follows the Fourth Conjugation, but in some forms

wavers between the Third and Fouru : potltur or potltur,

potlmur or potimur, potfirer or potlrer.

S) In drior the forms oriri and orlrer (rarely orfirer) are classi*
cal ; but others (orfiris, oritur, &c.) follow the Third Conjugation.

c) Gridior, m5rior were originally I-verbs ; and exhibit various
i-forms in older Latin (as -grediri -gredirer, moriri). In classical
Latin they became Consonant -Verbs wholly. M or ior, ori or, have
Future Participles morlturus, orlturu?.

47

Peri,
phrastic
Conju-
gation.

iv. Combinate or Periphrastic Conjugation.

The Participles in -nnw, -dm, may be combined with
all the Tenses of the Verb sum. These forms are
called, i) 'Coniugatio Periphrastica Futuri';2) *Con-
iugratio Periphrastica Gerundivi : ' * as

* So also the Passive Combinate Tenses (amatus sum, eram, &c.) might be calfed
'Coniugatio Periphrastica Praeterid'

uiyiuzeu uy 'v-_j^^^>^ pt i_v^

§47.

Periphrastic Conjugation.

I8l

i) C p. F.

amaturus, a, um,
&c &C.

Singular.

a) C P. G.
amandus, a, um,
&c. &c

Pres. sum
S. FuL ero
Imp. eram
Perf. fu-i
Fut P. fii-ero
Plup£ fu-eram

es

ens

eras

-isti

-ens

-eras

est

erit

erat

-it

-erit

-erat

sun

essem
fu-erim

SIS

esses
-eris

sit

esset
-erit

Indie. M.

amatun, ae^ a.

Plural.

&c. &c

fii-issem -isses -isset
Conj. M.

amandi, ae, a,
&c. &c

Pres. sumus
S. Fut crimus

Imp.
Per£
Fut P.
Plupt

eramus
fii-imus
fu-erimus
fu-eramus

estis

eritis

eratis

-istis

-eritis

-eratis

sunt

erunt

erant

-erunt

-erint

-erant

simus

sitis sint

essemus essetis essent
fu-erimus -eritis -erint

fu-issemus -issetis -issent

Indie M.

Conj. M.

Infinite Forms.

amaturus, a, um, &c.
amaturi, ae, a, &c

amandus, a, um, &c.
amandi, ae, a, &c.

Pres, Imp. esse
Perf. Plup. fuisse.

* A) OnrespoDdenoe of the Latin Verb.

The Luin Verb corresponds in many points with the Sanskrit and the Greek : but there
are also some in which it shews Italian peculiarities.
The points of agreement are chiefly—

i) The ActiTe Personal Endings.

a) The use of Mood Vowels generally.

3} Hie use of Reduplication, though more limited in Latin.

4) The ibrm of the Present Participle Active.

5) The correspondence of many Roots.

Bht Latin Conjugation departs from Sanskrit and Greek in the following respects : —

i) It has only two Voices and two Numbers.

a) It has lost the Augment, the distinction of Perfect and Aorist Tense, and that of
Optatire and Conjunctive Mood.
. 3) Its Passive Personal Endings are formed by agglutinating ' SO.'

4) Most of its Tenses are formed by Verbal agglutination.

5) Most of its Infinitive and Participial forms are peculiar to it.
£) Personal Endings.

«) The Personal Endings of the two principal Active Moods generally correspond
thna:

SINGULAR. PLURAL.

I.

a.

3-

X.

a.

3.

L. m, 0:

s

t

mus

tis

nt

Sk. Ml, m :

*/,*

//, /

mas, nta

tkaM, ia

hH

Or. ^, V, » ;

%

«, T<

ILtV^ (/Mt)

Tt

vr%_

Digitized byCjOOQlC

l82 Latin Wordlore, §47.

In translating, it is only required to construe each part of the
Verb sum with each Participle : as amaturus sum, / am about io^
love ; amandus sum, I am meet to be loved (or, I am to be loved)^
So futurus sum, / atn about to be ; futurus sim, eram, essem, &c.

Examples :

Nos scripturi sumus (erimus) ea quae agenda sunt (erunt).
Vos dicturi eratis (fuistis) ea quae agenda erant (fuere).
Dux deliberaturus est (erit) quid agendum sit.
Dux deliberaturus erat (fuit) quid agendum esset.
Illud puto statuendum esse, quid nos acturi simus.
Illud putavi statuendum esse, quid vos acturi essetis.

These do not include the peculiar endings of the Latin Perfect Indicative, which are
noticed later.

^) The Eodinji^s of the Imperative Active also coincide :

L. a,&c

te

to

tote

nto

Sk. a

U

tu

ntM

Gr.f

T«

TW

tm»»

The Ending tO was in E.L. ioJ; in Oscan hid; in Umbrian tn.

The Passive Personal Endings formed by agglutinating se are noticed p. 58.
c) The Imperative Passive Endings are so formed :

amator for amato-se amantor for amanto-se

Similar agglutination of Passive forms appears in the Umbrian and Oscan dialects ; also
in the Sclavonic and Lithuanian languages.

The Second Persons Plural in -mllll are to be regarded as Partidples OiVe Gr. -fiei^)
with which the Verb of Being estis, este, istobe understood:— mino is an old ending
of the Imper. Put. Pass. 2nd Person, as arbitramino, Plaut. E/id. v. 2., where -minor
is called by Ritschl a traditional iictioa

O Formation of the Tenses.

a) Present Tense Active.

The Present Stem is prefixed to the Personal Enctings ; but
the A-vcrb contracts ao into O in (amao) amo :
the I-verb takes vincular u in 3. Plur., audi-M-nt

the Consonant Verb takes a vincular in all persons but 1. Sing. : 1 in 1. 3.
Sing, and 1. 2. Plur. ; tt in 2. Plur. :reg-/-s, reg-JF-t,reg-f-mus, reg-J-tis,
reg-7<-nt.
On the quantities, see p. 169, Noir.

b) Future Simple Active.

Here is found variety of formation.

The A- and E-verbs form this tense by agglutinating -bO, which represents the
Pres. verb f u io. The personal inflexion is like that of the Cons. -Verb in Present
Tense: ama-bo, mone-bo, -bis, -bit, &c. ^

The Cons, and I-verbs take between Stem and Ending in the ist Pers. S. the Ca»-
junctive mood-vowel a (Sk. <f) : as veham (Sk. t>aAdm), audi am : in the other
Persons they toke the Optative mood-vowel • (Sk. r) : veh€s, vehSt (anc. reh^tX
veh«mus, vehCtis, vehent. So audits, &c.

But I-verbs in E. I^ took the forms -bO, -blS, &c. rasaudrbo, audTbor,&c. :
and these are sometimes found in poetry. Even such forms as regebc, &c.,
appear on old Inscrr. ; and Quintilian says that dicem,/acum were wriuenby th«
elder Cato for dicam, faciam.

c) Imperfect Indie Active.

This Tense in alt Conjugations takes the form -baai -bas, &c., representing fu am,
fuas, &c., the old Impcrf. of fuo. In A- and E-verbs this is at once aggluti-
nated to the Present-stem ama-bam, mone-bam : but in the Cons, and I-verbs
e connects them : reg-C-bam, audi-S-bam: a formation which seems due to
mere analogy. Here too the form -ibam for -iebam occurs in old Latin and
in poetry.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

§ 4& Conjugation of Irregular Verbs. 183

V. Conjugation of Irregular Verbs.

Certain Verbs are called Irregular (Anomala) :

i) Some because they take tenses from more than one stem :
sum, possum, fero, fio ;

2) Others because some of their forms are subject to peculiar
changes : volo, nolo, malo, ; eo, queo, nequeo ; Mo.

d) Present (and Fut) Conjunctive.

The E- I- and Cons. -Verbs take the old Sk. Conjunctive vowel 4, adding am, aS,
&c to the Present Stem : moneam, moneas, &c. ; audiam, audias, &c. ;
regam, regas, &c.
But as ama-am, Ac, would be inadmissible, -am in A- Verbs seems to have been

weakened into -Im ; whence ama-im, amem, &c
Thea of the Stem is adso found in old Latin to be weakened into n in duim (Cic)»
for dem (da-imX Thus, in Plautus, perduim, creduim (also creduam). The
ending Im, which appears in sim, velim, is also found in old and poetic forms of
other verbs : edim, Hor. ; convsdim, Cic. ; carint ; eflfodint ; temperint (Plant. X
/) Imperfect (loojunctive.
Esem (serem) is agglutinated to the Present-stem : forming (ama-e9em)amfirem ;

(mone-esem) mon€rem ; (reg-ibem) regSrem ; (audi-esem) audlrem.
/) Perfect Indicative.

Perfect-stem with i, Istl, &c On these end-forms much has been written, and their
origin b still diluted. Curtius (with Schleicher), Corssen, LQbbert, and Herzog
have taken different views, which may be compared in the work of the last-
named scholar {UnUrsuchungtn iUfer die Bildungsgeschichte der Crieck. und
LaietM, S^racfu). In so doubtful a matter it may be allowable to surmise that
this tense, like the rest of its Class, is formed by agglutination, the Present forms
of the Verb e s- (sum) being added to the Perfect-stem of each Verb, and synco-
pation ensuing in most Persons. This theory would give :
amav-es-m-i passing into amav-i
amav-es-s-i — — amav-is-t-i

amav-es-t — — (amav-Is-t) amav-It, amav-It

amav-es-mus — — amav-i-mus

amav-es-tis — — amav-istis

amav-es-imt — — amav-&unt, -€runt, -€re

Forms in H for I, elt for It, belong to E.L. and R.L. Poeu use -Srunt : stetSnmt,

Verg. ; verti-runt, Hor., &c
/) The other Perfect-stem Tenses are formed by agglutinating es-im, es-o (ero)

and es(s)em severally to the Perfect-stem :
Peif Conj. amav-erim; Fut. Perf amav-ero; Plup. Coig. amav-issem
(sharpened from -JSsemX

D) The Verb Infinite.

The Infinitive Pres. Act ama-re(forama-8eX Perf. amav-is-se (for amav-i-se)» •
are Verb-nouns formed by adding the Dative or Locative element -se to the Pre-
sent and Perfect Stems severally.

The Present Active Pautidple in ns (Bt-S) corresponds to the Greek Participle m
Tt-i Sk. / {fU when nasalixed ; Nom. S. n\

The Supines aiul Passive Participle in tn- to- (tlU) correspond to the Sk. Parti-
cipial in to.

The Future Participle in -turas corresponds to the Sk. agentive ending tar (tor) :
a ma turns (amator).

The Gerundive in -BdO (BdllS) seems to have a double suffix : (x) Pres. Partic. in
* Bt, (3) do-. The vincular t which connects these with the Present-Stem of Cons,
and I-verbs was anciently « ; which remained in legal documents to the Aug.
age : regradus, regtmdus ; feri/ndus, feritmdus : butoriumdus always.

On the old Passive Infinitive form ior (which passed into 1), see p. 58. Gossrau
says that Lange has collected 336 instances of its use in inscriptions, laws, old
writere, and poeU : of the latter, 187 are in Plautus, 46 in Lucretius, and 6 in
Virgil. Pure Verbs are those which shew it oftenest.

On the archaic and poetic forms which omit si, see p. 54.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

48
Irre-
gular
Verbs.

i84

Latin Wordlore,

§4&

PotSUIIL

Fero.

I. Possum, / can^ is assimilated from pot-sum « potis (or pote)
sum, I €im able : Perf. potui for pote-fuL See p. i68.

SCHEME.

Indie

Coi^unc.

Indie.

Coiuunc.

S. possum

possim

potui

potuerim

^

pot^

possis

potuisti

potuens

1

potest

possit

%

potuit

potuerit

P. possQmus

posslmus

&

potuimus

potuerfmus

potestis

possltis

potuistis [-e

potuerftis

possunt

possint

potuer-unt

potuerint

S. potero

potuero

poteris

potueris

poterit
P. poterimus

as Pres.

potuerit
potuerYmus

as Pert

\M

poterltis
potSrunt

potuerltis
potuerint

potueram

S. poteram

possem

potuissem '

poteras

posses

potueras

potuisses

1

poterat

posset

1

potuerat

potuisset

poteramus

possemus

S

potueramus

potuissemus

poteratis

possetis

potueratis

potuissetis

poterant

possent

potuerant

potuissent

InRn. Pr. Impf. posse (for pot-es-se) ; Perf. Plup. potuisse.

Potens is an Adjective rather than a Participle, ^powerful^ able*

Some archaic forms are found in the elder poets : as poterint,
potessem, potesse, possiem, possies, &c The Impersonal Passive
potestiu: is in Lucr. and Plaiit This, and the Passive forms of
queo^ nequeo, coepi, desino, are only used before an Infinitive
Passive. See Munro on Lucr. L 1045. Potis sum, es, est, &c are
found in poetry.'

II. Fero (Sk. bhar^ Gr. ^«f>-), bring, bear.
The peculiarities of this Verb are :

i) In the Present-stem forms it casts out vincular \ before •
and t : as fers, fert, fertur, &c. : also S between r and r :
as ferrem, ferrer, ferre. The Imperative fer rejects
final S.

2) It takes its Perfect-stem tQl- from the root t61-, and the
Supine-stem lat- (for t-lat-) from another form of the
same root (tal- or /£i-). For Cpp. see p. 217.

* Pods, pote (originally A4)cctivef) are abo uied adverbiaUy. TbeirorigiB is Sk. faH^
* lord,' whence Or. vbatf . ir^rMi {ford and ladyY

Digitized byCjOOQlC

|4& Conjugation of Irregular Verbs.

SCHEME.

185

Present-Stem Tenses Active.

IlMfic.

Coqiunc.

Imper.

Infin.

Pkrt.

i

S.f&o

Ms

fert
P. ferlmus

fertis

ferunt

feram

feras

ferat

fer§mus

feratis

ferant

ferU

ferre

ferens

<n

i

S. feram
feres
&c

as Present

ferto

laturus
esse

laturus, a,
um

\

S.ferebam

ferebas

&c

ferrem
ferres

Present-Stem Tenses Passive.

1

S. feror
ferris
fertur

ferimini
fenmtur

ferar

ferar-is (e)

ferator

feriimur

feramini

ferantur

ferre
ferimini

fern

latus, a, um

[um
ferenduS; a,

i
\

S. ferar
ferer-is (e)

as Present

fertor
&c.

latum iri

S. ferebar
ferebar-is
(e)&c

ferrer
ferrer-is (e)
&c.

Perfect-Stem Tenses (Active).

tul-i, tul-ero, tul-eram, tul-issem, &c ; tulisse : regularly, as
rex-i, &C.

Supine-Stem Tenses (Passive).

latus . . sum (fiii, &c.^, ero, eram, sim, essem, &c. : regularly,
as rect-us sum (fiii), &c.

III. Fio (Sk. bMj Gr. ^-), am made, become, Flo,

The Quasi-passive fio is used as the Passive of facio in the
Present-Stem Tenses.
The Supine-Stem Tenses are formed by factus regularly.^

uiyiuzeu uy ■nJ

lOogle

i86

Latin Wordlore.
SCHEME.

I48.

Indie.

Conjunc.

Imper.

Infin.

Part.

1

S. fro
fis

fit

P. (fimus)
(fitis)
fiunt

flam

fias

fiat

fiamus

fiatis

fiant

ft

(fite)

fieri

factus, a, um

[um
faciendus, a.

en

t

S. flam
fles
&c.

as Present

(fito)
&c.

futurus esse
f5re

futurus, a,
um

!

S. f lebam

fiebas

&c.

fUrem
/teres
&c.

i 1:

S. factus
sum &c.

factus sim
&c.

factus esse

factus, a, um

The bracketed forms are hardly found.

Fio (fu-i-o) is only a strengthened form of fix-. Hence fore and
futurus may be assigned to this Verb as well as to sum, by which
they are borrowed. This appears from the constant usage of Latin
authors : 'Neque ^o ea, quae facta sunt, fore quum dicebam,
divinabam futura,' C Fam. vi. i. 5 ; ' Quid fiat, factum, futur-
umve sit.' C d. Or, ii. 26. 113.

The I is long except before »r, and in fit. Comic poets often
lengthen I in fierem, fieri.

Fio, being the Passive of facio, appears as such in many Com-
pounds : liquefio, calefio, satisfio ; with Prepositions only in a
few instances, as in some forms of confieri. defieri, interfieri,
effieri, superfieri. Also infit, begins {to speak), Verg.

IV. V. VI. V6I0, nolo, malo.

Volo, I wish, I will (Sk. var, Gr. j3oX- (iovX-), has the following^
peculiarities :

i) Its stem-vowel fluctuates between o, n, e.

2) It rejects / in three Persons of Pres. Indie (2. 3 S. 2 PL), and*
e in Impf. Conj. and Infin. Pres.

3) It rejects a consonant in Pres. Indie. 2nd Pers. vis. (Corssen says
that this cons, is not 1 but the prim. r. See Kril, Nachtrdge, 287.)

4) It assimilates s to preceding 1 in vellem, &c. for vel-sem, &c.
and in vel-le for vel-se.

5) The Pres. Conj. takes the ending im, is, &c. instead of am.

Nolo is compounded of ne (non) with volo : Malo of magis or
mage and volo.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

S4&

Conjugation of Irregular Verbs.

1S7

Mavelim, mavelle, &c., also nevis, nevelle^ appear in £• L.
Volt, voltis were used before Augustus.
Noli is formed from nolis, 2nd Pers. Conj.

SCHEME.

Indicative.

Conjunctive.

•1

1

S. vdlo n51o malo
VIS nonvis mavis
vult nonvult mavult

P. volumus nolumus malumus
vultis nonvultis mavultis
volunt nolunt malimt

vHim ndlim mdlim
velis nolis malis
velit nolit malit
velimus nolimus malimus
velitis nolitis malitis
velint nolint malint

in

i

S. volam
voles noles males
&c. &c. &c.

as Present

1

S. volebam nolebam malebam
volebas nolebas malebas
&c. &c. &c

vellem nollem mallem
velles nolles malles
&c. &c. &c.

^ S. v61ui nolui malui
I voluisti noluisti maluisti
&c. &c. &c.

voluerim noluerim maluerim
volueris nolueris malueris
&c. &c. &c.

a;

3
5

S. voluero noluero maluero
volueris nolueris malueris
&c. &c. &c.

as Perfect

S. volueram nolueram malueram
volueras nolueras malueras
&c. &c. &c

voluissem noluissem maluissem

voluissea noluisses maluisses

&c. &c. &c

Imperative.
(volo and malo, none)
s. 2 3. P. 2.

Pres. noli — nolite

Fut. nolito nolito nolitote

nolunto

Infinitive.

Pres Impf.

velle nolle

malle

Perf. Plup.

voluisse noluisse

maluisse

Participles.
Pres. volens nolens (rare)

Gerunds are hardly found.

fl) PervSlo, wish mucky has pervSlim, pervellem, pervelle.
^) Vin is used for visne, will youf sis for si vis ; suit is for si
vultis, if you please : cap sis for cape si vis.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

i88

Latin Wordlore.

§4&

Ea

Queo,
nequeo.

VII. Eo(forIo),^tf.

The root is X- (Sk. Gr.), to go^ which becomes • before a, o, v.

SCHEME.

—

Iodic.

Coi^iunc.

Imper.

Verb Infinite.

S. €0

earn

INFINITIVE.

PARTiaPLES.

1

is

It

eas
eat

I

(Pr. Impf.)
ire

(Pres. Impf.);
iens j

1

P.imus
Itis

eamus
itttis

ite

(Perf. Plup.)
ivisse

euntem
&c

eunt

eant

or isse

S.Ibo

Ibis

ito

CO

Ibit

as Present

Ito

(Future)

(Future)

'i

P. Ibimus

Iturusesse

Iturus

(>«

Ibitis
Ibunt

itote
eunto

*c

S. Ibam

Irem

Gbrund.

1 SUPIKBS.

1

Tha^

ires

&C

&c

eundum

I. It-um

S. Ivi or n

lerim

1

ivisti,isti

leris

eundi

2.itU

p<

&c

&c

eundo

The remaining Tenses are formed as in a u d - i v L The t is usually
dropt by ivi and its Compounds: ii, iisti or isti, ieram^ issem,
&c.; redii, rediero, redistis, redisse, &c

The Impersonal Passive itur, Itum est, Iri, &c., is often used^
Iri with Supine supplies a Future Passive to Verbs. Also the
Active eo forms a periphrasis with Supine,
iniurias istas ultum eunt
they are going to avenge those wrongs
aiunt iniurias istas ultum iri
they say that those wrongs are going to he avenged
^terally : there is a-tending to avenge those wrongs),
Ambio, go rounds canvass^ follows the Conjugation of audi o.

VIII. IX. Queo; nequeo.

Queo^ can (Stem qui-), nequeo, cannot^ are like eo, so far as
their forms extend ; but have no Imperative and no Gerunds,
queo quis quivi quire .... quitum quiens ([queuntis)
nequeo nequis nequivi nequire . nequltum nequiens (nequeuntis)

The Indicative and Conjunctive forms are like those of eo.

Queor, nequeor, are found in old writers with an Infin. Pass. :
subpleri queatur, Lucr. i. 1045; 'quita est,' Ter. Hec, iv. i. 59;
'nequltur,' Plaut Rud iv.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

f49*

Conjugation of Defective Verbs.

189

X. £do (Sk. ad^ Gr. <^}, eat. I^da

This Verb is anomalous only by the occasional mutation of
fomis, which omit the Vincular, and either assimilate or omit d.

and Pers. S. Pres. Act is for ed-I-s (ed-s).

est for cd-I-t (ed-t).
"^ estis for ed-I-tis (ed-tis).
„ essem for ed-€-rem (ed-sem), &c.
„ este for ed-I-te (ed-tej
M esto^ estate for edito, ealtote

3«1 » »

2nd Pers. PL „
Imperf Conj.
Imperat Pres.

n Fut

In£ Pres. . ^ esse for ed-6-re (ed-se)

3rd Pers. S. Pres. Pass, estur for ed-!-tur (ed-tur)

The other forms of this Verb are regular ; except that edim,
edisy &c, are sometimes found for edas, edat, &&

▼i Conjugation of Defective Verbs.

Defective Verbs are without 'some of the usual
parts of a Verb. In this strict sense a great number of
Verbs are Defective; but those commonly so called
by grammarians are the following :

I. Praeteritiva: Verbs which, having no Present-Stem forms
in use, express these by Perfect forms.

i) coepi,* (have begun^) begin, from co-ap-/-o (Obsolete)

2) odi, {have hated^) hate^ from 5d-/-o (Obsolete)

3) mSipTni, {have minded ^m) remember^ from men- (Obs.)

SCHEME.

49

Defec-
tive
Verbs.

Cocpi,

odi,

menunL

Iodic

Coiuimc.

Imper.

Infin.

coepi

coeperim

coepisse

coepisti

coepens

^

odi

5derim

odisse

ig

odisti

oderis

s,

&c.

&c

memini

memmenm

menumsse

meministi

meminens

I

&c

&c.

coepero

coepturus esse

odero

osurus esse

4i

memmero

memento

i

coeperam

coeptssem

5deram

ddissem

0;

memmeram

memimssem

* Tbe obiolece Verb ^mo, gtt, megmrtt of whbA coepio, coepi, is a compound* ap.
peaninthefennsapiscor, aptus, adipiscor, adeptus, and probably also in«pis«

uiyiuzeu uy x^j ^^^ wVt Iv^

190

Latin Wordlore,

§49.

Novl

Aio.

d) A Participle coeptus forms Perfect coeptus sum : as
*comitia haben coepta sunt,' Cic Coepturusis used by Pliny,
Quintilian, &c.

The Pres. Stem coepio itself is used in older Latin (Plaut Ter.).
C6-epit is in Lucretius (iv. 619), where see Munro.

b) The obsolete Verb 6d/o, od€r e, probably meant to repiL
Osus sum is a rarer form of odi. Osurus is used.
Exosus, perosus, hatiftg greatly ^hacv^ Passive sense in L.L.

c) Memini has a Compound commemini. It is the Perf. oi
an obs. verb meno (m&no}-'Sk. man^ 'think,' which appears in
comminiscor commentus; mens; mentio; mentior, and
numerous Greek and other forms.

4) N ovi {have come to know\ Perfect of nos co, know^ is used as
a Praeteritive (/ ^«<?w), like Gr. ol^a. Hence noveram, noram,
knew\ novtxo^ shall know I novisse, nosse, /^ know, See

II. Ai-o, I say, affirm (Sk. ah, for Pr. agh).

Indie

Coi^junc.

Impcc

1

1

ai-0
a-is
&-it

ai-unt

ai-as
ai-at

ai-ant

a-i (rare)

ai-ebam

ai-ebas

&c.

The Participle ai-ens is very rare (*negantia sunt contraria ai-
entibus,' Cic).
Aibam, found in some MSS. of Plautus, is of doubtful validity.
Ain' tu? do you say so f was a familiar expression.

Inqiuun. III. I n qu am, say I (inquit, saith he, &c.), for i n qu i o.

opts, opus, opera, &c., opto. Its Sk. root is &p (Pr. ap). The kinship of apio,
coepio, and capio (cepi), cannot but be recognised, when we obserre the similarity of
meaning as well as form : for not only is the sense tH acquiring in capio, accipio, per-
cipio, &c., but also that of beginningva incipio (incepi) and occipio (occepi. some-
times written occoepi). Hence it seems probable that capio is only the adoption in
Italian speech, as a ample form, of the compound co-ap - igtt tt^tker, and so take)^
bearing the same relation to ap- that comprehendo does to prehenda The old word
remained, in the sense of Aeiinninf, at first in all forms (as shewn in Plautus, &c), after-
wards in the Perfect only ; which sense the new Verb recognised in its own c(»xpounds
incipio, incepi, occipio» occepi; as well as in its derivative occ up o : 'interdumnt-
pere occupat,' n<nv and then she is tfu first to snatch tkem^ Hor. The passage of com-
pound Verbs to Simple is shewn in promo, sumo, surgo, and other instances.

.0

gle

149-

Conjugation of Defective Verbs.
SCHEME.

191

Indie

Conjunc

Imper.

1

inquam
inquis
inquit
inqulmus

inquiunt

inquiat ?

u5

1
1

inquies
inquiet

inquito

inquiebat

1

inquisti
inquiit?

•

Inquam and sum are the only two Verbs which retain m (Sk.
nd, Gr. fii) in the Pres. Indie

Inquam is not placed in construction, but interposed between
parts of construction, as quoth in English.

Its etymology is doubtful (R. Sk. khydnU^ * I say*).

IV. Fari, to speak^ has these forms :

Indie Pres.
Fut . .
Perf., &c
Imperat .
InfuL . .
Gerund .
Supine .
Part Pres.

fatur, speaks

fabor, fabitur
> fatus, sirni, eram, &c.

fare

fari

fandi, fando. Gerundive, fandus

fatu

fantem, fantis, &c Part Perf. fetus
Its Compounds affar^ effari, (inter prae pro)- fari, can use the
same forms and a few more: 'aifamur/ Ov. ; 'affamini/ Curt ;
'affabar/ Verg. ; 'eflfabere/ Lucan ; < effabimur/ Cic ; * praefantes/
CatuU. ; praefarer, praefamino, &c.

V. Ova re, to rejoice^ triumph, has some Third Persons Sing,
(ovat, ovet, ovaret), and the Partic Pres. ovans. Persius has ovatus.

VI. Quaeso, I beg\ ist P. PL quaesumus.

VII. Verb-forms used in the Imperative and Infinitive :
hail! hail! farewell! come! be off!
salve hive (or ave) vile ag6 Spage
salvete havete valete agite
salveto haveto valeto
salvebis valebis
salvere havere valere

Add S. c€d6, PL c€dite, cette,/r^zy tell me^give me, &c ,

F«rL

Imperative

. S.

99

. PL

>♦

. S.

Fut S. .

Infin. . .

Ovare.

Quaeso.

Iii4>era-

livc

ForiM.

-oogle

so
Imper*
sonal
Verbs.

192

Latin Wordlore.

S50.

VIII. Impersonal (or Unipersonal) Verbs.

Impersonal Verbs are conjugated in the Third Persons Sin-
gular of the Finite Verb, and in the Infinitive.

A. Active Impersonals have no Passive Voice,
i) The principal of these are of the Second Conjugation :

oportet, taedet, miserct,
piget, pudet, paenitet,
decet (Uque dedecet,
libet, licet, et liquet,
attinet et pertinet,

Table of Impersonal Verbs (Second Conj.)

Indie. Oxu.

r I. oport

2. taed

3. miser

4. pig,

5. pud

6. pae'nit

7. dec

8. dedec

\ 10. he

1 1, atdn
{ 12. pertin

it behoves^ disgusts , moves pity

it irfcs^ shames^ repents

it beseems f misbeseems

it pleases, is lawful, is clear

it relates, belongs.

me, te, eum,
nos, vos, eos

mihi, &c .
ad me, &c.

Infin.

-et -eat -ere . . Pres.

-ebit S. Fut.

-ebat -6ret ..... Imper£
-uit -uerit -uisse . Pert

-uerit Fut Perfl

-uerat -uisset .... Pluperf.

The following Perfects are also used: s. pertaesum est; 3.
miseritumest; 4. pigitum est; 5. puditum est; 9. libitum
est ; 10. licitum est
Miserescit is used ; sometimes miseretur.
Gerundives pigendus, pudendus, paenitendus : Participles
miseritus, pertaesus, attinens, pertinens, are used. Paeni-
tens, decens, libens, licitus, are used as Adjectives.
The Persons are esqpressed by the Case : as
Sing, oportet me ire* it behoves me
oportet te ire — — you
oportet eum ire — — him

PL

oportet nos ire
oportet vos ire
oportet eos ire

Sing, licet mihi ire

licet tibi ire —

licet ei ire —

PL licet nobis ire —

licet vobis ire —

licet iis ire —

And so in the other Tenses.

— — us

— — you

— — them

it is allowed me

— — you

— — him

— — us

— you
them^

togo^

you
he

to go^*

we

Itheyi

I

you
he

ought
logo

we
ItheyJ

maygo

* C derives oportet (op-portet) from Or. irop., 'iV is thi ^art ;' padet, paenitet,
from Sic pu \ taedet, from Sic /m (sec pp. X4« 15); decet from Sic di^, Libet or
lubet: sic luhh, 'deare.' Licet: Sic nV, Gr. Aur. U li«quere, leave. The same
relation exists between '/^iSMiv' and the noun Jlr/fcvin English. * I five you lemm' =■* I
leave it to yen ;** I have leave *^* it iil^t tome* Piget is unesqUained.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

fSa

Impersonal Verbs.

193

used impersonally with special

delectat

it charms \

iuvat

it delights |me,te,
it eludes [ eum, &c

mihi

faUit

tibi

fugit

// escapes )

ei

interest

it concerns \ me5, tua,
/ / imports \ eius, &<:•

nobis

refert

vobis

est

it is a fact

iis, &c.

fit

it comes to pass

constat

it is acknowledged

praestat

it is best

2) Some Personal Verbs are
meaning :

accidit // happens
conducit it profits
contingit// befalls
evenit it turns out
convenit it suits
expedit // is expedient
placet it pleases
restat it remains
succurrit // occurs
vacat there is leisure ^

So usu venit, in mentem venit, &c.

3) Some Impersonals express changes of season and weather :
such are

fiilgurat it lightens ningit // snows lucescit // dawns

tonat // thunders pluit it rains illucescit it gets light

grzndxD2it it hails rorat there falls dew ves^pGrascit it gets late

Impersonals of Class 3) may be explained by regarding the cog-
nate Noun as Subject: nix jiingit, snow snows '^mx est, snow
occurs. This may be sometimes said in Class i) : pudet me facti »
pudor facti me pudet » pudor facti me habet. All of Class 2) and
most of Class i) have for their Subject either an Infinitive Verb-
noun or a dependent Cause.

Ind.

Conj.

Infill.

luditur

ludatur

ludi

ludetur

lusum iri

ludebatur

luderetur

lusum est

lusum sit

lusum esse

lusum erit

lusum erat

lusum esset

lusum fiiisse

B, i) Intransitive Verbs may be used impersonally in the
Passive Voice : luditur, from ludo, I play.

Present .
Sunple Fut.
Imp«rf. .
Perfect .
Fut Perf.
Phiperf. . .

The Persons may be expressed by an Ablative Case with the
Preposition a or ab following the Verb :

Present Indicative.

Sing, luditur a me there is playing by nu = /
luditur a te —
luditur ab eo —
PL luditur a nobis —
luditur a vobis —
luditur ab iis —
And so in the other Tenses.

The Case is generally understood, and the Verb is rendered
usually as expressing the First or Third Person Plural ; we play ^ or
ihey play : sometimes, one plays ; as the French, on joue,

o

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

thee ^thoupiayest
him ^he ptays
us = we play
you ^yeplay
them -they play

194

Latin Wordlore.

§51.

2) The Neuter Gerundive is similarly used to express duty or
necessity, widi a Dative or Ablative of the Person :

Present Indicative.

Sing, ludendum est mihi there must be playing by me
ludendum est tibi — — — thee

ludendum est ei — — — him

PL ludendum est nobis — — — us •

ludendiun est vobis — — — you

ludendum est iis — — — them

And so in the other Tenses.

In this construction the case often occurs ; but here too it may
be absent, and we, they, or one supplied, as in the former instance.
So French, on doitjouer.

«/ 1

^thou

"^

^he

\

"»*

^we

^

^ye

^

^they ,

51

The

Three

Stems.

Present
Stem.

Section III.
The Forms of the three Stems in Verbs.
1. The Present-Stem.

1. The only Verb-roots which ^ have Indicative Present- Stem
forms unchanged inunediately before Personal endings are :

The root 6s (sum, es-mi) in the forms es-t, es-tis, es-te,

es-to (es-se).
The root v61 in the forms vol-t, vol-tis.
The root ftr in the forms fer-s, fer-t, fer-tis, fer, fer-te,

fer-to, (fer-re).
The root dS, give, in the forms di-t, d^-mus, di-tis,

da-nt, d3.-te, di-to, (di-re). But in Sk. and Gr. this

root is reduplicated.

2. The only Verb-roots which, with Vowel character, have Pre-
sent-stem forms merely strengthening that character before Per-
sonal endings are :

The root std, stand, station, in the forms sta-s, sta-t (classi-
callysti-t), sta-mus, sta-tis, sta-nt,sta, sta-te,sta-to,
(sta-re). In Sk. and Gr. it is reduplicated.
The roots fle, weep, ne, spin, ^^,fill, in the same forms, fle-s,
ne-s, -pies-, &c.

The root I, go, in the forms I-s, I-t (classically tt), I-mus,
i-tis, I, I-te, I- to (i-re). In go, gam, &c., I is strengthened,
but the endings also contain a strengthening suffix.
The root qut, can (with its compound nequi), the forms of
which resemble those of I.
(Note, fl-, being contracted and so properly long, is not an
example here.)

3. In all other A- E- and I- Verbs (Conj. i. 2. 4.) the Vowel
character is itself a first suffix, attached to what we call the Clipt-
S t em * (am-, mon-, aud-), and preceding all flexional suffixes. This

* On the Term Qipt-Stem and the reason of its use, see Note, p. 3a

uiyiuzeu uy ■v^j ^^^ xJVt Iv^

1 51. The Present-Stem. 195

is true of U-Verbs also ; but these, unlike the rest, are not strength-
ened in the Present-stem: indu-Is, indu-S, indu-€re: but
audl-s, audi, audl-re.

4, With respect to Consonant Verbs (Conj. 3),

Some scholars think that every root-vowel was primitively short
Such was certainly the case with some roots which in Latin Verbs
have the long vowel : dicere (E. L. deicere)^ ducere (E. L. doucere\
fidere (E. L. feidere)^ compared with veridlcus, dux dQcis,
fides.

These, however, like Latin Verbs in general, follow the Scheme of
Conjugation before given ; in which the formative suffix of Indie
Pres. 1st P. Sing. 6 contains a conjugative element (Sk. d-mi).

Certain other affections of the Present Stem in Verbs of the 3rd
{Cons.) Conjugation, distinguishing it from the True Stem, come
into notice here.

A) Strengthening by the insertion of a nasal before the Cha-
racter (Nasalisation). See § 12. xvi.

To the^xamples there given many may be added, which, though
keeping the nasal in the Perfect-Stem, lose it in derived or kindred
forms: fi-«-g- (fictum); fre-«-d- (fressum), -he-«-d- (x«^->
-h$dera); iu-«-g- (iugum) ;ia-/^-b- (l&bium) ;li-«-g- (llgurrio);
ma-«-d- (mala); mi-«-g- (mictum); mu-«-g- (mucus); ni-«-g-
(nix); pa-«-d- (passus) ; pi-«-s- (pistor); sa-«-cire (sScer);
sca-«-d- (scala); sti-«-g- ipril) ; a-«-g- {dy^v),

B) Suffix n (Sk. ncC) joined to a Vowel or Liquid Stem :

Strengthened Stem

TrueStem

Shcwn in Perf.

lI-«-

li- or le-

Il-vi or le-vi

sT-«-

si-

si-vi

posr-«- 1

pon- 1

posi-

(posT-vi) pos-ui \
posl-tum (Sup.) >

cer-«-

cer- (ere-)

cre-vi

sper-«-
ster-«-

i sper- (spre)
star- (stra)

spre-vi
stra-vi

tem-«-

tem-

tem-si

In E.L are found such forms as dS-w-untfordant, sollf-«-unt
for Solent, nequI-«-unt for nequeunt, obI-«-unt for obeunt

0 The Suffix 8c, added to the True Stem, makes the Verb I n-
ceptive or Inchoative (i) when the True Stem ends in a Vowel
Thus : from pa-, pa-j^-Sre; from fati-, fati-j^-Sre; from ira-,
ira-jfT-i; from na-, na-jr-i ; from ere-, cre-j^-6re; from quie-,
^uie-j^-gre; from no-, no-j^-€re ; from hi-, hi-j^-Sre.

(2) When the True Stem ends with a Cons.-, vincular /is re-
quired: from ap-, ap-?*-j^-i ; from men-, men-/-J^-i ; from obliv-,
obliv-Z-j^-i ; frompac-, pac-/-J^-i ; from profic- profic-/'-jr-i ;
from ulc-, \x\z-i'SC''\ ; from nac- (also nasalised), na-«-c-/-J^-i ;
from experrig- (also syncopated), experg-/-j^-i.

C is excluded by di-j^-6re for dic-J^-ere ; d by ve-^^-i for
ved-jc-L

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

196 Latin Wordlore, § 51.

Obs. The foregoing examples are mostiy from stems which are
not in use as actual words : but Inceptive or Inchoative Verbs
derived from existing Verbs or Nouns are a very large class, all of
the 3rd Conjugation, and express the beginning of action.

Those derived from Verbs add sc- or -i-sc- to the Present-stem :

laba-jr-€re from laba-re, r.

palle-J^-€re — palle-re, 2.

trem-/-J^-§re — trem-$re, 3.

obdormI-jr-5re — obdormi-re, 4.

Those derived from Nouns add esc- (rarely a-sc-^ to the Clipt
Stem:

dur-^jr-6re from durus

mit-/jr-Sre — mitis

macr-^^r-Sre — m&cer

plum-^j^-€re — pluma

vesper-/wr-Sre — vespera
For a fuller list see Syllabus.

D) A few Present-stems are reduplicated. On Reduplication see
§ 12. xiv. Thus

^-b€-re for pi-p5-re (Stem pa, po)

^/-gn-€re — gi-gen-6re (Stem gen, Sk. jan)

si'St^-re — sti-stS-re (Stem sta)

se-T^re — si-s$-re (Stem sa)

E) The Liquid 1 is doubled in the Present-stem of

cel^re, fal/5re, pel/Sre, tol/<5re.

F) T\s added to the True Stem in

flec/ere, nec/Srt, pec/Sre, plec/6re.

G) A few Present Stems are written with ^ or ^ indifferently :
nin^«re or nii\fwere, tinf€re or tin^gre, un^e or un^5re. So

in Conj. 2. ur^e or ur^ere.

H) The appearance of V^ in certain Verbs of Conj. 3. (capio,
patior, &C.), as an extension of the Present-Stem, has been noticed.

(Peculiarities of special Consonant Verbs will be found in the Syl-
labus.)

11. The Perfect-Stem.

Forma-

Perfcct The Perfect Stem of Latin Verbs is formed in various ways.

A) By reduplicating the Present-Stem without or with vowel-
change of Stem : the reduplicative syllable being in some instances
dropt

B) By lengthening the vowel of the Present-Stem, without or
with vowel-change.

* This 1 represents a Conjugativc suffix yA in Sanskrit, of which the 5 fiiUs away u

I^tin: so that cap-i-o, pat-i.or,&c., may be represented asa cap.yo, pat-Tor.&c
See Schleicher, p, 577. v. .- * » r ^ »

Digitized byCjOOQlC

§ 51. TJu Perfect-Stem, 1 97

C) By adopting the Present-stem as Perfect-stem,

D) By sufficing to the Present-stem v or n, representing fte-.

E) By suffixing to the Present-stem s, representing •■-.

A) Perfect-stem fomied by Reduplication.

a) The Reduplicative syllable consists of the first two letters

of the Stem : in which case there is no vowel-change of

the Stem,
In E-verbs the CUpt-stem is thus sometimes reduplicated :

m5-mord-i frommord-e-; p5-pend-i from pend-e-;

sp6-pond-i (for spo-spond-i) from spond-e-; t6tond-i

from tond-e-.
In Consonant Verbs the True Stem : cu-curr-i from

curr- ; dl-dic-i from di-sc- (for dic-sc-) ;pg-pend-i

from pend-; p6-posc-i from pose-; pu-pug-i from

pu-«-g-; tg-tend-ifromtend-; tu-tud-ifrom tu-«-d-.

Fld-i is for (//;/%/-«) from fi-«-d-; scld-ifor(jr/-jir/^-/)

from sci-/^-d-.

^) The Reduplicative syllable is the first consonant with S ; in
which case some weakening of the stem-vowel ^so takes
place, unless this vowel be e in a close syllable, as
above in p^pendi, tStendi.
The only instances in A-verbs are d€-d-i from dS- ; st€-t-i
from sta- : which seem to cast out the stem- vowel. But
they probably are for d e d e i, s t e s t e i, and so have weak-
en^ a into e.

In Consonant Verbs the instances are :

p5-perc-i from pare-; pS-pIg-i firom pa-«-g-; t6-tlg-i

from ta-«-g- j ce-cld-i from cM-; c6-cid-i from caed- ;

cS-cIn-i from cSn- ; mS-mln-i from mSn- ; p€-pgr-i

from par-i'-; f5-fell-i from fall- ; pS-puI-i from pel-/-.
Tuli from tol-/- isfor te-tul-i, which is found in old Latin.
Ci'CUl'i is from eel-/- ; but both are obsolete : the Cp.

percell- forms perculi.
Other forms of E. L. 2Jt.fefici from fac-, tettni from ten-.

^ Perfect-stem formed by lengthening the vowel of the Present-
stem. See § 12. xiv. p. 18.

tf) The Vowel of the Clipt Stem is lengthened without other
change in these Pure Verbs :
iuv-ifrom iuva- ; lav-i fromliva-; sed-ifromsgde-; vTd-i from
vTde- ; cav-i from cive- ; fav-i from fave- ; pav-i from
p&ve- ; fov-i from fbve- • mov-i from m5ve- ; vov-i from
vdve-.

^) The Vowel of the True Stem is lengthened without other
change in these Consonant Verbs :
vic-i from vi-«-c- ; llgu-i from li-«-qu- ; fug-i from fug-/- ; leg-i
from Igg- ; ed-i from gd- ; fod-i from fbd-/- ; f?d-i from
fu-«-d- ; rup-i from ru-;«p- ; scab-i from scib- ; em-i
from £m-.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

fgS Latin Wordlore, 5 51,

c) The Present-stem vowel is changed and lengthened in the
following Consonant Verbs :
fec-i from fUc-/ ; iec-i from iac-/- ; Sg-i from ig- ; freg-i
from fra-«-g- ; cep-i from c&p-/- ; and in -peg-i from some
compounds of pa-«-g-.

C) Perfect-stem formed by adopting the Present-Stem.

a) The Clipt Present-stem becomes Perfect-stem in these E-

verbs :
prande- prand-i ; stride- strld-i ; ferve- ferv-i (also ferbui).
and in the I -verbs :

compfiri- comp5r-i ; rep€ri- repp6r-i ;
imless repperi is syncopated from repeperi.

b) The Present-stem becomes Perfect-stem in these Consonant

forms :
bTb-i ; cud-i ; Ic-i ; -fend-i ; lamb-i ; mand-i ; prehend-i ;
pand-i ; psall-i ; scand-i ; solv-i ; verr-i ; vell-i ; vert-i ;
vis-i ; volv-i ; -cand-i (-cend-i in Comp.).
Likewise in U -verbs classically: ru-i, metii-i.
But on these see § 12. xiv. p. 18.

D) a. Perfect-stem formed by suffixing ▼ ( = fu-) to a strengthened
Vowel character.

This is done by most A- and I -verbs :

ama-v-i audl-v-i

and by some E -verbs :

dele-v-i fle-v-i

Also by the Verbs which have suffixed a Consonant to a True
Vowel stem. See p. 195.

cre-v-i ; sl-v-i ; le-v-i or ll-v-i ; no-v-i ; spre-v-i ; stra-v-i ;
pa-v-i ; quie-v-i ; se-v-i.

Likewise a few Verbs in Conj. 3. assume the Perf. and Supine
forms of Conj! 4. :

cup-/- cup-Tv-i ; pet- pet-iv-i ; tcr- ter-Iv-i or trivi ; quaer- for
quaes- quaes-Iv-i ; arcess- arcess-Tv-i ; and "so capess-
facess- lacess-.

b. Perfect-stem formed by suffixing u ( = fu-) to the Present
Stem.

a) To a Clipt Stem :
In a few A- verbs :
crepa- crep-u-i ; cuba- cub-u-i : and so from doma-, sona-^
vcta-, seca-, mica-, tona-, frica- ; neca-, plica-.

But some of these also take a-v-i. See Syllabus,

In most E-verbs :

mone- mon-u-i

In the I -verbs a|>eri- aper-u-i ; operi- oper-u-i ; sali- sal-u-i.
NoU. Inceptive Verbs, derived from Verbs, follow the forma-
tion of their Primitive Verb : but those in eso- Uo- derived from
Nouns, if they have a Perfect, form it in u-i: obduresc- obdur-
u-i. ^-> T

uiyiuzeu uy K^jVjvJVJ l\^

§ 5^- The Supine-Stein, 199

^) To a True Consonant Stem ;
in most Verbs with character i, m :

al- al-u-i ; gem- gem-u-i ; &c.

also m

eUc-/ elicu-i; rap-/ rap-u-i ; strep- strep-u-i ; frend- frend-u-i ;

stert- stert-u-i; cwm\i- cub-u-i ; pon- pos-u-i ; pins- pins-u-i ;

scr-yjoifty ser-u-i ; compesc- compesc-u-i: gign- ( = een-)

gen-u-i ; tex- tex-u-i. v c» /

E) Perfect-stem formed by suffixing % ( = e«) to the Present-
stem.

This may be called the Aorist formation, resembling as it does
the Greek Aorist form in tra.

As this formation brings % into concurrence with other conso-
nants, the laws of euphony must be applied as set forth in § 1 2. xxvi.
and § 12. xxix : where it is shewn that

a guttural with % produces x: dixi, rexi ; b before % be-
comes p: scripsi ; dentals are cast out, Compensation or
Assimilation often ensuing: risi, sensi ; and gutturaU
are cast out after r, I: mersi, fulsi. Also p is inserted
between m and % : sum/si.

a) 8 is suffixed to the Clipt-stem of many E-verbs and some

I -verbs :

auge- auxi ; luce- luxi, arde- arsi ; &c.

farci- farsi ; vinci- vinxi ; sanci- sanxi, &c.
In iube- iussi the assimilation is peculiar ; mane- mansi
is an unusual formation: in haere- haesi and hauri-
hausi r ( = •) has fallen out before a.

b) 8 is suffixed to most Consonant Stems with a Mute cha-

racter, and to some with m, r, (•) : due- duxi ; teg- texi ;
sparg- sparsi; ced- cessi ; nub- nupsi; com- compsi;
ur- ussi, &C. See Syllabus.

ill. The Supine-Stem. Fonna-

rrn' UOD of

This has the suffix t, which is added to the True or Clipt Stem, |"P"»«
^thout or with i before the ending -nm. A Vowel Character """
(», «, t) is, with some exceptions, lengthened.

I. T is suffixed to the Stem without mutation of Consonants, but
^th lengthening of a Vowel Character

^ 1) In those Pure Verbs which add ▼ to the True Stem in the
Perfect :

ama-t-um fle-t-um audl-t-um

including some which strengthen the Pres. Stem with a suffix : p. 95 :

cre-t-um quie-t-um na-t-um

spre-t-um ira-t-um no-t-um

stra-t-um .

But in the following Supines the Stem vowel is not lengthened :
ll-t-um (Itno) sl-t-um (sino)

l-t-um (eo) sS-t-um (sgro)

Pa-s-t-um (pasco, pavi, from root pa) keeps % irregularly.

uiyiiized by VjOOQ IC

200 Latin Wordlare. § 51.

2) In Verbs of Conj. 3., which adopt in the Perfect the Character
I of Conj. 4.: cupi-tum; peti-tum; quaesl-tum; tri-tum ; arces-
si-t-um ; capessi-t-um ; facessl-t-um ; lacessl-tuni.

3) In U-verbs : indu-t-um (indu-Cre).

Except ru-t-um or ru-t-t-um (ru-^re) : lu-?-t-um (lu-Sre) ; fru-I-tum
(fru-i).

4) In Consonant Verbs with the Characters o (after a Vowel) x
p, n, m (with euphonic p), r, i (after a, n) : dic-tum, duc-tum, nac-
tum, tex-tum, ap-tum, comp-tum, par-turn, al-tum, consul-turn, &c

Also stru-c-t-um (from stru-ere for stru-ic-€re).
For Exceptions see III.

On the Vowel-change which occurs in the close syllable of many
Supines : affec-tum (afficere), cul-tum (colere). See § 12. xxiv.

5) In sta-t-um (sta-re), sometimes sti-t-um.
But da-t-um (d&-re) keeps & short

II. T is added to the Stem with mutation of Consonants.

i) The Guttural Characters », §?▼> «▼, 1», in Conj. 3. become o
when t follows (see § 12. xxvi. 11.^: a-c-t-um (ag-6re) ; fra-c-t-um
(fra«g-Sre) ; un-c-t-um (ungu-6re) ; co-c-t-um (coqu-Sre) ; -li-c-
t-um (liwqu-Sre) ; tra-c-t-um (trah-fire) ; ve-c-t-um (veh-fire). Also
vi-c-t-um (viY-6re) ; experre-c-t-um (experg-isci) ; pis-t-um (pins-
gre). See Syllabus.

2) qT is vocalized into -on in

lo-cu-t-um (loqu-i) se-cu-t-um (sequ-i)

3) The Labial character b becomes p :

nu-p-t-um (nub-€re) scri-p-t-um (scrib-Sre)

4) ▼ is vocalized into u in

sol-u-t-um (solv-fire) vol-u-t-um (volv-Sre)

5) R (primitively •) becomes % again :

ge-s-t-um (ger-€re) u-s-t-um (ur-6re)

que-s-t-um (quer-i)

6) Exclusion of the preceding Character occurs in

ul-t-um (ulc-isci) oblT-t-um (obliv-isci)

III. T is joined to the Stem by /, in the following Verbs of Conj.
3. with Nasal Character : frem-/-t-um, gem-/'-t-um, gen-i'-t-um,
vom-Z-t-unL

Also in elic-i'-t-um, fug-i'-t-um, bib-i'-t-um, cub-i'-t-um, strep-f-
t-um, mol-Z-t-um, coal-Z-t-um (coalesc-€re), pos-Z-t-um, lu-i'-t-um,
ru-/'-t-vun, fru-Z-t-imi.

IV. T is added to the Clipt Stem without mutation of Consonants
in the following :

A- verbs : seca- sec-t-um; frica- fric-t-um; eneca- enec-t-um.

E-verbs : doce- doc-t-um; tene- ten-t-um; misere- miser-Z-t-um
(or miser-t-um).

I-verbs : amici- amic-t-um; sanci- sanc-t-um (or sanc-I-tum);
vinci- vinc-t-um; saepi- saep-t-um; aperi- aper-t-um; comperi-

Digitized byCjOOQlC

§51. Siipitie-Stem, 20 1

comper-t-um ; experi- exper-t-um ; opperi- opper-t-um ; ori-
or-t-um; reperi- reper-t-um; sali- sal-t-um; sepdi- sepul-t-um
(with vowel-change) ; vSni- ven-t-um.

The Participle mor-t-u-us from mori-or is an irregular formation,
in the nature of an Adjective, from mor-s, mor-ti-, death.

V. T is joined to the Clipt Stem with mutation of Consonants :

i) A- and £- verbs in T^a-, ▼-•-, vocalise v, and form contractions
11-11 X a ; a-a X an or 5 ; o-a x 6 :

A-verbs : iuva- iu-t-um ; lava- lau-t-um, lo-t-um.

E-verbs: cave- cau-t-um; fave- fau-t-um; fove- fo-t-um ; move-
mo-t-um ; vove- v6-t-unL

2) The Consonant is changed by Assimilation in the following :
E-verbs : auge- auc-t-um ; torre- tos-t-um ; sorbe- sorp-t-um.
I-verb : hauri- haus-t-um (hau-sum).

3) The Consonant is excluded in the following :

E-verbs : indulge- indul-t-iun ; misce- mis-t-um (mix-tum) ; tor-
que- tor-t-um.
I-verbs : farci- far-t-um ; fulci- ful-t-um ; sarci- sar-t-um.

VI. T is joined to the Clipt Stem by i :

1) In the A-verbs crepa- crep-Z-t-um; cuba- cub-/-t-imi ;
plica- plic-Z-t-um (or-atum); doma- dom-Z-t-um; sona- son-Z-t-iun ;
tona- ton-/-t-um ; veta- vet-/-t-um.

2) In most E-verbs : mone- mon-^t-um.

VII. T joined to the True Stem becomes s :
i) In Dental Verbs of Conj. 3. :

a) The Dental is excluded : os becomes x, and a short Vowel is
lengthened by Compensation :
fleet- flexum ; nect- nexum ; amplect- amplexum ; ut- usum ; vert-
versum ; pend- pensum ; fu-«-d- fusum ; c^d- casum ; caed-
caesum ; divid- divlsum.

So clau-sum, cu-sum, -fen-sum, fi-sum, prehen-sum, scan-sum, .
&c But tend- ten-sum or ten-tum; tv-«-d- tun-sum or
tu-sum; nit- ni-sum or nixum.

^) The Dental becomes assimilated to • :
ced- cessimi ; fi-«-d- fissum ; sci-//-d- scissum ; met- messum ;
fre-«-d fressum ; fod-i- fossum ; pat-«- passum ; quat-/- quassum.

Add to these mitt- missum ; pand- passum (or pansum),
and, with vowel-change, fat-/-sc- fessum ; grad-/- gressum.

2) In Guttural Verbs, the Guttural falling out between r and • :
pare- parsiun ; sparg- sparsum ; merg- mersum ; terg- tersum.

3) In Verbs with Character rr or U, dropping one Liquid :

curr- cursum ; verr- versum ; fall- falsum ; cell- celsum.

And, with Vowel-change,

pell- pulsum ; percell- perculsum ; veil- viilsum.

4) The following are special instances :

fig- fixiun ; flu- (flugv-)fluxum ; lab- lapsimi ; prem- pressum.

uiyiuzeu uy x^jv^wVt Iv

52

Com-

202 Latin Wordlore. ^52.

yill. T joined to the Clipt Stem becomes • :

i) After Dentals :

d) The Dental being excluded, &c.

E-verbs : arde- arsum; morde- morsum ; pende- pensum ;
prande- pransum ; ride- risum ; suade- suasum ; sponde- spon-
sum ; tonde- tonsum ; vide- visum ; aude- ausum.

But gaude- (for gav-Id-e-), gavTsum.

In I -verbs : senti-sensum; assenti- assensum ; ordi- orsum.

h) The Dental being assimilated to % :

sede- sessum ; fate- fassum.

2) After Gutturals following r or I :
mulce- mulge- mulsum ; terge- tersum.

3) In special instances :

iube- iussum ; cense- censum ; haere- haesum ; mane- mansum ;
meti- mensum (mentior may have been the original Present).

Note. The importance of the Supine-Stem lies in the Participles
derived from it, not in the Supines themselves, which are com-
paratively little used by Latin authors.

Section IV.
Composition of Verbs.
Sfverb". I. The Prepositions compounded with Verbs are :
^) Separable : —

ab \ ( ante e \ inter prae | subter

absv I circum exY ob praeter super

a J I cum e ) per pro I trans

ad I de in post sub '

B) Inseparable: —
ambi- (amb-), around^ about ; sed- se, apart,

dis-, di-, in different parts or ways ; sus,* up (susque deque),
rSd-, rg-, backy again ;
To which some add por ( = Gr. 'tf^ifyrt)^ an or in ( = ava).
Prepositions in Composition are subject to various mutations.
A)i) A, ab, abs, are written

a before m, ▼ : amitto, avoco.
abs before o, t : abscedo, abscondo, absterreo,
as before p : asporto.

au before f : aufero, aufugio. But afui, afore,
ab before other letters : abeo, abdo, ablgo, abiungo, abludo,
abnuo, abrado, absisto, abundo.
2) Ad remains before b, d, li, I, m, v, and vowels :

adbibo, addo, adhibeo, adiungo, admitto, advoco, adeo^
adoro.
Becomes a- before yn, so, sp :

agnosco, ascendo, aspicio (but ad may remain).

* On 8US, see Consen iL 580. He derives it from sup-us (» supinusX related to Gretk
vtfrt, a locative form, out of which grew sup-s-i, sup-s, sus.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

§52. Composition of Verbs, 203

I3 assimilated before other letters :

accendo, affero, aUudo, annuo, appono, acquiro, arrideo,
assisto, attendo. But adfero, adnuo, &c., are also used.

3) Cum, in-, are written com-, im-, before p, b, m :

comparo, combibo, committo ; impello, immergo.

Assimilated before 1, r : colludo, corrodo, iUido, irruo.

Cum becomes co- before vowels, li, and yn :

Coeo, cohaereo, cognosco. Soignosca Note comedo.

Con-, in-, before other consonants, in- before vowels and li :
concurro, condo, confero, coniungo, connecto, conquiro,
construo, contingo, convoco, incumbo, induco, ineo, inhio,
infringo, ingero, iniungo, innuo, inquiro, insisto, intono,
invado. Con-, in-, may remain before p, 1 : conpono, inludo.

4) Eg, ex, e, are assimilated before f : effero, efficio.
Ex before vowels, li, c, q, p, s, t :

exeo, exhibeo, excedo, exquiro, expello, extruo, extraho.
E before others : educo, eludo, emitto, erumpo, evoco.

5) Ob,* sub, are assimilated before c, r, p, f : occurro, oggan-

nio, oppono, offero, succedo, suppono, suggero, sufficio.

They remain before other letters :

obdo, obeo, obicio, oblino, obruo, obsisto, obtineo, obvenio^
subduco, subiungo, subrideo, subsido, subtraho.

Note omit to, operio, ostendo, surripio, summoveo, summitto.

6) Per is changed only in the Verbs pellicio,pelluceo, peiero.

7) Trans becomes tra before d, n, and i-consonans :

trado, trano, traicio.
Tran- before • : transcribo.
Remains before others : transfero, transeo, transmitto.

8) Ante de post prae super
circimi inter praeter pro subter

remain in composition with Verbs : except

intel-lego prod-eo prod-igo prod-esse, &c.

Pro, usually long, is shortened in a few compounds :
pr6fari, prSfiteri, pr6ficisor.

E) I) Amb- (a/i^») becomes am- before p : amputo, ampflector.

2) Dis- is assimilated before f : differo.

Remains before gutturals, labials, t, i-consonans, and % with

vowel : discerpo, dispello, distraho, disicio, dissero. But

diiudico.
Di- before • with consonant, and before other consonants :

diruo, distringo, divello.
Observe dtr-ibeo for dis-hibeo, dir-imo for dis-imo.

* The form obs wants authority. Such words as obtineo, obtuli, &c. compared
with abstineo* abstuli, shew that it has no euphonic use. Obsolesco, often cited as a
compound of olesco, iS really(with exolesco, insolesco) a compound of soleo
(solesco) ; ob-stinare is a strengthened form of ob-stare ; oscen is from os, for ob
would make it occen ; ostendo is, we believe, for ob-os-tendo, stretch before the
face^dkew : obt e nd o b itself a distinct compound. And, if in the two places of Plautus,
where(insteadof the usual obtrudo) obstrudo is given, the reading is correct, here
too ob-os-trudo may be the real compound : as in each place it is used of putting
food into the mouth. We cannot, therefore, accept Corssen's view, i. zax. ^ j

uiyiuzeu uy ■N^JVjvJVt Iv^

204

Latin Wordlore,

§52-

3) R5d- stands in redamo, redargno, reddo, redeo, redhibeo,

redYmo, redigo, redoleo, redundo.
Rg- in other compounds, as remit to.

4) Sed- appears only in seditio and its derivatives : se- in Verbs,

secubo, seduco, seiungo, sepono, sevoco.

5) Sus- is used before of, p, t :

suscipio, susclto, suspendo, sustineo, sustuli.
su- before sp : suspicio, suspiro.

6) Por- is noted in porricio, porrigo, portendo, polliceor, pol-

lingo, poUuceo, poUuo, possideo.

7) An- (according to Key) in an h el o, ianquiro, intumesco, &c

Note, The following scheme shews the Vowel-changes in the
three Stems of Compound Verbs with vowels, a, e. See § 12. xxiv.

Simple
Verb

Comp.
Present

Comp.
Perfect

Comp.
Supine.

Simple Verbs in question.

I. a

i

a

ago, frango, pango.

2. a

t

a

tango, cado.

3. a

i

e

rapio, cano.

4. a

^

e

^

facio, iacio, lacio, capio.

5. a

^

t

u

salio.

6. a

t

e

fateor.

7. e

i

e

teneo.

8. e

i

e

sedeo, specio, lego, rego, emo, premo.

9. e

t

egeo.

Examples :

1) dfgo
fr^zngo
p/7ngo

2) t^mgo
cdfdo

3) r^pio
cdfno

4) fdfcio
iJcio
Dfcio
Ciipio

5) s^io

6) fdfteor

7) tAieo

8) s/deo
sp/cio
1^0
r/go
/hio
pr^too

9) ^eo
Exceptions

subxgo

effrlngo

compingo

attingo

occxdo

surrtpio

conclno

reftcio .

deXcio

ilhcio

acclpio

prosYlio

conflteor

sustYneo

obsldeo

perspXcio

dihgo

dingo

ezYmo

reprtmo

indlgeo

subSgi subactum subdue,

effrSgi effractum brecJz open,

compSgi compactum fasten together*

attlgi attactum reach,

occldi occftsum die,

surrlpui surreptum steal,

conclnui concentum sing in unison*

refsci ^ refectum repair,

deiectimi throw down.

illectum entice,

acceptum receive

prosoltum spring forth,

— confessus confess,

sustYnui sustentum sustain,

obsSdi obsessum besiege,

perspexi perspectum look through.

dilexi dilectum love,

directum
exemptiun

deiSci
illexi
accSpi
prosYlui

direxi
ezSmi

repressi repressum
indYgui —

appear in the Notes to the Syllabus.

direct,
take out
repress
need.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

§ 53- Syllabus of Stein-Formation in Verbs, 205

II. A few Verbs are compounded with Adverbs, with Nominal,
or with Verbal elements : benefacio, malefacio, satisfacio, satisfio,
satisdo; venumdo, vendo, veneo, pessimido^ valedico, calefacio,
calefio, with a large nimiber of other compounds of facio, fio.

Section V.

Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs. Syiiabus

•^ . of Stem-

A) The First or A-Conjugation contains many SoJ!^'
Verbs, Active and Deponent. Most of the Active are
Transitive ; most of the Deponents Intransitive.

[Many A-verbs are derived from Nouns ; many from Verbs. JFJ^*

Among the former are Imitative Verbs in -Isso : attic-isso. Verbs.
gr ae c-i s s o, c o m-i s s o r. Among the latter

i) Frequentative Verbs, which express repeated or intense ^'re-
action, formed cither in -to, -»o, from Supine-stems : canto, sing ^ive"^'
muck (cano, cantum), curso, run often (curro, cursum) ; so Verbs.
adiuto; apto; capto ; dicto ; iacto; gesto; lacto; nuto; occulto;
rapto ; tento ; tracto ; vecto ; voluto ; cesso ; merso ; penso ; prenso ;
presso; pulso; quasso; verso; grassor; — or by adding t-to, l-tor
to the Clipt Stem: rog-/-to, ask often (rog-o), min-«-tor, threaten
much (min-or) : (so agito, cogito, mussito, strepito, visito) : some-
times to the Supine Stem: haes-/-to, lus-/-to. Frequentatives
may be formed from Frequentatives : cant-/-to ; curs-/-to ; dict-/-to.

2) D em inutive Verbs in -uio, from Present-stems: conscrib- Demi-
\\\o^ scribble \ sorb-illo, w/ 1//.] W^

Perf. I Sup.

A- verbs form -ftvt I fttam

Variant Verbs are cited in the Syllabus ; Deponents in the Notes.

B) The Second or E-Conjugation contains fewer
Verbs than the First, and very few Deponents. Its
Verbs are principally Intransitive. Several have by-
forms in -fire, 3. used by poets: ferv-Sre, frig-Sre,
fulg-ere, strid-gre, turg-gre. A large number pass
into the Inceptive or Inchoative form in -sco, 3.

Many Verbs of this Conjugation are without Supine ; some with-
out Perfect also. Inchoatives in Perfect and Supine follow the for-
mation of the Verb from which they spring.

E-verbs should regularly form -5vl, etmn ; but they usually have
-ttl, -Itnm. Most of them are cited in the Syllabus.

O The Fourth or I-Conjugation has not a large
number of Active Verbs, and few Deponents. Most
are Transitive.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

2o6 Latin Wordlore, § 53.

Dcsidc- [Desiderative Verbs are of this Conjugation, formed from
rative Supine Stems with Suffix -ur-io :

es-ur-io, desire to eat, am hungry,
script-ur-io, desire to write."]

Pftrf. Sup.

I-verbs form -!▼! | -itom

Only Variant and Deponent I-Verbs are cited in the Syllabus.

D) The Third Conjugation contains Consonant
Verbs and U-verbs : Consonant Verbs in each class are
placed in the order of their character : Guttural (c, g,
qn, h, &c) ; Dental (t, d) ; Labial (p, b) ; Nasal (m, n) ;
Liquid (1, r, s).

Nearly all Simple Verbs of this Conjugation are cited.

(Most Compoimds of all Verbs cited are mentioned at the foot .

The formation of Perfect and Supine is the same in the Com-
pounds as in the Simple Verb, unless otherwise stated.

S. means Stem : L. S. lengthened Stem, as in mov-i : Cp. Com-
pound : Cpp. Compounds.)

A-vcrbs. A) First Conjugation : A-verbs : *

am-atum)

. give, put
stand

help, please
wash

' A-Vcrbs.

X. DSre is the only Verb which keeps short & (except in dft).

The Cpp. ctrcumdSre, «r/ rounds pessumdare, ruin, venumdSre, tet for uUt^ satis-
dSre, give security t keep S, and form dedi, ditum. All its other Cpp. pass over
to the Cons. Decl. -do -dlb -dSre, &c., with meanings of several, which (as in
ctrcumdare) do not represent *giviHgt but * placing* or * utting* Hence it
seems clear that this Verb, whether as dSreor-dere, contains within its forms
two Verbs, which in Sanskrit and Greek are distinct : namely, Sk. dA (daddmi),
Gr. (io) iOitifii, give, and Sk. dM (dadkdmi), Gr. (0t) rCBruM,, tet, put. Some
of the Cpp. must be ascribed to the latter Verb: circumdo, abdo, condo,
indo, obdo, &c : while others, dedo, reddo, trado, &c may be more easily
assigned to die former. See M. Lucr. iv. 41.

3. Cpp. (ad con ex in ob per prae re)-sto -sttti. See sisto 3. (Ante circumVsto
-stJ^tL Disto, super-sto, have no Perf. or Sup. The Sup. sUtum has & short in
'stata tempora,' also stator, status, stStura, stStim. But in Cpp.
long quantity prevails: constslturus, exstaturus. Praestitum, L. xliiL
x8 : praestiturus has some authority. R. Pr. tta, Sk. stkA, Gr. oro.

3. luvaturus, SalL Cp. adiuvo. R. Sk. d«t, 'shine.*

4. Lavavi, Ter. lavatum: lautum : whence Ad^. lautus, sttmptu&ux. Older

form lavSre, Veig. Hor. : still older luSre (distinct from lu- loote\ See this
and its Cpp. R. Gr. Xv. See Curt Gr. Et. p. 371.

5. Simple necare, -avi -atum: necui, Phaedr. : from nex, v^MSm/ <^WiM ; Gr. rcxvt,

C0rp$«, R. Sk. mm', 'perish.'

Digitized byCjOOQlC

(am-are

am-avi

Redupl. 1 -atom :

1. d&re d^di

2. stare stfiti

d&tum
statum

L.S. 1 -tom :

3. iiiv-are iuvi

4. l&v-are lavi

iutum
l9tum

153. Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs. 207

-.1 1 -to. :

5. enSc-are

enecui

enectum

kill

6. fric-are

fricui

frictum

rub

7. s6c-are

secui

sectum

cut

-nl 1 -Ytom :

8. cr6p-are

crepui

crepTtum

creaky prattle

9. cub-are

cubui

cubltum

lie down

la d6m-are

domui

domltum

tame

II. sdn-are

sonui

sonltum

sound

12. tfin-are

tonui

tonttum

thunder

13. v6t-are

vetui

vetttum

forbid

6. Cp. perfrico. A Supine fricatum is iised by frico and Cpp. effiico, refrica K.

Sk. ghar. Gr. xpt-. Sec Curt. Gr. Etym. p. 203.

7. Secaturus is found. Cpp. (dis ex re sub)-seco.

8. Cpp. discrepo, differ ; increpo, chide \ (con per) crepo. Rarely -avi -atum.

9. Cpp. accubo, occubo ; (ex in re se>cubo. Rarely -avi -atum. Cumb&e 3. is a

nasalised byform. R. Sic J'l, * lU dawn,* Gr. Kti^
xo. Cpp. (e per) doma R. Sk. dam, Gr. aa/t-, taftte.
XX. Sonaturus, Hor. Cpp. (in per re) -sono. R. Sk. svau, * to sound.'
xa. Cp. intono -ui -atum. A4j. attonitus, R. Sk. tan, Gr. rcr-, /o stretch, Toncre,

son&e 3. are old and poetic forms.
X3. Vetarit, Pers. ; but some read notavit
X4 Simple Verb has plicavi: plicui is rare : plicitum and plicatum. Cpp.

applico, compkco, explico, implico, take both forms of Perf. and Sup. The Verbs

duplico, multiplico, supplico are not Cpp. andhave-avi -atum. Gr. irXizm.

Sec plecto 3.
15. Cpp. dimico, combat, dimicavi ('dimicui/ Ov.), dimicatum ; emico, emicui.
41) The Inchoative Verbs formed from A-verbs are :
From gelare : congel-ascSrc -avi -atum, ^nrrsr.

— labare : lab-asc&c (no Perf. or Sup. ), begin to VMver,

— hiarc : hiscSre . . (no Perf. or Sup.), ga^, whisper ; M. Lucr. iv. 66.

— .... dehisc&e „ „ „
^ Deponent A-verbs (all conjugated regularly in -WtX, -atllS).

Those marked * have also an Active form in -O,
Latin ; but an original Active may be ascribed to alL

•are^ in general peculiar to old

abomin-ari, abhor
*adminictil-ari, /n»/, sup-
port

advers-ari, oppose
*SkA\x\^r\, Jjatter

aemul-ari, riintl

aludn-ari, dote
*alierc-ari, wrangle

ampiex-ari, embrace

ampull-ari, talk big

ancill-ari, act as handmaid

apric-ari, sitn oneself

aqu-ari, /etch water
*arbitr-ari, thinh, deem

architect-ari, biiild

argiunent-ari, prove
*argut-ari, quibble
'aspem-ari, despise

assent-ari, comply, flatter

adstipul-ari, support

auction-ari, hald cm auction
*aucup-4ri, catch

avers-ari, dislihe

\ soothsay

'augur-an,
*auspic-ari,

auxili-ari, aid
*bacch-ari, fr7v/(as a Bac-
chanal) (de)
•bell-ari, make war
*bubulcit-ari, tend kitu
*cachinn-ari, laugh loud

calumni-ari, cavil, chicane

cavill-ari, banter

caupon-ari, sell by rettUl

caus-ari. allege

comiss-ari, rrvel
*comit-ari, accompany
*comment-ari, rentarh
^'communic-ari, impart

contion-ari, harangue

conflict-ari, contend

con-ari, endeavour

consili-ari, counsel

consol-ari, cont/ort
*conspic-ari, behold
*contempl-ari, view

convici-ari, reviU
*con\vr-9x\,/east

comic-ari, chatter
*crimin-ari, accuse
*cunct-ari, delay
*depecul-ari, pillage

de&pic-ari, despise

devers-ari, lodge

digladi-ari, combat
*dign-ari, deem worthy

dedign-ari, disdain
*domin-ari, rule

clucubr-ari, worh out, com-
pose

c^vA-wAfJetut
•exsecr-ari, curse
*fabric-ari, fashion
''fabul-ari, talk (con-)

famnl-ari, seroe

f-ari, speak {zi- ef- prac- pro-)
•fener-ari. lend on interest

feri-ari, keep holiday
*fi\x^xx-9i\, fluctuate

uiyiuzeu uy x^j ^^^ wVJ Iv^

208

Latin Wvrdlore.

§53-

-avt (al) I -Ytlun or -fttiun :

14. pllc-are plicavi (-ui)
-Hi or -avt | •fttmn.

15. mTc-are micui (-avi)

plicTtum (-atum) fold
-micatum glitter

frument-ari, lay in ccm
*firustr-ari, baffle
*firutic-ari, sprout

fur-ari, steal

gesticul-ari, fnake gestures

glori-ari, boast

graec-ari, live sumptuously
{like Greeks)

grass-ari, eulvance^ attack

grat-ari, \ congratulate

gratul-ari, i (con)

gratific-ari, do a kindness

grav-ari, grudge

hariol-ari, dixnne

helu-ari, eat gluttonously

hort-ari, exkort (ad- ex-)

hospit-ari, lodge
*iacul-ari, dart (e-)

imagin-ari, imagine

imit-ari, imitate

indlgn-ari, disdain

infiti-ariy deny

insdi-ari, plot

interpret-ari, explain
*ioc-ari,^Vj/
*laet-ari, rejoice
*lacriin-ari, weep

lament-ari, lament

latrocm-ari, rob

lenocin-ari, pander

lidt-ari, bid (in auction)

lign-ari, collect timber

lucr-ari, make gain
*luct-ari, struggle (col- ob-

re)
*ludific-ari, make mock
*Iuxuri-ari, wanton

machin-ari, contrive

materi-ari,y^// timber
*me^-ari, heal
*meiuUc-«ri, beg

medit-ari, con, plan (prae)

meic-ari, buy
*meiidi-ari, take-siesta
*met-ari, measure
^min-ari, ) tkreaten
*nunit-ari ) (com-)

mir-ari, wonder (ad- de-)
*iniaer-ai1, pity (com-)

*moder-ari, rule, restririn

modul-ari> tune
•moriger-ari, comply
*mor-ari, delay (com- dc- im-

ns)
*muner-ari, revford (re-)
*mutu-ari, borrow

negoti-ari, dobtainess
*nict-ari, «««^

nidul-ari, make nest
*nundin-ari, market

aug-ari, tri/fe
"nutric-ari, nurture

obvers-ari, be pruent (to
ught or naind)

odor-ari» scent out
*otmn-sai,/orpbode

<^>er-ari, work
*opm-ari, tkink
*opitul-ari, kelp
•opson-ari, buy meat
*o«cit-ari, yawn
*08cul-ari, kiss

oti-ari, be at leisure

^hMX-sait/orage
*pacific-ari, makepeace
*pal-ari, wander
*palp-ari, stroke, Jiatter

pandicul-ari, stretck oneself

parasit-ari, play tke buffoon

patrocin-ari, patronise

peroont-ari, • ) ^^ «^

perctmct-ari, i wyw»

peregrin-ari, dwell as a
stranger

pericUt-ari, venture, be in
peril

philosoph-ari, pkilosopkise
*pigner-ari, take-piedge

pigr-ari, be la^

-^lac-vTitfisk (ex-)

pollidt-ari, promise
*popul-ari» lay waste (de)

praed-ari, plunder
*praestol-ari, wait for

praevaric-ari, walk crooked,
play tke rogue

prec-ari, pray (com> de-
im-)

*proeli-ari, figkt a battle (de-)
ratiocin-ari, reason
record-an, remember
refrag-ari, vote against, op-

*riin-ari, rake out, searck

rix-ari, wrangle

mstic-ari, live in the coun-
try
*tacn-9n,kiu

:^y^' . \ inquire

acrut-ari, searck out (per-)
scurr-ari, play tke buffoon
*sect-ari, follow (as- con-

m)
sermocin-ari, discourse
8ol-ari, comfort
qMUi-ari, tMx^(ex-)
specul-ari, look out
*stabul-ari, be in a stall
*8dpul-ari, bargain (ad- re-)
6tomach-ari, be angry
sufirag-ari, vote witk
Mspic-ari, suspect
teigiver»ari, skuffle

call to witness,
bear witness (at*
con- de- ob- pro-
testari)
tric-ari, make difficulties
tnst-ari, be sad
trudn-ari, poiu in tke

scales
*tumultu-ari, make an up-
roar
*tut-ari, defend
urin-ari, dive
vad-ari, kald to bail
*vag-ari, waneUr (di- e- per-)
vaddn-ari, propkesy
^velific-ari, sail
Telit-ari, skirmisk
•vener-ari, venerate (dc)
ven-ari, kunt
verecond-ari, be sky
ytx%-^ be engaged, dwell

(con- de- di-)
•vocifer-ari, cry cut

test-an,

tetdfic-l
ari, I

Most of these Verbs are derived from Nouns, a few firom Verbs. Adulare (i) may
be the same word as adorare, but applied to meaner subjects (dog» flatterer, &c.) ; 00
aemulor, imitor, see Corss. Kr. B. 353: cunctor, R. Sk. sfaijJt, 'hesitate:* con-
templari is primarily an augural word, to observe tke heavens (templa caeli) : populare
probably for spo-spulare, from spolium, Gr. <rirvAor.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

§53-

Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs. 209

B) Second Conjugation : E-verbs : *

(Verbs which have also an Inchoative form of Conj. 3. are printed
in Italics.)

£*Terbf>

RedupL 1 -Slim :

I. mord-eTe

mdmordi

morsum

biU

2. pend-ere

p^pendi

pensum

hang

3. spond-ere

spdpondi

sponsum

contract

4. tond-ere

tdtondi

tonsum

shear

L. S. 1 tmii :

5. civ-ere

cavi

cautum

beware

d filv-ere

favi

fautum

favour

7. fiSv-ere

fbvi

fotum

cherish

8. m6v-€re

movi

motum

move

9. v6v-ere

vovi

votum

vow

\o, pitv-ire

pavi

—

quake

L. S. 1 sum

11. sSd-ere

sedi

sessum

sit

12. vTd-ere

vidi

visum

see

1| sum:

13. prand-a«

prandi

pransum

dine

1 1 no Sup.

14. coniv-ere

conivi

—

blink

15. strid-ere

stridi

creak

16. ferv-ire

ferbui

—

boil

' E-verbs.
X. MSmordi is usfid. Cpp. (ad prae re)-mordeo .mordi -morsum. See Cons.

Krii. B.4y>. R. Sk. matti,
a. Peadere is the Intrans. Verb corresponding to the Trans, pendire 3. AoMg^ : whence

pondus, weighit and Frequent, penaare, pander. Cpp. appendeo, impendeo,

(de proVpendeo -pendi -pensum.

3. Spopondi, euphonic for spo-spondi ; SpSpondi is found. Q>p. despimdeo, hetrothp

respondeo, answer, -spon^ -sponsum. See Corss. ICril, N. zza. The Verb
means ' to give a legal contract/ ' sponaonem fitcere.*

4. Also tStondi. Q>p. attondeo, detondeo -tondi -tonsum. The Verbs z>4 shew that

Cooipounds drop the reduplicative syllable. R. r^«» Curt Cr. Et, p. aaz.
5* Cy. praecaveo. R. Sk. skn, 'hide.'
& 7. See Corss. Krit. B. 56, 57-

8. Cpp. (a ad com de di e pro r2 sfi sum>moveo. See Curt. Gr. Et. 304.

9. Cp. devoveo.

la Inchoative expavesco, expSvi, become terrified.

11. Qpp. (drcum 8uper)>sedea But assld'eo, possSdeo, and (con de dis in oh prae re

sub)-dUeo -sSdi -sessum. R. Sk. ead, Gr. ^.

12. Q]p. On per prae pro)-video. R. Sk. vid, Gr. h^.

13. Prandeo is 'to eat the prandium ' ^ri-, dies- f) or earlier meal (answering to the

present English 'luncheon/ French 'dejeuner k la fourchette *)> distinguished
from cena, which answers to the present English 'dinner/ formerly 'supper.'

14. Also conixL The form nlv- is corrupted from gnigv-, g twice foiling out ; R.

%\i.JAnu, ywp, genu, knee. See C. Krii. B. 56.

15. Byform ittridSr&

16. Byform fervSre, whence another Perf. fervi. Ferbui b euphonic for fervui,

R. Sk. gkar, Gr. 9«p-. See C Krit. B. 165. 303. Inch, defenresco, deferbui :
effsrvesco, efferbul

P

Digitized byCjOOQlC

2IO

Latin Wordlore.

$53*

-«▼! I

17. del-ere

18. fl-€re

19. n-€re

20. -plere

21. vi-ere

22. ci-ere

23. 'dUre

24. sU'ire

25. arc-ere

26. coerc-ere

27. exerc-ere

28. cSr-ere

29. deb-ere

30. ddl'ire

31. hib-ere

32. iic-ere

33. llc-ere

34. m€r-ere

m6n-ere

ndc-gre

par-ere

pl5.c-ere

39. praeb-ere

40. terr-ere

37.
38.

delevi

flevi

nevi

plevi

(vievi)

-olSvi
suevi

arcui
coercui
exercui
carui

debui

dolui

habui

iacui

licui

merui

monui

nocui

panii

placui

praebui

terrui

deletum

blot out

fl€tum

weep

netum

spin

pletum

fill

vietum

bind with twigs

—

stir up

(oUtum)

be wont

suetum

(-artum)

ward off

coercUum

restrain

exercltum

exercise

carltum

be without^ be in

want of

debltum

owe

doUtum
habltum

grieve
have

iacUum

lie

licltum

be bid for

merltum

serve ^ earn

monltum

advise

nocltum

hurt

parTtum

appear y obey

placltum

please

praebltum

afford

territum

affright

17. Some make this Verb de-olSre, comparing abolCre. More probably it is a Cp. of
le-, tfiuar, True Stem of lino.

x8. Cpp. affleo, defleo. Compare Gr. ^Af- ^Av-, L. flu-. See Curt. 30a.

19. Gr. VC-. Eng. tuedle, G. nadel.

•a Cpp. compleo, impleo, oppleo, suppleo, (ex re>-pleo, R. Sk. pfi> Gr. »A«>.

ax. Hence vitis, vimen.

aa. R. Sk. ifi, 'sharpen.' The PerC and Sup. are formed from cire 4.

83. The root of growth, ol-(BSk. or, L. al- ar- or-), is distinct from the root of smeli,
ol (B=odX Olesco has the Cpp. adolesco, iyvtv «/, adolevi, adultum : inolesco
-tvi, £yow m : whence ind-oles ; and subolesco, whence suboles. The Transi-
tive Verbs adoleo, it^/lamf sacri/UtaUy, aboleo, aboliskf with their IndioatiYes
(adolesco, abolesco), have a distinct sense, and may possibly be derived from the
word oleum, implying an old practice <^ using ^to make the sacrifices buna
q;>eedily : Veig. iv. 344 : Pingue super oleum infundens ardentibus extxs.

34. SuCre b found in Luar., but suesco is the Verb in classical use. Cpp. assuesco,

(c(m de in)-suesco, suevi, suetiun. Also mansuesco -suevi -suetum, grow ntUd^
tamt. See Curt asi ; M. Lvcr. i. 60, iv. zaSa.

35. a6. 37. R. Gr. ^iAx-, cpx-.

30. Inchoatives : (con in)-dolesoo -doluL

31. Cpp. debeo (dehibeo); praebeo; (piae-hibeo) ; (ad co ex in per pro red>liIbeo

-hibui >hibitum. But posth^beo.
33. Cpp. (ad drcum sub>-iaoeo. The intransitive Verb corresponding to iacio, cmst
See thb in Omj. 3.

33. See Curt. 456 ; and p. 19a of this Gr.

34. See Curt. 333.

35. Cpp. (ad con pne)-moneo. R. Sk. num,

37. Cpp. appareo, compareo, appear. ^

38. Cpp. displiceo -plicui -plldtum ; (com perVpIacea Sk. pri.
40- Cpp. absteneo ; (con de ex per)-terTea R. Sk. /nu, Qt, rpc>.

lOOgle

553-

Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs. 2ii

41. UU'ire

tacui

taciturn

be silent

.42. vdl'ire

valui

valltum

be strong^ be well

•ni 1 -torn :

43. d6c-ere

docui

doctum

teach

44- misc-ere

miscui

imistum
*mixtum

\ mingle

45. tSn-ere

tenui

tentum

hold

46. torr-ire

tomii

tostum

scorch^ roast

-ni 1 -s«m :

47. cens-ere

censui

censum

value, vote

•ni 1 no Sup.

48.^-ere

^:ui

—

want

49. mln-ere

-minui

—

jut

5a <51-ere

olui

smell

51. sorb-ere

sorbui

suck up

52. stud-ere

studui

—

study

53. dc-ire

acui

—

be sour

54. dr-ire

ami

be dry

55. cdl-ire

calui

be hot

56. call-ire

callui

be hard-skinned

57. cand-ere

candui

glow white

58. <r/4r-/r<?

clarui

be bright y illustrious

S^.pr-ire

florui

bloom

60. frond-ire

frondui

be in leaf

61. horr-ire

hormi

shudder, be rough

iyi, langu-ere

langui

„..

be faint

6y,UU-ere

latui

—

lie hid

41- Cpp. (con ob re)-dceo, ticui : no Sup. : usuaDy -dcesco, -ticui.

42. Cp. praeraleo : others form Inch, (con e in re>-valesco -valui -valitum.

43- Cpp. (ad de c)-doceo. R. Sk. di^, Gr. Uuc.

44- For mic-«c-eo, Cpp. commisceo, immisceo, (ad inter per re)-misceo, R. Sk. fnufr,

Gr. ^y.
45« Qp^ attineo (con de dis ob per re sus)-tineo -tinui -tentum, R. Sk. tnn^
Gr. Ter%

46. R. Pr. tarshf ' be dry,' Gr. rcpa-. Inch, torresco, Lucr. iii. 890.

47. tpp. accenseo, recenseo, succenseo. Onsitus occurs on Inscrr. : hence recensitus.

48. Cp. indig-eo -ui, Gr. axnv,

49. Cpp. emin-eo -ui : immineo, no Per£ ; promineo.

5a Cpp. (red sub)-oleo. Subst odor. R. C^. o^m, 68«a^

51. Cpp. (ab ex ob re)-6orbeOk Gr. po^*-.

33. Gr. odtcvSm.

53. IxKh. acesco -acui Cp. coacesco. R. Gr. wt-, tkarpen,

54- Inch, aresca Cp. exar-esco -ui.

55- IndL cal-esco -uL Q^, (con per)-cal-e8C0 -ui, grcfw hot.

56. Inch. Cpp. occall-esco, percall-esco -ui.

57. Inch. C^ (ex in)-cand-esco -uL Cando 3. (used in Cpp. only in the Traak

fonn. See Corss. K, B, ixt.)

58. Inch- claresco, Cp. incIar-c»co -ui, become bright, tllustrums.
59- Inch, floresco, Cp efflor-esco -ui, bUom.

6a Inch, frond-esco, Cp. refrond-eaco -ui, cotne into leaf again.

€1. Cpp. (ab ex in>-hotreo. Inch, horresco. Cpp. cohorresco, (ex in per)>horr-«8CO -u^

shttdder. R. Pr. harsh, 'to bristle/ Or. it^iffvu.
6a. Inch, languesco, Cpp. (e ob re)-langu-esco 'm,growfaini, R. Gr. Aay-.
^3. Inch, lat-eaco, C9. delit-esco -uL Frequent ladto i. See C Kr. B. 7^ ^^^T^

P a uiymzeu uy '.^OOQIC

212

Latin Wordlore.

§53*

64. Itqu-ire

ircui

65. mdd'ire

madui

66. marc-ire

marcui

67. nit-ire

nitui

68. pall-ire ,

pallui

69. ^dK/-^4?

patui

70. put-ire

putui

71. putr-ire

putrui

72. ngf-Zr^

73. rUb-ire

rigui
rubui

74. j/7-/r<?

silui

75. sord-ire

sordui

76, splend-ire

splendui

77. squal-ire

squalid

78. j/i?/-/r^

79. /^A^^^

stupui
tabui

8a /4>-<^<?

tepui

81. ^)W-^^

timui

82. torp-ire

torpui

83. tUm-ere

tumui

84. z^-^^

vigui

85. T^r-^^

virui

No Per£ | No

Sup. :

86. av-ere

long

87. daud-ere

limp

88. clu-ere

be called

89. dens-ere

thicken

9a foet-ere

befetid

91. frend-ere

gnash teeth

92. maer-ere

mourn

melt

be wet

—

fade

—

shine

—

bepale

—

be open

—

smell rank

be rotten

be stiff

be red

besilent

—

be dirty

—

glitter

—

beJUthy

—

be amcLzed

pine

be lukewarm

—

fear

z

be torpid
swell

—

be vigorous

"—

begreen

93. pigr-ere

94. poll-ere

be sluggish

be powerful

95. v«g-ere

excite

96. aegr-ire

97. alb-ire

be sick
be white

98. calv-ire

be bald

99. can-ire

begrey

64. Inch, liquesco ; Cp. deIiqu<«8CO, ddiaii, begin U meli.

65. Inch, mad-esco -ui, becomu moist. Gr. /um^%

66. Inch. taaactscOt/adet R. Pr. mar^ Gr. (Mp-.

67. Q>. eniteo. Inch, nitesco, enitesco -ui, shine forth,

68. Inch, pallesco, Cpp. (ex im>pan-esco -ui, grmufaie. R. Gr. »f A-

69. Inch, pat-esco -uL R. Gr. vtro*.

7a IndL pQtesco -ui, be^fiml ) ^ gk. p^y. Gr. «i>^

71. Inch. putr-«sco -ui, become rotten )

73. Inch. rig-«sco -ui. Cpp. (di ob)>rig:*«sco -ui, grow stUf.

73. Inch, rub-esco, Cp. erub^sco -ui, blush. R. Pr. mdh^ Gr. {pv^.

74. Inch, sl-esco -ui, become silent.

75. Indi. sord-esco -ui, become meant worthless.

76. Cp. resplendea Inch, tplend-esco, exsplend-esco -ui, shine out.

78. Inch, stup-esco, obstup-esco -ui, stand anuued. See Curt. ax8,

79. Inch, tabesco ; Cpp. (ex in)-tab-esco -ui, begin to pine. See Curt. 238.
8a Inch, tep-esco -uL R. Sk. tap.

8x. Cpp. (prae 8ub>timeo. Inch. Cpp. (ex per>tim-esco -uL

82. Inch, torp-esco, Cp. obtorp^sco -ui, grow torpid. See Corss. K. B. 438.

83. Inch, tum-esco, C^ intum-esco -ui, begin to swelL R. Sic Ak.

84. Inch, vig-esco -uL R. Sk. uksh^ 'grow strong,' Gr. vy>. But see Curt t86.

85. Inch, vir-esco. Cp. revir-esco -ui, becomegr^n agaist,

86. See Curt. 309.

88. R. Sk. s^ru, Gr. «A¥-.

96. Inch, aegresco, become sick.

97. Inch, albesco, exalbesco, become white. ^ .

Digitized by VjOOQIC

8 53- Syllabus of Stefn-Forfnation in Verbs. 2 1 3

loa flacc-ire

befiabby

106. renld-ire

smile

10 1, fldv-ire

be yellow

107. scdt^ire

bubble up

102. hib-^e

be dull

108. sin-ere

be old

103. lad-ere

be milky

109. Hm^re

be moist

104. llv-ire

be livid

iia HV'ire

be dank

105. mite-ire

be mouldy

-si 1 -torn:

III. poUuc-ere

polluxi

poUuctum

make a feast

112. aug'ire

113. indulg-ere

auxi

auctum

ina'ease

indulsi

indultum

indulge

114. mulg-ere

mulsi

mulctum

milk

115. torqu-ere

torsi

tortum

twist

116. lug-ere

luxi

—

mourn

^|.nm:

117. mulc-ere

mulsi

mulsum

soothe

118. tcrg-ere

tersi

-tersum

wipe

119. ard'ire

arsi

arsum

takefire

120. nd-ere

risi

risum

laugh

121. suad^ere

suasi

suasum

persuade

122. iub-ere

iussi

iussum

command

123. m^n-ere

mansi

mansum

remain

124. haer-ire

haesi

haesum

stick

si 1 no Sup. :

125. alg-ere

alsi

be cold

126. Julg-ire

fulsi

—

glittef

12J. turg'ire

tursi

—

swell

128. urg-ere

ursi

—

urge

129. frig-ere

-frixi

—

be cold

130. lUc-ire

luxi

— —

shine

xoa See Cons. AV. B. 28. Byform scatSre, 3. Lucr. v. 4a
108. InchoatWe, sen^esco, consen-esco -uit grow old.
(The other Verbs from 96 to ixi form Inchoatives, which denote beginning of state :
hat are without Perf. and Stip. except incanesco, which has Pert incanui.)
1X2. Cpp. (ad ex>-aogeo. Inch, augesco. R. Sk. uksk,
XX3. Sec Cons. K. Beitr. 38a. This derivation from aA^yt* is very doubtful
XX4. Cp. immulgeow R. Sk. mafj\ Gr. a-^Ay-.
115. Cpp. (con dedis ex in re>torquea R. Tp«ir-.
I x6. See Curt. 182. TTie Subst. luctus points to a Sup. of that form.
1x7. Cpp. (de per>mulcea See Curt. 337.
xx8. Cpp. (abs de>tergeo. See Corss. K. B. 437.

X19. Inch, ard-esco, exard-esco -arsL Corss. derives fi^>m aridus, K. B. ixx.
xaa Cpp. arrideo, irrideo, (de sub).rideo. R. Sk. kri4, 'play.'
xax. Cpp. (dis per>suadea R. Sk. sv€u^ 'sweeten,' Gr. a«-.
X23. From ius- hibere.
X23. Cpp. (per re>maneo. R. Gr. ^mh,

124. Cpp. cohaereo, (ad in>haerea Inch, haere-sco, haesi and Cpp.
X26. Cn>. affiilgeo, efiiilgeo, reftilgeo. Inch, fulg-csco, fuIsL Byform ftilgcre, 3. R.

Sk. bkrAj, Gr. ^Aryu.
X28. Cp. a^urgea R. Pr. varj\ ' to press/ Gr. f fi^iy-.
X29. Inch, frigesco, Cp. refiigesco -frixi R. Ox. pty-.

«3a Cpp. coUuceo (e re sub)-hiceo. Inch, luccsco, Cp. Ulucesco -luxi, dawn.
R. Sk. rwf, Gr. Avx-.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

214

Semideponent

131. aud-ere

132. gaud-ere

133. sdl-ire

Deponent :

134. llc-eri

135. m6r-eri

136. miser-eri

137. tu-eri

138. v6r-eri

139. r-eri

140. ftt-eri

141. mSd-gri

Latin Wordlore,

ausus sum
gavlsus sum
solltus sum

licftus

merltus

miserftus

tuTtus

veritus

ratus

fassus

§53^

dare
rejoice
be wont

bid/or
deserve
pity

vieWy protect
fear, respect
think
confess
heal

I-verbs.

C) Fourth Conjugation : I-verbs : ^

(aud-Ire, aud-ivi (ii), aud-itum.)
Variant:

-!▼! (U) 1 -tmii :

1. s6pa-Tre

2. Ire (eo)

3. quire

sepelivi

ivi

quivi

sepultum

Itum

quttum

bury
be able

-ul 1 -tarn :

4. sSl-Tre

5. ap€r-ire

6. 6p€r-Tre

salui

aperui

operui

(saltum)
apertum
opertum

leapy dance

open

cover

-1 1 torn:

7. comp6r-Ire

8. repSr-ire

compgri
reppferi

compertum
repertum

find
discover

(C. S.-) -torn

9. vSn-ire

veni

ventum

conu

131. Corss. derives from ftvid-us.

132. Corss. derives from a form gavidus. R. Gr. y^F*.

133. Probably connected with the forms Sk. sarvas, E.L. soUus, Gr. iAo«, &c Cp.

assolco. An Inch, form solesco must be assumed whence in-solesco» ex-solesoo^
ob-solesco -€vi (tnsolens, exoletus, obsoletusX

134. Cp. polUceor, promts*. See 33.
X35. Cpp. commereor, (de pro)-mereor.

137. Cpp. (con in)-tueor. Sec Corss. K. B. 437.

138. Cpp. (re sub>vereor. R. Pr. r«r,* cover.*

14a Cpp. diffiteor, diffessus ; (con pro>fiteoc -fessus. R. (Jr. ^-.
X41. Medicatus is used as P&rtic. of medeor.

» I.Verbs.

9. Cpp. (ab ad ante drcum co ex in inter ob per prae praeter prod red sub trans)-eo.

Also v6n-eo, vCn-fte (venum ireX to he told, quasi-passive of vcndere (venum-

dareX to sell: has no Sup. : Past. Pardc venditus, vendendus. Ambio, as audia

3> Cp nequeo. See p. x88.

4. Salii is used. Cpp. (ad de ex in pro re sub)-^o -silui or -siUi, -sultum. R. Pr.

*«r,Gr. oAA-.
5-8. These Verbs with experior, oppaior, peritus, periculum, belong to a lost verb

perire, try. R. Pr. par^ 'accomplish.* Comperior is used by SallusL
9. Cpp. (ad circum con de e in inter ob per prae pro re super $ub>venia R. Sk.
gam. See Cons. Kr. B. 58.

uiyiiized byCjOOQlC

S53-

Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs. 215

-•1 1 -tarn :

la amic-ire

amixi

amictum

clothe

II. fare-Ire

farsi

fartum

stuff

12. ftilc-Ire

fulsi

fultiun

prop

13. sane-Ire

sanxi

sanctum

consecrate

14. sarc-Ire

sarsi

sartum

mend

15. vine-ire

vinxi

vinctum

bind

16. saep-Ire

saepsi

saeptum

hedge in

17. haur-Ire

hausi

haustum

drain

18. rauc-ire

rausi

-

-

be hoarse

^1 .ram:

19. sent-Ire

sensi

sensum

feel

No Perf. 1 No Supine :

2a caecut-Ire

be blind

27.

gl6c-ire cluck

21. cr6c-ire

croak

28.

grunn-ire grunt

22. dcmcnt-Ire

be disir acted

29.

hinn-Tre neigh

23. fgr-fre

stHke

30. inept-Ire be silly

24. f€r6c-ire

be wild

31.

prur-Ire ttch

25. gest-Ire

be eager

32.

singult-ire sob

26. gann-ire

yelp.

Deponent :

-Itu:

33. bland-Iri

blanditus

fawn^ flatter

34.»larg.iri

largltus

bestow

35.*ment-iri

mentltus

speak falsely

36.*m6l-iri

molltus

plan

37.*part-iri

partltus

divide

3a p6t-iri

potltus

get possession of

39.*pun-iri

punltus

punish

40.*sort-iri

sortltus

allot, take by lot

-to* (from C.

S.):

4i.*exp€r-iri

expertus

experience

42. oppSr-iri

oppertus

wait for

43. 6r-iri

ortus

arise

JO. Also amicm.

IX. Cpp. differdo (con in re)-ferdo -fersi -fertum.

XX C^ efibldo, suifulcio. Derived from fsxxc^prop, C

\y. %arn-c-\o is nasalised, as sa-c-er shews. R. Gr. <ra-o(.

14. Cpu reurdo.

X5. Cp. de^ondo.

x6. Gr. <nfK^. Saepes, praesaepe, saepire, shew the same lalHalism as lupus« &c, p. 59.

17. Also hausum. Cp. exhaurio.

19. Cpp. (coo per)-sentio.

3x. It is evident that the O in the verhs crodre* cr9akt glocire, clwk^ must have

had the hard k-sound.
33-4a These are derived from Noons. Cpp. subblandior: (di e)-larg:ior: emen-

tior : (e re>molior : (im dis)-pertior.
43. Otior, Gr. jjp- has Cpp. (ad co ex ob)-orior -ortus.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

2l6

Latin Wordlore.

8 53-

(from C. S.)
44.*assent-Iri

45. met-iri

46. ord-iri

assensus
.mensus
orsus

agree

measure

begin

Oms.
and

D) Third Conjugation : Consonant * and U- verbs :

I. Consonant Verbs.

i) Verbs with Reduplicated Perfect-Stem. (Compounds drop
Reduplication; except those of disco, posco, sisto, -dere, and,
sometime^ of c u r r o.)

RedupL I

1. difc-5re

2. posc-^re

3. pa-«-g-€re

4. pu-«-g-€re

5. ta-«-g-€re

6. sist-ftre

7. -d-€re

8. tend-5re

9. dln-€re

didlci

poposci

peprgi

pupGgi

tetrgi

-st!d

-dldi

tetendi

cecini

pactum

punctum

tactum

(-stltum)

-ditum

tentum

cantum

learn

demand

fasten

prick

touch

stop

put, give

stretch

sing

44-46. Assendor from sendre : mettor, Sk. mSt^ Suff. -tl : Cpp.(dedi e)-metiar •men-
sus. This Participle is difficult Perhi^ the Pres. also was nasalised, but dropt
11 to avoid confusion with mentior. Cp. of ordior, exordior -orsus. R. or- with
suflT. d-i. Virgil uses nutriri as Depon.: 'nutritcMr divam/ G. \L 435.
Inchoative from Verbs of Conj. 4.

dormi- edormi-sco edormivi

— obdormi-sco obdonnivi

scivi
consdvi
descivi

sci-sco

consci-sco

desci*sco

tUepout

obdormitum

faUatUiP

scitum

ratify

conscitum

resolvt

desdtum

rrtfoU

lescitum

team

* Consonant Verbs.

X. Cpp. (ad con de e per prae)-disco. For dic-sc-a See p. 195.
a. Cpp. (de ex re>-posco. For porc-sc-o. R. Sk. praxfti^ 'ask, pray.' Hence,
prec-ari, procus.

3. Cpp. compingo, impingo -p€gi -pactum; oppango, on>egL (De re)-pangOw

R. Sk. p<uft Gr. iray, whence ako pac-i-sc-or, pax, pignus, &c

4. (}pp. (com dis ex inter)-pungo. On the probable common origin of pongere,

pingere, pix, &c, and Gr. vci;ffi), iruepov, vouciAof, from a Pr. R. pik^ prnk^ U
prick, dot, &c, see Curt Gr. Et. I. 133, 4. Compare 'Ejo^peak, piht^ pick,
ptck. Joke, pock, (Can Sk./u' be dtedheit?)
5* Q^ attfngo, ati3gv attactum ;(con ob)-tingo -tTgi -tactum. The root-form tlg^
B used by Plautus : also attlgo {Gt, ray- : compare tingere). See Curt. 3x7.

6. Sisto, redupL of sto, is trans, orintrans., but iu Cpp. are intrans. (ab ad am de ex

in ob per re sub)-8isto -stitL Sup. (-stltum, -stfltum) is very rare.

7. Cpp. of -do -dere (for dire) are (ab ad con de c in ob per pro red sub traVdo

-didi -ditum. Also credo (Sk. sfrad-dadhAmi, ' put trust, believe *), -didi, -d&um,
trust , and vendo -dkii -ditum, uU, See d&e. The Partic. praedltus, etubud,
is a relic of praedSre, not otherwise occurring.

8. Cpp. attendo (con dis in ob prae 8ub)-tendo -tendi -tentum : (de ex os pro iv)

-tendo -tendi -tentum, sometimes -tensum. R. Sk. tan, Gr. ror- T«y-, with suf-
fix d.

9. Cpp. ocdno, suodno -cinui -centum ; to (coo pne^dno.

Perf. or Sup. Occecini is found.

Interdnob ttdao, OD

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

5 53-

Syllabus of Stem-Forntation in Verbs. 217

10. pir-gre

11. toll-€re

RedupL I -SI

12. parc-gre

13. c&d-^re

14. caed-€re

15. pend-€re

16. tu-«-d-Sre

17. curr-€re

18. faU-^re

19. pell-€re

20. (-cell-€re)

pep&ri

partum

bring forth

susttUi

sublatum

take up

peperci

parsum

spare

cedTdi

casum

fall

cecldi

caesum

cut, beat, kUl

pependi

pensum

weigh

(tutiidi)

tusum

thump, pound

cucum

ctirsum

run

fefeUi

^sum

deceive

^ecQli)

pulsum
(-culsum)

drive

push

2) Verbs with Present-stem strengthened in Perfect

(S-)|-tmii:

21. fSc-€re (/-o) feci factum make, do

ieci
liqui

22. iac-€re («-o)

23. li-;»-qu-dre

iactimi
-lictum

throw
leave

lou Fut. Part pftriturus.

II. The old Pofect tetiQi b used by Plaut and Lucr. Tuli, with dropt reduplication,
is iised as the Perfect of fero. See Irregular Verbs, p. 184. Latum, used as Sup.
of fero, is for t-Iatum from'Sk. («i/, Gr. t><9L', L. tol-, li/tt indurt. The Cpp.
of fero are : (ante circum de per prae pro re trans>-fero -tuli -latum ; affero
attuli allatum ; aufero abstuli ablatum ; confero contuli coUatum ; differo
distuH dilatum ; effero extuli elatum ; infero intuti illatum ; offero obtuli obla-
tum ; su£fero sustuli sublatum (which two forms are borrowed by toUo).

X3. Q>. compazco -parsi -parsum: or withe ; comperco, &c. Curtius compares Gr.

13. Cpp. ac^o, occldo, succido -ddL So (con de ex in inter pro re>-€ldo : occastun
is the only Sup. RCdtdi for receddL

24. Cpp. acddo, occldo, succido -cidi -cisum. So (con de ex in prae re)-cIdo.

15. (^. ^qppendo, impendo -pendi -pensum. So (dis ex per re sus>-pendo.

x6. Cppw (con ob re)>tundo -tfidi -tfisum or tunsum. R. Sic iudy 'to strike, push,
faruke.'

17. Cpp. (ante divum in inter pro re super)<urro -curri. So succurra Accurro,
occurro and (con de dis per trans)-curro have -curri or cucurri : ad (ex prae)
-curro prefer -cucurri. All have -cursum. Probable R. Pr. karsk, * draw. '
Cecurri is found.

j8. Cp. refello, refelH: no Sup. R. Sk. sfhal, Gr. ^-^oAAw (sphal-yo), make to
/all

x^ Cpp. (com de dis ex per pro re)-pello -puU -pulsum. So appello, impello. As-
pello, no Per£ or Sup. Reppuli for repepuli.

aa (CeUo ceculi) are not used. Cp. perccUo, perculi, perculsum, to tkriU. R. Sic
kalf 'to push.'

ax. Qyp. (con de in inter per prae pro re)-fTcio -f^ci -fectum ; so afficio, officio, suf-
ficio : but (satis bene maleVfScio -(2ci -factum. Facie is compounded with
many verbal elements : (are assue cale collabe commone labe lique made
mansue pate putre stupe obstupe tabe tepe treme tume)-facio -feci -fiactum,
together with many more ; the passive forms of which are similar com-
pounds of fio.

93. Cpp. (ab ad con de dis e in ob pro re sub tra)-icio -ieci -iecttun. See Munro on
Lucr. ii. 951 ; Curt. 403.

«3. The Suinne is only found in the Clpp* (re d6re)-linquo -liqui -lictum. R« Sk. ri^,
Gr.Aivw.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

2l8

Latin Wardlore.

\SZ^

24. vi-«-c€re

25. 2ig-2re

26. £ra-«-g-€re

27. ieg-€re

28. cip-^re (/-o)

29. ru-w-p-fire
3a 6m-€re
31. scSb-gre

vici

egi

fregi

legi (lexi)

cepi

rupi

emi

scabi

victum

actimi

fractum

lectum

captum

ruptum

emptum

conquer
do

break

ready choose^
take
break
buyy take
scratch

(S.)|.«un:

32. gd-€re

33. f5d-€re (r^)

34. fu-«-d-€re

edi

fodi

fudi

esum

fossum

fusum

eat
dig
pour

Exceptions :

(S-)|X-t«m:
35. fiig-6r6 (i'-o)

lugi

fiigltiim

fly

(S) 1 -1-tom :
36. bn>6re

bibi

bibltum

drink

(S) 1 -turn :
37. Ic6re

(ici)

ictum

strike

Lost Redupl. | -sum :

38. fi-;«-d.€re fldi

39. sci-w-d-€re scTdi

scissum

cleave
cut

(S.)|-«im:
4a vert-€re
41. -cend-6re

verti
-cendi

versum
-censum

turn

set alight

94. Cpp. (con de e per re)-vinco.

15. Q>p. (drcum per)-ago -egi -actum ; (ab ad ez red sub trans tnuisadHso -«Ci

-actum ; c5Tgo=cOgo» c&gi, cSactum ; dSTgo<=d^ d^ prodigo prodcgi, no

Sup. ; ambigo, no Perf. or Sup. : satago sategi, no Sup. R. Sk. 4/, Gr. ay^
96. Cpp. confringo, efl&ingo ; (de in per prae re)-fringo -fregi -fractum. Gr. fpcy-w
vj. Lego, read, Cpp. (per prae re)-lego -legi -lectum. Lego, ck^fose : sab-lj^ -1^

-lectum, (col de e 8e)-ngo -iCgi -lectum ; intelltgo, neg-lego, -lexi -lectum : and

di-lTgo -lexi -lectum. Gr. Acy-.

98. Cpp. (con de ex in inter per prae re su8)-cipio -cepi -<;eptum. So accqwo.

But antecapio. See p. J90. Note.

99. Cpp. comunpOy irrumpo ; (di e inter per proVrumpo. R. Sk. l»^, ' to tear.'

30. Cpp. (ad dir ex red)-{mo -€mi -emptum ; co&no, (inter per)-2mo. The rest (como,
demo, promo, sumo) form -psi -ptum. Emo seems, in some of its uses, to be Uie
Causal of eo. Compare intereo with interemo ; pereo with peremo.

33. Cpp. (ad com ex per)-l^do -idi -€sum. See Irrbgulas Verbs, p. 189.

33. Cpp. (con de in per)-fodio. Also e£fbdio.

34. Cpp. (con de in per pro re>-fundo. Also afiundo, efiimdo, offundo, sofifundo : Gr.

XV-, with nasalised suflT. d : pointing to a lost root ghu,

35. Cpp. aufiigio, difllugio, effiigio : (con per pro re trans)-fugia R. Sk. Mae/, Gr.

36. Cpp. combibo, ebibo, imbiba R. Sk. /tf, Gr. ««-, Present-stem redupL ; the

p being softened to b.
38. Cp. dif-findo.

39* Cpp. (ab di ex re)-scindo. R. Sk. c^kid,

4a Cpp. (a ad con de di e in ob per prae ra sub>-verto« R. Pr, vart.
4X. Cpp. accendo, incendo, succendo -cendi -censum.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

553- Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs.

!I9

4X cud-^re

cudi

cusum

hammer

43. -f€nd-€re

-fendi

-fensum

strike

44. mand-^re

mandi

mansum

chew

45. pand-€re

I>andi

pansum

spread

46. prehend-^re

prehendi

prehensum

take, grasp

47. scand-€re

scandi

scansum

climb

4S. sid-gre

sidi

.^

settle

49. lamb-^re

Iambi

—

lick

5a verr-5re

verri

versum

sweep

51. vell-ere '

iveUi )
ivulsii

vulsum

rend^ pluck

52. psall-gre

psalii

—

play {chords)

53. vTs-6re

visi

visum

visit

54. f Xdere

fisussum

—

trust

3) Verbs with agglutinated Perfect-stem in -oi or -vi.

a, .Hi 1 -tmii :

55. compesc-gre

compescui

^—

restrain

56. rip-fire (/-o)

57. df^re

rapui

raptum

seise

alui

altum

nourish

S& c61-gre

colui

cultum

till

59. consul-€re

consului

consultum

consult

6a occiil-gre

occtilui

ocoiltum

hide

61. s6r-€re

semi

sertum

set in row

62. pins-€re

pinsui

pistum

pound

42. Cpp. (ex in pro)-ctido -cudi -ctisum. Hence incus tncOd-, anvil.

43. Cpp. (de oO-fendo. Hence infensus, infestus, manifestus (for -fendtU8)i Sk.

kan (Pr. dkanf), Gr. 9w'.
45* Cpp. (dis ex prae)-pando -pandi -ponstun or passum.
46. Also prend-<^re, prendi, prensum. Cpp. a4>prehendo (com de re)-prehendo or

-prendo. &c. C^r. x<^ x*^**^^^*****
47' Cp9- (^ con de in tran>5caido -soendi -scensum. R. Sk. skatuL

48. See sed-€re, of which sidere is a variant form. Cpp. (ad con in re ftub)«do

-adi.

49. Latin root lab-.

5a Cp, evcrro. See Cons. Kr. B, 403.

51. Cpp. (con di per re>-velli -vulsum : (a e)-veIU Mr -vulsi -vulsum. See Corss.
Kr. B. 325.

53. From Sup. of video. C^ (in re)-vi6a

54. Cpp. (con dif )-iido, of which the Perfects (con dif )-f Idi are in use as well as (con-

diO-^isus sum.

55. For comperc-sc-ere.

56. Cpp. (ab de di e>ripio -ripui -reptum. So arripio, corripio» surripio. Pott and

Conten take ns/ to be the original form of Sk. /xr/, ' to tear/ also shewn in
ru-m-pere.

57. Alt t^h is the root of growth =Pr. ar : shewn tck al-ere aT-tus, olescere, and nume-

rous words. Inch, co-al-esco -ui -itum, wUUt curdle. See Curt. 359.

58. Qjp. (ex in re>-cola See aocolo. R. Pr. kar, * make.' .

59. Corssen {ffachtr. aSo) agrees with Mommsen in adopting Pr. sar^ * move/ L. sal-,

as the root of con-sul-ere, exsul, praesul, &c. He gives consulere a sense = con-
venire, and makes consul (for consul-us) its derivativa.

60. OcciSo, c€lare, cella, clam, and Gr. icaKvwrm («pvirT«>) <caA(a, are evidently cog-

nate and point to a common Pr. kal, * hide/ which appears in Sk. as IM,

Curtius compares also clepere and color.
6x. Cpp. (con de dis ex in).sero. So assero. Gr. u(m. See Curt. 355.
63. Some^es pisere, pisi. R. SV.pisk, 'cru^' ^^ .

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

220

Latin Wordlore,

§53>

63. tex-&e

texui

textum

weave

64. deps-€re

depsui

—

knead, tan

.Qi 1 i-tmii :

65. ellc-€re (t-o)

elicui

elicTtum

tice forth

66. stert-€re

stertui

—

snore

drj. str€p-6re

strepui

strepltum

rattle

68. cu/«b-€re

cubui

cubltum

lie down

69. fr6m-gre

fremui

fremltum

roar

70. gifm-ifre

gemui

gemltum

groan

71. trini'^re

tremui

-—

tremble

72. v6m-gre

vomui

vomltum

vomit

73« gign-5re

gSnui

genltum

beget
place

74. p5n-6re

posui

posftum

75. m61-gre

molui

molltum

grind

76. velle (volo)

77. nolle (nolo)

v61ui

wish

nolui

wish not

78. malle(malo)

malui

—

wish rather

-Qi 1 -sum :

79. m€t-€re

messui

messum

mowy reap

80. fre«d-6re

frewdui

fressum

gnashy bruise

81. (-ceU-€re)

(-ceUui)

(-celsum)

push

82. ll«-gre

levi

lltum

83. s!«-gre

sivi

situm

84. cer«-€re

crevi

cretum

b, -vl I -t

These include the Verbs, before noticed, in which the Present
Stem is so modified as to become consonantal : while the True
Stem, which is pure, is shown in the Perfect and Supine forms.

smear
allow
sift

63. Cpp. (con in ob per prae re sub)-texo. R. Sk. taksh (for Pr. tak), 'fashion.' Gr.
rwx'.

64. Gr. Uitvi,

65. See lacere.

67. Cpp. (ob per)-strepo.

68. Cpp. (con de dis in pro re)-cumba See cubore.

69. Cpb infremo. R. Sk. dAram, Gr. fififyrm.

70. (}pp. (con in)-gemo. Inchoative : gemisco. (}pp. (con inVgemisco, gemuL

71. Inchoative tremisco. Cpp. (con in>-tremi8C0, tremuL R, Sk. irus, Gr, rpt^
Suff. m.

72. Cpp. (e re>vomo. R. Sk. tfam, Gr. fcft-«-.

73. Cp. progigno. RedupL of gen-. Sk. Jam, Gr. yw. G&io is found in old
Latin.

74. Cpp. (ante com de dis ex inter post prae pro re se trans)-pona See p. 195.
75- Cp. pcnnSlo. Gr. iiv\-, L. mSla, a milL Hence maltl
76-78. See Irregular Verbs, p. x86.
79- Cp. demJSto. (Sk. mA, 'measure'?)'
8a The Sup. shews the nasalisation of Pres. St See frend€re.
81. Cpp. (ante ex prae)-celIo ccIluL Hence the Adjectives cclsus, excelsus, praecel-

sus. R. Sk. kal, 'push,' shewn also in proQul, procella, culter, celer, KikXm,
pcnl/KoKot, and others. See 20.
8a. Cpp. (perob sub>Iino -levi -Htum. Abo collino, illlno. Another form is linire.
R. Sk./t

83. Cp. desino, (deslvi) desii, also desftus sum.

84. Cpp. (de dis ex 8e>ccma R. (Jr. jcpt-. Hence L. cribnim, sUve.

lOOgle

S53-

85.
86.

87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
A 93.
94.

96.

97.

98.
r- 99.
100.
101.
102.
103.

Syllabus of Stem^Formation in Verbs. 221

sper«-&re

ster»-Sre

s€r-gre

crerr-6re

quiej^-Sre

suexr-Sre

(g)nojdr-Sre

cup-€re (1-0)

pdt-2re

quaer-€re

rud-€re

sip-6re (/-o)

t&*-€re

arcess-€re

incess-€re

cSpess-^re

fScess-fire

licess-€re

spr€vi

stravi

sevi

crevi

qiiievi

suevi

(g)n6vi

pavi

cuplvi

petlvi

quaeslvi

rudivi

saplvi

trivi

arcesstvi

incessfvi

capessivi

facesslvi

lacesslvi

spretum

stratum

sUtum

cretum

quietum

suetum

(g)ndtiim

pastum

cupitum

petltum

quaesltum

rudltum

tritum

arcessltum

incessltum

capessitum

facessltum

lacessltum

spurn
strew
sow
grow
rest

be wont
know
feed
desire
demand
seek
bray
savour
ruby bruise
feUk
attack

take in hand
cause
provoke

4) Verbs forming Perfect-Stem with agglutinated -» (for e»-).
a. Guttural Stems :
-si I -turn :

104. dic-€re dixi dictum say

105. duc-€re duxi ductum lead

106. -iac-€re (/-o) -lexi -lectum entice

85. Spernere, properiy ' to kick,* Curt. 38<{.

86. Cpp. (in pro)-sterno. R. Pr. star, Qr.vrop-.

87. C19. (con in)-sero -sSvi -situm.

88. Cpp. (con de ex m>Ka«sca Also accresco, succresca Cresco is Inchoative of

creo. Sic i^ 'make.'

89. Cpp. acquiesce^ (con re)-quiesco. Sk. ^t, Cr. «»-.

9a Cpp. assuesco, (con de in)-suesco. Sk. svadkA^ 'self-wiU.' R. tva^, 'self.'

91. Nosco has dropt % which reappears in agnosco, agnovi, agnlttun ; cognosco, cog-
novi, o^nTtum ; ignosco, ignovi : Adj. ignotus. Dignosco^ intemosco have no
Sup. This Verb, with potum, potus, are the only renuiants of a Latin O-verb.
Sk. jnOt (Jr. yro-.

93. Cp. depasca

93. Cupiret, Lucr.

94- Cpp. (com ex re)-peto. So appeto, oppeto. Curtius refers to Sk. /m/, Gr. irrr^

95. For quaesere or quae«re. Cpp. (con dis ex in per re)^uiro -qulsrvi -quTdtum.

So perquiro, conquiro.

96. Sk. THt rtfd : Or. M/nW. Persius has rOdere : but rSdens, cable.

97. Or sapui. Cp. desipio -uL Inchoative resipisco -sipui, grtrw wise again. This

word, compared with sucus, shews labialism, as lupus, popina, &c

98. Cpp. (de con pro)-tero -trivi -tritum. Also attero. Peif. terivi and tcrui are

found. Connected with Gr. rrtpM, rcpif f. L. tener.
99-X03. These Verbs are formed with a suffix ess- which expresses eager action.
Arcess- is for acd-ess-, and is sometimes written accers- : incess- for ind-ess- :
both from root d, nmse : capess- from cap- : facess- from fac- : lacess- from lac-
Perfect and Supine shew that the Present-Stem was originally -io. Perfects
incessi, facessi, lacessi, are dted.

Z04. Q)p. (ad benS contra e in inter malS prae vale)-dica R. Sk. dUf, Gr. 8cue-.

X05. Cpp. (ab ad drcum con dc di e in intro ob per pro re se sub tra>-duco.

xo6w Qip. aI-Ucio» iMicio, pel-licio, pro-lido -lexi -lectum ; but elido, elicul, elidtnii.^

222

Latin Wordlore.

§53.

107. -sp$c-ere (/-o)

-spexi

-spectmn

espy

108. c6qu-5re

coxi

coctum

cook

109. cing-gre

cinxi

cinctum

surround

no. fi//g-6re

fi;nci

fictum

fashion

III. -fllg-€re

-flixi

-flicmm

smite

112. frlg-€re

frixi

frictum

roastyfiy

113. iung-6re

iunxi

iiinctum

join

114. ling-gre

-linxi

4mctum

lick

115. mung-5re

-munxi

-munctum

wipe

116. pi«g-€re

pi«xi

pictum

paint

117. plang-6re

planxi

planctum

beat

118. rgg-Sre

rexi

rectum

rule

119. stri«g-€re

stri«xi

strictum

bind

120. sug-fire

siixi

suctum

suck

• 121. tSg-Sre

texi

tectum

cover

122. -stingu-6re

-stinxi

-stinctum

—

123. tingu-Sre

tinxi

tinctimi

stain

124. ungu-€re

unxi

unctum

anoint

125. ningu-Sre

ninxi

—

snow

126. ang-€re

(anxi)

^

squeeze

127. clang-€re

—

rattle

128. trih-gre

traxi

tractum

draw

129. v6h-5re

vexi

vectum

carry

130. viv-€re

vixi

victum

live

131. stru-gre

struxi

stnictum

pile

X07. Cpp. (circum con de di in per pro re)-spTdo -q>exl •q>ectum. So a^ido, suspiciow

R. Sk. spatl^ Gr. <ne«ir^.
108. Cpp. (con de in per)-coqua R. Sk. >ac', Gr. »€»*. Sec p. 55.
Z09. Cpp. (dis prae re)-cingo. So acdngo, succingo.
lie. Cpp. affingo, effingo, re-fingo, Gr. tfcy-.

111. Cpp. (con in)-fligo, affligo. Profligate, rout, is of Conj. x.

112. R. Sk. Mraj^, Gr. ^pvy-.

2x3. Cpp. (ad con dis in se sub)-iungo. R. Sk. vuj, Gr. ^vy-.

1x4. Cp. pol-lingo, anoint (a corpse), pollinxi, poUinctum. Sk. rihoxUK Oc, A«tx^

115. Cp. emungo, wipe tJu nose^ clean o$U. R. Sk. mtuf.

1 16. Cpp. appingo, depingo. See pungere. R. Sk. pit^'.

117. Gr. If Airy-. L. plAga.

xx8. Cpp. anrfgo, toriTgo, dirfgo ; (e por)-rigo -rexi -rectum. Also petgo, perrud, per-

rectum ; surgo, rise, surrexi, surrectum, with its compoands : (as con ex in

re)-surgo -surrexi -surrectiim. K. Gr. Spty;
1x9. Cpp. astringo, (con de di ob per {U'ae re sub)-stringo. Frwn praestringere comes

praestigiae, juggleries (for praestrigiae). Gr. orpayY-*
X90. Cp. exsugo.

Z3X. Cpp. (con de ob pro re)-tego. Ladn has dropt s. R. Sk. stkag, Gr. orry-*
VX2. Stinguo has the sense of pricking and also of guencking. Cppu : (x) (di in)-

stinguo : (3) (ex re)-stingua Gr. or^i*.
X23. Gr. Trjry**.

124. Cpp. (in per)-unguo. Tinguo, unguo may be written tingo, u ngo.
X35. A primitive s-nik- must be assumed* from which, by casting off s and nasalising,

comes the fbrm ningu-, and again nix, nivis, &c. Gr. vi^ Hence Germ.

schnee, Eng. snow. R. Sk. snu,
Z36. R. Sk. anj, Gr. ayx-.

Z28. Cpp. attraho ; (con de dis ex per pro re subHraha

129. Cpp. (a ad circum con de e in praeter re sub)-veha R. Sk. vakf Gr. ^x*'-
13a Prim. gTftv, Sk. jtv, whence vigv-, the True Stem of vivo, which drops the second

▼ in Perf. and Sup. Corssen, B, 72. Inchoative : reviv-isc-o, revixi, re-

victum.
x^L. See Corssen, B. 72. Cpp. (ad con de ex in ob sub)-struo -struxi -stnictum.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

153-

Syllabus of Stem-Formation in Verbs. 223

-•1 1 -som :

A 132. fig-gre

fixi

fixum

Jix

133. flu-ftre

fluxi

fluxum

flow

a 134. mcrg-gre

mersi

mersum

drown

135- sparg-gre

sparsi

sparsum

sprinkle

136. tcrg-€re

tersi

tersum

wipe

b. Dental Stems :

-si 1 -sum :

137. flect-gre

flexi

flexum

bend

138. nect-gre

(nexi 1
*nexiu'

nexum

twine

139. pect-6re

pexi

pexum

comb

14a plect-gre

—

-plexum

iplait
\ smite

141. mitt-gre

mlsi

missum

send

142. quit-gre (/-o)

—

quassum

shake

143. ced-€re

cessi

cessum

yield

144. claud-gre

clausi

clausum

shut

145. divld-gre

divisi

di visum

divide

146. laed-gre

laesi

laesum

hurt

147. lud-6re

lusi

lusum

play

148. plaud-gre

plausi

plausum

clap hands

149. rad-6re

rasi

rasum

shave

150. r5d-€re

rosi

rosum

gnaw

151. trud-6re

triisi

tnisum

thrust

152. vad-dre

-vasi

-vasum

go

z^ Cpp. affigo, suflSgo ; con- de- in- prae- re- trans-figa

Z33. Enlarged forms Aug- and flugv- account for the Perfect fluxi and for flu-v-ius.
Cpp. (drcum con de dif ef in per prae praeter pro re)-fluo -fluxi -fluxum. Also
affluo, diffluo, effluo. The noim fluctus points to an older Sup. in -tum.

134. Qpp. immergo ; (de e sub)-merga

'35* Qv- conspeigo, dispergo ; (ad in re)-spergo •q>er8i -qiersum. In old L. these
keep a.

136. For steig&e. So C and Meyer. Compare s-trigilis, fleshscraptr. Sec ter-

gSre.

137. Thb and the next three are Guttural Verbs, strengthened by a 8u£Sx t : but, as

t fidb out before S, and also influences the Supine, they may be treated
as Dental Verbs. Cpp. (drcum de in re)-flecto.

138. Cpp. (ad con in subVnecto -nexui -nexum. See meto.

139. Cp. depecto depexi depexum.
X4a Ghr. vAm-.

X41. Qip. dimitto, immitto, Smitto ; (a ad com de e inter per prae praeter pro re sub

trans)-mitto -misi -missum.
142. Cpp. (con dis ex in per)<utio -cus» -ctissum. So repercutio.
143* Cpp. (abs ante con de <Us ex in inter prae pro re se)-cedo. So accedo, succedo.
X44. Cpp. (con dis ex in mter prae re se)-clu(do -clua -clusum. So occludo, Gr.

<rAff£w.
X46. Cpp. allldo, colhdo, eKdo, il-Udo -lisi -lisum.
X47. Cpp. alludo, colludo, illudo, (de e) -ludo -lusi -lusum.
J48. Cpp. applaudo -plausi - plausum, (ex sup)-plodo -plosi -plosum.
X49. Cpp. (ab e)-rada So corrada R. Sk. rod.
xyx Cpp. (de prae)-rodo. So arrodo, corrodo. Sk. rod.
151. Cpp. (abs de ex in ob pro)-trudo.

X5X Cpp. (e in per>vada r^ c^c^rAo

Digitized by VjOOQ LC

224

Latin Wordlore.

§53^

c Labial Stems :

-St 1 -torn :

153. carp-€re

carpsi

carptum

pluck

154. cl€p-€re

clepsi

cleptum

sUal

•55. {^^
^r^ jscalp-6re
'5^ isculp-gre

repsi

reptum

creep

serpsi
scalpsi

—

crawl

scalptum

scratch

sculpsi

sculptum

grave

157. glub-Sre

glupsi

gluptum

peel

158. nub-gre

nupsi

nuptum

wed

159. scrib-5re

scripsi

scnptum

write

d. Nasal Stems :

-si 1 -torn :

i6a com-gre

compsi

comptum

dress hair

161. dem-6re

dempsi

demptum

take away
takeforth

162. pr6m-6re

prompsi

promptum

163. sum-€re

sumpsi

sumpttim

take up

164. temn-5re

temps!

temptum

despise

-•1 1 -ram :

165. prSm-gre

pressi

pressum

press

e. Liquid (Sibilant)

Stems :

-si 1 -turn:

-

166. g6r-€re

gessi

gestum

carry on

167. ur-6re

ussi

ustum

hum

IL U-verbs :

-vl 1 -fttnm :

168. acu-«re

acui

acutum

sharpen

169. argu-gre

argui

argutimi

prove

153. Cpp. (con de dis ex)<eipo -cerpsi -cerpcum.

154. Gr. ttkinrm.

155. Cpp. (ad ob per subV-repo. Ckarepo, iirepa Serpsi is not found in C1««iral

Latin. R. Pr. sar^
Z56. Cpp. dtx in>-sculpo:
157. Gr. yk6^.
Z58. Nubo is classically applied to the woman only, except in a' jocular tense : as

Martial WiL xa : ' uxori nubere nolo meae.' It has Perf. nupta sum as well as

nupsi. That the verb is originally transitive, meaning to vtil or eevn', is shewn

by various passages and by the Compound obnubo. Hence the bride who covers

herself with the flammeum is said nubere (se).
159. Cpp. (ad drcum con de ex in per prae pro re sub tranV^criba
160-163 are Cpp. of Smo, taket but differing firom it in the Perfect Cpp. of promo :

(de ex)>promo -prompsi -promptum. Q>p. of sumo : (ab as con de in re>>

sumo -sumpsi -sumptum.

164. Cp. contemno contempsi contemptuuL

165. Cpp. imprimo, supprimo : (com de ex op re)-primo -pressi -pressum.

166. Cpp. (con di e in>-gero. So aggero, suggero.

167. Cpp. (ad ex in per>-uro. Corssen {Kr. Nacktrdgt, 1x7) derives amburo,

com-buro -busa -bustum, together with the Noun bustum, from Sic prush,
^Msk, ' to bum.'

168. Cp. exacuo, exacui. On the original long quantity of II in U-verbs, see p. z8.
Z69. Cp. redarguo. Sk. afyumhs, cltar, Gr. ipy6t.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

SS3.

I7a exu«€re

171. indu-^re

172. imbu-&:e

173. lu-€re

174. minu-Sre

175. nu-Sre

176. spu-$re

177. statu-€re

178. stemu-Cre

179. su-€re

180. tribu-6re

181. solv-€re

182. volv-€re

-vl I -tttnm :

183. ru-&re

184. batu-€re

185. -gru-&e

186. metu-5re

187. plu-&:e

Syllabus of Stem-FarnuUion in Verbs. 225

exui

indui

imbui

lui

minui

nui

spui

statu!

stemui

sui

tribui

solvi

volvi

rui

batui

-grui

metui

plui

exutum

indutum

imbutum

lutum

minutum

nutum

sputum

statutum

stemutum

sutum

tributum

solutum

volutum

putoff

put on

tinge

washy atone

lessen

nod

spit

set up

sneeze

sew

assign^ pay

loose, pay

roll

rfitum (rultum)

beat

fear
rain

Deponent Verbs in Conj. 3 :

188. fimg-i

189. nlt-i

190. plect-i

191. pSt-i (/-or)

192. uti

193. grSd-i (/-or)

functus

nisus (nixus)

-plexus

passus

usus

gressus

perform

strive

twine

suffer

use

step

270-z. Latin -no ia these Verb« corresponds to Gr. ivm. Curt 63z. But see Corss.

Beitr. 496. Hence ind-uviae, ex-uviae.
X73. Corssen considers bu in imbuo a weakened form otpdpih, * to drink.'
17} Cpp. (ab di e per pol pro sub>-luo -lui -latum. Fut Part. luiturus. Luo is the

weak form which appears strengthened in Gr. Aoi^ and L. lav-Sre, lavare

(see A-verbs). Curt 37a See sohrere.
174- Cppw (com de di im)-aiurao. R. Sk. mi, Gr, ^m-v%
175. Cpp. (ab an in ie>iiiia Gr. pttim.

X76. Cpp. (con de ex re>-6puo -spuL Gr. wrim, hence p-i-tuTta for s-pitulta.
X77. From status. Cpp. (con de in pro re subVitituo -stitui -stittitum.
X79. Qpp. (as con dis re)-suo. R. Sk. tiv.
x8a From tribus, iriie : Root tri, tktee. Applied first to the state-payments of the

three orighial Tribes at Rome. Cpp. (con dis re)-tribuo. So attribuo.
x8x. Cpp. (ab dis ex per re)-solva For se-Iuere, from a verb lu-, Aw<#=Sk. M, Gr.

Xv-, but not (Mherwise shewn in L.
183. Cpp. (ad drcum con de e in ob per pro re)-volvo. Gr. ftkiSm,
X83. Cpp. (di e ob pro sttb)-ruo -rui -riitum. So corruo, irruo. Fut Part rui-

tums.
185. Cpp. (con in)-gruo.
x86. MetOtum appears in Lucr. v. 1x39.
X87. Cp. depluo.

(The word delibutus, tite^d, belongs to a disused Verb d e 1 i b u o.)
x88. Cpp. (de per>fungor.
189. Cpp. (ad con e in ob re 8ub)-nitor -nixus. For g-nitor. R. Sk. jAnu, Qit. ytfrvy

hue.
TLijfx See p le c t e r e. Cpp. amplector, cMnplector, embrace.
19X. Cp. perpetior, perpcssus.

192. In old Latin the form oitier appears. Cp. abutor abusus.

193. Cpp. aggredior (con de di e in prae pro re trans)-gredior -gressus.

Q

j,„zed by Google

226 Latin Wardlore. $5^

194. ]Sb>i lapsus glide^fsdl

195. mdr-i (t-or) avortuus die

196. cper-i questus €omf>lam

197. mt-i mitus enjoy
19S. Idqu-i locutus speak
199. s^u-i secutos follow

p, 20a ipisc-i x^s obtain

20K -menisc-i -mentus hoft^ in mind

202. expergisc-i experrectos wake up

203. fatitc-i iessus be weary

204. ^)nasc-i (g)natus be bom
^05. insc-i katus be angry

206. nancisc-i nactus JSnd

207. oblivisc-i obHtus fiK^^t
2<^. pacisc-i pactus bargain
209. profkisc-i profectus set out

194. Cpp. (de di e pneter pro sub re)-Ubor -lapsus. So allabor, coUabor, illabor.
X95. Cpp* (<'^ e)-inorior -mortuus. FuU Part, morhiirus. So immorioc R. Sk»

mar. Mortuus is an A4). used partici|nally.
Z96. Cp. cooquefor cooquestus.
Z97. For frugv-i, hence fiructus ; but Fut Part, fruiturus. Cp, perfruor perfiuitus.

198. Cpp. (e ob proHoquor -locutus. So alloquor, colloquor.

199. Cpp. (con ex b ob per pro sub)-8e4uor -secutus. R. Sk. 9Mf, Gr. ht".
90O. Cpp. (ad ind)-ipiscor -eptus. R. Sk. 4^

90X. Cpp. conuniniacor conunentus ; reminiscor, no Part R. Sk. man.

903. The Of. expergisd ezperrectns is eyidendy weakened from ejqxngisd expor*

rectoi : firom exporrigi, to siretck cn^M^f out (on awakening)^ See rega
ao3. (^ defetiscor defessus.
ao4. Cpw (con e in)-na3cor -natus, Fut Pact, nasdturus. Observe cognatas, pros-

natus. See gignere, 73.
006. Nanctus is also used : and nandam is dted as an old form.
907. From Kr^re, to he of a dark colour : hence oblivisci, to heeomo darken^, t^

forget. So Corssen» I/adktr., 34.
ao8. See panga Cpp. (com de>-pad80or or •pedaoor. R. Sk. /a/.
009. From pt^BicimakeforuardX

(Inchoative Verbs derived from other Verbs have beea mfriiWHwl a the Moces Co th9
Syllabus.)

A) Inchoatives derived from Noons ar»vtf]riuneiou
s) Having a Perfect, hot no Supine.

Finom vesper vespenMc* vesparavi

— — advesperaaco advesperavi

^ Gctber

crebreaco

orebui

— —

mciebi ecco

bcRbui

— —

penaebia

^M cmdns

lecrudeic*

ivcnidoi

— duns

duresoo

dunii

_

induresco

indiuiu

— —

obdnresco

obdunii

— macer

macreaoo

mscrui

~ maturts

maturesoo

-^ mutiif

obmnteaoo

obmutui

- niger

nigresco

nigtui

— notus

mnotesco

mnofin

— surdus

obfiurdesoo

obsurdui

— vanni

vinesco

vflmai

>. _

evfinesoo

evflnui

— Vilii

vilesco

vihii

— —

evileaco

««ihu

etiemiHig-
iecomefrtfnemf

gromkard

hecomedeqf

\iec9ine dkto^

Digitized byCjOOQlC

8 53" Syllabus of StemrFormaiian in Verbs. zzj

2ia iilcisc-

i ultus

avenge

211. TCSC-i

—

feed

y. 212. Ilqu-i

—

melt

213. ring-i

—

grin

a) Without Peffect or

Supine:

pOff

facrasco(re)

curvus

incurvesco

ignis

ignesco

iuvenis

iuvenesco ^)

iDteg«

integtasoo

mitis

mitesco ^

arbor

acboresoo

mollis

mollesco

dives

ditesco

pinguis

pingtteaeo

dnkfe

diitnmm

pl^nnfi

phuncaco

Vnadis .

gxandesco

steriUs

sterilflBCO

giavesco(in)

tener

tener-esco •asoo (in)"

aigiBS

sicreMO

latus

leatcsc*

t of mncBtun «rigia :

gUsoo^ tmcTMut €ai9co(Gr. }r**X>^^ <S^> &c.

Gonquimsco, conquexi, stoopt is an old and semarkable Inchoative Verb.
CMc Other Verbs of Conj. 3. without Perfect and Supine are :

ambigo, dmibi ; dan^o ; Gtwo, mgg ; plecto, sMkt.

B) Homonymous words are such as are written alike, though dif!ering in sense- and
generally in.nrigiB.

z| ¥biI» having the aanie FInt Fsersoa Pkvseat Ind. in diffisvent Coi^ltigatie^

Cbid. 1. Conj. 3. Cbnj. x. Conj. 3.

appella aOi appeflo iand Ibndo found ftindo /rnvr

compdlo addms compello comptl mando entrust mando ch§w

oolUgo hind colligo oftteci obs&o bolt obslEro sow over

constemo alarm constemo $trtw v51o ^y v51o «m4
efiero makewUd effero hear out

With differenee of Quantity :

Conj. X. Coiy. 3. Coi\J. x. Conj. 3.

oBlo theam c2Qo OU cduco iram edOoo leadout

dko dedicate dico sajF iSgo iefueatA IJ^ nod, &&

indCco ^omt out indico proclaim with Compoundi.

praedico declare praedXco foretell

a) The same fixm of Pexfect :

2>ocwo, 3. grow sour acuo, 3. skarpen acui

\ 3. e^fi cnso(^ 3. grow crfivi

t coU frigo, 3. tpoet leva,

liilgeo, a. g&ttar

kioeek *. wkme

fmveo, a. rfwssrf

3) The same fiinn of Supine :

ceiBO, 3* ^v* crcsco, 3*

poado, 3. i^mut potior, 3. n|^r

pongD, 3. fasteu paciscor, 3; oarga^

teneo^a. hold tendo, 3. eiretck

vaiu\» 3* 9wee^ verto, 3" turu

videos «. aM viso, 3. vu*^

vivo* 3. iKBV viaco, 3. eamguer

Q2 Digitized by Google

228 Latin Wordlore. 8 54-55-

CHAPTER IV.
^ PARTICLES.

tides. There is a close intimacy between the four classes of
Particles. Prepositions are Adverbs used with Noun-
cases, and many can be used without case, as mere Ad-
verbs. On the other hand, some Adverbs (as procul,
simul) can take cases. Many Pronominal Particles are
Adverbs when interrogative, but Conjunctions when re-
lative. Interjections are Adverbs hanging loose on the
sentence : and some resemble Prepositions by taking a
Noun-case.

Ad." Adverbs.'

verbs..

Section I.

L The relations expressed by Adverbs 2xe¥\aLCt; Time;
Number ; Order ; Marnier ; Degree ; Cause ; Quality. Some Ad-
verbs (which may be called Logical) are used for questioning^ deny-
ing, affirming, or otherwise modifying the form of discourse,

ii. Interrogative Adverbs refer to

I. Place :

1. ubi ? where f 4. qua ? by which way f

2. quo? whither f quatenus? how far?

3. quorsum? whitherward?

0 Hie following List oontaint most of the Pronominal and Primitive Adverb^ with
samples of the large classes derived from Nouns and Verbs.
The Dual Adverbs derived from uter have an asterisk.)

L Adverbs of Place :

X. Adverbs corresponding to the questions UbiT uUnamT IVhert t *Utniln ? In wkidk
>&cr(oftwo)T

iU, illic, istic, there ; hie, here ; hie illic, here and there : inibi, therem ; ibidw,
in the same place ; alibi, elsewhere ; alicubi, somewhere ; -ubi, uq>iam, amjf
where; usquam, anywhere at aU: utnubi, ubicumque, whereseever; libivis,
ubilibet, where you will', *utrulibet, in either place ; *utrubique, in bethpimcet :
^neutrubi, in neither place \ ubique, usquequaque, everywhere '^ nwsquam, m#>
where ; prope, near', procul, aioof, «tfar ; ante, prae, in front ; post, pooe, be*
hind ; drca, circum, around : cis, dtra, on this side ; ultra, beyond; contra* aver
against; iuxta, iuxtim, a4foining'. intra, within ; extra, without; super, «Anir;

. subter, beneath ; supra, above ; infra, below ; supemS, aiwe ; infem^ belom ; pas^
sim, here and there^ everywhere ; foris, abroad ; peregre, in foreign peurU ;
praesto, at hand ; niri, in the country ; domi, at home ; humi, on the grotmdi
belli, militiae, at the wars ; comminus, close at hand ; eminus, at a distance,

S. Adverbs corresponding to the question Unde f Whence f
hide, illim, illinc, istim, istinc, thence ; hinc, hence ; hinc inde, hinc ilUn^>^«Mr this
side and that ; m^dtm, from same place ; aliunde, yhMc another place ; aUcunde^
from some place ; -unde,/nw« anyplace ; undeunde, undecumque, from whatever
place : undevis, undelibet, whence you will; vukdique, from all sides ; *utriaK|ti^
Jrom both sides ; domo, from home ; rure, from the country ; intus, intrinsecns^
from within, within ; extrinseciu, without ; altrin8ecus,yr9m one or other side i

uiyiuzeu uy x^j^^^ v^ -x i-X^

§55. Adverbs. 229

II. Time :

1. quando ? when t 3. quousmie ? to what limit f

2. quamdiu? how long t quoad ^ until when t

Also quam dudum ? quam pridem ? how long ago f

dtnxper, from db«v* ; tubtus, from hentath \ caelitus, from kiavtn ; divinitus,
from the deity ; penitus, from far within ; Ainditus, from the bate ; wtdicitus,
scirpitiis»y^v«« the roots. (These last four words may mean utterly.)

3. Adverbs conespooding to the questions Quo? quonam? Whithert *Utn>? To which
fiace (of two)T

CO, aiuc, illo, istuc. isto, thitker; hue, hither; hue illuc, hither and thither \
eodem, to the someplace ; alio, to another place ; aliquo, somewhither ; -quo, quo-
piam, anywhitheri quoquam, anywhither at tUl ; nequoquam, nowhither-, quo*
quo, quocumque, whithersoever-, quovis, quolibet, whither you will', •utrovis, to
which place you will (of two) ; •utroque, to ioth places ; •neutro, to neither place :
dtro, to this side : ultro, to yon side^ farther ; ultro dtroque, to andfro ; intro, to
within ; ^mro, forward ; retro, backward; domum, home ; rus, into the country
foras, out qf doors.
Ultro (root ul-s) properly means to you side i idiomatieally it gains these senses
gmmgfarther, yet farther, without instigation, qffree motion.

The questions quoad T quousque? how farf are answered by usque, all the way ; eo
usque, that far; hue, adhuc, hue usque, thus far.

4. Adverbs corresponding to the question Quors-um(us) ? IVhitherwardt
iDocsum, istorsum, tfUtherward ; horsum, hitherward ; aHorsum, to another quar-

ter\ afiquors-umC-usX to some quarter; quoquo versus, to whatever quarter ;
*ntroqne versum, to both quarters ; intrors-um(-usX inwards ; sursum, uptoards ;
deoKvam, dommwards : sursum deorsum, susque deque, upanddown ; ivors-um
(-usX straightforwards ; niisum prorsum, backwards and forwards ; retrors>am
(-usX rursum(-usX rursum vorsum, backwards : seor8-um(-usX apart ; exadvers-n$
(HimX ever against ; dextrorsum, to the right ; sinistrors-um, to the lift ; pessum,
I0 ruin ; incAssum, to no purple,

S- Adverbs corre^mnding to the question Qua? quAnamT By which wayf in which
disnsetiont

eS, ina, iOac, that way ; hac, this way ; eSdem, the same way ; alifi, another way;
afiqua, wme way ; -qua, any way ; quaqiuun, any way at all ; quSdam, a cert4fin
nmy : quaque, every way ; quaquft, quaeumque, whatever way ; quavis, qualibet,
««r vtt^you will ; ♦utrftvis, *utrftlibet, either way ; haudquaquam, nequaquam, by
no means ; rectfl, straight on ; dextrfl, by the right road ; sinistra, by the lift road.

The question QuatenusT /^tffv,^f is answered by

that far, so far : hactenus, thus far ; aliquatenus, to some extent ; qua-
, to a certain extent ; usquequaque, to the fullest extent.

Obs. The distinctions between the Particles ibi, illic, istie, hie ; inde, ilUnc, istinc,
bine ; eo, iUuc, istuc, hue, &c, correspond to the distinctions between their Pronouns is,
Hie, iste, hie In the series of time, nunc correqxmds to hie, tunc to is.

The Indefinites -ubi -unde -quo -qua -quando belong to the Indefinite Pronoun quis,
qui, being chidly used with I^rtieles, as si-e-ubi, si-c-unde, siquo, &c, ne-e-ubi, ne-c-
unde, nequando^ &c., where ubi, unde, resume the c of the Relative.

Vvfiiam, quopiam, ftc, are used, like quispiam, in aflSrmative cbuses; usquam, quo-
qouD* ftcy like qmsquam, in n^ative or dubitative clauses.

II. Adverbs of Time :

I. Adverbs answering the question Quando? ecqnando? Whenf
tnm, ttme, ibi, ibi turn, then ; etiamtum, even then ; ntme, now ; etiamnunc or etiamntim,
even now ; inde, deinde, exinde, dein, exin, thereafter, next ; bine, abhinc, dehinc,
hencqforth, from this time ; alias, at another time ; -quando, at any time; aU-
quandb, at some time ; umquam, ever ; numquam, never ; nonnumquam, sometimes;
Bumquam noo, always ; quandocumque, quandoque, at whatever time ; quondam,
olim, some time or other {formerly or hereafter). — lam, now, already ; iam
tum, even then ; ianmunc, nundam, iamiam, et iam, even now ; diu, long;

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^ v^ -x i-V

230

LattH Wordlore, 155.

III. Number:

quotiens? how many times t how often f

IV. Marnier: ^[A*wO

quomodo? quemadmodum ? (qut? ut?)

diulumCfor diodmn)^ m vMig ag»; ipri<ka» •/ a/tnmrimm; -^—^ —

now and then; nondum, hauddum, m>t yet ; vixdum, Aardly yttx tandem^ «/
Ungtk\ deauMa,4Ulast; mox, fy amify, soom ; propcdiem, ^»w«/4r ; protoms,
KOtinam, /tff^wVA ; interim, interea, i»KaiwA*&; ante, aniea, P™»^ *€^'
intehac antidhac, Turetqfifrt: port, postca. (posddea), ^^Trf^v afterwards: post-
hac. Jureafter', po«illa, ^jT/rr /A»/ /aw; postmodo, x«w» qfUr.-^odSh nam,
laUh. *ooH i nuper, fuwfy, laUly; tccens.yhr«*/jf, Z<U»<y ; dtnao^^^rsk, agnmi
CT"'"ww<.«n, >,/ wnr ; andquitus, qf aid; primitus, Jram tiu first ; oroil,
a/ tJu $amu Hmi ; semper, usque, usquequaque, tUwaja ; pe^petuo^ comi$msf
alfy; sero, A»<tf ; cito, s/erdify ; actutum, M^fa^' : confestim, m a (net ; coo-
tinuo, witM^mt stop ; extemplo, ok tfu monunt ; ilico Cn locoX <w ^/^ '
ilioet, straightway : stadm, instantly ; repente, dercpcnte, subito, niddii^i
quam primum, of <»w a* possible ; obiter, ^ rt# twflty.— Hodie, /b-tf»y ; hoi,
here, yesttrday ; era*, to-morrow ; pridie, /*/ <4y A^tff * ; postxidie, M* <£s^
<i//tf^ ; perendie, tAo noxt day but one ; nudius tertius, the tkird day lack, &c_;
mane (mani), in the momint \ diluculo, a/ damn ; meridie, at noon ; vesperi,
vespere, at even ; interdiu, luci, lucu, in the daytinu ; nocti, noctu, in tk* mgki-
Hme. The Abl. brevi, abo porbreri, means eidier in a tkort time or ma ftw
wrdi (brevi dictione).
M TIk qneatioos quamdndomt quam pridem? kowhngagoi are ansmtd Vy din ;

^■dBm; pridaa; iamdia; taradudum; ittnpndeM; haud dodum; hattdprkhm; hand

Itefrhtom.

a. Adverbs answering the question, Quamdiu T Horn lon^ f
diu, long", per^u, wry long; tamdiu, so long/ aliquamdiu, some length ^ time ;
tantisper, so long-, aliquaatisper, for some time', paramper, imilisper, Jm^ a
little tune ; adhuc, so far, hitherto ; semper, always ; in perpetuum^ for omr ;
ampfius, tmger', non amplius, baud ampfius, nan iam, nolenger.
The q;uestions quousque, quoad, to what Bmit o/ time f ax^ 9xamtnd.\if xm^a^vaffi^-
quaque, continualfyi adhuc, hitherto ; eo usque, so long, &c

in. Adverbs of Number :
Answering the questaoo» QuoliflosT How oftent
totiens, so ^ten ; aliquociens, pluriens, several times : identidem, r*teaitdly \ inters
dum» subinde. mrw and then ; iterum, a second time ; saepe, saepins, often ; po^
saepe, saepissime, very ^ten% pleruroque, ge>urmUy\ crefaro, freynenily', zaroy
tildom ; cotidie, indies, deiify ; quotanais, anmtalfy ; aemel, omee"; hb, twice ;
ter, thrice, &c. ftc. See Numbkaua.

44 Ofdinal Adverbs answering the question Quo ordineT

primum, first ; primo, in the first pUew, deinde, in the mextplam \ ton. Aw,

e^to^mfda\ dfmkpxt, finally ; postremo, in tke last plsee', dtiaoep*, next in

order; secundo, in the second piace; tcrtio^ in the tkird fdace, 1^ ; pono^

fetrther'y insuper, moreover; necnoo, also; praeterea, beside*; quin, furUter-'

IV. Adverbs of Manner :
Answering the quesdoB Quomodo r quomodooamf qaemadmodon? qui f ntf H«m^
adeoi, ita, sic, «0 : aequC, adaequC, eqnaHy, as much ; item, itldem, paziter, perind^
proindS, simiEter, iuxta, in She manner; contra, contrmrimiM ', alitor tecu^
otherwise.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

J5S- Adverbs. 231

V. D^pree:

I. quam? howf 2. quantum? how much f

VL Cause: (whyt wherefore f)

quare ? cur ? quamobrem ?
Vll. Quality:

qualiter ? in what kind o/way f

V. Adverbs of Degree :
I. Adverbs umMriog to tbe fui rfiw jjuMtl Htmi
cam, «0 ; omiiibo* pronus, oMyrMfr ; mdmadton* <V|Bda penitui^ phai* jtrgMMw,
fliuiC, sanCquam, valde» valdequaav vtry, guiie ; veacntor, tfJMmHGMtf^ ; lMg€.
Jar ; magis, iw^r ; maxime, most^ very ; mious, Uu ; minime, ieast, tictataJll
podns, rather \ potissimum, chiefly, in primis, apprime, praecipuC, praesertiin,
eepecieOiy ; flliam, -vel, /cum ; fei€, aimast, generatty ; fermC, paenS, mhmatt ;
prope, propemodo^ prapemodtim, nearly^ abmoet ; aagrC, vix, tceeroefy^ hmrdiy ;
dnmraxat, mertiy, xaodS, #«^; aahcm, a/ kmtii aoksm, ■ofauunodS, iMtnn,
tantummodS, ottfy ; utique, m/act, at all events.

3. Adverbs answering to the question Quantum f Hem muekf
tantaua. m metck ; aBquaatum, eamtidtemhly : nudtum, antch ; perarahum, pterinuai,
very m$teh ; plus, mere ; satis, sat, encHgh ; abundS, afiatim, ^lemt^ttS^ ; asmi^
nimium, too mmh ; pauktm, lUtle ; pauUiIum, very Utile ; panun. Utile, too
Bteik; minus, U*s\ minimum, leatt, very Uttla\ quantulun^ qiMntiIluoi» hee»
Utile : taatuhim, tantfllum, w tittle.
a) The question Quantof By how much f b answered by tanto, to, 9y to much ; att-
quaoto,i^<i/nai/i;»/; multcy nimio, ly a^freat deal: panJo, iy a Uttle ; mkUo, ftc.

^ The question Quanto opere, //aw greatly f by UaMa Qfcee, 90gmutfy;wuigaaxifae%
greatly ; mayimo opere, very greatly,

VL Adverbs of Cause :

Answering the qoestion Quare ? cur T quamobremf Wl^f wkeu^feref
e^ ideo, iddroo, propterea, on that meeomU ; eigo, igftur, itaque, t/^erffore ; proin,
VccmAt, ae^riiagfy.

VIL Adveite of Quality (chiefly farmed from Adjectives : bat also mai^
from Substantives, Verbs, and Particles).

Answering the qaestion Qualiter y In what hind ff way f Examples are:

beoS, well; maHT, Hi ; ritj^ duly : hicundC, >iSMiaM/(r ; pvnX'^grudgittgly ; rectg»
rightly ; jeAdtm^flrulf ; latC, widely ; longC lateque,ySir andwide ; public€,>K^
lic/y ; miser€, wretchedly ; splendidi, nohlyt &c %lc &c ; andacter, boldly : feUdter,.
^f^y - fortilei; hravely; amanter, lovingly ; decenter, decetnitigly ; sapienCar,
wisely, &c. &c. &c. ; privatim, privately ; raptim, hurriedly ; sensim,/nu/iwii!|r:
fiirtim, stealthily ; paulatim. pedetentinv Uttle by Uttle ; nominatim, by name ;
singnlatim, sigilhidm, individuaUy ; viritim, manby man \ tributim, tribe by tribei
vidanm, by turns ; seorsim, apart, ftc. &c &c. ; fabo, falsety \ consulto, detSbe^
rutefy ; tuto, etffely ; fidso, falsely ; foituito, casually ; gratutto, without fee ; im-
prorisoy inopinato,necopinato, unexpectedly ; liqoklo, elearfy ; merilo, deserveeUy,
&c; cbsB, clanoilum, secretly; paiam, opeiefy ; uni, aimol, itigefktr ; hifariam, hi-
Faitito^^/i(i«/*arilr;trifiwiam,ti^»nito,&a ;toa»ex%mthawsrd',{aitS^iye/k£mce\
apontj^ by choice; ritiS, dufy; tenqwri, seasonably; ftualra* iuwdui pmptr%m,
hmdfy ; gntiis, gratis, /reefy ; ingratias, unwekemufy ; oonxk,famiojace ; alio-
qui(-a), oetaroquiC-aX a« other respects ; acquiquam, to no purpme ; lacassnm,
Jruitlessfy; praftfiarinr, without etlfffmce. This adverb is darivod from prae,
findnou barring the evil eye, under favour. 'Praefiadae iamam,* Plant.
Asi$t, iL 4. 84.
For Comparison of Adverbs see | SO.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

232

Latin Wordlore.

§56.

VIII. The Logical Interrogative Adverbs, which expect affinna-
tive or n^jative answers, are :

-n5 (enclitic)? an? annS? num? numng? utnim? utrumn€>
nonnS? annonr

56

Prepo-
sitions.

Table of

Prcpo-

ntions.

Section II.
Prepositions.

A Preposition is an exponent of relation between
one Noun and another.

i. TheprimaryrelationsarethoseofPlace, Time, Number. From
these spring many others, which are figurative or logical

The relation of Place includes that of Person or Thing, when
Person or Thing represents Place : apud re gem, at the king's
court; ante me, in front of me\ 2lA bellum, to, the war.

The relation of Time includes that of Person or Thing, when
Person or Thing represents Time : post Romulum, after the
time of Romulus; ante tubas ferrumque, ^<^^ the invention
of trumpets and steel.

Some Prepositions are used with Verbs of Motion, some with
Verbs of Rest ; many with both.

Several Prepositions are so used with a Case, as to form Adverbial
Phrases, which are to all intents true Adverbs : admodum, in-
vicem, obviam, ab integro, de novo, ex tempore, &c.

ii. Twenty-nine Prepositions take the Accusative Case, twelve the
Ablative, and four the Accusative or the Ablative.

i) The following Prepositions take the Accusative Case :—
ad to^ aty &c. ob over against ^ on

advers-us(um) against^ toward account of

before penes in the power of

near, at, with per through

around pone behind

around, about post after, behind

about praeter beside

on this side of prope, near, propius, proxime
against propter on account of, nigh

towards secundum next, cuxor£ngto

outside of supra above

below trans across

beyond
towards

ante

apud

curcum

circa

circiter

cis, citra

contra

erga

extra

infra

inter

intra

iuxta

between, among ultra

within versus, versum

next to

Logicsd Adverbs, used to modify Discoune, are
(i) nempe, scilicet, videlicet, namely, of a tcotk ; niminim, U he ture ; (9) qaidem,
equidon, indeed ; certe, certainfy, at least ; tamen, attamen, yet, nevertkeUu ;
nihilominiis, nevertMelets : (3) fois, forsan, forsitan, fortasse, fortassis, perka^ :
(4) immo, nay htt, nay rather ; (5) certo, aeneredUy ; ita, etiam, yes, evenee ; nC
(often spelt nae), yea, verily ; planC, evidently \ |m>fecto, denhtless ; sanC, ^tf
*o : utique, tn sooth ; vero, trnfytyes indeed ; quippe, to be sure ; (^ non, n^ no ;
baud (hautX not^ no (the reverse) ; miniine, by no means ; nS, not, lest ;
noi to say, tnnch leu ; ne . . . quidem, not even.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

a, aby abs

absque

dam

by ox from
without
unknown to

ex,e
prae

coram
cum

m the presence of
with

pro
sine

de

from^ concerning

tenus

§ 57. Conjunctions, 233

Versus follows its Case; as, Urbem versus, towards the city*
Other Prepositions occasionally follow their Case.

2) The following take the Ablative Case : —

out of from
in sight of
before y owing to
before^ for
without
as far as

Ab stands before vowels and n ; a and often ab before consonants ;
abs sometimes before q, rarely before c, t ; but abs te is usuaL

Ex stands before vowels and n ; ex and e before consonants.

Clam is used with Accusative by the Comic poets.

Cum is attached to the Personal and Reflexive Pronouns, some*
times to the Relative : as mecum, nobiscum, tecum, vobis-
cum, secum, quocum, or quicum, quibuscum.

3) The following take the Accusative or the Ablative :^

in intOj against (Ace), in (Abl.) super over^ upon

sub up to, under (Ace), under (AbL) subter under

In and sub with Accusative imply motion; with Ablative, rest

Section III.
Conjunctions.

Conjunctions are of two Classes : po<»-

A. Coordinative, or those which link words and sen-
tences without affection of Mood.

B, Subordinative, or those which link sentences, with
affection of Mood.

The following are used in Coordination as well as Subordination :
quippe, si, seu, sive, nisi, etsi, etiamsi, tametsi, quamquam, quam-^
Tis, quasi, tanquam, sicut, velut, ceu.

A. Coordinative Conjunctions are: —

Annexive : et, -que,' ff«^, both, also, &c. ; atque, ac, and;

iieque, nee, nor, neither ; and the adverbial words item,

also, edam, quoque,' also, even ; necnon, moreover.
Disjunctive : aut, ve^ -ve,* or, either*, sive, seu, either, or.
Adversative : sed, at (ast), verum, but ; autem,* but, now ;
^cetcrum,^/; atqui, ^/^'^Z ; vtro,^ truly , but ; iaocatn, yet,

nevertheless ; attamen, verumtamen, however, but yet.
Causal : nam, namque, enim,^ etenim, for; enimvero, for in

truth,

' -que Te are enclitics, always attached to the word which they aflect, or to some other
ID the tame clause.

* Quoque, aotem, rero, enim (and the adverb quidem) never stand first in a clause,
tmt usually after one or more words : autem, vero, enim, after the first word usually ;
quoque, quidem, after the word which they afiect. ^^

uiyiuzeu uy \^Jv-/v_-'>t Iv

juno-

234 Latin Wordlore. §5g.

Illative : ergo^ kaque, igitur, therefore.

Conclusive: quare, qiiainobreiii, quapropter,qaocirca,«^A^.[?^<r.

Comparative : ut, uti ; velut, vemti ; sicut, sicuti ; ceu ; quem-
admodum ; quomodo, all rendered as ; atque^ 2j^ as\
ouaniy than^ as ; quasi, tamquam, as^asit were ; aQ>ote, as
being,

B, Subordinative Conjunctions are :—

Consecutive : ut, so that; (ut son); quhi, but tkat, that wft.

Final : ut, in order tkat; ut ne, ne (for ut ne), in order that

not ; utinam, O tkat ; utinam ne^ &a ; quo^iw order thai ;

quominus, in order that not.

Causal: <^od^^\a^ because*, quoniam, quando, quandoqukfem,

since ; siquidem, inasmuck as ; quom or cum, »Mce.
Temporal : quom or ctun, when ; ubi, quando, when ; at,
when^ from the time that; dum, donee, while ^ whilst i
dum, donee, until \ quoad, whilst ; quoad, until ; ante-
quam, priusquam, before that ; postquam, after that \ simul
ac, simul (omitting ac), as soon as ; quotieii% as eften as ;
and others.
Conditional : si, i/\ sin (for ^-n^j^butif; sive, seu, orify wh^^
ther} nisi, unless ; ni, unless; si modo, si tantum, if only ^
or modo, tantum ([omitting si); dum, dummodo,/r(n/i^^
thaty or modo (omitting dum).
Concessive : etsi, etiainsi ; tametsi, tamen etsi, although^ even
if\ quamquam, utut, however ; quamvis, aithomghy lit.
how you will ; cum, ut, licet, although.
Comparative : quasi, as if (for quam si) ; ut si, ac si, vdut si,
as if; or velut (dropping si); tamquam, as tkaiugh (for
tamquam si) ; ceu, as {/'(dropping si).

Obs, In Subordinative Conjunctions must be included

Afl Interrogative Pronouns and Particles used obliquely :

The Relative Pronoun with its Particles ubi, unde, quo, qua. Sec,

inasmuch as both these classes Hnk sentences with affection of

Mood.

58 Section IV.

Inters Intcrjections.

*^*'**°*' Intersections strictly so called (interiecta, inserted
in the sentence without affecting its form) express :

Invocation : O. heus, oho or ohe, eia or heiai pro (proh),
eho, ehodam, iarh, halloa, &c

Designation : en, ecce, lo/ behold/

Surprise : O, hem, em, ehem, babae, and the comic words au;
hui; va(vah);eia;bombajc;atatorattat; attate; attattatae.

Disgust: (comic) phui, aha, /x»^A; phy, pooh/

Satiety : ohe, oiei^ enough/

Laughter : (comic) aha (haha), hahahae.

Joy : O, io, eia, euge, evoe, eupoe, papae, hussaf foyf ftc,
and the comic words euax, eugepae (cvyevac).

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

1 59- Derivation of Nouns, 235

Pndse : eu^ e«gc^ eta, braeua I wdl dome J &c.

Pain and Sorrow: heiv eheu, li«i or ei, vu^ aJi otVijUlasf
woe / il i c e t, alPs up /

DefNE«caiti6fi: pro (pnth), JSn^id il /

Call to Silence : st, Ausk/

Several Nouns^ Verbs^ and Adverbs are vsed in exdamation or
invocation, like Intei^ecdons. Such are :

i) Nouns : pax, hmsAf ukSilvLwa, plague / nef as. inf andum, mon-
sfroMs/ indignnm, korrendum, miserura, miserabil^ tnrpe.

The Vocative macte, Plur. macti, is used uMi an Ablative or
Genitive : as macte esto virtute, go on and prosper. It is
perhaps the Participle of a lost Verb macSre. M. Lucr. v. 1339.

2) Veibs : quaeso, /n/^^/ precor, ore, obsccro^ /r^;
SimzhOydo^ please; sis (si vis), sultis (si vultis^,/^flj^ : sodes
(si audies?), ifyot^ll 6e S9 good: agesis, agedum, agitedum,
come now; cedo (PL cette),^wv )w/; apage, away^ avaunt,

3) Adverbs: profecto, really; nae (or n6), truly ^ used with the
Nominative of a Pronoun: nae ego velim • . . nae illi errant^&c

(^ The £[^owing expressions are elliptical :
mehercule' = me, HerculCj iuves, so help me, Hercules,

mecastor, ecastor = me, Castor, luves, so kelp wu. Castor,
edepol, pol = me, dee Pollux, iuves, so kelp me, Pollux,

medius ndius ^ me^ deus Fidius, iuves, so help mc^ God of

faith (Zevc n/crrioc).
pro lu^piter = prohibeas,' luppiter, Jove forbid,

pro di immortales » prohibeatis, di immortales : heaven foref end/

(Q O^ a, heu, eheu, hem, eia, en,ecce, pro are fbmid with
Accusative ; hem, hei, vae, with Dative ; O, a, heu, heus, eho^
and others are often acccnnpanied by a Vocative. The Vocative
itself is in the nature of an Interjection, lying out of the construction
of the sentence.

CHAPTER V.
DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION OF WORDS.

Section L

Derivation of Nouns.

i The Suffixes used in the Flexion of Stems are sJ^x^
shewn in the preceding Chapters. We have next ^^2^
to shew those by which a Stem is derived from a Root,
or (Hie Stem from another.

* The •tymolccr ^ P*^ (jprah) bere given n not disprored by the pluase 'pco ^
atque liominum fidem/ which may represent another ellipsis, 'prohibeatur deumatquo
Iftominam fidem vioIarL' —

lOogle

236 Latin Wordlore. §5^

That Suffix in a derived Stem, which contains the Stem-charac-
ter, is the staminal Suffix. Thus in the word crudelitas, Stem
cru-d-di-tat-, t&t is the staminal Suffix.

It conmionly happens that a word comes immediately from an-
other, which is itself derived from a third, and so cm, till a root or
rudimental form is reached. Every word (including the root) is the
Theme of such as are immediately derived from it Thus,

Theme of crudelitas : Adj. criidelis; Stem crudeli-.

Theme of crudelis : Adj. crudus; Stem crudo- for crfl-Ido-.

Theme of crudus : Root cm-, Sk. kravi^ Gr. rpcf-, raw flesh.

Beginning from the Root, the order is ;

crQ-, cru-M6- ( =» cru-du-»), cru-Id-ell- ( - cru-d-ell-s), crfi-Id-clRat-
( = cru-d-elI-ta-»).

Here the suffixes are laft (Yd-), SlY, t&t ; to each of which the
ending m is joined to form the Nominative Case.

The words of such a series may form branch-lines of derivation
by other suffixes.

Thus from cru- come cril-or, gorey cru-entu-s, gory^ from
this the Verb .cru-cnt-a-re ; from crudus come cru-d-i-ta-s
and cru-d-esc-ere: from crudelis the Adv. cru-d-eli-ter:
crudelitas merely forms its own Cases.

iL Root or Rudiment

The determination of Roots, though greatly assisted by Com-
parative Philology, is a work of vast labour and difficulty, demand-
mg the nicest conjectural criticism, and often baffling all conjecture.
Very many roots are indeed determined beyond question ; Ss, I, /^
gOf Y, thaty d^ st&, ^, &p, &c. : others are open to doubt ; cSj> (see
p. T90) : while in f & c, which heads, perhaps, the largest group of Latin
words, o is now held to be a suffix, added to the root f £ - Sk. bhd^
Gr. ^-, t0 give light, under which stand new groups, including
fax, facies, fateor, fari, fas, &c, with their derivatives. Henoe
It is often safer, in deriving words, to call their ultimate form a rudi-
ment rather than a root

iiL Suffix.

The derivation and distribution of Latin Suffixes, with their
meaning, when they have one, are a special topic too wide to be
fiilly treated here. The Syllabus which follows, with the subjoined
examples, will supply considerable information. It adopts Diintzer's
method (Lot, Wortbildung und Composition), though not his order ;
corrected throughout by reference to the views of Schleicher (Com^
pend. §§ 2 1 5-231 J and Corssen {Ausspr, L 566, &c.), Bopp, Lea
Meyer, and Ficlcs Lexicon have also been consulted.

Suffixes are simple or compound : but the parts of a compound
suffix often cohere so regularly in a class of words, that, haviiu^
been once shewn as compound, it may be cited without inconveni*
ence as if it were simple. Such are tiidon, meBto, enndo, tooBdow

&C.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

S 59; Derivation of Nouns. 237

iv. Rudimental Words.

Rudimental words are such as append their Case-endings to the
real or seeming Root, unstrengthened or strengthened. Such are

tf) gru-s, su-s; re-s; bov- (bos), lov-; crux, dux,nex, nux,
pix, prSc-, die-, grex, pes, vas (vid-), adips, caelebs, dap-,
6p-, stip-, with many compound words, auspex,har usp ex, obex,
index, index, artifex, tradux, coiux, manceps, princeps,
praeses, praepes, crassipes, &c b) lux, pax, vox, lex, rex,
&C. c^ sal, sol, lar, par, ver, ius, crus, tus, rus, spes, mos,
ros, flos, OS for-) : also farr- (for), fell- (fel), melt- (md), ost-
(os, bone)y cord- (cor).

T. Syllabus of Suffixes (with examples at the foot).

In the List of Suffixes and their Examples the abbreviations
used are :

S. Substantive, V. Verbalia (words derived from Verbs).
A. Adjective. D. Denominativa (words derived from Nouns).

Unc (uncertain) implies that root or roots are unknown.
&C. ] placed after Examples cited, indicate that many

&C. &c [ others exist of the same class, and that in
&c &c. &c i some instances the number is very laige.

Every Suffix ending in ft must be taken as including the forms
iis, S, tmti; that is, A-nouns as well as 0-nouns,

I. Vowels and ▼.*

Of Vowel Suffixes (besides the characters ji, », Y, % e), the most
important is Ytt, induaing, as it does, a large class of Abstract Sub-
stantives in Vky Tum, and of Possessive Adjectives in Ius.

S. a) ft i3)» r)«,YS a)tt t)Y Q«5

n) t6 e) tt», ▼», !▼», Tt

* I. Vowels and ▼.
Snhttwntivo.

«) fiiaac. y. 9crib-a, adven-o, incol-a, terrigen-o, &c

fi) V. mexg-usy cormorant ; tSr-us, couch \ fSg-a, flight ; talp-a, mole ; pronSlH^
bridesmaid ; itSg-um, yt^^ &c ftc. D. nimb-ut, cloud ; nerv-us ; taur-us ; K!p-tii ;
Or-a, coast ; iSI-um, Mne, &c

y) V. f id-es, efflg-ies, q)2c-ies, &c. D. paiiper-ies . . .

^ V. Sc-us, D. niir-us.

t) V, anc, fidx, nix, Sp-b, rflp-es, &c D. nox, nQb-«8, mlr-e, &c

O Mostly D. cak-eos, <A0r ; trilb-ea, striped robe -, flamm-exim, bridal veU^ &c. V.
Sl-ea, olive,

1) A few Masc. V. lud-ius, >&/fr . . . D. sim-ius, ape. A larRc number of Fern.
D. av-ia, gramdmother ; and abstracts of Quality : audaoia, boldness \ ignav-ia*
sloth ; victor-ia, victory, absent^ia, absence^ &c &c &c. A large number are
Neut most V. denoting ' the Effect : ' benefic-ium, benefit ; conub-ium, nusr-
riage ; gaud-ium, Joy, &c &c. &c. : some D. minister-ium, service ; sen-ium, old
age : sav-ium, hiu, ftc &c Words like arbitr-ium, augur-ium, ftc., should be
ranked as V.

4) fttt : D. patr-uus, uncle on father's side ; ian«ua, house-door ; Ttt : V, D. cer*vu8 :
ri-vus ; lar-va» mash, spectre ; ur-yvaa, plough-land ; It6 : ol-iva, an olive: salr
vn, spittle ;Wl: V. d-vis.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

238 Latin Wardlart. Ss^.

A. a}» /3)I t)^ <)!& c}tt»,T»,lT»,tfT6,i^

II. a

O is a stable suffix, denoting Individuality in Substantives :
Permanent Condition or Relation in Adjectives. Often, however,
the individuality or condition denoted is of a disparaging kind :
asinsenex, senec-io, cimex, culex, pulex; caecus, flaccns^
luscus, mancus, truncus, &c So in o-vlo e is deminutive^ bat
in o-iiBdo it denotes permanent activity.

S. flDoIto /5) c6 olft Xoft tlc6 Y)Aete S)loiell

A. a) 06 Ye« tYo6 Ue« 3) 9M «oI 7} ^^^ 9M»

Adjectives: ^

»)h: V. Ad-US, Jait/k/iti ; viv-us, aiive . . . with Cpp. naufrSg-us, ski/wrtcJked ;

profag-us,yiitfi/nir . , . D. re-us, accused; dov-il^ new ; me-us, tn-u^ su-us . . .
/3) Y : 1-s ; qui-s ; qui ; iug-b . . . Cpp. bimar-b . . .
y) 65 : Z>. implying * Formed of '.* aur-eus, golden ; argent-eus, ^sUvtr-, 'Exk&^

^ iik-eus, mmdefy ; lQt-eu% 4^ de^ jmeOw; 'Belonging ter* viiiiB-ciiQ,

JVc^/r.— ^ represents Gr. tiof, Pythagor-€us, El-Sus, qfElis.

i) Itt : 2>. imply generally ' Havif^theqm^ity ' of, or ' ^tmgh^io : 'mart«is,patr>
iuv rcg-iu^ pluv-ias» ftc ftc ; some Qpp. cgreg-ius, exim-ius. Aer-iu^ aether-ius
are Greek, having the sense of L. JEus. Alius, Gr. aXAotsal-yus ; mediiis, Gr.
fUirrofssmed-yus ; 1 being l<consonans. Add plebe-ius=:]>lebe-yua.

•) 116 : V. with s(»ne in Td, ItO, chiefly V,, may imply * Active quality .* ' oootig-uos,
4uffommg ; contin-uus, ftc ; gnarvus, kMowing ; proter-vus,>MlKVMtf : saeKVus,
raging, &c ; noc-uus or noc-ivus, hurtful, &c. : or may have Passive us* :
^rA-MXA, parted; ingen-uus, freehom ; mut-uus, «x<rA<iM^^ (between twot>er-
sons or partiesX mutual \ relic-uus, left \ rig-uus, irrig-uus, watered ; videos,
windowed ; ca-vus, hollow ; sal-vus tafe ; adopt -ivus, choten, adoptive ; especially
ihose in t-Iv6, having the Supiaeor participial suAx t : capdvus, capietnd', fe«-
tivas,yQw/^ ; fugi-tivus, na-tivus, praeroga-tivus, vo>tainss, &c. ftc Ajas<ivas»
4f summer, supposes a verb aedSre (Gr. auB-), to heat ; tempes-tivus. soasof'
able, is abnormaT ; mor-tuus (b mor-tivus), dead ; ann-uns is a rare Denom. ; mens-
tTHius seems to be for mens-trius firom mensis, wumtA. ▼!: brevis, Gr. (Bpaxvc ;
gravis, Sk. gurus, Gr. fiapvt ; 12-vi^ Sk. lagkus, Gr. JA«xvf, /itfs^ ; iC-vis^
Gr. k»if6t, smooth ; sua-vis, Sk. tvAdus, Gr. ^V.

n. c.

Substantives.
«) ol: lanx, merx (foed- fauci- . . .): Yo (ix). n appendix : Yo (exX ^* vart<z»

vort-ex, 2>. ram-«x. Sec pp. 95H6 (most uncX
^) Ott : K. f5-cus, hearth ; f&-cus, drone ; es<a, .^mf, D. Tuven-cus -ca ; oY5-, K.

Mla-dum; D. un-cia (from unus); Ycft: D. vil-Icus, stewoftdi vil>ica»

stewards wife ; roan-Ioi, handct^\ ped-Ica, f^er, springe, &c. ; tYo9> ^

can-dcum : D, viaticum, prouisionfer journey,
Y) •^' toxvk^KK,fuma^ ; lim-ax, «»a^ ; cel-ox, yacht.
<) Yo, p. 96 (most unc rad-ix, ftc) : but K. in trlO- trix» Fem. as nare^rix, vic>

trix, &C. (see B) ; Yott : V, D. mend>Icn^ -Ic^ bogg^\ ieGC-tei» 40^ ^nd

others.
«) lact-Oca, iSr/iiK# (some una X
AdQeclivcs.
a) Ott : K. D. parous, pau-cus, pris-cus, nuKus, sic-cus, &c. (some unc) : Yott :

most D. hnply * Pertaining to : * bell-Tcus, publ-lcus, &c. : s(»ne V. med-lcus, ^

healing (as SubsL physician). Many Gentilia ; ScythTcus, ftc. tYoo : Z>.

Tus^Tcus, aqua-dcus, ftc V. vena-tlcus ; Uoo : D. fiune-ITcus.
|B) ftoY : K. imply « Inclined to; * Capable ofi * aud^ax, <&rwv ; «d-ax. devouring ;

f&4x,>»(^, &C. &c : aoY : r. ' Inclined to : ' fgrKW. haughty ; vfl-ox, «i.^
-v) Ao5 : mer-Ocus, >«wr (op-4cus, shady, unc) ; SubsL clo4lca, sewer (cla«hi)L

Ae55 : D. 'Consisting qf\ * farr- aceus, qffhur, and some othen.

uiyiuzeu uy x^j^^^x^ -x i-V^

{ 5^ Derivation of Nouns, 239

a) left M» ticlft €> MC {) «•» ftoM 1^ Mod.

III. «w

In many words which have % before the final vowel or case-end-
ing, this cons, is known to be a root<haracter : as in lex, rex, strix,
frug-, coniuxy angu-is, compag-es, contag-es^ merg-us,
rdg-us, fiig-a, pl^g-a, plag-a, tdg-a, iiig-um, and others.
(Finguis^ as compared with Sk. pf, Gr. iri-, seems to shew a suffix
^, bat not if compared with Gr. ttayvQ. See Curt Gr, EU 276.)
This suggests the probability that in tmcertaln words, as vag-us^
alg-a, and others, % is radical rather than suffixaL On the other
hand, it is probable that the root dg is suffixal {l|gf, &g, Ig, ug) in
various wonds. Its presence in remex (remum agereX aiurlga

ianreas agere), prodTgus, and ambages, is obvious : in con-
luges, coagulum, strages, stragulus, it may be conjectvied :
also in nugae, for ndv-Ig-ae, novelties » trifles as opposed to seria
(from senis), long-comtdertd matter : < hae nugae seria ducunt in
mala.' Valgus, v olgu s are deduced by some from Sk. roots. (May
not the latter be refenred to the fonner word ?) Finally, the root ag
may be supposed in ac ea, eroa, vcoa : see V. Compare the Gredc

On fastig-ium, vestig-ium, see C. Ausspr. II. 427, A>. B. 197^ 361.

IV. T.

This is the most efficient suffixal letter in Aryan langua^fe. If
we include its representation by • and d, it enters into due forma-
tion of all Participles and Participial Adiecttves, and into that of
aU Verbal Substantives with Participial theme : by die suffixes ttt
rpd, d»), ttt (stt), tl (si), tI5B (sldn), aa, &C. Besides which it
tonns important groups of Denominative Substandves ; concreleby
the suffixes It St, abstract by the suffixes t&t tAt, and others^

(For the suffixes into which a enters, see M : for dtt, 41 see 9.

The suffixes •«, stt, aX are included here.)

S. o) tft It* |3) ttt (sA) Ittt y) ttt (sft) tt& fittt Ittt alttt

ID loft : V. vnAca%t friendly (Subst friend) ; pud-Icus, modest ; apr-Icns, tmmy ;
from Particles : ant-tquus, ancient ; post-Icu&, kinder ; ieY6 : £>. imply ' (Umnst'
ing of: * later-Tdus : ' ofbrick^ &c. ' Pertaining to ; ' natal-Iciua» belongi$ti to a
i&tkday, &c. but nov-Idas» newly arrived {fuvice\ Juv. : tIoX5 (slcXS) :
y. (Sup. St.) participial : sudvec-tidus, imported; conduc^tidus, kirod\ trala-
^esm, tran^erred, Slc The quantity of ti, si is probably variable.

«) (fieMz, pem-ix, both unc)

O Aett : y, only cad-Qcus, falUngi fte69 : D. only pann-uceus» rugged

i|) Greek D. card-i2cu8, dys/e^tic : Aegypt-iScus. ftc.

IV. T.

«) D. nau-ta, nar-lta.

fi) y. muneious : lec-tus, bed ; seo-Ca, sect ; fii-tum, fate ; caa-sa, cmae ; pea^mm,

task : mer-itum, desert ; ius-sum, commami, ftc. ftc D. : Rber-tus, freedman ;

iuTen-ta, yautk ; salic-tun, willow^ed ; carec-tum, sedge-bed \ rirgul-tum, tkicket,

ftc. The last three have tum for etam. See 3) bdow.
V) ttt (sQ), Ittt : y. (Sup. Sl) fle-tus, wee^ingi mo-tus, motiem ; ic-tuSt stroke:

cruda-tos, /!^rfwfr ; mug^Cu^ belleming; hab>bus, kabit ; 8ti«p4tus, noise;

nexHis, connexion ; vi-sus, sigkt, 9ec &c (Pr. st) hal-Itus, spir-itus, brmtk ; tum-

ultna, nifiroar. But D. in Atft denote Ojfiee, Position, Corporate Body, &c :

consut-atns, consulship ; sen-atus, senate ; re-atua, state ^ acemsation ; equit-

atus, cavalry t &c

Digitized byCjOOQlC

240 Latin Wordlore, §59*

a) «t6 €) tx (si) 0 «t i«t n 17) t&t Yt&t Mit (

e) tut ItAt 1) tl» (•!») UI» ItI9 c) &ttt ftttt Ittt X) 5t
11) tMw
A. o) t» (•*) W /B) &ttt 7) »t« %) Ittt f) M»

ftt6 t) <^^v i«< d) a «tx It.

V. ».

This cons, is a principal element in several important compound
Suffixes, Verbal and Denominative, which appear under V. Be-
sides those, its leading use is in the Participial Adjective suffix Ya«.

S. a) a» ia» /S) ai y) ^ ^ ^) «^
A. a) a» ia» fi) av.

VI. ».

It is doubtful whether any true suffix can be shewn with p, except
pttl«, in which the root pur, pul, pie-, to Jill, is probably contained:
mani-pul-us, po-pul-us, cra-pula, du-plus, &c : du-pl-ex,
&c. in which pi -ex (not from plico) is a compound suffix pul-ic(s).

I) ace-tum, vinegar; with many neuter D. denoting 'Place <^ growth / myn-etum,

myrtle-grove ; oUv-etum, olive-yard^ &c
c) V. gens, mens, son, &c ; vec-tis, yes*tis, vi-tis, mes-ds. D. men-ss^ nep-tis.
^ V, seg-is, ar-i£s (tee C Nachtr, 268-970) : and D. in Ss It-, aI-&, equ-&, ped-St,

&CP.97.

1)) Numerous Abstract D. liber-tas, auctor-itas, car-itas, pittas, soci-etas (• by dis-
similation after iX &c. &c. &c. On hon-estas, &c, see R : pot-estas, eg-cstas
may be for -ent-tas.

fS) Abstract D, iuven-tus, senec-tus, vir-tus, senr-itus.

t) D. nim-tius, nun-tia, txist-itia, serv-itium, calv-ities, amar-ities, iust-ida, &c. &C.

ir) pal-atum, palate ; Mat-uta, goddess <if Mom ; pitUHta, phlegm.

A) dos, dowry ; TLf^o^^grarndson,

|i) lin-teum, icmeL
A4jectives.

a) D. numerous : ius-tus,>iMf/ ; mul-tus, mu^ ; sex-tus, sixths &c &c V. tac-itns,
silent', sal-fius, salted', with all Perf. Participles of Conj. 3., most of t. and
others : tac-tus, doc-tus, admon-Itus, atton-Itus, ius-sus, pressus, &c &c &c.

^) D, numerous : barb-atus, bearded; ferr-atus, ironclad, &c. &c V. most Parti-
ciples of Coi^j. X. am-atus, arm-atus, &c &c. &c.

7) y. fiic-etus : and many Participles, defl-etus, decr<etus, &c

i) D. cxin-ltus, richhaired ; mell-Itus, honied^ &c. V, most Participles of Coq}. 4.
and others, aud-itus, per-itus, tr-itus, &c. &c &c

«) D. aegr-otus, sick ; nas-utus, sharp-nosed^ &c. V, Pftrtidples of Verbs in VO,
ac-utus, arg-utus, &c.

O D. nostras, Arpinas, &c. Quiris, Samnis, &c. p. xo8.

1)) for-ds, hebes, dives, p. zz6, &c

V. ».
Substantives.
a) V, m8-du8 ; cau-da ; cica-da ; tae^ ; crep-Ida.
^) V. laus, cla-des.
y) F.her-es, merc-es,(cust-osf)
i) D. pec-US ud-.

Adjectives.

a) D. absur-dus, cru-dus ; fum-idus, smoky ; gel-idus, chilly , frosty ; herb-idos,
grassy; morb-idus, diseased; sol-idus; sac-iduSf ytdcy, and others: K. many
from Verbs (chiefly, but not solely, of Co^j. a.) : ac-idus, alg-idus, ar-idus, av4diia»
call-idus, ferv-idus, palMdus, tab-idus, tim-idus, torr-idus, vid-idos, um-idin^
&C. &C. : cup-idus, flu-idus, grav-idus, rab-idus, rap-idus, vTv-idus.

$) D. gran-dis ; viri-dts.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

S 59. Derivation of Nouns. 24 1

VII. m.

S. u) b». p) WL
A. M.

on mmM see w ; on i^m l^ftrtf, &c., see &, s.

VIII. X.

This Nasal has an important place in Latin Wordlore. It ter-
minates, as in Sk., the Accus. Sing, of aH Masc and Fem. Nouns,
fflid the first three cases of Neut 0-nouns. The Suffix mtf enters
into the Superl. form of the Adj. mii (m««), m»nt6 have con-
crete us^ miplymg Instrument : rnSnltt implies Permanent State :

& «) iB» lm» «te» p) mxn (m«B) Imte (tei«ii) iteya
(ttaiftn) y) masttt UmiiM linMittt AniMtS r)

A. «} m» ^) teft (ta»») tlm» (tttatf) simft (sttmtt) tVm»
(rttm5) »m5 (lttm5) toslmtt (Isyftatt) 9s)MS (9sttm»).

vn. s.

•obilaMiveSb

«) aior4>u% tO'ba, uuT'^ vcr-bnoi.

^ I^bs, pu-bes.
AtQecdves:

pro-bus («po>^vi}«)f super-bus (vvcp.^v^(t)i

vni. X.

SttbAutms.

■) y. ar-mut;, tkatdtUr^/pint ', fo-«uis, *9miei m-mua* bm^i an-Ianis, jn»M/;
an-Tma, hrteath ; f»-ina,^intf ; flam-ma, y^m^ ; spu-ma,>^M ; vic-dma, victim ;
ar-ma, armsy &c. i>. bni-ma, mid-winter (brevi-ma).

^ K Neut. (ntunerouf): imply * Meanst Instrument or Concrtte Effect'.* (i) when
the theme has active force : flO-men, stream ; iQ-men, light ; lenX-oMn, lerftpmen,
assuagement ; nO-men, nod, deity ; nutrt-men, nuirimeHt ; reg4jnea, govern'
metU ; adSrmen, contort ; teg-mea, covering : (3) when the theme has a pas-
save sense : ag-men, a marcking body (quod agitur) ; nO*men» namu (quod nos-
citur) : strSUmcn, straw (quod stcraitur) ; se^ncn, «y</(guod seritur); exA-men,
Mwarm ^bees (quod exigikur, which is driven out) or tongue qfbalttsue (quod
exigitur, wkichieadjttsted^ So crltaien, a charge ; doc-umen, iesson, &c. &c. &c
Some suppose Verbs not in use : albO-men, gra-m«o, grass (ger-«re or gen-ere T
Compare ger-men, ^rout). (Many una abdO-raen, bita'men, K-roen and others.
Flimen,>n«r/, Masc firom flag- *Ary-, Hitter qf sacrificial fire,)

r) This Suffix is an enlargement of the last, and has the same general meanings and
varieties: V. (t) Act. argfi-mentum, /r^e^; ar-mentum, /i^A-ra//i^ ; comple-
mentum, what Jills up ; fO-mentum, poultice (quod fovct), fer-mentum (quod
fervet) : nutxT-nentum, omS-mentum, al-lmentum, teg-Smentum. (a) Pass, cae-
mentum, hewn stone (quod caeditur) ; frag-mentum ; rS-mentum, UiavingiK^tA
nditurX testa-mentum, will, &c. &c. &c. From non-extant Verbs : calce2-men-
tum, shoe ; rudl-mentum, jSrsl fraimng, nuHment (compare erudire) ; pakid-
&nentum, military cloah.

I) mssao, discouree : (XAiOx-mo, prince, priest^ in EtruriaX

«) D. acr-imonia, sharpness ; aegr-imonia, melattcholy ; parc-imonia (rather than
paxs-imonia), thrift ; matr-imonium, marriage, &c. V. quer-imonia, complaint :
al-imonium, nourishment, &c

0 ^- al-umnus, nursling ; col-umna, column.
A(QecCiv«a.

•) y. tX^mm, genial', fir-mus, Jirm. D. On Supcri. suffix mtt see p. 43. So the
Ordinal Numerals Septimus, dedmus, ftc. p. 153.

A D. plur-Tmus, d-timus, pes-simus, aoer-rtmus, humil-irmus, dur^isdmus, quin-
quag-ensimus, cent-ensTmus (iimusX &c. &c See pp. 4a, 153.

^ uyuized by Google

J

242 Latin Wordlore, § 59.

7) mm» (Itttmtt) I) lm» c) mV.

IX. «.

The Nasodental n is not less important than the Dentals t, d in
forming Latin Suffixes. Three uses may be distinguished : (i) when
a is followed by a vowel in a staminal suffix (lli^ b», 1b», &ii5, 1116,
&c.) or by two vowels (nSd, VnSd, &c.) : (2) when it is itself, in Sub-
stantives, the Stem-character (to, In, Sn, ttn, dn) ; here it does not,
like t, a, fall out before a Nom.-£nding s, but rejects s, remaining
itself in the form to or «n (pect€n, tegm^n, lien), but rejected by
the stems »b da, which become d in Nom. Sing. Thomo, natio,
Plato) : (3) when it stands chiefly in Adjectives before t, dors
(eattt, entl, enatt, eiisl, &c), rarely before r (quadringenti):
being sometimes the final letter of a preceding suffix (mea-tft),
sometimes, perhaps, the strengthening Nasal (atl, asl).

S. (i) a) 11& /3) B» 1B» r) &B» dB» Antt to» nSa«
^) ltt» f) BY

(2) 0 to (In) mto (mVn) 17) »n (In) 0) r^n Ac«b
Iff5n llrto (rin) <) ddn Sdttn Idto ftdtta (41b)
tad5B Itftdttn (din) k) 5b Idn eldn tldn sldB

(3) X) entl aati v) nndttn (din).
See menttt under X.

y) D. leg-itimus, mar-itlbnus (-umus).

i) D. matr-Imus, kaviMg mother alive ; patr-Imus : (op-Imus, having weeUtk^ nbiX
t) cO-mis, subllmis {seen from tmdemeatk * limis oculis?' Le. Iqfty. Compare obfi-
quus).

IX. w.

Substantives.

a) V. ver.na, hauseslatfe.

fi) V. 9om-nuSy dom-inus, pen-na» pag-ina, reg-num. . , . D. pi-nus, pine-tree.

y) dntt : D. Silv-anus, god of forests ; membr-ana, parduneni ; (gta-num, «
grain) ; 9ntt : V. col-<mus, farm-tenant. D. patr-onus, patron ; matr-ons.
matron ; An5 : D, trib-unus, tribune ; fort-una, fortune ; Satt : V. hab>ena,
rein ; D. lani-ena, butchers shop ; (ven-enum, poisoti^ ; le-aena, lioneut dec. ;
Ilto5 : y. cant-ilena, ditty.

9 Intt : y. inquil-inus, ^4gtr ; ru-ixuL,fali, ruin ; mpAxuif plunder ; cS-lina, kiicken ',
D. gall-ina, hen \ medic-ina, medical art ; diadpl-ina, teachings school, &c

t) V. fi-nis, end ; cri-ms, parted hair.

0 V. pect-en, comb. For the suffix men (mTn), &C. see SK.

1}) D. hom-o, man ; turb-o, whirhoind^ top.

0) gbn : Z>.vir-go, tdrgin ; &ff5B : V. vor-^go, g$tlph ; D. &rr-ago» mess of floor',
(im-ago, image f) ',\%^ilfBL : V. or-igo, or^^ ; vert-igo, twirl ; Ikg^B : D. aer>ago,
copper-rust ; lan-ugo, down^ &c. (Genitives ginis.)

i) dftn : or-do, order f 5d5B : K dulc-edo, sweetness : torp-edo, nu$nbmess ;
IdttB : V. cup-ido, desire ; ad5B : D. test-udo, tortoise, penthouee ; YtfttfftB :
D. alt-itudo, fort-itudo, lat-itudo, long-itudo, vidss-itudo ; vale-tudo (for vaknt*
udo?), &c. &C. (Genitives dinis.)

«) Ob : m. D. conunilit-o, fellow-soldier \ epnl-o, banqueter, &c &c : V. bftn),
toper ; erro, vagabond : IOb, many masc. D. lud-io, player ; sCn-io, tice, &c
V. piig4o» poniard. Fern. V. (Pres. St.) : cond7c-io, Ieg4o, opln-io, soqnc-io,
&c Some D. commun-io, communion ; consortio, rebellio, &c. : OlAn : homiffl*
cio ; tI5B, sIAb : Fern. V. (Sup. StX a very numerous class of words : aestinU'
tio, admoQi-tioy sortl-tio, ac-tio, na-tio, ora-tio, posses-sio, ul-tio, vi-sio, &c &C.&C

X) V. aduleic-ens, serp-ens, torr-ens, aninwans, inf-an^ &c. D. tri-ens» quad-rans, ftc

m) bir-undo, stoallow-, har-undo, reed.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

5 59- Derivation of Nouns. 243

A. (i) a) tt» la» a«» ipxntt fiitt Ub» /3) ftnft &b«6

tfta«5 y) «n5 Xdad oeB5 Antt a) intt, natt t) bX

(3) Q entft ttlentft dlentft Ueattt (flat6 eeattt ffeatd)

'/) aatX eatX HentX ttleatl &) ensY XeiisX ensni

c) undd eBd5 aBd5 ic) oimdtt A) l^undft.

X. S.

The Sibilant in a large class of words, chiefly V,^ represents the
Dentalt (•«, m\ sXdn^sdr, sdrXS, surft). When • is a Stem-character,
m many words, especially in the older, it remains in Nom. Sing, flos,
ros,opus, nemus, Venus, pul vis,&c.,but oftener becomes r in the
suffix 5s dr : pudor, auctor, &c. : while in some words both forms
were used : honos or hon6r, labos or labSr, lepos or lep6r : so
amos, col OS occur. In the Oblique Cases • becomes r : floris,
roris, opgris, VenSris, honoris, &c. But if in derivation such
words come before a Mute, then • is resumed : flos-culus, opus-
culum, venus-tus, hones-tus : hes-ternus (from heri for hes-i,
Gr. x^«c) : not before a vowel : flor-eus, pulver-ulentus; see S.
On the falling out of a before • m various words (quotiens, sem-
enstris, formonsus, vicensumus, &c.), see p. 50.

S. a) flft /3) «» m\ m\h teXtt Vsda

Adjectives.
«) D. mag-nus, sa-mis, va-nus, ver-nus, no-nns, u-nus, octo-nus, ter-nus : acer-niis,

of maple ; colur-nus (for corulinus), of hazel ; adamant-mus; ahe-neus, of brass ;

ebur-neus, ^ itfory \ (ido-neus,^/) ; olea-ginus, of olive ; beni-gnus, iiW, boun-

iiful; cras-tTnus^ of the morrow ; pris-tinus, of olden time,
fi) D. arc-anus, secret ; font-anus, of a fountain ; quart-anus ; cbtidi-anus, daily \
suburb-emus, near the city ; subterr-aneus, underground ; V. supervac-aneus ;
collec-taneus, gathered together ; consen-taneus, adapted, &c
?) y- eg-enus, needy : D. ali-enus, foreign ; tcrr-cnus, earthly ; (ser-enus) ; op-

port-unus, eU hand \ (amoenus, agreeable),
i) D. can-Tnus, of a dog ; div-inus, of a deity, divine ; mar-inus, of the sea^ &c &c. ;

Ubcrt-inus, offreedman-class \ matut-inus, of mom ; vesper-tinus, e^«r«A«5f, &c.
t) seg-nis, lazy.
O D. cni-entus, bloody ; vi-olentus, violent ; lut-ulentus, muddy ; mac-ilentus, wasted ;

(corp-ulentus for corpor-ulentus). For the forms A-i-ginti, tri-ginta, &c du-centi,

quin-genti, &c., see Numeralia.
J») V. Adjectives and Participles in ens, ans, denottug * Present activity : * abs-ens,

ekg-ans, impud-ens, prud-ens, am-ans, praest-ans, cand-ens, dilig-ens, negleg-ens,

audi-ens, &c. &c. &c, (petul-ans). D. pest-ilens.
8) D. for-ensis, of the forum \ Athen-iensis, of Athens ; ut-ensilis,,^ use ; observe

di nov-ensiles, the meaning of which term is questionable.
*) y. Gerundive Participles in undus (anc), endus, andus ; reg-undus, audi-endus,

am-andus, &c &c. &c They denote * Present activity* See Syntax.
«) V. 0lUld5 is a sufiix compounded of the suffixes c5 and Bdd, and denotes

* Permanent action or * Present activity'.' fa-cundus, eloquent: iu-cundus,

pleasant ; vere-omdus, bashful^ &c. &c. &c.
A) v. biand5 is compounded of bd and ndd, and denotes 'Production of Present

tutivity : ' popula-bundus, engaged in Jay ing waste ; vaga-bundus, given to wan-
der : mori-bundus, on the point <f dying, &c It b found with an Objea : ' vita-

bundus castra hostiiun,' striving to avoid the enemy s camp, Liv.

X. s.

Substantives.
«) K.lixa,*«/ii^(lic-€re?X

fl) v. na-sus, nou ; noxa, hartn, &c (see T) ; m«-sb, harvest ; ama-sius, sweet'
heart ; Megal-esia,>ax/ of Cybele ; equ-iso, groom. ^ ,

R2 uyuzeuuy^jOOgle

244 Latin Wordlere. §59.

y) %MC^ IstS e«tr5 M€r» ^ «• {is, ^) =«r

«) 9s (i»y)-«r «) a« (^;r)-5r ^) ww6 iist5

A. a) •• •¥» /^ 9^ 1«»^ ^^^^ ettlMI &C. 7) Btrf

estrl Mtr6 istrtt Q estY estXo& c) nM» C) eM6

iisttt 17) I5s (ii9^)-16r.

XL R.

This Liquid occurs in many Suffixes, sometimes i/nthout a second
Consonant in the same Suffix (r*^ *rt, «rl»> &c.), often in sequence
of one of the muteS) e, t, b (erd^ tr*, br», &c). On its relations to 1
and to • see pp. 64. 65, and • above.

S. a) r» /3) «r« ttr» r) o«»^ (<>r^) ^) 1»^M («»»>

y) lent-iscus, Untisk ; ar-lsta, ear qf com ; fen-estra, vnudow ; /7. in -astet^ •

are of a deminutive nature : ole-aster, vdld oUve ; api-ostnun, wild parsity,
mmt ; pansit-aster, a would^ parasUg,

A t 0 Koiuu iaonssing in 2xv from Nonunatbw in Is» St» in Sr^ ftom ils» and is 8r>
from Os» will btt found at pp. as* loa.

1)) moll-usca: (loc-usuX
AcUecdves.

a) K las-sus, anxivs, ftc. ftc Soe T.

/3) 5stf (for onsd or OBtltt, as ovo-ia for iiriaX numerous ; D. anim-osos, form<osas,
&c. &c. &c. ; capt-iosus, cur^iosus, &c. : belli-cosus, siti«culosus monstrmosus^ &c.

y) V. illu-stris : D, palu-stris, idlv-«stris : dn-ister.

i) D* ajcr-esds, cacL^stis, dam<«sticas.

^) D, coNUcus» gtUttring*

^ D, fonestus from fonus, &• ; scelestus from aodus, <»s hooestns from hones, Or-
(so tempestas from tempus, 5r-) ; but omisttM from onus, er- ; venustus from Venus,
&>; v«tustusfriomvetus, Sr-; modtstus points to a lost Neut. modus. Augustus
from augur, and robustus frrom robur, show thsU, evon in Subst. with Nom. iir,
the original endfaig was iis.

'^) This is the Suflix of Comparatives : mel-iSr (anc. meliflr, meliOsX See p. ax.

XL R.

Substantives.

a) K. cu-ra, care ; ser-ra, saw ; lab-rum, li/ ; (aurora, monwtg, p. ^

fi) V. num-erus, number-, arbit-er, umpire ; gen-er, som-m-law, op-exa, aid; iug-
erum, acre. D. um-erus, sk^tldert sat*ura, mti^.

y) V, Neuter words implying * That wkicA ejffweU acH^a : ' simula^ram, lihtnets :
sepul-crum, a grave; lu-cmm, gain; folsauaa (for fulc-crumX ptvp^ ftc. &c.
CHUtt («ltt) is another focrn : cena<ulum, diming^roem. See &. The suffix
comes fix>m the root Sk. har, L. cre-o, iSp mahe,

a) V. * That which ej^fct* oeHanx' f^hw, engtmser-. dola^ira, hatchet-, late-bra,
hiding-place ; cri-brum, tieve ; scalprum (for scalp-brum, chisel^. D. candela-
brum, candlestich. Root Sk. bhoTt Gr. ^«p.. Blkltt is another form : turi-buhm*
center.

«) The Suffix tiv(tvtt) has two uses in Latin, both from one root, Sk. tar, Gr.
TOP- (shewn In *<«*«, terminus, tzames, trans, i»«uHre, pene-tn-re, &c), g9
beyond, penetraU, attain, (i) It corrupoads to the compvative suffix Sk.
tara, Gr. rtpn-, used to express a relation between two : shewn in the Gr. Cam-
par, -rcpof , L. ter : magis-ter, miais-ter, matcr4era, ftc. &e. and in Adverbs.
(a) Like OPd and Iwrd, it denotes in V. * That which ejg^e the action : ' cul-ter,
hnife ; mulo-tra, milhpaU', vn^Axmi, pUugh \ claus-trum, barrirr ; ros-trum, beaJk
(rod-) : nut-trum, harrow (rftd-) : in mon-s-trum, prodigy, % is euphoniodly in-
serted.

f) V. cur-rus, chariot,

1}) V. au-ris, ear; na-ris, nostril.

0) D, ans-er (for h-anser ; Sk. hanstii Gr. x*iv\ gander ; pass-er, sparrow ; ouili-cr,
vtoman ; nov-erca, stepmother ; V. xxr«t, journey ; cad-av-er. carpm.

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^ v^ pt i-X^

J 59. Derivation of Nautis, 245

^} MrX brY ic) tSrI (trV) X) t«r tr m) Ib^ te»r v) l^«r
() 5r ftr 0) ftrl ir) ftrX6 p) ttr»or a) t«r»t5r (sSr)
tno- r) tOrt» (•«rt5) v) 1lr» ftrt Arid ^) t1lr» (sUrd).

A. o) r» ^) «r» «r« 7) oSrtt (er») e) b«v« (Urtt)

tate« (tv«) f) Mt&n (Mtrl) {) ftr« 4rtt «»tt 9) oCrl (on)
e) bM((bvi) 1) t«rV (tri) c) ftrl X) AH» /i) tOrltt
(■«r<tt) v) tnrtt (smrft).

t) V, fe-bruyj^terr.

s) (lin-ter or lunter, hoatX)

A) See above «)l This suffix coiTeq>ondA to the Sk. iara^ denoting chiefly rektioa<

ships : palter, ma-ter, fra-ter. Observe (Sk. svasar^ Gr. Sap, L. soror for sosorX
fi) (ji!daicx\jeurtuy ; (iociner), Uver: (fadnor-) (acinus, eUed, txploit, crime.
y) in-bar, sunbeam.
i) D. aequ-8r, level surf ace, sea ; (unc. iecur, ebur, robur. Gen. •5ris). V, fulg-ur,

Hgtnifig; Gen. -ArlB. (Unc. augur, turtur, vuhur.)
«) 27. mol-am (lapis), grindsttme: many Neut from Adjectives : alve-are, ^W;

calc-ar, s^r, &c. &c.
v) Properly Adj. libr-arius, copyer qf hooks ', den-arius, a /nc-Aj/Mr^ ; Aulul-aria (name

of a Comedy of Plautus) ; tabul-arium, record-office \ pom-arium, orchard, &c.&c.
p) K or from prim, rudiment: am-2r, love-, cru-5r, blood; clamor, outcry, trem-or,

trembliHg ; um-^r, moistttre ; (xxxSr, w(/ef). Gen. Oris, &c. &c &c Many had

character • originally : lunOs, lep<Js, &c See 8.
^) y. a ntimerous class, denoting * an Agent'.* ara-tur, ora-tSr, pisca-tSr, moni-tor»

ac-t5r, vic-t3r, spon-sSr, mes-sj^r. Gen. Oris, &c. &c &c The Fern, form is

trio trix : moni-trix, vic-trix, tons-trix, ftc. &c.
D. gladia-tur, via-t5r, fund-T-tur, tanJ-tiJr, and some others.
t) From Verbal A«ljectives Neut. : denote chiefly locality : audi-torium, lecittre-room :

dever-sorium, hostel, &c. See below ft).
v) V. fig-ura, sha^; sec-uris, ojr^;/?. pen-uria./m«^; promunt-urium, pronton'

tory.
^) V. (Sup. St) na>tura, nature ; sepul-tura, Burial ; men-sura, measure ; cae-sura,

cutting, &c : official terms : dicta-tura, dictatorship ; quaes-tnra, qnaestorship ;

cen-«ura, censorship. Others imply ' the worh of an Agent (tor, sor) : ' pic-tura,

painting ; ton^sura, shaving, &c.
Adjectives.

«) y. cla-rus, gna-rus.

/8) y. glab-er, smooth ; integ-er, ISc-er, sSc-er, scSb-«r, rough : D. sSlur.

•y) y. ludi-cer.

3) y. CK'hex, frequent.

«) D. The Derivatives have the Compar. suffix tara : al-ter, u-ter, dex-ter, sinis-tcr,

nos-ter, ves-ter, ex-ter, in-ter, &c. (So in Adverbs ali-ter, pari-ter, &c.) See

above <X
O ^' av-arus, covetous: can-orus, od-orus, son-orus (unc. aurt-erus ; sev-erus;

»n*cerus, pro-^erusY).
If) y. volu-cer, medio-cris (acer, alacer?).
<) y. cde-ber ; lugu-bris ; salu-ber ; D. fene-bris, fune-bris, mulie-bris (drops r). This

suffix is from Sk. R. Mar, Gr. (^«p-.
«) I>. X. eques-ter, pedes-ter, palus-ter, seques-ter (secus), semcs-tris (for semens-

tris) : a. camp-estris, alv-estris, terr-ester (tris).
i^ Z>. in Arl are a large class and imply * Belonging to \* they are used for forms in

filT if 1 is before in the word : consul-aris ; £umli-aris ; milit-aris ; sol-aris ;

vulg-ans, &c. &c ftc. They form Substxuitives in ar SrT. See above oX
-A) The suffix fintt is an enbrgement of ftrl. The Adjectives derived from

Noons and Particles imply character, quality, class, &c. : agr-arius, qfland ;

greg-arius, of a herd ; numm-arius, of coin ; necess-arius ; prec-arius ; volunt-

arius, &C. &c &c. Hence Substt See above ir).
#&) These are chiefly formed from Verbal Nouns of the Agent in tor (sor) and imply

' Belonging to : ' ama-torius, ora-torius, cen-sorius, &c. &c. &c
't) This is the FuL Participle Act. of Verbs, denoting ' Intended activity : ' am2-turuf»
da-turus, placT-turus, I-turus, fQ-turus, iQ-aurus, mis-surus, &c. &c. &c.

lOogle

246 Latin Word/ore, § 59-

XII. &.

This soft Liquid is chiefly used in Deminutive Suffixes of D.
(«», 515, eU5, &c.) : and it often denotes weakness, lightness, &c
in Suffixes of Verbalia (iU5, m, tm). But after a long Vowel it
has the same firmness as r, to which it is often equivalent. Thus
the Suffixes &» ftrl are virtually the same : but the former is always

Preferred unless 1 occurs in the Stem (hiem-alis but lun-aris) :
ut Arl5 is never changed into &M5 (agr-arius). The Suffix M15
is a softened form of Wr5 (bp5) ; WW of b«rf (Hrl), both firom
root bhar, ^c/o- ; c«15 (as distinguished from the double Demin.
e-IU5} is a softened form of c«r5 (cr5) from root kar.

(i) Not formally Deminutive.

15 ttl5 ttl55 7) oftl5 (615) S) blU5

K) n5 1115 n) M nx 0) ui m 5W.

a) IU5 ttl55 13) n5

S.

a)

ft

0

el5 i

A.

XII. Ii.

(1)

Substantives.

a) F. assec-la, icol'x. foUomer.

/8) Z>. vio-la, «^i^/ (Gr. lav) ; pi-lum, /^f/Zir : neb-ula, cl&ud. V. cnc-ulus, cuckoo:
ang-ulus, comer ; fig-ulus, potter ; oc-ulus, eye ; cop-ula, link ; apec-ula, ««/<:*
/<n»^r ; exem-p-lum (for cxim-ulum), tem-p-lum (for tem-ulumX &c &c. In these
and others some deminutive influence may be surmised, and in many unc
(cat-ulus, cum-ulus, fam-ulus, scop-ulus, Gr. (rr6ir«Xof , stim-ulus, vit-ulus, fisi-ula,
ins-ula, mer-ula, &c.). See 3); On r6g-ula, rule \ tSg-ula, tiU^ see pp. 16, 17.
Po-pill-us, e-pul-ae, probably contain the T0X3^par{prt) pul ^. See P.

7) V. (ft-cs. St.) numerous : implying * InstrMtnent, means of action,* arc Ncut- : gu-
bema-culum, helm ; ora-culum (-clum), oracle ; specta-culiun, sight ; vehi-culum,
vehicle ; peri-culum, trial, peril, &c &c. &c. In vinculum (vinclum), chain \
torciilum, press, O (qu) has (iallen out after C : and it is not improbable that the
same occurs in ia-culiun, javelin ; ^>e-culum, mirror. Unc. are (gracuhis,
jackdaw ', surculus, shoot', baculum» walkiug-^tick, Gr. /5tt-? saeculum, an age,
generation, &c.). See o5r5 (Cr5) in K.

<) V. (same meaning): Hl-bula, story; sQ-bula, aiul', lati-bulum, hiding-place: pi-
hvXwm, /odder : voca-bulum, word, name, &c. D. turi-bulum, censer.

«) V. (Pres. SL)cand-ela, candle: (redupL) cicind-ela, glowworm; suad-ela,>^
suasion ; (with 11) loqu-ella, saying; quer-ella, complaint ; (Sup. St) corrupt-da,
corruption ; tut-ela, guardianship or (concrete) .gTWjn/xVwii, ward, D. clienl-ela,
clientage.

f) (unc. aqu-ila): D. cap-illus, hair; anc-iUa, maidservant ; arg-iUa, clay ; scint-iDa,
spark ; V. pist-illum, pestle ; vex4Uum, banner, &c. (probably deminutive of lost
forms, or formed by analogy).

i») ^1 cau-lis,*/<»Z(&; col-lis,A///; strig-Tlis,yf«A-3n«A.

«) D. Adjectival words formed into Subst. 9Xi, Masc. : nat-alis, birthday ; riv-alis
rival (unc. can-alis, canal ; feti-alis, sacred envoy ; sod-alis, comrade), &c
Ncut. foc-ale, neckwrapper ; pcnetr-ale, inner shrine ; anim-al, &c. p. 107, with
Plur. names of FeasU : Consu-alia, Luperc-alia, Tcnmn-alia, &c &c. p. "6.
iM, Masc. aed-ilis, edile ; Apr-ilis, ApHl, &c. Neut. cub-ilc, hast-ile, ov41c
scd-ile, &c. p. 107. Plur. Par-ilia,>t<w/ 0/ Pales ; Suovetaur-ilia, Feast with
sacrifice 0/ swine, sheep, and steer. 51X : patru-€lis, cotisin on lather's side.

Kulus, yofan ox ; cacr-ulus, caer-uleus, sky^lue ; edent-ulus, toothless. V
I St.) d jpoting * Tendency : ' bib-ulus, cred-ulus, garr-ulus, pat-ulus, quer-ulus,
kus, sel-ulus, trem-ulus, &c., all with demin. character : (unc aem-uhtsX
^lus, chudy ; rut-ilus» reddish. ^

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

1 59. Derivation of Nouns, 247

7) m I) WL\ ibni () tni (sni)

0 ft^rn n) ui m uv su.

(2) Deminutive.
S.and A.
L a) ttl» (anc 816, which remains after 6, X).

Q ens, 1116, 11II6, primarily deminutive, are not purely suffixal,
but contain the Stem-character 1, n or r assimilated to 1 of the
Suffix : in some words they are perhaps used by analogy.

c) ens, 1116, secondary Deminutives for IU-ttl6.

d) eUttlS, lllttl6, secondary Deminutives, when derived from ^,
terdary, when derived from c),

y) v. (Pre«. St) denodng Tendency or capacity : ag-ilis, nimble ; hab-ilis, apt ;
deb41is, weak ; fi»c-ilis, eaty : difiic-Uis, difficult ; nub-ilis, marriageahle ; ut-ilis,
useful^ ftc D. hum-Uis, lowly ; am-ilis, like ; ster-ilis, barren : (unc grac-Uis,
Uendei^

<) V. (Pros. St) denodng chiefly * Patxive capability : ' mira-bilis, wonderful ; muta-
bilis, changeable ; fle-bilis, mourf^ul ; prob-a-bilis, approvable ; credi-bilis,
credible; xx>-bilts» «^/!r, &c. &c &c Terri-bilis, terrible, has Active force.
(Sup. St) flex-ibilis^yf/jrtft/lr : plaus-ibilis, commendable ; sen&-ibilis, perceivable.
Add poss-ibiUs, possible (of the Silver age).

«) K. (Sup. St.) Some denote only ' Passive quality* differing little from the Per£
Part : 9\'\Sa&, fattened ; coc-tUis, baked; fic-tilis, fashioned', fis-silis, cleft ; mis-
silis, sent ; nex-ilis, twined ; tor-tilis, twisted : versa-tilis, matU to revolve, &c :
others denote ' Passive capeuity : ' flex-ilis, flexile ; diflu-silis, expansive ; tac-
tilis, that may be touched: others ' Active quality : ' pen-silis hanging ; ses-silis,
squab ; vo\'9ti^Jfying, &c. Abnormal : fer-tilis,.^W0(/, indicating an old word
fert-us (fut-tilis,/«^V;'^

0 D. aqu-atilis, fluvi^tilis, river-dwelling, &c.

i|) All : D. (numerous) denote 'Belonging to,'&c. : aequ-alis, dot-alis, &t-alis,(uri-alls,
liber-alis, marti>alis, mort-alis, reg-alis, triirniph-alis, &c. ; vit-alis, voc-alis, &c. &c.
&c HI : D. dv-iHs, er-ilis, host-ilis, puer-ilis, scurr-ilb, sen-ilis, serv-ilis, vir-ilis,
&c Subtl-lb for sub-telis, ^ the woof fine, subtle. HIT : D. cur-ulis, like a chariot
(applied to the ' aeUa ' of certain magistrates, which had that shape) : trib-ulis,
of the tribe. The Adj. ed-ulis» eatable, is abnormal 611 : D. crud-elis, cruel;
fid-elis, infid-elis. See above B).

(2) Deminutive Nouns.

t a) O and A-nouns form Deminutives by joining ulus (a, um) to the Clipt Stem un-
kss 6, 1, 1, n, or r precede the ending :

riv>us, riv-ulus : frigid-us, frigid-ulus ; cist-a, cist-ula ; M:ut-um, bcut-ulum.

After 6, 1, SIus (a, um) is used :

alve-us, alve^us : aure-us, aure-51us ; line-a, line-oIa ; horre-um, horre^um ; fili-us,
fiU-^us : glori-a, glori-ola ; savi-um, savi-olum.
Guttural and Dental Nouns add iUus (S, um) to the True Stem :

rex, rCg-ulus ; ccwnix, comTc-ula ; adolescens, adolebcent-ulus, adolescent'ula ;
caput, cap!t-ulum : lapid«u-lus becomes lapillus.
^) ulus (SX hiSs (S), Inus (S), Cnus (S), become eUus (S) :

pSpulus, popeUus ; £&bula, fabella : Ssinus, asellus ; gISmlnus, gemellus ; pStlna,
patella ; ditlnus, catellus ; cStSna, catella.

& (ri[ or &S, rum) become ellus (S,um) :
Hber, Ubellus : mber, misellus : capra, cSpella ; Spera, opella ; labrum, libellum.

Ghius, g-num, and ulum usually form illus, ilium :
pug-nus, pC^-illus ; signum, sigillum ; pOculum, pOcillum ; (but scamnum, scabel-
hun).

Digitized byCjOOQlC

248 Latin Wordlore. §59.

i) Substantival Deminutives 0II6, U« (for azttltt), ttlM^ and Ad-
jectival aia» (anlltt), a«l«16 (anUttltt), are rare.

II. a) The double Deminutive o-ttl».

/j) el6B is a rare Suffix : as homun-cio.

y) unolfcltt in a few words is joined by analogy to Stems not
Nasal : av-unculus, fur-unculus, ran-unculus.

Note I. Care must be taken not to dass among Deminutives
words which are not such : as Verbals in culum : i&culum,
pdculum, &c. It is probable that umbra-culum and taberna^
culum should be ranked with these rather than with Deminutives.

2. Sometimes the meaning of a Deminutive differs altogedier
from that of its theme : avunculus, uncle (on mother's side), from
d^VLS, grandfather ; osculum, kisSy from os, mouth,

3. Deminutives sometimes express endearment, sometimes at^tw :
usually smallfiess only. They keep the Gender of their Primitives.

4. Latin Deminutives have importance in the Romance languages,
which form many words from them : as L. luscini-ola, It
usignuolo, Fr. rossignol, nightingale \ L, api-cula, Fr. ab-
eille,^^^; ll agn-ellus, Fr. agneau, lamb\ Lr. gem-ellus, Fr.
jumeau, twin,

vi Patronymica, Names derived from Parents
or Ancestors, are noticed at p. 75.

c) Porcellus from porculus, dstella firom ciittula, cOdic-HIus from codic-ulus (codex),
pauxillus from pauculus, are secondary Deminutives.

d) Porcellulus from porcellus, dsteUula from cistella, pauxillulus frt>m pauxillus» are ter-
tiary Deminutives.

e) Coron-ula, corolla; palus for ^ugndus) poullus; equ-us, equ-uleus or equ-ulus:
pauc-ulus, paullus ; whence paullulus.

n. a) Other Consonant Nouns add cuius (a, um) to the Stem :
frater, frater-culus ; pauper, pauper-culus ; ^ninml^ animal-culum ; flos flos-caltis :
mus, mus-culus ; opus, opus-culum ; cor-culum for cord-culum.
And from Comparative AcJiJectives :
grandius-culus, rutker older-, melius-culus, a Utile better; plus-culum, uenevAtd
more.
on becomes un :

homo, homun-culus ; virgo, viigun-cula ; ratio, ratiim-cula.
OS becomes OS in arbos, rumor :

arbus-cula, rumus-culos.
Bos (bovis) forms bQcula, ketfer^ for bovi-cula.
I-noims take cuius (S, imi), and usually shorten i :
piac'is, pisdhculus ; levis, levT-culus ; pars, part-TcuU ; rete, retif-culum ; venter, ventil-
culus. In a few Deminutives i is long, as canlcula, cutTcula, febiTcula.
From anguis, snaJkey comes anguilla, eeL
U-nouns join T-dSlns (5, um) to the Cfipt Stem :
versus, vers-Tculus ; anus, an-icula ; comu, com-lculum. Lacus-culu^ domun^ulat
are abnormal exceptions.

£-nouns add ciOi to the Stem :

die-cula, r^-cula.

Nub€-cula, pleb€-cula, vulpC-cula, from Nouns of DecL 3., are formed as fKm^ from
£-nouns.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

iS9' Derivation of Nouns, 249

vii Names of Countries are usually formed
from the name of the people with ending ia.

Ital-i, Ital-ia; Graec-iy Graeda ; GaD-i, Gallia; Arab-es, Arab-ia ;
Arcad-es^ Arcad-ia, &c.

Some with the ending la :
Pers-ae, Pers4s; Colch-i, Cokh4s; Aeol-es, Aeol-is, &c.

Exceptions : Africa, ludaea, ISyricum, and some others.

tUl Nominative Endings of Derived Words,
according to their several meanings.*

I. Substantives : »

(I.) Abstract :
i) Action; Faculty .

V. tio, sio ; tus, sus 4; io (fcm.) ; tura, sura.

2) State; Habit; Effect:

V, 6r or- ; iis 6r-, us €r- ; ies, ium ; ina ; monia ; monium ;
ela (ella) ; tela ; Ido, edo ; Igo.

3) Quality; Qualified Condition ; Function:

D, ia, ies, ium ; Uia, Ities, Itium ; ntia ; tas ; tus ; tudo; ela ;
ina ; io (fem.) ; monia ; monium ; edo ; ago, ugo ; atus
4 ; tura, silra.

(11.) Concrete :
i) Personal Agent ; Individual:

V. tor, sor (masc), trix (fem.) j atus 2 ; o on- (masc.) ;
D. tor (masc), trix ^em.) ; atus 2 ; arius 2 ; 6s, It- ; o, io
(masc.).

2) Efficient Thing (Jlfeans, Instrument) .

V, ^; mSn; mentum; (ulum) culum, crum ; bulum,brum,
bra; trum.

D, bulum, brum (in a few instances).

* Examples:
*• (I) x) actio, visio ; actus, risus ; obKvio ; sepultura, vcrsura.

a) furor ; decus ; pondus ; congeries, colloquium ; ruina ; querimonia ; alimonium ;

aiadela ; corruptela ; libido, torpedo ; vertigo.
3) Concordia, pauperies, consortium ; saevitia, mollities, calvitiimi ; ignoranda, in-
tell^entia ; celeritas, aedilitas, libertas ; senectus ; latitudo, mansuetudo : clien-
tela : disdplina ; communio ; castimonia ; matrimonhmi ; pingucdo ; farrago,
lanugo ; oonsubtus, comitatus ; pictnra, censnrm.
(P) 0 y» doctor, cursor, adiutrix ; legatus ; comedo : — D. viator, funditor, ianitrix ;
candidatus ; sicarius ; eques, miles ; naso, centurio.
^ y. unguen ; lenimen ; lenimentiun ; speculum ; operculum, lavacrum ; vocabulum,
delubrum, latebra ; aratrum, feretrum : — D, acetabulum (umbracultun, tabema-
cuhim may peifiaps be taken as Verbalia)i ^ j

uiyiuzeu uy ■n^JVJwVJ Iv^

J

250 Latin Wordlore. §59^

3) Thing effected :

V, turn, sum.

4) Locality:

D, etum ; ctum ; Itum ; stum ; arium ; torium ; trina, tri-
num; Ina.

5) Object:

V, ex, Tc- ; Z?. ale, M ; are, Xr, ile.

Deminutives appear above, p. 247, and are not repeated here.

Obs. Under other Endinjgs, us 2 ; ius 2 ; a ; um ; is 3 ; es 3^
&c., are comprised Derivatives various in meaning and origin, but
aknost all concrete.

II. Adjectives :
(I.) Verbalia :

i) With Active sense :
ns (Pres. Part.) ; urus (Fut. Part.) ; cundus ; bundus ; ax ;
idus ; icus, ucus ; uus, ivus ; iUus ; tilis (a few) ; ber, bris;.
cer, cris ; aneus.

2) With Passive sense :

tus, sus (Perf. Part) : His ; bllis ; tIlis, silis ; uus ; Gvus ;
ticius ; taneus.

3) With sense Active or Passive .

ndus (Gerundive).

(II.) Denominativa : with the meanings
i) * Belonging to : '
ius ; Tcus ; tlcus ; anus ; ianus ; aneus ; enns, eneus ; ensis,.
iensis ; alis, aris, arius ; His, elis, ulis ; atilis ; Inus ; Ivus;
ster, stris, stis ; timus ; nus.

2) ^Made ' or * consisting of: '

eus ; Inus ; nus, neus ; icius ; aceus ; uceus.

3) meritum, visum. (\ Uio, the seeing \ visas 4, the faculty 0/ sights ot the/act ^

sight : visum, the thing seen.)

4) quercetum ; salictum : virgultum ; arbustura ; viridarium ; praetorium ; tonstrina,

pistrinum ; officina.

5) vortex ; torale, puteal ; laqueare» cakar : bublle ; but V. sSdile.

II. (T) i) constans, fulgcn!« : dicturus, mansurus ; iiacundus, verecundus : enabundus ;
tenax ; timidus ; pudicus ; caducus ; nocuus, nodvus : ganxdus ; volatilis :
saluber, lugubris ; volucer ; consentaneus, succedaneus.

2) notus, fessus ; dociiis : aroabilis (terribilts. Act.) ; sutilis, fossilis ; mutuus ; vo>

tivus ; conducticius ; coUectaneus.

3) notandus, delendus, gcrundus.

(II) i) regiusy oratorius ; bellicus ; &naticus, rusticus : montanus, decumanus ; Caesa-
nanus; spontaueus ; terrenus; aSoeus; castrensis, Caithaginiensis : hiemalis^
Ksolaris, gregarius, senarius : erills, crudelis. tribulis ; aquatHis : marinus,
Ubertinus ; aestivus : pedester ; caelestis : marittmus, legitimus ; pater-nua. (Ob-
hcrve columus by transp<mtion for corul-nus, from corulus, hateL)
a) ferreus ; faginus, fagineus ; quemus ; lateridus ; hordeaceus ; pannuoeus.

uized by Google

§ 59. Derivation of Nouns, 251

3) ^ Full of ;^ * abounding in :*

. osus ; olentus, ulentus^ olens ; idus.

4) * Endued with* (analogous to Perf. Part.).

atus, TtuS; utus.

5) ^ Having the nature of :'

stiis ; gnus.

6) Adjectives of Time have the endings tTnus, tinus; emus,
umus.

ix. Adjectives are also derived from Particles;
some from Adverbs, some from Prepositions.*

3) frondosus; fraudulentus, violentus, violens ; herbidus. The ending osus often

implies faultiness : glori-osus, /uU of (yain)-£/ary, boiui/ul ; fam-osus, i/uil of
/amct but) iU-fanud \ mor-osus, {/uU of moraiituSt hut)/eetnsA, morose. Ul-
entus, ul-ens probably combbe the root of growth, Ol, ul, with eat- the par-
ticipial suffix. Cru-entus, bloody , omits Ol.

4) auratus, togatus, auritus (from auris), astutus.

5) honestus, funestus, scelestus, robustus, venustus ; abiegnus, benignus, malignus.

6) annotlnus ; homottnus ; serotinus ; matutlnus, ve^>ertlnus ; aet-emus, hib-emus,

di-umus, noct-umus. .
Adverbs with their Derivative Adjectives :

diu ; diutlnus hodie ; hodiemus perendie ; perendinus

diutumus nimis ; ntmius repente ; repentlnus

eras ; crastTnus nuper ; nuperus simul ; similis

heri : hestemus per^re ; peregrinus temere ; temerarius

Also aemp-i-temus &om semper.
Prepositions with corresponding Adverbs and Adjectives are derived from various rudi-

OM' an-te (for old AbL anted or antid).

(anter-us) antcr-ior : — antlquus.
>w- pos-t (for pos.te=old Abl. postid). See M. Liter, iv. n86.

poster-US, poster-ior, postre-mus :— post-Icus.
ci' ci-$ ; ci-tra ; ci-tro :

(citer) citer-ior, citi-mus.
ui' ultra; ultro:

(ulter-us) ulter-ior, ulti-mus : — ultroneus.
com contra ; contro- :

(conter-us) :— contr-arius.
CO ex, e ; extra ; (extris) extrin-secus :

exter-us, exter-ior, extre-mus : — extemus ; extraneus ; extrarius.
in in-tus ; inter ; intra ; intro, O^^^s) intrin-secus :

(inter-us> inter-ior, inti-mus : — ^intestinus :— intemus, infenis, infer-ior, infi-'
mus, imus : — infemus.
^ri' prae ; praeter :

prior, primus ; priscus ; pristmus.
pro pro-pe ; propter :

propior, proximus : — propinquus : — probus : pronus.
su^ sub sus- : super, supra : subter :

super-US, super-ior, supre-mus : — supinus. See Footnote, p. 202.
de (di-s):

(deter-us), deter-ior, deterrimus.
re- retro.

Key derives reci-procus from re, pro, with suffix ett appended to each.
s«- aSne.

clam :

clandestinus (lost form clan-dus).
appears in tran-s, -ter, -tra.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

252 Latin Wardlore. §59.

X. Adjectives derived from Proper Names.

A) From Personal Names :*

1) Suffix ins:

This is the ending of Roman Nomina GentiHa (clan names) :
Cornelius, Fabius, lunius, lulius, Tullius. As such, it is used sub-
stantively. But it is used adiectively to describe a law brou^t m,
a road or public edifice maae, by a member of any gens, as lex
Roscia, via Appia, aqua lulia, theatrum Pompeium, &c. A
law brought in by two colleagues bore the twofold name, as lex
Papia Poppaea de maritandis ordinibus.

2) Suffixes anus, tanos, lim», imply * belonging to ' the person :
Caesar-/-anus, Cinn-anus, Sull-anus, August-anus (or August-
ianus), &c. ; Plaut-inus, Verr-inus, &c., and 'oratio Metell-ina,' C
Att, L 13.

3} Suffix -tas is poetical : Caesar-eus, Hercul-^us, Romul-eus,
&c Horace has Romula gens. Augustus is used adjectively, as
domus Augusta; historia Augusta; socolumna Traiana,
portus Traianus.

4) Suffixes Sus VoMy for Gr. -£coc, and \mm for Or. -uoc, are used
in personal Adjectives from the Greek : Pythagoreus, Aiistotellus,
Socrat-Icus, &c.

B) Gentilia : from Names of People, Cities, Towns, &c.
These are properly Adjectives ; but often used Substantively.

i) Suffix amis, chiefly from Places in a or aa : Albannns,
Roma-nus, Theba-nus ; but also from some Places in um or i : as
Tuscul-anus, Puteol-anus.

2) Suffix Inns, from Places in ia, iiim : Amer-inus (Ameria),
Aric-inus ^Aricia), Clus-inus (Qusium). Observe also Praenest-inus
(Praeneste), Reat-inus (Reate), Tarent-inus (Tarentum).

* J?^iMaw^aMrf.--A Roman of distinction had at least three naxnes: the Praenoaien»
individual name ; the Nomen, name shewing the Cens or clan ; the Cognomen, sur-
name, shewing the Familia or fiunily. Thus, L. lunius Brutus expressed Luctua of the
Gens Iiuua and Familia Brutcmim. To these were often added Agnomina, titles etdker
of honour (Africano^ Asiaticos, Coriolanus, Credcus, Isauricus, Macedonicna, Nuiiii>
dicus, Magnus, Majdmus, &c.), or expresang that a person had been adopted from an>
other Gens : AemUianus, {adopted from the Gtns Aemilia), Domitianus, Lidnianus,
Mucianus, Octavianus, Salvianus, Seianus, Terentianus, Utianus, and many more. The
full name of Augustus (originally an Octavius) when adopted by his uncle's will and
adorned by the Senate with a dtle, was Gains lulius Caesar Octavianus Augustus.

The Roman Gentes were either patrician (Cornelia, lulia, &c.) or plebeian (Licinia,
Menunia, Coruncania, &c): or there might be a patrician and plebeian j;ens of the aune
race, as of the Qaudii. Theoretically they are referred to ancestors, whose Nomina
give them their dtles : being themselves due to various circumstances. Some Gentes
are derived iroca. Numerals : Quinctia, Qubctilia (Pompcia, Pompilia, Pompooia, Pootia),
Sestia, Septimia, Octavia, Nonia, Decia : soPostumia. Some from Colours : Albia, <^«t^«^
Flavia, Fulvia, Helvia, Livia, Rubria, Rutilia. S<Hne fitnn Ammals : Aquillia, Asinia, Ap-
ronia, Caninia, Canuleia, Ovidia, Porda, Verria. Many from Personal peculiarities :
Caorilia, Calidia, Catia, Claudia, Cordia, Curtia, Digitia, Genuda, Hirda, luvemia. Lies-
nia, Naevia, Opimia, Pedia, Planda, Plautia, SiUa, Spuria, Stertinia, Tuipilia, Varia, Val-
gia, Vegetia, Vitellia, &c. Others are derived frx>m Office ^ busi$teu, station^ birtJIt^iete*,

Digitized by VjOOQIC

§59. Derivation of A^ectives, 25 j

3) Suffix as froia Places in na nae nam no : Fiden-as (Fidenae),.
Aipin-as (Arpinum), Aauin-as (Aquin-um), Capen-as (Capena),.
Frusin-as (Frusino). Also Anti-as (Antium), Arde-as (Ardea).
These are declined in &t-, like Bostras, vestras, optisoates, Pe-
nates.

4) Suffix easls from Places in o, and from some in a a« «m :
Narbon-ensisy Cann-ensis, Mediolan-en^ls. Some take 1-MMto :
Athen-i-ensis, Carthaginri-ensis.

The same Suffix may represent Gr. «wc, as Chalcid-ensis (XoXici-
^evc). But ens is also kept : Demetrius Phalereus, Zeno Citieus
or Citiensis. We find Zeuxis Heradeotes for Heradeensis.

5) Peculiar Latin Adjectives of Place are :

Caer-es (it-) from Caere : Gamers, from Camerinum : Veiens,
from Veil ; Tiburs from Tibur : but, when things are qualified, the
usual forms are Gaeret-anus^ Camert-iaus, Veient-anus, Tiburt-
inus.

6) The Suffixes twm {wt\ mmo* (aco«)^ enas {riv6t) belong to Ad-
jectives derived from die Names of Greek Places : Gorinthius,
Rhodius, Lacedaemomus, Larissaeus, Smymaeus, Gyzicenus.

7) The Greek Siiffixes Ates ites dtes are rare in Latin : Spar-
tiates^Tegeates (but die Adjective forms are Spartanus, Tegeaeus) ;
Abderites (but also Abderitanus) ; Epirotes, Heracleotes.

8) Feminine Gentile Names are in a Is te: Gressa, Cretan^
AusoidSyAusonuin, Troas, Trojan woman.

C) Names of People are either derived from Names of Gountries
and of Gities: Latinus (Latium), Romanus (Roma), Siceliotes
(Sicilia), or they are Primitive : Afer, Gallus, Syrus, Thrax, Gres
{CretatC). Such Names fonn Adjectives in Ions turn aaos ensta,
&C. : Africus, Gallicus, Syrius, Thiacius, Gretaeus, Gretensis, Gre-
ticus, &c.

"With Personal Names the primitive is often used adjectivdy, as
poeta Hispanus, miles Gallus, &c Poets use it with Appel-
latives: Marsus aper, venena Golcha, fiumen Rhenum, Ru-
men Medum, Hor. ; and so Fem. Adjectives: Ausonis ora,
Gressa pharetra, Verg.

or 9«tftd>Mrr, Ac. : Andsda, Aamlia. CfaientU, CoeHa, Coponis, Connficia, Curia, Duilia or
Doillia^Falcidia, Flaminia, Fontdaf Fumia, Gabinia. Hoitensia» Maxia* Nautia, Scriboniay
Senia, Silvia, &c. The Gens lulia is traced back to lulus ; Titia to Titus ; Tullia toTullus,
&c

The Cognomioa are similarly distingiiiafaable : in the oldest times the birthplace or
rendence often gave a Cognomen ; which sometimes descended to the Family, Came-
rimis, Sabinus, but usually not, as Auruncus, Caeliomootanus, Fidenaa, Privemas, Siculus,
Soranus, Tuacus, Ac. _ ^ ,

CoUun give rise to Cognomina: Albus, Flavus, Niger, Pullus, Rufus, Rumus.
AnimaUx Aaina, Bestia,-6uteo, Canina, Catulus, Catullus, Corvus, Cossus, Galba,
GaUui, Lupus, Merula, Mus, Noctua, Pordna, Pulcx, Taurus, Verres, Vitulus. Vege-
tables: Caepio, Cicero, Piso ; Lactudnus. Parts ofth* Body, Arvina, Axilla, Barbula,
Cms, Denter, Ncrva, Sura, Sulla (for Surula), Scapula : and with Suffix OH (o) indi-
cating size or prominence of the feature : Capito {big-kead), Fronto ijng-lmm)^ Labeo,
(thick Upt\ Mcnto {fhinny), Naso( Hg nose : but Nasica, sharp nose), Pcdo {splay foot),
&C. Implements : Caligula, Carbo, Caudex, Dolabella, Fusus, Malleolus, Marculus, Mar-
cellus,Pcra,Pulvillus, Scipio, Siolo, Spinther, &c. OJUe, station, business, ability, &c :
Albinus, BubiUcus, Camillus, Cursor, Comicen, Cuncutor, Figulus, Hortator^ Metellu*

uiyiuzeu uy x^j ^^^ wVJ Iv

254 Latin Wordlore. § 59.

Section II.
tioT^ Derivation of Verbs.

Verbs.

A) Verba Verbalia.

Inchoativa (Inceptiva) in soo 3. § 53, p. 209, &c.
Imitativa in isso i. \

Frequentativa in »o, Ito i. [§53, p. 205.

Deminutiva in Ulo i. j

Desiderativa in nrio 4. § 53> P* 206.

E) Verba Denominativa.

Most Verbs in Conj. i and 4 are from Substantives or Adjectives :
the greater number being Transitive.

laud-are i. praise dit-are i. enrich •

milit-are i. serve in war liber-are i. set free

nomin-are i name soUicit-are i. nuU:e anxious

fin-ire 4.. end insan-ire 4. be mad

vest-ire 4- clothe moll-ire 4. soften

pisc-ari I. fish laet-ari i. rejoice

mol-iri 4. contrive larg-iri 4- bestow

Suffixes ol ol oln It \%' ( « iir-) lo- occur in Conj. i :
grat-ul-ari cottgraiulate nav-ig-are sail

vi-ol-are do violence mit-ig-are soften

sermo-cin-ari discourse claud-ic-are limp

debil-it-are weaken commun-ic-are impart

So iur-g-are for iur-ig-are, pur-g-are for pur-ig-are.
Most in Conj. 2 are from Substantives ; a few from Adjectives :
the greater number being Intransitive : •

call-erc, luc-ere, flor-ere, flav-ere.
A few U-verbs 3 are Denominativa :

acu-5re, metu-Sre, minu-gre, tribu-Sre.

Obs, Some Roots have a Trans, and an Intrans. Verb correspond-
ing to each other: fugare, to put to flight \ fugSre, to fly. So cae-
d€re, cadSre ; iacSre, iacere ; liquare, liquere ; pendfire^ pendere ;
placare, pl&cere ; sedare, s^dere and sld^re.

Natta, Palcrculus, Rex, Regulus, Salinator.VespUlo. Personal pecHliaritUstCharacUrutic*
or accidents : Ahenobarbus, Ambustus, Balbus, Barbatus, Brutus, Caecus, Caesar, Caio,
Cclcr, Cclsus, Cerco, Cinna, Cincinnatus, Claudus, Corautus, Crispus, Crassus, Curvus|
Dentatus, Felix, Festus, Flaccus, Fbunma, Frugi, Geminus, Gbbrio, Gurges, Lana-
tus, Lentulus, Lepidus, Longus, Nepos, Nobilior, Paetus, Pansa, Pilatus, Paullus,
Pollio, Potitus, Plancus, Plautus, Poplicola, Postumus, Priscus, Proculus, Pulcher, Scaeva,
Scaevola, Strabo, Torquatus, Trcmulus, Trigeminus, Tubcro, Varro, Varus, Verrucosus,
Vet us, Vulso.

Many Cognomina in anus ilias were originally Adjectives derived from an earlier
Cognomen : Augurinus. Censorinus, Mamercinus, I^tanus, Rulinus, Silanus, &c.

An Agnomen of honour sometimes became a Cognomen of the family. Thus in the
Valerian clan (which had also the Agnomina Poplicola and Maximus) we find a fomily be-
coming Corvini from Valerius Corvus, and another branch Mcssallae from the capture of
Messana. Of many Cognomina as well jis Nomina the origin cannot be traced.

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^ v^ pt i-X^

; 59- Derivation of Particles, 2 55

Section III.

Derivation of Particles. J?^fjJ-

i Primitive Particles in Latin are few. Of these most tides.
belong also to kindred language. Such are

ab; ante; ambi- ; di-dis-; ex; in,indu-in-; pro; pri-prae;

per per- {wapa and w€pi) ; ob (cxi ?) sub ; cum co- {avv ?,

icocvoc) ; et, at ; aut (?) ; que ; nc ; an ; si ; semi- ; sem-

or sim- ; hen.

A few cannot be traced with certainty beyond Italian language.

Such are

ad ; de ; re- ; sc- ; sine ; cis ; uls ; baud ; eras ; sat

ii Most Latin Particles are either derived or
compounded.

1) Derived Particles are either

a) Denominative (from Substantives, Adjectives, or Parti-

ciples); or

b) Pronominal (from Pronouns).

c) A few only are from other Particles.

Derived Adverbs in general are either Cases of their themes, or
formed from them with peculiar Endings, in the manner of Cases.

The Cases which chiefly form Particles are the Accusative, the
Ablative, the Locative.

2) Particles may be compounded of the same or various Parts of
Speech.*

* From the list in pp. 228, &c the student will be iible to selea examples of com*
pounded Particles.

I. Relatire:

x) with its own Particles and Elements : quamquam, quoquo, ubiubi, utut, &c. : qua-
cnmque, ondecumque, utcumque, quotiescumque, &c. : qu5que, ubique, undique,
utique, usque, usquequaque^ nmquam, uspiam, usquam : quippe : quousque : (with uter)
utrubi, utrimque, utroque, &c.

9) with Prefix ne : neque : nee ; nequaquam, nequiquam, neutiquam ; numquam, nus-
piam, nusquam, neutrubi, nCcubL

3) with Prefix alt- ; aliquo, aliquam» aliquantum, alicubi, aliquoties ; with other De-
monstrative Prefixes: tamquam, sicuti, sicut,.namque, nempe, atque ; with Prepositions :
anfequam, perquam, postquam, praequam, praeterquam, praeut, prout ; with Coi^unc-
tkms : at-qui, nun-cubi» si*cubi, si-ctmde, &c : with Adjectives : sdioqul, ceteroqui, prius-
quam.

4) with Demonstrative Suffixes : quonam, quanam, ubinani, utinam, &c ; with suffixed
Prepositions : quoad, quapropter, quocirca, quatenus, aliquatenus, &c. : with Conjunc-
tions : quasi, quin, &c. ; with Verbs : qtiamvis, quovis, quolibet, ubivb, &c. : with Nouns :
quomodo : quare, cur ; quemadmodum, quamobrem, quominus, utpote, &c.

II. Demonstratives :

Compounded with each other: hi-c, illi-c, &c. : hin-c. ili'm-c, &c. ; hu-c, illu-c, &c.,
alibi, aliu-ta, i-ta (for ita-d), i-tem, si-c, e-nim, etenim : ast (at-set C. ?), au-tem, tamen
(tarn in?) ideo : With Prepositions: adeo, adhuc, dein, cxin, proin, abhinc, dehinc^
inibi, interibi, postibi ; interim ; anteS, antidea, antehac, antidhac, posteS, postideA,
posthac, postilli, interefl, praeterel, praeterhac, hacpropter (compare quapropter);
hactcnus eatenus; horsum (hovorsum), illorsum, &c. From dein is formed dein<eps
(capio).

Igitur is of obscure derivation.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

256 Latin Wordlore. %^

iii Denominative Adverbs in the form of
Cases.

A) In the form of Accusative :
a) From Substantives :

1) Uncompounded : (perhaps) partial Partly ; foras (pL), 0ut
of doors \ and (rardy) vicem, in the stead \ diu, a long time (Tor
dium).

2) Compounded with Particles, admodum, afSatim, comminus,
eminus, invicem, incassum, obiter, obviam, propediem, propemo-
dum. postmodum.

Clam, coram, palam, perperam, saltem or saMmare of question-
able origin.

by From Adjectives :
i) in am : bifariam, &c.p. 149 : multifariam, plurifariam,,
in many parts ; promiscam, protinam (Plaut): in mm : alias.

2) in vm: ceterum, circiun, danculum, commodum, demum^
nimium, solum, verum : — multiun, pauilum, parum, tantum, quan-
tum, &c^ primum, secundiun, iteruin, &c., plerumcpic ; with many
SuperL minimum, plurimuni, potissimuffiy postremum, summum,
ultuniun, &c. (Non, not^ anc noen-um for ne-unum).

5) in 41 (from veal or supposed AiiL in I^ : abundS, iadlS, ap-
prnnS, impunK, pn^y P^''^^ s^^^^P^ ^ Onprodir-i, -c^ see Madv.
C Fin. 14; M. Luer. it. 455.

4) in lU, Is (Comparative) : plus, minus, mdhis, potius, saepius,
magis (nimis?), &c. &c. &c. Akan^ secus, tenus, protenusw

5) Recens for recenter is a special instance

Obs. I. Add to these the Compounds with vorsum (versimi),
as aliorsum, prorsum, rursum, &c Some of these often use
the Nom. form : prorsus, rursus, &c

Obs, 2. Poets freely use Neutjer Adjectives Sing, (sometimes
Plur.) adverbially : * perfidum ridens Venus,' Hor. ; *crassum ridet
Vulfenius,' Pers. ; *dulce loquentem Lalagen,' Hor. ; * suave locus
resonat,' Hor. ; * sedet aetemumque sede&t,' Vcrg, ; ' sera coman-
tern narcissum,' Verg. See p. 374.

B) In theformof AWative:
a) From Substantives :

I) in o : mod5 (o being shortened) ; ergo^ numero ; and tiie
Compounds, extemplo, profecto, postmodd, saepenumero ; ma^-
nopere or magno ppere, &c, ilic6 (in loco), oppido (nri W^y }).

[TTicpeculWwonbantea (for ante ca). antehac (^^^
ejylaincd. Some scholars, as BQchcIer. take the Pronouns to be Ablatives, dadne &x>m
tiTfw Prepositions «ite, post, inter, pmeter, &a, may ha^ b^ cons^u^

with that CMC : and they ate arvorsum eSd in the ^«»/. C«r. A ^oavt . alK> ^^
mto sed, which are found. But Corssen, who di«msse. the m^xJ^^^^^^Tt^'

^ hac, to be Accus. also, the d growing out of a t«opantty confiwon^ Ac^
AbL forms at an era when the AbL was losing its^ld ^^T^lS^^^c^h^

uiyiuzeu uy •^^j\^\^pLL\^

f 59 Dencminative Adverbs. 2 J/

2) in < : forts, iurS, ritS, spont&

3) in Is (pL) : gratis or gratiis ; ingratis or ingratiis ; foris. M.
Lucr, iiL 935.

B) From Adjectives and Participles :

i) in 4 (orig. AbL &d, underst parte or via) : dcxtra, laevS,
sinistra : the Pronouns ea, hac, alia, &c

To this formation belong all the Prepositions in ft, which are
really Ablatives Fem. (circS, citra, ultra, contra, &c).

2) in a orig. ad (but citd) : certo, composito, continue, consulto,
£dso, merito, raro, subito, tuto, vero, &c &c, bipartite, &c, inopi-
oato, necopinato; primo,. secundo, &c : immo : SuperL meritissimo,
postremo, supremo, ultimo, praesto : omnino, f^om a lost omninus :
Cp. denuo (de novo).

To this formation belong the Prepositional Adverbs citro, ultro,
intro, porro, retro, contro- from Adjectives in -ter (from tara^
comparative suffix).

3) in I : brevi, perbrevi (dicto or tempore).

4) in Is : altemis (vicibus) ; paucis (verbis) ; imprimis or in
primis ; cum primis.

C) In the form of Locative (Place or Time) ; hen ; domi ; humi ;
run ; temperi ; vesperi or vespere ; mane (mani) ; diu, by day ;
noctu or nocti ; ho-die ; pri-die ; postri-die ; peren-die (ir^pav),
the day after to-morrow ; cotidie. PI. quot-annis.

(The forms diu, longj perdiu and perdius, all day, jnterdius,
interdiu, in the da^tinUy are by C. considered to be Accusative.)

iv. Denominative Adverbs with Adverbial
£ndings.

These Endings are principally

a (a) ; tar (ar), Itor ; tlm, slm ; tas ; lens or les.

i) Adverbs in a are derived from Adjectives and Participles of
the O-declension :

alt-e, caut-e, miser-g, pulchr-e, &c &c &c.
BenS, mala were shortened early, like modd.
Obs. a appears to be an anc Abl. for a-d. See p. 46.

2) Adverbs with the Compar. ending tor, iter are derived chiefly
irom Adjj. of the Cons, and I-declensions :

audac-ter (audac-iter), difficul-ter, felic-Iter, fortl-ter, molll-tei^
parl-ter, &c &c Tl falls out : decen-ter for decenti-ter, &c
Ali-ter is from the old form alis. »

Some 0-Adjj. form Adw. in tor as well as in a :

dur-e and dur-Tter : human-e and human-Tter ; luculent-6 and
luculen-ter, &c.

3) Adverbs in tlm, sim are derived
tf) from Perf. Participles :

S Digitized by CjOOQ IC

2S8 Latin Wordbre, §59,

coniunc-tim, nunu-tim, praeser-tim, n4>-tim; pede-tentim,
stfp by sUf (pcdem tendere) ; sta-tim, immediately ; cur-
sim, pas-sim, sen-sim, seor-sim, &c. &c.

h) from Substantives or Adjectives :

fsxC'^ssoif uber-tim ; vicis-sim ; singul-tim, &c
Obs, Some form h as well as im :

gravat-e or -im ; separat-€ or im, &c.

4) Adverbs in tiis are from (i) Substantives : cad-T-tus ; fimd-f-
tos ; radic-I-tus ; pen-T-tus : (2) Adjectives : divin-I-tus : (3) Pre-
positions : in*tus ; sub-tus. Mord^Icus, with the teethy is peculiar.

{) On the Numeral Adverbs in lens (Ifis) see § SS.

V. Derivation of Pronominal Particles.

Pronominal Stems give birth to various Case-form Particles
(Conjunctions and Adverbs), and again to various inseparable
Elements, which enter into the composition of other Particles.

1} The Interrogative and Relative Stem qmtt, ^pil (Prim, ka) :
whence Ae Case-form Particles

quom or cum, quam, quod; quo, qui, qui; and the Ele-
ments u- urn- US' (whence u-bi, un-de, us-que, umquan^
&c) * -que {-pe ?) <umque.

The Demonstrative Stems

2j I, W : whence the Particles e5, eo, and (with Suff.) i-bi :
and the Element im which with -de forms the Particle inde.

3) t5, t* : whence the Particles tam, tum, and (with Suff. C
for ce) tun-c : also the Elements -tern -td -tt^ -id.

By composition of \ with td is formed the Pronoun iste (for
istus), whence the Particles isti-c, istu-c, istim, istin-c, &c Also
I-ta, Ita-que, I-tem, I-ti-dem, &c.

4) 116, nft : whence the Particles nam, num, and (with Sufil e)
nun-c ; ne : and the Elements -nam, -num, -ne.

5) I16, kl (anc. Bd, m\) : whence (with c) the Particles hi-c, hu-c,
ha-c, si-c : and the Elements ho-, him- : whence the Particle hin-c

6) ol, ol, 11, forms the Pronoun ille (for ol-us), and gives birth to
its Particles, illi-c, illu-c, ill-im, illin-c, illa-c, and olim.

7) ttl, lUl : compounded with i, 16 g^ves rise to the Pronominals
alius (al-is) al-ter, and forms or enters into numerous Particles, alio,
alia, ad-ibi, ali-ter, &c

8) el forms the Prep, ci-s and the Element r/ (r), which becomes
a Suffix to so many Pronouns and Particles.

Note, Other Particles formed by Pronom. Stems in Composi*
tion with each other, with their own Elements, and with various
Prefixes and Suffixes, are shewn in the Footnote, p. 255.

* Corssen formerly {Kr. B. i.) adopted the common view» thju u-bi, un-de, u-U <ucX
u-ter and Cpp. are from the Rcl. quo-, dropping the guttural But in Kr. J^. 36, be
subscribes to the opinion of H. Weber, that their root is a Demoosir. Pron. Q, which as-
sumes also Interrog. and Rel. power : and that -c-u-bi, -c-un-de, -c-u-ter are distinct ReL
formations. The question must be regarded as still ' sub iudice.'

uiyiiized by VjOOQIC

S ^ The Composition of Words. 259

Ohs, I. The Dual Pronoun u-ter (Gr. iri^cpoc or it^epoc) Conns
Parddes of its own and in composition with many above nsuned.

Obs. 2, Corssen forms e-t, a-t, au-t, au-tem, by composition of
the Prim. Pronomu Stem ft with the Stem ttt. This may also be
the strengthening element e in e-nim, e-quidem, ec-ce (for Crce).

O^. 3. The Particles dum^iam^ with the Elements -dam, -dem^
-^, -di^ -dunif also -iantf have been usually assigned to a Prono-
minal Stem ; but Corssen {Kr. Beiir, p. 197, &c) derives all these
forms (with diu, dius) from the Sanskrit Root div^ to shine^
whence dyus =» dies. Compare propediem.*

The Elements -fe and -^tam form the compound Element -piam.

vi» Some other Particles.

With the sufEx per are formed aliquant-is-per, paul-is-per.
tant-is-per,* parum-per, nuper (novi-per) and sem-per, once for all,
always^ from root sama^ as sem-el, singuli, simplex, &c

As a prefix, per is intensive : per-multum, per-iucunde, &c &c

C derives de-mu-m, de-ni-que from Adjectives formed by de :
immo from an Adjective in-mus.

Mox (^oy-tc ?), vix, saepe, procul, haud or hau, are obsciu^ On
die last see C. Auss^. i. 205.

The Conj. licet is a Verb : its compounds ilicet (ire licet),
scilicet (scire licet), videlicet (videre licet), are sentences.

Dumtaxat (dum taxat), ^ while one estimates^ m merely ^ is a
dause.

Vel, v$ is from velle, to choose, Nimirum, no ^i/^/utnirum
est nL

Fors is a Subst. used adverbially, (it is) a chance^ perchanu : and
in fors it, forsitan, ^^A/z/^ (for fors sit, for sit an). Fortassis-
forte an si vis, for wnich is used fortasse, perhaps.

Prepositions are compounded together in de-super, in-super.

Section IV.
The Composition of Words.

6a

i. Composition takes place' when two words are so compo-
joined as to form one word. ifSdf

* The Pkrddes fonned by this class of enclitics are :

o) quon-dam ; fi) quT<dem, ibMem, utrobl-dem, indT-dem, iti-dem, indentMem, prt-dem
and Qip. tan-dem, tanti-dem, tantun-dem : y) un-de and Cpp., in-de, ali-unnle, quam-de ;
S) qiiaa-do and Cpp* aliquan-do, &c. : 4) diwlum (for diu-dum), nenluin, non-dum, nec-
dum, hand-dum, nihil-dum, vix-dum, primum-dum, etiaun-dum» iaterKlum : also with the
Imperatives age-dum, mane-dtim, stay a bit, £au:-dum, tlo Just, ades-dum, &&). (^)
iamiajn, et-iam, nunc-iam, quon-iam, us-p-iam, nus-p-iam. C forms qui-a from qui-iam.
On iamiam, see M. Liter, iiL 894.

Donee is for do-ni-que, do-ni- being an A^jecdYal form from the root diu-s. M. Lucr.
▼. 997. Donicum in Plautus=donec cum.

Other compounds of diu-s are tamdiu, quamdiu, aliqiiamdiu, perdiu, interdiu and
interdtus, nudius.

* The suffix ' is (s=ius)* is used in Comparison of Degree (mag-isX Time QmuI-is-) or
Place (sia-is-ter). It is found also as us (minus, sccus, &cX

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

26o Latin Wordlore. § 60.

(Only Nouns and Verbs are here considered: the
Composition of Particles being shewn in Section III.)

The latter word in Composition is Fundamental, the former
Determinative. " . . ^ ^

Sometimes the words are so jomed that one actually agrees with

the other :' . . ^

res-publica ; lus-iurandum ; tres-vin :

or that the second actually governs the first :

senatus-consultimi ; veri-similis.

Such compounds can be severed :

resque publica ; senatusve consulta.

But generally one part or both lose the form of words :
magnanimus; Troiugena; artifex.

ii. Composition of Words may be (i) constructive, when
one of the parts in a Noun or a Verb has the nature of
a Case governed by the other part : (2) cUtribtitive^
when the first part in a Substantive attributively qualifies
the second : (3) adverbial, when the first part adverbially
modifies the second : (4) possessive, when Adjectives are
so compounded as to imply 'having' the fundamental
part in some qualified manner, or ' not having ' it*

A) Substantives are compounded
1) constructively ; when the parts are
S.-kV.x agri-cola (qui agrum colit) :

> ParaiJutk Compounds, in which either the parts actuafly agree, or the first is governed
by the second, are very few : as (i) iusiurandum, oath ; (a) agricultura ; aurifodinae,
gold-mine', huisconsultus, civU lawyer, ludimagister, schoolmaster; pater- matex^
fiUus-fiumilias ; plebi-sdtum ; (3) verisirailis , (4) lucriiacere, pessumdaxe, venomdare,
vifipendere.

In Pkx>nouns we find such forms as alteruter, quotusquisque, quisquis, &c. : and in
Numerals additive Compounds : as duo-dedm, tertius-decimus, &c ; subtractive \ as on-
de-viginti, duo-de-triginta, &c ; multiplicative : as ducenti, treceni, &c.

• Examples of Synthetic Compositioii.

A) Substantives :
S.^V. The Verb-roots which form constructive Compounds with determinative
Substantives are principally these : Sg- caed- cSpi- cSn- col- fiUa- (f Tc-) dfc- li-
sped-: asremex, remigium, navigium; homi-cida, parri-dda (-odium) ; aucepSr
auaipium, manceps (-dpium), municeps (-dpium), particeps (-dpium) ; budna,
f Idi-cen (-cTna), dbl-cen (-dnaX tubi-cen, galli-dnium. cock<rotoing ; cnHroIa,
niricola ; aedifidum, arti-fex (-fidum), camifex, opifex, pontifex ; sacrifidum ;
venefidum ; causs-idicus,>/f<Kifr; iudex, iudidum ; florilegium, sortilegus, sorti-
kgium, spidlegium ; auspex, auspidum, exti-spex (-spiduraX hanispex. Other
examples are : fimambulus, rope-dancer ; nomendator, namecalUr{s3X»n) : nau-
frSgium, shipwreck ; caprimulgus, goai-milher : puer-pera (.perium) frwn fuin,
also vi-pera (for vivi-para) : stipendium (for stipi-pendtum), libripens ; ^enisex ;
xustitium, stoppag* of law-courts Cms sistereX solstitium ; lectistemium : nas-
turtium ; aedituus (aedem tuensX &c.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

i 6a TAe Composition of Words. 261

S,xS,\ viti-sator (vitium sator).

2) attributively ; when the parts are

A, X S. or N, (Numeral) x S, : pleni-lunium : tri-ennium.

3) €uhjerbi€Uly ; when the parts are

N, X V, or P,x V, : piin-ceps ; in-Mia.

Note. P. X S. may be (i) constructive : inter-montium ; or (2) ad-
verbial : com-mercium ; nUiil (ne-hilum, ni-hilum, Lucr. iv. 516).

B) Adjectives are compounded

1} constructively \ when the parts are

S.xV.\ armi-ger ; melli-fluus.

P. X S,y when S. is in the nature of a governed Case : exspes.
2) adverbially^ when the parts are

A. X V. : N, X V. \ P.xV, : omni-potens ; bi-ftdus ; bene-
volus.

N.xA.i P.xA.i semi-vivus, septem-geminus ; immemor.

SxS, Substantives of this fonn are few : caprifictis, wUdfig \ iugfams (lovis g^ans) ;
manupretium ; nipicapra, ckamou.

AxS. Substt. few : latifunditun ; pmiltgium ; viviradix ; medi-astlnus.

N. yS. numerous : see f 33 with bi- tri- &c. : as ilibra, Uduum, biennium, ftc. ;
decempeda, ten'/oot poU : teninciui, three-oimct coin ; also with semi- sesqui- :
sembella (for semi-Ubella), selibra (for semilibra), semideus, semihomo, semihoni,-
semivir ; semunda, sescunda, sesquihora, sesquimensis, &c

N.xy.iP.xV.z rare : fin- such words as accola, incola, advena, convena, ambages,
ocmuc, convira, dedecus, incus, indigenr, ingeniiun, indoles, proles, suboles, ol»ex
or obex, obses, perfuga, transfuga, praefica, praeses, &c. may be treated as de-
rivatives of the Compound Verbs accolo, incolo, advenio, &c, or, at least, as coor-
dinate with these.

P' X S. (1) coMstrttctiv* : adverbium, ambarralia, amburbium, conclave, ingluvies,
interlunium, intemedo, intemundinum, intervallum, pomoerium, postliminium,
proconsul, promunturium, pronomen, propraetor, subsellium, supellex, super-
cilium. (2) adxferbial : abavus, abnepos, abneptis, administer, adminSculum, ad-
nepos, agnomen, cognomen, coheres, cojnmilito, compes, condisdpulus, con-
servus, consobrinus, contubemium, convallis ; deunx, dodrans ; ignominia, im-
phnriiun, incuria, intemperies, intemunthis, interpres, interrex, interregnum ;
ne£u, negotium, nemo, persona, praenomen, praesaepe, proavus, progener, pro-
mnlas, pronepos, proneptis, remora, subcenturio, subpromus, superficies.

^Adjectives.

S. X V. chiefly poetic : from the following and other Verb-roots : <&-dTc- fer- f Ic- frXg-
flu- fSg- g&t- gSr- 12g- son- vaga- vom- : fatidnus, fatidXcus, aurifer, munif fcus,
naufrSgxxs ; mellifluus, ludfugus, nubigSnus, belliger, morig&us, florilJEgus, flue-
tisSnus, nemorivSgus, flammivSmus. Add arcitenens, velivolus, &c. ; armipotens,
caefipotens, ftc. See Examples of Z'. x 5*. in next page.

A.xV.'. N.x y. : P.xV.x from the following and other Verb-rooU : die- f Ic- fid-
flu- loqu- sd- son- vaga- vola- : veridkus, mirificus, multifidus, laigifluus, vani-
loqnus, duldsonus, soUvagus, altisonus ; qtuidrifidus, septemfluus ; consdus, in-
sdus, nesdus, praesdus, benef Icus, malevSlus, necopinus, innuba, ftc Horn-
flonus, terrificus, ftc. take their determinative part from the rudiment of the Verbs
horrere, terrere. Words like invidus, providus, profugus, ftc, may be regarded as
derivatives of the Verbs invideo, provideo, profugio, ftc

M.xA.: chiefly determined by semi-, a few by sesqui- and other numerals : semi-
barbarus, semihians, seminudus, sesquioctavus, trigeminus, ftc ^ ^

uiyiuzeu uy ■n^JVJvJVJ Iv

262 Latin Wordlore, 56a

3) possessively ; when the parts are
i4. X ^. : N,%S,\ magn-animus ; centi*ceps.
S. ^ S, : ali-pes ; igni-comus.

P.xS,: when S. is not in the nature of a governed Case :
con-cors, in-numerus, praenreps.
O Verbs are compounded

i) constructively ; when the parts are
S,xV,'. belli-gerare ( = bellum gerere).

P.%A.*.
com- implies wUcn : compar, compos, consimilis, &&
ex- intensifies : edurus, eflfems, &c.
ob- implies * commgmfac* : ' oblongus.
per- * tkrottfhmttt in a high degree:' pervigU ; perdiffidlis.
prae- (i) * excess : ' piaelongus, praecelsus ; (a) * priority : * praecanus, ^rrma*
iurelygrey ; ' praeposterus, lastfirsU ifweru ; (3) ' extremity : ' pneustus^
burnt at the tip.
pro'/ifrKfard: procurvus, propatuliis.
r5- r€d- 6ack : recurvus ; againt redivivus.

sul>> diminishes : subobsomis, rather dark, subtrisds, softtewkat sad
Ye.aiiial{ : vCsanus, «wA/=male5anus.
nS- is fwivative : ne&ndus, neCaistus, impiems.

in- (inseparable negative a Greek av) forms numerous Cp. Ax^edives: impar,
impotent impius, ingratus, ihsanus» infidelis imitiUi, ignama, ignaiMs» ignocus,
ignobilis, ill<Hus» irritus &c &c ftc.
A. XS. i/iT.xS.'.S.xS.: unanim-is (usX 'Aatdtig* me mind, longi-manus, ' Jkavii^'
long hands : tripes, 'having* three feet : anguicomus, snake-haired. So aequa-
evus, longaevus multiformis, miaericors : soUers ; biennis, biirons, triceps, tiv
U&guis, &C. &C. : comipes, sonipes, &c
P. X S. (i) Wben P. is of adverbial nature :
ancq>s (ambi-ceps), dtn/dle-headtd, donbt/uL
coaevus, concurring in time : cognominis, communis, ooncolor, confinis, coosan*

guineus, consonus, consors, contcrminus, &c &c
discolor, divided {differing) in colour ; discors, dissonus, &c.
imbellis, unwarlike ; imborbis, heardleu \ immanis, implunus, impottunus, inanim-
b<usX ineim-is (us), iners, infiunis, informis, infrenis, ilGmis, illunis, ingtorios^
talurins, insomnis, invius (but insignis from in in, on), Ac && Ac.
obsoenus* obscurus, obvius.

(s) When />. has a prepositional nature : see p. 961. xX
aboonnis, amens, avius, Ac
acclivis, affinis, &c

antelucanus, antemeridianus, antesignanus, Ac
drcumforaneus.

dsalpinus, dsrheoanus, d^adanus, Ac
commodus.

declivis, decolor, deformis, degener, ddirus, demens, deviua, Ac
effrenus, eilrons, egregius, elinguis, enervis, enodis, enormisy ftranimis, exoMv

exheres, exlex, exsanguis, exsomnis, exsors, extonria, Ac
ofaiuNcias« opportunus.

perduelKs, peremus, perfidus, perinrus, peniox, Ac
pwwridianus.

profimus, profeatus, prospetus.
secunis^ aeduhis, Ac
sobdialis^ subdohis, sublucanus, subsignanus, subsolanus, subtemmeos, sobuibawHi

Ac
transalpinus, transmarinus, Ac
C) Verbs.
^.XK: aedificare,«gnificare; Utigare : vociferari. moj^^y^^Q^^gJ^

8 6a The Composition of Words, 26 J

^. X F. : aequi-parare ( »aequum parare).
y,x y,: cale-facere ( - cakre facere), cale-fieri.

2) adverdiaify ; when the parts are

P,x 71 : bene-dicere ; ne-quire ; ab-ducere, and all Verbs
similarly compounded.

P, X S, or P.xA,: ef-femmare : e-rudire.*

NoU. Words which have two Determinative parts are called
Decomposita : im-per-turbatus. On Compound Words in Latin
seeM. Lucr. p. 312-313.

A.x y. : unpUfiouw, gratificari, &c.

r. X K. : These are the Compp. of Verb-roots with hao, fio. See p. aij, and on the
qttanthy of • see Prosody.

» The studrot may usefully test the force of Verbs compounded with Prepositions by Compo-

conparing, with the help of a good Dictionary, the meanings and uses of the Compounds sition of

of the oldest and most obvious Simple Verbei : such as ago, cado, caedo, cano, capio, cedo. Verbs

curro, dico, do(dhiX duco, emo^ eo, facio. fero, habeo, iacio» l^o, mitto, moveo, nosco, ^'^P^f«-

pko» pooo, porto, quaero, rego, rogo, sedeo, sto, sisto, sum, taneo, tendo, veho, venio, f^l

verto^ video, vocow "*"*

When compuundcd with Verbs :

I. Ab, a, abs OvMr,aiuvr) ahrays denotes 'tg^anrtion ; * abnun, am away ; abeo, go
away ; aufero, take away ; abstineo, re/rain/rom^ &c Note abdtco (me magistiatuX
rmgn ofice : abrogo (legem, ft&X re^eoL MMmAOtJiaw avtrt ahmmd ; abator, u$e »/,
ahiae, contain the notion of excess,

a. Ad {t»t att »Aif) generally denotes, (i) ' approeuk^ pttsenct atornmr'* adsum, am
Pfmnt : adeo, go to : advenio, come to ; as^deo» Ht by : adsto, standby^ &c. : henee^
(a) ' ap^kmtioH to : ' adhibeo, apply : adaooeo, admonish ; afficio, a/jfect \ alloqnor, eid>»
drete^ he : (3) * acquintian^* as accipio, receive ; adipiscor, gain ; arrogo, daimt &c :
(4) 'addition* as addo, add; admunoro, reckon with ; addisoo^ learn betides : (5) 'action
to tke/nll : ' admiror, admire ; adedo, eat up ; afficio, affect ; agnosco, tteegnise ; atton*
deo, tkear close, &c : (6) * responu^/avour^ sympathy : * accbuno, cheer; adfleo, weep
with : arridao, tmile on ; annuo, nssent : so affiUgeo, shine on, &c. The Verb adimo,
imhe away (qyis te mihi casus ademit? Verg.X cannot be a true form. Ik is probably a
vocal corruption of abSmo, anandent word dted by Festus, the soaad of which would not
be agreeabie. Ar> wasan old form of ad-, as arcesso, arbiter, arvorsum.

3> Cum, com-, ooa-, co* (with, togethof^ impKes, (x) 'mtion, coming, bringing, or acting'
together : * coeo, nnite ; concurro, mn together ; colHgo, cotteet ; conftro, bring together i
oonwnlOk meet; convoco, caU together, ftc. For various purposes : («) 'comparison'.'
oomfMuo, compoBO, confero, compare, &c : (jl) 'constraint :' cohibeo, nstrmin ; cogo,
emnpei, 9uc :{y) '/riendly action:' coWofjam, tnih with ; oancedo, allow ; coaBdo, trmst ;
cotdmeat, confess; coasolor, console ; oani^io, correct i {I) * hoetile Mtion :* covAlfsfh battle
«vtM : coUuctor, j«rN^]f^ «I/A : so coarguo, conviaoo, cMiAr/A (a) In some words it i»-
pttes ' combmed thought, r^ection : ' ooncipio, conceive ; conido, gmss ; computo^ rtehon
sep. (3) As implying a concurrence of parts or powers in action, this particle gives t*
many verbs the sense kA con^leteness or intensity : cognosco, learn ; conficio, complete ;
commoveo, disturb ; complco, Jill up ; corruo. /all in ; consumo, TVaste ; contendo, strive ;
oouverto, turn round; cohorresco, contremisco, shudder all over ; convalesco, get well,
Ac So constemo, bestrew ; collino, besmear.

4. Xi^ifUmm, down/rom,frotii^ implies, (z) 'action downward',* dcddo,/all down i
deido, thrvw down ; depono, lay down ; (a) 'absence, departure, removal, prevention,'
9dc. ; decedo, depart ; detineo, detain ; demo, take away ; dehortor, dissuade ; deterreo,
deter; deprecor, pray against ; desum, am wanting; defido, revolt, fail, &c : derogo,
estate (a pirivilege by law : see word in dictionaryX &c. : (3) 'diminution, subtraction : '
depleo, empty ; deperdo, lose a part. In the last word and others, as decrro, stray ; de>
cipio^ tinrtive ; dehido, delude ; detcro, rt^ off; detraho, detract, ftc, the prepodtion
carries a bad sense (deieriorationX Debeo (dehibeo), ewe, i.e. have a debt or minus
quantity, to be subtracted : (4) 'negation or retractation : ' dedeceo, misbeseem ; dedisco^

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^ v^pt i-V-

264 Latin Wordlare. 56a

-uHltam ; dedocco. wUeack ; dcspero. eU^air. (5) In numcroua words it impli« *«r-
iensitymam^teneu ' (compare the phrase * de haul en bas ') : deambulo, fe«^ V*^
tUnm ; deamo, Aw excttdingly ; dcfleo, weep intensely : decemo, decree \ debello.>««**
a war- defiingor, discharge ; deleo, blot out, destroy ; deprendo, catch ; devemo, «^;»^;
devinco, vanquish, &c (6) Such words as dedico, dedicate-, dcfero, offer, imply *«-
mility in the agent Decurro means variously run down, ampUU a course, or haoe re-
course,

5. Ex, e {out nf) implies, (x) * actum, out ox from : ' exeo, go out ; ddo, cast out : ex-
tend©, stretch out ; eximo, tahe out, take away : (a) ' manifest actum : ' tdko,/roclaim ;
exhibeo, exhibU \ exhorresco, shudder visibly ; exsisto, stand/orth, exut : (3) achteve-
ment of actum.' edisco, Uam by heart', effido, r^«r/; elaboro. workout', oiumero,
£MM/ »> ; evenio, >ltf>^r« ; evinco, prove ; existimo, >rw opinion, thmk : so eflero, x.
drive wild ; effcmino, i»«a*r womanish. Note exaudio, hear/rom/ar.

6. In (w, iV»/«», <^^»»«w/, «Aw») implies, (0 ' «^'«* *«» *"V ** * ' "»«^ *** wr^Laam-
bulo, wtttt ii« ; incolo, inhabit; inerro, t«««<^ in : (a) 'tffriiwt i«/* : meo, mgredior,
enter ; immitto, send into, &c. : (3) * action onward : * incedo, move on ; impdlo, urge on,
&c. : (4) *ejective action,* in many Transitive verbs : imminuo, lessen, break; impetxOp
obtain by prayer ; impleo, Jill ; inccndo, set on fire ; inficio, iti/ec^ ; instituo, u^ormp,
instruct ; iastruo, furnish ; irrigo. water, &c : ($)* action upon, over, against,* &&, in
many Tnyective Verbs: iUido, dash upon ; impono, place on ; impertior, iiij^«^ : m-
cumbo, lean on -.immineo, impendco, overhang ; insurgo, rtu against, &c : (6) tntensme
action,* especially in Inceptive Verbs: illucesco, dawn ; incalesco, grow hot ; mgtavescOp
grow worse; intumesco, swell up, &c. Remark indpio, begin ; invenio, find (come
upon) : invideo, envy Ooo^c on with evil eye). An ancient form of in was oido, ibda
iiviov), which in old Latin appears in composition with a few words : endc^gredi or inda-
gredi=ingredi; endopcratororinduperator=imperator. So ind-igeo ; ind-oles.

The negative partide in- appears in the compounds ignosco, excuse, pardon, and im^-
probo, disapprove.

. 7. Inter {between, among) denotes, (1) * action between : * interddo, fall between \ inter-
pono, place between ; hence, (a) interruption : interpello, 1. address abruptly \ intecrogo,
question ; intervenio, intervene : (a) * hindrance, stoppage : ' intercedo,y!viMrf(by veto) ;
inteidudo, shut off; interdico, prohibit, exclude : (3) 'concernment in : * intersum, amete-
gaged in, am present at ; interest, it concerns. Inter has a peculiar use in the words
intermorior, intereo, die ; interemo, interfido, kill. See Per. Also inteUego, perceioe,
understand. Pro£ Key (Philolog. Trans.) says that the notion of ' through ' is often cok^
veyed to Compounds by inter in Lucretius : interfodio, inteifugia See M. Lucr.
iv. 7id.

8. Ob (=^0 seems to denote * occupationtif space in front : ' as, obeo, go toeneaunter,
petform, die, &c ; obido, cast in the way ; occurro, meet ; offero, offer, present. This
is sometimes hostile : as, obsideo, besiege ; obsto, oppose ; obsum, harm ; obmo, opprimo,
overwhelm ; oppugno, attack ; obloquor, speak against : sometimes friendly : as, oboedio,
obsequor, obCempero, obey. 'Persistence* is often implied by this particle: obstupesc^
stand amased; obdomusco, slstmber; ob&olesco, become obsolete. The use of obs is
doubtful : obs-trudo in some MSS. of Plautus seems the only authority. Ostendo, Aem,
may perhaps be a corruption of the old phrase ob os tendo, since obtendo, stretch toward^
is an existing ^compoimd. Omitto, leave off, omit, cease, if for ob>mitto or om-mitto
(whidi is phonetically possible), must be referred to the meaning of 'persistence.* Opaioir
cover, is not (asa Latin verb) compounded with ob, but may contain its rooC

Obs. Note the AcUJ. obliquus, athwart ; obscurus, darkQiatyvag mtia. Prim, j:^ Id
front).

9. Per has the general meaning, through ; percurro, run through : hence, thoroughly ;
perdiflco, learn thoroughly. Its use (see inter) is peculiar in pereo, perish, am undoes*
(pessum eo) : peremo, kill; perdo, ruin, destroy, lose, for which in older Latin appears
pessum do. These uses of per, inter, may perhaps grow out of some now forgotten cus-
tom or superstition.

la Prac {b^ore) expresses, (i) 'priority qf place or rank ; * as, praeeo, go before : pme*
^CAO, place in command ; praesum, am in command ; praepono, pr^er ; praeluceo, omi-
shine, &c. : (a) * priority ^ titne ;* as, pmK^lco, foretell ; pmeokoato, forewarn i prsc.
ynAto,foruee : (3) ' action in front ; * as, praedngo, gird in front ; prsebeo (for praefaibeoX
hold in front, afford ; praetendo, hold out, && : (4) 'passing along : ' praelabar, gUde by ;
praetexo, skirt, border.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

§ 6o. TAe Composition of Words. 26$

XI. Pro prod- ifortkf/ofwardt h^ort^for^ expresses, (i) * motion or action fortht pttb"
iicity : ' pnxieo, go forth ; prodo, givt/orth, surrendtr, betray ; promo, take forth ; pro-
fero, bring forth ; provoco, ctUl forth, challenge ; prodamo, proclaim, &c. : (a) * motion or
action forward'. ' procedo, go forward \ procumbOf fall forward ; promoveo, promote ;
propello, drive forward, &c : (3) * action in front : ' prohibeo, hold aloof , forbid ', pro-
pugno,>^A//^ : protego, protect ; protero, trample down (a) with the notion of advan*
tage ; a:s, procuro, care for ; proficio, prosum, profit \ provenio, come on, prosper, &c :
{b) of prominence ; as, promineo, jnt out ; propendeo, hang forward ; promereo, deaerve
eminently : (4) apriority ' (rare) : proludo, prelude ; propino, pledge a health ; provideo,
lo^ out, foresee. The most noticeable verbs compounded with pro are, (a) promitto, fit.
send forth ; which obtains the meanings let grow {hair, beard, &c.X Predict, and hence
its derived but most usual sense, promiu : (b) prorogo, put ojfiio a forward time) by
l^alact ; prorogue.

S2. Sub iuft* {ftnder^ may inq>ly, (i) ' being under : ' subsum, am under, am at hand ;
subiaceo, lie under; submergo, dip under; subscribo, write under: subsisto, stand
sender; succumbo, sinh under ; sufiuldo, prop ; sustineo, sustain : (2) ' motion under : '
subdo, sulndo, submitto, suppono, put under ; subeo, go under^ undergo ; subigo, bring
under, subdue ; sufiimdo, pour under : (3) 'motion from under:* subduco, subtraho,
subveho, withdraw ; si^bmoveo, remove (from below) ; subverto, overthrow ; i^pward) ;
suUevo, rowr up ; susdto, nmse up ; suspendo, hang up ; suspicio, looh 1^, look up to,
ssupect ; suspiro, sigh : (4) ' motion in clou sequence : ' subsequor,yb//4nv cIcm ; succedo,
xome e^ter, succeed, also means go under, be succes^ul, &c : (tv/M a view to help or sup'
_^y) subvenio, succurro, succour ; sufficio, suppeto, suppleo, supply ; subrogo, supply
(a legal successor). Sometimes sub implies 'ivcrAr^r:' succenseo, am oM^ry (in the heart):
surripio, steal : sometimes slight action ; subblandior, fawn a little ; subirascor, am
feUker angry.

13. Dis- di- ijk£) {atpart, asunder) implies 'division, severance, difference, distinction*
fee : diduco, sever; disto, stand apart, am distant; dido, spread; diffindo, cleave;
digooKO, distinguo, distinguish ; differo, sunder or dijffkr ; dimitto, dismiss , discedo,
^part ; diribeo, dirimo, divido, divide ; disrumpo, pull in pieces ; discumbo, rvcUne apart
ict guests at uble), &c. It is particularly used to express difference in argument, opinion,
actioa : discepto, disputo, dissero, argue, dispute, discuss ; discrepo, dissentio, dissideo,
Mffer in sentiment, disagree; digladior, dimico, contend in combat-, hence, diiudico,
Judge between contending sides. In some words dis- gives a negative sense : displiceo,
displease ; diffiteor, deny ; diffido, distrust : in some it is intensive : disperdo, ruits
utterly; dispereo, am utterly ruined; discrudo, torture painfully. The verb diligo,
Jove, impUes a choice between different persons.

14. The inseparable particle red- re- {bach, agttin) conveys the two general meanings :
I. ' reciprocated action : ' II. 'repeated action ; ' but the shades of meaning are nume-
xoaSy and will repay minute analysis with the aid of the dicticmary.

I. If AB be a straight line, with motion from A to B, then red- or re- implies

x) ' recurrence from B to A : ' redeo, return ; recurro, run back ; reduco, lead back ;
rebkbor, slide back ; remitto, send back ; redhibeo, repono, replace ; refero, reporto, bring
back ; revoco, cetll back ; reddo, give back, restore ; redimo, buy back, redeem, ransom ;
re&ontio, tell back, bring tidings ; restituo, restore. Here rank compounds which ex-
pRSS reflected lig^, echoed or replying sound : respondeo, answer ; reluceo, shine bach ;
reboo, remugio« rebellow; ddal reflux : refluo, redundo,^^^ back, &c ; but in actions
wluch by their nature iniply recurrence, the particle loses emphasis : respiro, breathe ;
ffcfnlgeo, resplendeo, shine, glitter, Recaleo, become warm from being cold.

a) recurrence *from B towards ^4 : Le. backward action : recumbo, lean back, recline ;
resideo, sit back, sit down ; refiingo, break open ; repello, jirive back ; remaneo, stay
back, remain ; nmoror, retardo, retard ; relinquo, leave behittd ; respido, look back ; re>
tioeo, hold back, &c. In some verbs, re- (back)saiiME^ : rel€go, send away ; removeo^
uscve away, remove : with implied care : recondo, hide away, stow : or force ; revello,
jpiuck away. To this head belongs the group of words in which the partide (against^
impUes resistance : rebdlo, war against, rebel ; redamo, cry against ; redarguo, lefelkv
r^ute ; reluctor, struggle against ; (recusoX renuo, r^use ; repugno, resisto, resist.

IL 'Repeated action* {again, anew): recognosco, examine anew; recalesco, grow
WMtrm again ; n/ysJieKO, reviresco : so, reparo, repair ; refido (make again), repair,
rvnew, refresh ; renovo, renew; relcvo, raise again, relieve. In referdo, cram, repleo^
JUl fsM, ftc, the notion is that of repeating to excess. In redudo, retego, revelo^
oeneover, open, disclose ; refigo, take down ; resigno, unseal, re- has a foroe like that
of de (removaO' In revmreor« reverence ; reticeo^ keep silence, it implies bashfulneu :

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^ v^pt i_v^

z66 Latin Wordlore. g6o.

in redoIeo» smell ^ the idea is that of gtving hack to one who requires, as in renimtio.
In some compounds re- gives various senses, as redpio : for which see dictionary.

15. Other Compounded Particles keep their proper force, and need but short nodce :
(«) ante {jb^ori^ : anteire, to go b^ort : (jS) ctrctun {around) : circumdo, place mmd I
fy) post ("/ler, Mkind) : posthabeo, postpono, /laee behind: (5) praeter {beside, beyanei) :
praeteriabor, glide by ; praetereo, pass beyond, pass ; praetermitto, pau over, omit :
(^ subter (beneath) : subterlabor, glide nnder : in subterfugio, escape, secrecy or stynesa is
implied (subterfuge) : (O >uper {over, above) : superiado, throto over: sometimes impUes
excess : superfluo, ^ow over, oversow. Note supersum, survive, superstes, survivimg-
(living over). Supersedeo (sit above) has the peculiar meaning, disregard, di^enu with :
see Ablative Case. (i|) trans {across, through) is pioperly used of crossing a river, mouM'
tain, road, region, &c., hence tropically, of going or carrying over : transeo, cross, pesn
beyond : transfero, carry across, troHs/er ; transigo, carry thrtmgh, pierce, complete, tram*-
act, &C. : (tf) se- Md-{apart/rom): seduco, draw aside: seinqgo, upmmUi seligo^ aeUcf^
&c. : (i) amb> am- an- {around, about, 041^1) : ambio, go tmmd, canvas* ; ambigo, dmtkt^
question : anquiro, question, search. («) the adverbs bene, male, satis, iotro, retro, in a
few verbs : benedico, bless ; benefado, do kindneu ; maledico, revile ; male&do, eia
harm ; satisdo, satisfado, satiny ; introeo, go in ; retrofcredior, reireeU.

Obs, X. Many Verbs, of which the first dement is a Prepoaidon, are not Compounds in
the same sense as those hitherto named, but bd(»g to one or other of the three follow-
ing classes:—

i) Derivatives of Compound Adjectives or Subatantivet : condnoo t. arroKge (con*
cinnus) ; concordo x. agree (coBOors) : diaoordo x. disagree (discors) ; indignor x. am tm-
digmutt (indigxras) ; infesto x. nuMke dangerous (infestus) ; dfero x. drive wild (eflfertis) :
obliquo X. slani (obliquus) ; ddiro x. am mad (delirus) ; commodo x. lend (commodus) ;
incommodo x. inconvenience Cincommodus) : praedpito x./ling headlong (praaceps) ; per.
nocto X. pass the night (pemox) ; insanio 4. am mad (insanu^ ; coonilo 3. cemsmit
(consul) ; condlio x. conciliate (concilium).

a) Verbs compounded of Panide and a Noun which has no derived ample verb:—
recordor z. recollect (re, cor) ; defaeco z. drain (de, facx) : infiuno x. difame (in, fiuna) ;

so difiamo x. ; efiemino i. mahe womanish (ex, femina) ; suflnjco x. chohe (sutC fkax) :
digladior i.Jlght with sword {dx-, gladius) ; illaqueo x. ensnare Qoi, laqueus); enervo i.
weaken (e, nervus) : enucleo x. take out kernel (e, nucleus) ; impodio 4. kinder, entemgie
^, pes) ; expedio 4. disentangle (ex, pes) : irretio 4. ensmts^ On» rete) ; derivo x. drwm
eSf, derive (ds, rivus) ; erudio 4. instruct (e, rudis) : exstiipo x. root out (ex, stirps) ; er-
surdo x. deeifen (ex, surdus); contemplor x. gaoe at, observe {caxa, tonplnm augtxnd
division of sky) ; praevaricor x. act dishonestly^ dereive (prae, varus) ; convaso x. pmek
up (cum, vas) ; exubero x. abo$md{ex, uberX

3) Compounds of lost or obsolete Verb^atems :-^

ad-«/-or X. /latter {or- 1) ; amb-iBAo x. waik ; m4u-o 3. dye, steep ; oaohhtro 3. bum :
'vck-coho X. b^^ : oo-crilAo 3. kide ; in.</«M> ^.put on ; ex-«w-o (for ec*^M<^% put es/Tl de-
/end'O 3. : oS-fend-o 3. ; r^Jrdg-co x. oppose by vote ; viaX-Mlg<K x. votejir; can^nM>^
agree ; ia-gru-o 3. ; ia-vt't-o x. invite ; ir-rtt-o x. provoke ; pro.wssMJro x. psMisk ; di»>
x«>o x. scatter. The verbs oc<up-o x. anti<t>o x. anticipate, n<ip.«t<i, wc9^-er^ t.
recover, arc forms modified from cap-, take. Destin-Ot destine, ob^/ws-o, keep J^rrn,
are weakened from stan-, the root sta^ strsngtheoed with suflix n, like da-a-o ftoiD d»>
and Gr. ^s-v-m from 4^

Obe. X a) The primitive root of Growth is ar, al, whidi appears in Latin as ar* •!, or,
•1 : sometimes, perhaps, as 6r, el, vL It appears, (x) la alo and its derived words,
iiAus, co-al-^tco, &c : (s) in ^rior and its forms: (3) in -bko, -^/esco and their com-
pounds adtf^esco, ahA^esco, in^esco, &c., proles (pro-oles), sufak»^ iadolt%. Probably to
this root may belong many luunes of common quick-growing, or tall, plants ; as ar-bor,
ar-ista,(h)ar'undo^al'ga,al-nus, al-lium, (h)ol-us, ol-ea (ol-etun), ol-iva (ol-ivumX or-ntti^
er-vum, ip¥99, Il-ex, ul-va, ul-mus : perhaps, also, ar-duus, ar-dea, A]-pis» ip-ti d-q»ha%
imd other words.

It must be obserred that the root of Smell, olCre, has m> connectioa with that of
Growth. In theformer 1 representt d, as shewn id o<A>r (Gr. JBh<«X while in dke latter
Isr.

b) The root of Solidity appears in Latin chiefly as sol- (sGr. iX-X shewn in the words
mlluM (SAof), sdiom, M^dus, solltn, m/7-i.dtus, solto, with its compounds nb wWVactt,
extf^esco, iasoleaoo, inw^Sens. Obtolesco and exolesco have often been uken fcr com-
pounds of oleecof the verb of growth ; but this is a mere error of grammarians.

y Google

1 6i. TIte Uses of Words. 267

CHAPTER VI.
THE USES OF WORDS.

Section I.
L Figurate Construction. FijS^

(In this place it is convenient to describe certain variations of struo^
Construction.) ^^

il Ellipsis and Zeugma: Pleonasm: Attrac-
tion: Synesis.

A) Ellipsis (cXXcti/zic) is the omission of one or more words which
would be used if complete fullness of expression were necessary.
This may be

i) When what is omitted appears from the context : < Metuo
tuam iram et patris' (iram), I dread your an^er and
my father's, * Ego amo te et tu me' {flmas\ I Urve you
and you me.

2) When usage or the exigence of meaning makes the omitted
word evident: Falemum (l^ vintm^y FaUmian wine;
gelida (i.e. aqua), ^Id water : tum ego (Le. inquam),
then said I,

a) Zeugma^ or the construction kno mmvov, is the connexion
of one word with two words or with two clauses, to both of
which it does not equally apply : so that for one of them,
another word (to be gathered &am the tense of tlm pass*
age) must be roentadly supplied. Zeugma is therefore a
species of Ellipsis : * Ex spoliis et torquem et cogno-
men induit/ C. ' Querimoniae conventusque habeban-
tur/ C

The agreement of a Verb or Adjective with one only of several
Nouns fbrming one Subject, is also called Zeugma.^

■ £1Iipsit and Zeugma are brachylogical coMtructtons ; that i% they abbreviate du*
tfnine. (In the following Eyamplet words bracketed in italic tjpeare explanatory merely. )

a) Where the words to be supplied are foma of another word in the sentence, the con>
structionis Ellipsis of the first kind : ' Abi rus ergo hinc ; ibi ego te (/fmwwX tu me feres,'
Ter. HmH. iv. a. 4. 'In Hyrcania |^bs publicos alit canes, optimates deneatkov'
ifUnniU C. 7^ /). I 45. * Paene ille timore (comtt'O, ego risu corrui,' C Qu. Fr. iL 10.
' Cap«r tibi salvtis et haedi ' {saM), Verg. ^. viL 9. ' Hic illius arma {^fturtX hie cuiraa
fuit/ Verg. Ae. I 16. 'Hos tibi dant calamo?', en accipe, Mtisae, Ascraeo quos ante
•em' {4edtrt\ Vetg. B. vi. 69. 'Ni<i facient quae illos aeqimm est' {/acer^, Ter.
^</. ia 4. 8.

/f) When the sense requires a different word, Ellipsis becomes Zeugma : ' Hoc tempos
praeoaTere xsStk me (iiibet\ non te uldsci sin it,' Ter. And. iiL 5. iS. ' Fortuna qua UK
fcrentiMima (sw Xfidentur), nosduriore conflictati videmur,* C AtL x. ^ 'AlHnai^
ftafio (jAfrfusrX aHi a servuHs ipsius interfectum eum, scriptum reliquerunt,' Nef&
Mann, Tiii 'Quod arduum sibi (sum/st/), cetera Icgatis permisit,' Tac ^4. ii ao.
' Ne temiet*pluviae (ffimnm/aM/) rapidive potentia solis Acrior aut Boreae penetrabile

uiyiuzeu uy x_j^^^\^ -x iv-

268 Latin Wordlore, §61.

B) Pleonasm (wXeovaafiOi) is the use of more words than seem
necessary to the expression of a thought : *Suo sibi gladio hunc
iugulo/ Is/ay this fellow with his own proper sword ^ Ten Ad. v. 8.
So such phrases as plerique omnes; nemo unus; nihil
quicquam; deinde postea; ubique gentium; praesensit
prius.

C) Attraction occurs when a word, by the influence of another,

frigus adurat,' Verg. G. i. 93. 'Saepe velut qui, Currebat, fugiens hoctem, per-
saep« velut qui lunonis sacra ferret,' Hor. .S*. i. 3. 9 (Le. saepe currebat velut qui fiig^ens
hostem curreret^ persaepe tardus itt^debat velut inoederet is qui lunonis sacra ferret).

y) An affirmative verb is understood from a negative : ' Ille quidem hand negat.
Immo edepol negat profecto; neque se has aedis Philobu^ vendidisse ' (d^V)^ Plaut.
Jtfost. v. L 3. 'Stoid negant bonum quicquam esse nisi honestum : virtutem auteai
nixam hoc honesto, nullam requirere vpluputem' (d£cutU)t C /^in, L z8. 'Nolo existi-
mes me adiutorem huic venisse, sed auditorem et quidem aequum' (tw^ existimes\ C.
N. p. . 7. Nostri Graece fere nesciunt, ncc Graed Latine {scitm/), C T. D. v. 40k
Qui fit, Maecenas, ut nemo quam sibi sortem Seu ratio dederit sea fors obieoexit ilia
Contentus vivat, laudet {^sed xt qmsque laudet) diversa sequentis,' Hor. .y. L z. i. Com-
pare Hor. Efod. v. 87.

£) Justin nas ' Provolutae deinde genibus Alexandri, non mortem, sed, dum Darii
corpus sepeliant, dilatlonem mortis deprecantur,' vL 9. 14 (Le. non mortem depve>
cantur sed . ... ptecantuir^ And *Et caedem patris {.vindicavU), et se ab insidus
vindicavit,' iiL x. 9 (the same verb meaning tfvrai^i/ in the former claii9e,./9vMr in
the latter^ But such licenses of a late age are not to be imitated.

Zeugma of the second kind requires a notice of the class of constructions called 9^JU
Aif^if, when a Verb, Attribute, Apposite, Relative, &c stands in relation to several Sub-
stantives or Pronouns which are often of different Numbers, Genders, Persons, &a

The rules belong to the Syntax of Agreement (see this) : but examples are :

'Patermihi et mater mortui,' Ter. Eun, iiL 3. 'Cerere nati sunt Liber et
Libera/ C N, D, 'u. 94. 'Attoniti . . . con^ipiunt Baucisque preces timi-
dusquc Philemon,* Ov. Met, viiL 68x. 'Ptolemaeus et Cleopatra, rcges
Aegypti, L. xxxviL 3. 'Sustulimus manus et ego et Balbus,' C Fam, viL 5.
'£rr.>stis,Rulle,vehementeret tuet collegae tui,'C inRullX. 'Ipseduxcum
urbe et exercitu deleti,' Sail * Fregellis murus et porta de caelo tacta
.«rant,'L. xxxiL 'Arbitrum habebimus Civilem et Veledam, apud quos
pacta sandentur,'Tac. H, iv. 65. * Favent pietati fideique di, per quae P. R. ad
.tantum £utigii venit,* L. xliv. a.

In theM cxamplot the related words are all Plural : and (Sender and Person are deter^
mined by consideration of all the Nouns. Zeugma occurs when the oenstruction agrees
with one of the Nouns only, whether in Number, (lender. Person, or all these : an
Ellipsis bdng supposed of the other agreeing words. * Filia (£»//«) atque unus e filiis
'€aptusest,'Caes.^.(;. i. 36. 'Convicta est M^ssalinaet Silius'(a»f9K-/«rX Taa A.
xiL 65. * Utinam aut hie surdus ifactus\ aut haec muu facta sit,' Ter. And. in. 4, 5.
'Et genus (v»;aitf)et virtus, nisicumre, vilior algaest.'Hor.^'. iL5.8. ' PopuU(i^&y«iO
provindaeque 1 iberatae sunt,' C PhiL v. 4. ' Et tu (*«*) et omnes homines sciunt,*
C Fam. xiil 8. 1. * Et ego ijtagito^ et Cicero meus flagitabit,' C Att. iv. 17. 3.
In sudi examples agreement is with the nearer Noun ; and thus it is a kind of Attzactioo.
. Rarer mstances occur of Zeugma, in which agreement is with the more distant word :

EgopopulusqueRomanuspopulisprisoorumLatinonimbellumindlco facioqne,'
L. L 3a. • Quibus ipse meique ante Larero proprium vescor,* Hot. 5: iL 6. 65.

^Pleonasm, which expands discourse, belongs to the domain of rhetoric more thaw ^
that of grammar, and needs not to be dwelt on at length here. Periodic style, suchas that

Tounded fuOness of acero's diction exposed him, even in his own times, to the cfaaxse of
tunud Asiatic luxuriance. Two or three sentences will illustrate this tendency.

bifructibus et emolumentis et utilitatibus amicitias colemus, dubiumMt
quin fun doset insula s amids anteponamus?' ^m. iL a6. 'Dioendi facoltasnon
debet t^ ieiuna atque nuda, sed aspersa atque distincta multarum renim
jucunda quadam varietate,' Or, L sol 'Quinctius orat atque obsccrat ut
jnums imurus lactatam atque agitata m aequitatem in hoc tandem loco con-
fistere et confirmari patiamini,' >• Qumc.%,
Examples of Attraction, Synesis, &c wiU be found in various parts of the Syntax.

lOogle

{ 6i. Figurate Construction, 269

is diverted from the usual construction to a less usual one :
' Hie est quern quaero hominem/ this is the man J seek ; where
the Subst would usually be Nom., but, attracted by quern,
becomes Accus. *Thebae, quod Boeotiae caput est,' L. for
*Thebae, quae Boeotiae caput sunt;' the Complement caput
(Neut. Sing.) attracting the Relative from its usual agreement in
Gender and Number with the Antecedent (Thebae).

D) Synisis is when words are constructed in accordance with
ftuanin^ (ffvvttriQ^ not with form: 'Subeunt Tegcea iuventus
aiudlio tardi,' tne youth of Tegea come slow to the succour, Stat
Th. vii. 605 : where iuventus ^a Collective Noun Feminine and
Singular) has the meaning of tne Concrete iuvenes, young men
(Masc Plur.), with which meaning the Verb subeunt (Plur.) and
the Adjective tardi (Masc. Plur.) agree in construction.

iii Other Variations.

d) When a Verb or Adjective agrees with several Substantives
(^XXiyi/^ic, see last Foot-note) : ' Pater, mater et filia capti sunt.'

^ When words are dislodged from the normal order (vire/j-
/Saror) : *Tu illas abi et traduce.'

An interposed clause is called icapivQttti^ if not in construction
with the rest: *At tu — nam divum servat tutela poetas —
Praemoneo, vati parce, puella, sacro/ TibulL iL 5. 113.

c) When a Preposition follows its Case (ayatrrptH^ii) : Spemque
metumque inter dubii, Verg.

if) When compound words are separated into their parts
(r/i^fftc) :*Quaemecumque vocant terrae/ Verg. for quaecum-
que ; disque supatis for dissipatis ; ordia prima, Lucr. for primordia.

e) When one Part of Speech, Number, Case, Tense, &c., is used
for another (ivaXXayii) : * Vivere nostrum' for vita nostra; 'Samnis'
for Samnites, * nos ' for ego : *populus' for popule ; 'expectate' for
expectatus ; ' mox navigo ' for navigabo, &c.

/) Interchange of Cases (vwaWayfi) : * Dare classibus Austros,'
Verg. for * dare classes Austns.' Or attribution of an Adjective to
anoUierthan its natural Noun: * Fontium gelidae perennitates,'
C. for gelidorum : 'Tyrrhena regum progenies,' Hor. for Tyrr-
henorum.

g) Expression of a complex notion by two Substantives, instead
of Subst and Adj. (ci'^ia^voii') : * Pater is libamus et auro,' Verg.
iL G. 192, for pateris aureis.

h) That Idnd of Ellipsis which omits Annexive Conjunctions
is called davyZerov : *Abiit, excessit, evasit, crupit,' C. Cat, i. i.
lioXvwvyhroy is a kind of Pleonasm, which multiplies Conjunc-
tions in poetry : *Una Eurusque Notusque ruunt creberque pro-
cellis Africus/ Verg. Ae, i. 85.

t) Archaism is a form, phrase, or idiom borrowed from old
writers (dpxaloi) : * animajf ; in cassum magnum,' Lucr. ^ ,

uiyiiized by VjOOQIC

270 Latin Wordlore. §62*

k) Graecism (kWrivitriJoc) is a phrase or idiom borrowed from
Greek ; * Amplexi habent/ Lucr., for atnplexi sunt : ' Metuo fratrem
ne intus sit,' Ten, for * ne frater intus sit.*

The foregoing Variations (which grammarians call * Figures *)
belong chieny to Syntax.

iv. Metaphor and Metonymy.
(These are Figures of Rhetoric.)

I. Metaphor {tA€Ta<popa, translatio) occurs when a term propa-
to one matter is transferred by analogy to another: volnus,
woundf for damnum, loss ; portus, harbour , for refugium, refuge ;
sentina reipublicae, sink of the comtnonwealih, for turpissimi dves,
vilest citizens ; ardeo, / Sum, for amo, / love, &c.

A metaphor may be qualified by such expressions as quasi,
tamquam, quidam, ut ita dicam, &c. : Mn una philosof^a
c^uasi tabernaculum vitae suae co\\ocax\xnt* they have pitched as
tt were the tent of their life in philosophy alone, C. d. Or, iiL 20.
* Caria et Phrygia asciverunt aptum suis auribus opimum quod-
dam et tamquam adipatae dictionis genus/ the Carious and
Phrygians chose a certain rich and as it were greasy style of diction
suited to their peculiar taste, C. Or. 8. * Scopas, ut ita di cam,
mihi videntur dissolvere/ they seem to me to oe untying, so to say^
besoms, COr, 71.

II. Metonymy {p.tTtawpLia) puts a related word for a proper
one : (r) Cause for effect ; Mars for bellum ; Ceres for segetes ;
'Bacchus' for vinum; 'lanus' for lani vicus or for lani
templum. (2) Material for work: 'argcntum' for vasa ar-
gentea. (3) Abstract for concrete: 'civitas' for cives, 'cor
£nni' for cordatus Ennius, the sensible Ennius. (4) Concrete
for abstract : * Cedant arma togae,' for * cedat bellum pact' (5)
Country for inhabitants : * Graecia' for Graeci : or the converse :
*In Persas ire,'for in Persidem, Nep. (6) The part is put for
the whole {wvekIoxV) : * caput ' for homo ; * tectum ' for domos.
(7) Sometimes the whole for the part: 'Sal sextante erat,' for
' modius sails,' ^salt was at two unctae the peck ^ L.

Section II.

6a

TJscsof Uses of the Substantive.

(On certain classes of Singular and Plural Substantives
see § 27. iii.)

i Singular Appellatives used collectively for
Plural.

Such Appellatives are, (i) Material Objects. (2) Bodies civil or
military. (3) People : occasional in Cato, Cic., Caes. : frequent in
Liv., Tac, Curt and poets.

ihe Sub-
•stancive.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

9 62. Uses of the Substantive. 27 1

Ex. Tosa - rosae : pedes » pedites : Samnis » Samnites.

The Singular annexed to Plural is not earlier than Livy. He and
Tacitus often use it : 'Hispani milites et fundi tor Baliaris/ L,
jcxviL 2. 'Samnis Paelignusque et Marsi/ Tac H. iiL 59.

ii. Plural words used with Singular collective
sense in prose.

£>. aquae, ardores. calores, frigora, frumenta, glacies, gran-
dines, ignes, pecuniae, pluviae, praedae, pruinae, rores ; all in C.

In poetry this use of the Plural of Concretes is abundant : aco-
nita, mella, colla, corda, cumis, altaria, numina, litora, capitolia,
lecta^ olc.

It either heightens the image, or, still oftener, assists the metre.

iiL Plural of Appellatives expressing a
'genus' when individuals are implied

Occasional in prose : * Legati P. R.' (where Triarius alone is
meant), C. p. L. Man. : frequent in poetry : *Quas mulieres,
quos tu parasitos loquere ?' Plaut Men. il 2 ; * Barbaras regum
est ulta libidines' (meaning Tereus), Hon C iv. 12.

iv. Plural of Proper Names used to express
typical characters.

This is frequent in prose, occasional in poetry : ' Pauli, Catones,
Galli, Scipiones, Phili,* C. Lael. 6. * Decii Marii magniquc Ca-
milli,' Verg. C?. il 169.

▼. Abstract Substantives,* Verbal and Deno-
minative, used in Plural.

This is frequent in prose, occasional in poetry.

i) When several lands are implied: *Tres constantiae,' C.
T. D. iv. 6 ; * Alia exitia,' C. d. Fin. v. 10 ; * Sapiens nostras am-
l>itiones levitatesque contemnit,' the wise man despises our
ambitious and shallow pursuits, C. T. D. v. 36.

2) Several occurrences : * Domesticae fortitudines,' C Off. i. 22.
So ofilices in L. and Tac. : * Tribunatus et praeturae et consulatus/
Tac D. 7.

a) A material (aes, cera, &c.) may express in the Plural oma*
mental objects manufactured from it : *■ Ephyreia aera,'
Corinthian bronzes, Verg. G. ii. 463. * Veteres cerae,' old
waxen busts, luv. viii. 19. But aurum, argentum remain
Singular always.

* Draeger sUtes that there are in Latm 3,814 abstract Substantives ; of which 3,889 <ure
used in the Singular only, 935 in the Plural also. Of these latter 58 only are before Cicero,
inchiding 36 in Plautus, 6 in Terence : 383 are in Cicero ; a few only, 19, in Caesar, Sal-
last, Varro, and Auctor ad Herennium. The rest, 484, are distributed in Livy and sub-
sequent prose writers, and in classical and later poetry. See his Hutorische Syntax,
dtr Lot. Spr.f Part L p. 9, where a full list of these Abstract Plurals is given.

uiyiuzeu uy x^jv^wVt Iv^

272 Latin Wordlore, 562.

3) When the abstract is related to Plural concretes : 'Conscientiae
maleficiorum/ C. Par, 2.

4) When it is annexed to other Plurals : 'Tot artes, tantae sc ien-
tiae, tot inventa,' C Qai. M, 78.

yL Abstract Substantives for Concrete in
prose and poetry :

This may be in any of three ways :

1) Sing. Abstr. for Sing. Concr. » -.t^^^ ^^ i^^i,
^ Plur. Abstr. for Plur. Concr. } ^^^^"^ ""^ ^^

Ex, ' comiptela' =corruptor, Ter. Ad, v. 3. 7 ; * desiderium'«res
desiderata, Hor. C, I 14. 18; 'servitia' = servi, C. p, Flac, 38 ;
' imperia ' « imperatores, Caes. B, C, iii. 32 ; * matrimonia ' » uxores,
L. X. 23. * Mea festivitas,' my delight^ App. ii. 10 ; so * scelus ' = ^
wicked wretch, *sceler2L/ scoundrels; *vigiliae* = vigiles; *excubiae' =
excubitores.

2) Plur. Abstr. for Sing. Concr. : ' amores ' » amatus or amata r
*Pompeius nostri amores,* Z,Ait, iL 19. *Acmen . . suosamores/
CatuU. xlv. I. So *deliciae :' *Amores et deliciae tuae Roscius,'
C. Div, i. 36.

3) Sing. Abstr. for Plur. Concr. freq. in prose and poetry t
'amicitia' «amici,Tac.-<4. 271 ; 'barbaria' -barbari; *civitas*» cives;
' coniuratio ' « coniurati ; * iuventus' = iuvenes; * nobilitas * - nobiles ;
'societas ' - socii ; * statio ' or * custodia ' = custodes ; * remigium ' « re-
miges. So < Canes arnica vis pastoribus/ Hor. Epod. 6. 6. ' In hac
tanta inunanitate versari/ C. » inter tarn inunanis homines. ' Cum
vestra aetate/ C. » cum vobis adulescentibus.

Obs, From the Plural use of Substantives we can hardly discon-
nect the * Pluralis Modestiae,' which includes also Verbs and Pro-
nouns, when a person speaks of himself in the Plural Number :
•Imperatores appellati sumus,- C. Att.y, 2a *Poscimur, si
quid vacui sub umbra 1 u s i m u s,' H or. C. i. 32. Sometimes Plur. and
Sing, occur to^fether : * Ardeo incredibili cupiditate ut nomen nos-
trum scriptis illustretur tuis,' C. Earn. v. 12 ; '£t flesti et nostros
vidisti flentis ocellos,' Ov. I/, v. 45.*

▼ii Idioms of the Substantive chiefly Cice-
ronian:

I) Cicero describes state or action by a Verbal Abstract : * Ora-
toris est languentis populi incitatio et effrenati moderation' an
orator's function is to rouse a languid, and restrain an inJuriaUdy
populace, C. d. Or, iL 9.

' The Phml of Mtgesty (we, ourX used in the proclamations of modern priooes and
potentates, was unknown to clamical Latin ; but it probably grew out ol" the use of the-
'modest* Phiral by Roman Emperors in tudi phrases as 'nostra mansuetudo,' 'nostra
aniestas/ ' nostra eacceUentia,' &&

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

^ 6a. Uses of the Substantive, 273

3) A Denominative Abstract with Genitive is used for a Noun with
epithet 'Vis flammae aquae multitudineopprimitur' (*flam-
ma violenta plurima aqua opprimitur), C. Cat, M. 19. ' In con-
:suetudine sermonis' (*in consueto sermone), in ordinary con-
^versation^ C. Inv, iL 40.

3) A Noun takes a Genitive of another, to which it might be
Apposite, if the other were constructed as Subject or Object * Est
«tiam deformitatis et corporis vitiorum satis bella materies
ad iocandum^' deformity also and bodily defects are a fine field for
iHinter^ C. d. Or, iL 59.

4) A Noun of quality or condition is used as Subject or Object
wiA Genitive of the real Subject or Object, or with a Possessive
Pronoun. 'Pupilli aetatem et solitudinem defendere praetor
•debuit,' the praetor ought to have protected a young and orphan
wordy C. Verr. L 58. 'Potest mihi denegare occupatio tua,'

your preoccupation ( = you being preoccupi^) may refuse me thisy
C Fam, v« 12. 8.

5) Cicero affects ornate periphrases and metaphors: *Occa-
sionis tarditas ; ' ' Etesiarum flatus ; ' ' naufragia forttmae ; ' ' sunmia
luctus acerbitas:' 'mentis oculi;' ' philosophiae portus;' 'gloriae
stimuli ;' 'eius scderi virtus M. Bruti obstitit'

6) Stages of life and seasons of office are often expressed by the
•concrete words puer, adulescens, &c.,consul, praetor, &c, rather
than by the abstracts pueritia, consulatus, &c. 'Doctusapuero,'
Jeamedfrom boyhood^ C. * Ab parvulis,*y^<?w their infancy , Caes.
« PhUosophiae multum adulescens temporis tribui,' I gave much
tiffu to philosophy in my youth ^ C. Off.ii. 4. ' Ante (post) me con-
sul em,' before {after) my consulship : ' consule Planco/i« the consul-
ship o/PfancuSy Hor. But the abstracts can be used.

7) Some Concrete Substantives, especially Verbals in -tor -trij^
are used Adjectively. 'Ennius eqm fortis et victoris senectuti
comparat suam,' Ennius compares his old age to that of a strong
4ind victorious horse^ C. Cat, if/. 5. 'Artifex stilus,' an artistic
st^le^C This idiom is especially poetic 'Victrix causa deis
placuit, sed victa Catoni,' the conquering cause pleased the gods, but
Ihe conquered cause Cato, Lucan. L 128. ' Populum late regem,'
u far-ruling people, Verg. Aen, v. 25.

8) Certain phrases assume the nature of single words : *nomen
I^atinum' (-Latini), 'res Romanac' (-Roma). So 'res
repetundae' {extortion), respublica, iusiurandum, &c

9) In comparisons, by a peculiar brachylogy, names of Persons
and Places stand for their works or properties : * Percipietis volup-
tatem, si cum Graecorum Lycurgo etDracone et Solone nos-
tras leges conferre volueritis,'j'd7« Tvill find pleasure in comparing
4mr laws with {those of) the Lycurgus cmd Draco and Solon of the

Greeks, C. d. Or, i. 44.

10) Verbal Substantives occasionally govern the same cases as
their Verbs ; Cicero has ' domum itio ;' ' Narbone reditus ; ' * ob-
temperatio legibus.' Constructions such as * receptio virum meum/

* coratio banc rem,' are used by Plautus, but not sy^§M^«5itoosIc

2/4 Latin Wordlare. §62.

Yiii Ellipse of the Substantive:

Omitted Substantives are indicated

i) By Adjectives which are their Epithets :
ager : in Tiburti, C.
aqua : frigida, Quint. ; gelida, Hor. ; calida, Varr. ; decocta,

Plin., luv.
ars : dialectica, &c. C. musica.
capilli : cani, C. and poets.
caro : agnina, lamb ; anatina, diuk ; aprugna, wild-hoar ; bu-

bula, beef\ ferina, venison ; suilla,^^r^ ; vitulina, veal,
castra : aestiva ; hibema ; stativa : C, Caes., L., Tac. &c.
dies : natalis ; and in phrases postero, in posterum, &c
fabula : togata, comedy with Roman characters ; p a 1 1 i a t a, with

Greek ; praetexta, trabeata, .plays in which cha-
racters with these dresses appeared.
familiaris : ' complexus inde Conolanus su os dimittit,' L. ii. 4a
febris : quartana, quartan ague, luv.
feriae : Latinae, the Latin holidays,
fodina : arenaria, argentaria, &c C, L.
fratres : gemini ; trigemini.
funis ; cereus, a waxen torch,
hora : quarta, 10 c^clock ; octava, 2 dclock, luv.
lapis : molaris, millstone, Verg. ; ad quartum, at the fnertk

milestone, Tac &c.
liber : *in T. Livii prirao/ Quint. ; *in tertio de Oratore,' do. ; 'ne

in pontificiis quidem nostris,' C. N. D, i. 3a
ludi : Circenses, luv.
manus : dextra, laeva, sinistra.
mare: Aegaeum; Ionium; altum; profimdum, &c.
navis : triremis ; quinqueremis ; oneraria, C, L. ; Libuma,

Hor., &c.
nummus : aureus ; aereus ; denarius ; sestertius, &c.
officina : coquina ; picaria ; figlina, &c. C, Plin.
ordines : quattuordecim, the fourteen rows of the equites in

the Roman theatre, Suet
ovis : bidens.
partes : decumae, tithes : primae, secundae, &c., the firsty

second, &c. parts in a drama, C, Hor. &c.
pecuniae-, repetundarum, repetundis; frequent: Cicero

usually adds pecuniarum, pecuniis.
porta : Coelimontana, Esquilina, Capena, &c., C, &c
praedium : Albanum, Antias, Tusculanum, &c., C.
res : argentaria, pecuaria, topiaria, &c, C
sella : curulis, Tac.
sol : occidens ; oriens.
spolia : opima, Sen. Tr.
telum : missile, L., Verg.
tempus : brevi ; homo, Plaut.
toga : praetexta, Hor. and later.
tribus : Q, Verres Romilia, C. &c.
usurae ; centesimae ; quincunces, besses, deunces, &c
vas : aenum ; fictile^ Cat., Ov. &c. ^ .

uiyiuzeu uy ■N^Jv-/v_-'>t Iv^

§ 63. Uses of the Adjective. 275

ventus : Africus. lapyx.
verba : multa, plvira, &c
versus, senarius.

via : Appia, Flaminla, Latina, &c
victims : altemis, Lucr., Verg.

vinum : Caecubum, Falemum, Massicum, Sabinum, Surren-
tina (vina), &c. Hon &c
Also menstruum (Jrumentum), L.; nuUas {epistulas\ C ; molaris
(dens)^ luv. ; Papia Poppaea {lex)^ Tac Dialia, Liberalia, &c (Jesta).

2) By Substantives which depend on those omitted :
aedes or templum : ' ad Apollinis ; ' < ad Opis ; ' ' ad lovis Sta-
toris; ' * ad Vestae ; ' *prope Qoacinae ' (aedem), C, L. &c.
actor : 'Q. Arrius fuit M. Crassi quasi secundarum/ C. Brut.

69.
iter : ' castra aberant bidui/ C. Att, v. 16.
filius^ filia : ' Faustus Suilae ; ' ' Caecilia Metelli j ' ' Hanmbal

Gisgonis.'
uxcr : Terentia Ciceronis ; Apicata Seiani, Tac
homifies : 'pergere ad Treveros et externae fidei/ Tac
poculum : <da noctis mediae,' &c. Hon C iiL 19.
servus : frequent in phrases : *a manu' or ' ad manum/ amanu-
ensis : ' ab epistuhs/ letter-writer ; • a potione,' cup-bearer ;
' a bibliotheca,' librarian^ &c
3) By Verbs, of which the omitted word is object or subject See
§ 109, § 126.

Object omitted : mittere {nuntium) ; agere (vitam) ; obire (mor-
tem) ; merere {stipendia) ; movere {castra) ; ducere {exercitum) ;
appellere, conscendere {navem^ classem), and others.

Besides Pronoun Subjects, the NonL homines is constantly
omitted in the i^irases aiunt, tradunt, narrant, &c

iz. Substantives are used with different kinds
of meaning (active or passive).

alumn-us -a (usually qui alitur ; sometimes qui alit) : clientela
(clientship; clients; patronage) : gloria {glory ; boastings vanity) :
hospes Qiost; guest) : fugk {flight; exile) : invidia (envy; odium) :
nuntius {messenger ; news) : odium {hatred as feehng : hated ob-
ject) : opinio (opinion; credit) : ruina {ruin suffered or inflicted) :
spes (h(^e as feeling ; as object) : tristitia {sadness ; gloom inspiring
sadness) : tutela {^ardianship, guardian ; that which is guarded,
ward) : vector (qui vehit, shipmaster; qui y^t^Xvx, passenger), &c

Section III.

Uses of the Adjective. Us^of

L Adjectives used as Substantives. See § 16. b), jecdm"
A) Masculine (and Feminine) Adjectives with personal meaning.
I. Singular :

a) in aiiiu, Yens, Aims, laiis, &c, including Gentile words :
adversarius ; consiliarius ; librarius ; osdarius: sicarius ; statuarius ;

^ • uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^v^ pt i-V-

63

276 Latin Wordlare. 163.

tabellarius ; vicarius, &c ; criticus, rusticus, vilicus, &c ; hortu-
lanus ; paganus ; publicanus ; libertinus ; vicinus, &c. ; RomanuSy
Sabinus, Atheniensis, &c. Also the terms for legionary soldiers :
primanus^ secundanus, &c.

b) Words of Kinship and Relation :

amicus, inimicus ; aequalis ; afl&nis ; agnatus, cQgnatus ; con-
sanguineus; contubemalis ; femiliaris; gentilis; maritus; necessa^
rius ; propinquus ; sodalis, socius.

^) Various;

Verr, v. 69.

d) Participles :

a) Present : adulescens ; amans ; sapiens.
/3) Perfect Pass. : candidatus ; doctus ; praefectus ; nat-us ^) ;
spons-us (a).

e) Generally, < man' may be omitted when anjr epithet implying
it is used (Ellipsis) : 'lacet corpus dormientis ut mortui,* ike
body of a sleeper lies like that of a dead man^ C Div, i. 3a < Non de
improbo, sed de callido improbo quaerimus/ we are enquiring'
not about a knave, but about a cunning knave^ C Fin. iL 17. * Ne-
glegere quid de se quisque sentiat, non solum arrogantis est, sed
omnino dissoluti,' /<? ^^ careless of wluU others think about hinty
indicates a man not arrogant only, but quite unprincipledy C Off, L 28.

II. Plural :

Plural Adjectives and Participles still oftener express fnen\
chiefly, but not exclusively, in the Nom. and Accus., because in
these the Masc. is distinguished from the Neut So

boni, divites, inferiores, infimi, iuniores, magni, maiores, minores^
multi, mortales, nulli, optimiy omnes, paud, plerique, posteri,
proximi, summi, tenues, turbani ; nostri, sui, &c &c. ; adstantes, dis-
centes, legentes, spectantes, &c. ; docti, indocti, imperiti, mortui, &c

Participles are also used, especially in poetry, to describe, by some
property, classes in natural history : balantes » oves ; natantes *-
jHSces ; volantes = aves ; laniger « aries ; sq\iamigeri » pisces.

Cicero has * errantes' for ' planetae.'

B) Neuter Adjectives and Participles :
I. Singular:

c^ It has been shewn in Ch. V. that a great number of Substan-
tives in aiinm, torimn, soriiim, tom, siim, Ue, ne, ftre, &€., were
originally Adjectival : as cibarium, deversoriimi, dictum, respon-
sum, navale, ovile, talare, &c

^) The Greek Article enables that language to convert any Neut.
Adjective into an Abstract Noun {^0 kya%6v, ro iroXoy). Latin
autiiors, without this advantage, use a certain number c^ Neater
Adjectives Singular in this way : such aie

Digitized byCjOOQlC

§ 63. Uses of the Adjective. 277

a) Moral Abstracts :

aequum, boniim, commodum^ decorum, £alstiiny honestmni

iustum, malum, nimium, pravimi, rectimi, ridiculum, utile,

verum, &c.

/S) Physical Abstracts :

album, aridum, calidum, canorum, umidum, igneum, inane,
pingue, planum, serum, sudum, tranquHliun, vacuum, &c.
'y) Ordinal Numerals :
primum, secundum, &c. extremum, medium, &c.

i) The most extensive Substantival use of Neuter Sing. Adjec-
tives and Participles is with Prepositions ; forming phia^ of an
adverbial character.

Among the most usual phrases of this kind are :

exadverso ; ex aequo ; ex ambiguo ; e contrario ; ex confesso ; ex
imo ; ex obliquo ; ex occulto ; ex permisso ; ex propinquo ; eit
tiansverso ; ex tuto ; ex vano ; ex vero : — in abdito ; m alto ; in
aminguo ; in ancipiti ; in aperto ; in arduo ; in dubio ; in edito ;
inincerto ; in integro ; in lubrico ; in medio ; in obscuro ; in piano ;
in praedpiti ; in praesenti ; in propatulo ; in publico ; in sereno ;
in secreto ; in sicco ; in solido ; in sublimi ; in tranquillo ; in tiur-
Wdo ; in tuto : — ab imo ad summum : — pro certo ; pro com-
perto ; pro indigno :^Kle alieno ; do cetero ; de commimi ; de
medio ; de publico ; de suo ; de vivo ; — ^in adversum ; in arduum ;
in artiun ; in commune ; in deterius ; in dubium ; in inunensum ;
in incertum ; in mains ; in medium ; in melius ; in obliquum ; in
praeceps ; in plenum ; in sublime ; in tranquillum ; in transversum :
and the temporal phrases, in aeternum ; in fiiturum ; in longum ;
in posterum ; in perpetuum ; in praesens ; in serum : — ad certtun,
ad constitutum, ad immensum ; adliquidum ; ad irritum, ad vaniun ;
ad vivum ; ad unum ; and the temporal phrases, ad extremum,
ad ^) multum did, aid ultimum.*

II. Plural :

Neuter Pliural Adjectives are fredy used in Latin as Abstract
Nouns, signifying ' things.^

bona, mala ; vera, falsa ; utilia, inutilia ; &c &c \ multa, plu-
lima, omnia, &c ; ea, ista, haec, nostra, etc

Some in local sense :

avia, devia, invia ; summa, infima, proxima, extrema, angusta ;
q)erta, secreta ; maritima, mediterranea, &c &c. : often with a de-
scriptive Genitive in history and poetry : secreta silvarum ; avia
numtium ; strata viarum ; deserta locorum, abdita vallium, &c.

' Dcaeger dtes other instanoes :

Ex ; ad)dxtOy ako. affluenti, andqno* aperto, arido, communi, compositor coodncto «t
locato* dnrerso, &cili» patent!, praeparato, proximo, publico, solido, toto, &C.

In (AbL) : aequo, angusto, arto, communi, conspicuo, excelso, expedito, extremo, fiicO]»
diffidli, levi, occulto, pacato, privato, profano, promiscuo, summo, &c.

In (Accua.) : ambiguum, altum, angustum, cassum, contxarium, pubUconiy mbliill^ j

IUUUB,&C uiyiuzeu uy x_.^OQ IC

2/8 Latin Wordlore. §63.

ii Adjectives used adverbially.

(i) ' Senatus f requens convenit,' the senate met in force. C So
Mnvitus (or libens) veni ;' Mmprudens (or sciens) ted,' &c
Especially Adjectives of timey order, &c : serus, citus, matutinus,
noctumus, vespertinus, prior, primus, princeps, proximus, ultimus,
postremus, supremos, unus, multus, solus, totus, omnis, nullus, &c

* Lupus gr^bus nocturnus obambulat,' the wolf prowls about
the flocks at night, Verg. G, iii. 538. < Sulla multus aderat,' Sulla
shewed himself much, SalL lug, 9. ' Philotimus nullus venit,*
Philotimus came not at all, C. Fam. xL 22.

(2) Virgil has * tarda volventia plaustra' (for tardc), ' subUmem
expulsum ' (for sublime), ' inexpletus lacrimans ' (for inexpletum) ;
and similar examples abound in poetry.

iii. Partitive Attributes.

Primus, ultimus, summus, infimus, imus, intimus, extremus, pos-
tremus, novissimus, medius, reliquus, ceterus, are often used to
designate one part of that to which they are attributed.

'Prima luce summus mons a Labieno tenebatur,' at break of
day the top of the mountain was occupied by Labienus, Caes. B, u,
i. 22. ' Maximum bellum Cn. Pompeius extrema hieme appa-
ravit, ineunte vere suscepit, media aestate confecit,' Gnaeus
PompHus prepared a mighty war at the close (^winter, commenced
it at the beginning of sfiing, completed it in the middle of summir,
Cp. L, Alan, 12. See M. iMcr, iii. 250.

iv. Proleptic Attributes.

An attribute is said to be proleptic when it indicates a quality not
existing yet, but about to result from the action contained in the
sentence : * Ingentes toUent animos' (i.e. ut ingentes fiant), Viig.
G. ilL 207. This is an idiom of very frequent use in poetry.

V. Multiplication of Attributes.

1) Two or more Adjectives are not usually joined as Attributes
to the same Substantive without an intervening Conjunction, unless
one or more with the Substantive form one complex idea :

'Propter Ennam est spelimca quaedam ubi Syracusani festos
dies anniversaries agunt,' close to Enna is a certain cavern,
where the people of Syracuse hold annual holidays, C Verr, iv. 52.
'Columna aurea solida sacrata est,' a pillar of solid gold was
dedicated, L. xxiv. 3. 'Verri apud Mamerdnos privata navis
oneraria maxima pubhce est aedificata,' a private yacht of very
heavy tonnage was built for Verres in the MamerUne city at pMic
cost, C. Verr, iv. 52. Here 'festos dies,' 'colunma aurea,' 'navis
oneraria maxima,' severally constitute one idea. See M. Lucr. v.
13 : * Divina antiqua reperta ;' and iv. 394^ * suo corpore dara'

2) But any number of Adjectives may follow one Substantive^
when each expresses a different kind of that Substantive :

* Auribus indicantur vods genera permulta, candidum, fuscum,
Icne, asperum, grave, acutum, flexibile, lene,' C N. D/vl
Or when mtervening Conjunctions are suppj^^^^^^^M^ :

§ ^3 Uses of the Adjective. 279

'Animal hoc providuniy sagax, multiplex, acutum, plenum
ratlonis et consili, quem vocamus Hominem/ C Leg, i. 7. ' Mon
strum horrendum informe ingens,' Verg. Aen, iii. 658.

vi. Possessive Attributes.

The Latin language uses Denominative Epithets very largely,
instead of Genitive Nouns, to express Origm, Possession, &c :
Anacreon Teius, Anacreon of Teo5\ Hercules Xenophonteus,
Hercules in Xenophon ; erilis filius, my master's son ; fratemus
sanguis, a brother's blood; cursus maritimus, a sea voyage ; bellum
sociale, a war with allies ; aliena vitia, the faults of others^ &c

vii Idioms of the Superlative.

For those of the Comparative see Correlation (quam), and the
Syntax of the Ablative.

i) The following example shews that the Superlative indicates
any very high degree, though not the highest : 'Ego sum mise-
rior quam tu quae es miserrima,' /aw more wretched than you,
who are very wretched^ C. Fam, xiv. 3.

2) The force of the Superlative is increased by

tf) The Adverbs long e, mult o, quam, vel : *Ex Britannis
omnibus longe humanissimi simt, qui Cantium inco-
lunt,' of all the Britons, the most civilised by far are
those who inhabit Kent, Caes. B, G, v. 14. 'Alcibiades
fuit omnium aetatis suae multo formosissimus,' Aid-
blades was much the handsomest man of his day, Nep.
Ale, I. 'Definitio quid sit id, de quo agitur, ostencfit
quam brevissime,' definition shews as briefly as may be,
what it is that is treated of C. Or, 33. Hence, quam
primum {as soon as possible)'; ' Huic mandat, ut quam
primum ad se revertatur,' this man he directs to return
to him as soon as possible, Caes. B. G. iv. 21, * In
£dibus musicorum aures vel minima sentiunt,' in lute-
playing the ears of musicians perceive the very slightest
errors, C. Off, L 41.

b) The elliptical expressions, tam quam qui, tantum
quantum qui, ut qui, qui qui, ut cum^ cum:
'Tam sum mitis quam qui lenissimus,' / am as mild
as the very gentlest, C. p. Sull, 31. ' Commendationi
meae tantum tribue, quantum cui plurimum,' assign
to my recommendation the greatest weight you wotdd to
any, C. Fctm, xiii. 22. 'Grata ea res, ut quae maxime
senatui unquam, fuit,' that circumstance pleased the senate
. as much as anything had ever pleased them, L. v. 25.
'Domus celebratur ita ut cum maxime,' the house is
thronged to its very utmost, C. Qu, F. ii. 6.

^) Quam, quantus, ut, with the verb possum : Aves quam
possunt mollissime nidos substemunt, ut quam

uiyiuzeu uy ■v^j ^^^ xJVt Iv

28o Latin Wordlore. §63^

facillime ova serventur,' birds line their nests as softlr
as they coHy that the eggs may be preserved with tht
greatest ease, C A^. D, iL 52. * Hannibal quant am maxi-
mam potest vastitatem ostendit/ Hannibal exhibits tht
utmost desolation in his power y L. xxiL 3. Ut potui bre-
vissi me dixi, / spoke as briefly as I could

On unus as Superlative, and with Superlatives, see p. 15 3,

3) The Pronoun quisque {each), attached to the Superlative,
imparts a universal notion: *Epicureos doctissimus quisque
contenmit,' all the most learned men despise the EpicureanSy C T',D,
i. 31. Another Superlative is often added to increase the force ;
* Maximae cuique fortunae minime credendum est,' aU the
greatest fortunes are least to be trusted^ L. xxx. 30.

d) Ut quisque is used with one Superlative, ita following
with another : * Hoc maxime officii est, ut quisque maxi-
me opis indigeat, ita ei potissimum opitulari,' this is
a special dutyy according as men most need assistance^ so
by preference to assist them, C. Off. i. 15. In other words^
Indigentissimo cuique potissimum opitulandum est

b) Quisque may likewise distribute the Comparative : • ^uo

quisque est sollertior et ingeniosior, hoc docet ira-
cundius et Xdiborxos'wxSy the greater a man's skill and
genius, the more fervour and pains he throws into his
teaching, C. p, Q, Rose. 1 1.

c) Quis(}ue also distributes Ordinal numbers : Primus quisque,

decimus quisque, &c. : 'Quinto quoque anno SicUia
tota censetur,* a census of cUl Sicity is taken every fifth
year, C. Verr. ii. 56.

viii Other Intensive Phrases.

i) Remark the attractions (imitated from Greek), mirum quan*
tum, nimium quantum, immane quantum, &c.' (surprisingly^
exceedingly, &c): Md mirum quantum profiiit aa concordiam
civitatis^ this was marvellously conducive to the harmony of the
citizens, L. xi. i. *Vino et lucemis Medus acinaces immane
quantum ^scxto^X,/ between the lamp-lit carouse and the Median^
scimitaTyVast is the difference, Hor. C L 27. 5.

2)^Praecipue, summe, valde, vementer, admodimi, apprime, in-
prinus, sane, sanequam, perquam, egregie, oppido, enixe, perfect^
and similar Adverbs, give a Superlative force to a Positive Adjec-
tive or Adverb: 'Praecipue sanus,' eminently healthy, Hor.
* luvenis admodum,' quite young, Tac. (See p. 135, and Quam.)

3) Some Positive Adjectives contain often an emphatic sense*
hke that given by the adverb nimis : * At ne longum fiat videte *
mtnd tt be not too long (i.e. tedious), C Leg. il la * Nihil arduum
fatis, nothing is too hard for destiny, Tac H. iL 82. ^

{ 64. U^^ ^f Pronouns. 281

ix. Some Adjectives are used both in Pas-
sive and Active sense. Such are

ambiguus {doubUd; doubting) ; angustus {narrow; narrowif^);
anxios {disturbed; disturbing)', caecus {dark; blind) \ crediuus,
incredulus ; dodlis ; dubius ; flebilis ; fonnidolosus ; gnarus, ig-
narus ; gratus, ingratus ; gratiosus ; incautus ; infestus ; inno-
cnuSy innoxius ; inultus ; laboriosus ; memor ; nescius ; notus,
ignotus ; odiosus ; oi>erosus ; riguus, irriguus ; somniculosus ;
surdus ; suspiciosus ; trisds, and owers. See these in Dictionary,

Section IV.
Uses of Pronouns.
i Personal and Possessive Pronouns. i^'^

1) Pronouns and Verbs of the First Person Plural are often Jro-
used by a single person speaking of himself. ' Noris nos: docti ^
sumus,' you should know me, I am a man of learning, Hor. .$'.19.
See p. 372 Obs,

2) The Personal Pronouns are used with the Prepositions ad,
apud, ab, to signify ' house, * abode :' * Septimo Idus veni ad
me in Sinuessanum,' on the jth of the Ides / came to my villa at
Sinuessa, C Alt. xvL 10. *Scaiuimi ruri apud se esse audio,'/
hear that Scaurus is at his country seat, C. de Or. i. 49. * Quisnam
a nobis ^reditur f oras ? ' who ts coming out of our house f Ter.
Haui, iiL 2. 50.

3) Pronouns of ist and 2nd Persons are sometimes hidden in an
Apposite Noun; 'Hannibal peto pacem,' /, Hannibal, sue for
peace, L. xxx. 30. *Oranes boni semper nobilitati favemus/ all

4) Latin uses Possessive Pronouns sparingly ; thus, for ' I see
myfatherj the Latin is ' Patrem video,' omitting the Possessive
unless required for perspicuity or emphasis : * Quid vos uxor mea
violarat?* what wron^ had my wife done yout C. p, Dom. 25.
Yet the Possessive is sometimes introduced without obvious
necessity : * Cum ita animum induxti tuum,' as you have prevailed
on yourself, Ter. An. i. 2. 12. Pleonasm of other Pronouns occurs
in poetry : * Nee dulcis amores speme puer, neque tu choreas,'
demise in boyhood neither sweet loves nor yet dances, Hor. C, L 9.
15. ' Sic oiculos, sic ille manus, sic ora ferebat,' thus he used to
carry his eyes, his hands, his countenance, V. Ae. iiL 490. For the
pleonastic use of ille by Virgil in comparisons see Ae. x. 707, xL
809, xiL 5, and notes there.

5) The Possessive Pronouns are used by poets in the sense
propitious : < Sedmihi tam facilis unde meosque deos?' but whence
can I obtain gods so easy andi>ropitiousf Ov. Her. xii. 84. *Ventis
iturus non suis,' about to sail with unpropitious winds, Hor. Epod.
ix. 3a * Hand numine nostro,' V. Ae. iL 396. ^,y, ,^^ , ^^ ^^Ogle

282 Latin Wordlore, §65.

6) On the use of the Possessive Pronouns for the Personal, see
Syntax of Genitive. Thus, * Neque neglegentia tua neque odio
id fecit tuo,* this he did neither from disregard nor from hatred
of you, Ter. Ph. v. 9.

65
Demon- ii Demonstrative Pronouns.

stxative
Pro-

of Demonstrative Pronouns, hie refers to what is near to the
speaker's person, place, time, habits, &c : i lie to what is remote
from these : iste to what is in near relation to those addressed.

Hie 1) * Haec quae videtur esse accusatio mea,' this which seems to

be my prosecution^ C. in Q, Caec, 2, 'His me is litteris,' iy this
letter cf mine y C Fam, l 3. * Huic homini' ( = mihi), Plaut. Epid.
i. 2. 38S. *Chrysis vicina haec moritur,' my neighbour Chrysis
here died^ Ter. An, i. i. 78. * Hoc a te peto, ut subvenias huic
meae sollicitudini ethuic meae laudi studium dices,' what I ask
of you is to relieve my anxiety and study to support my honour in
this matter^ C. Fam. li. 6. * His duobus mensibus,' within the last
two months^ C. Fam. vii. i. * Hie dies,' to-day, * Licentia haec,'
this modem licence^ L. xxv. 40.

^^ 2) *Si ill OS, Labiene, quos iam videre non possumus, negl^s,

ne his quidem, jquos vides, consuli putas oportere ?' if you dmt-
gard those, Labienus, whom we can see no longer, do you think no
care should be taken even for these, whom you do see f C p, Rab, 1 1.
* Q. Catulus non antiquo lUo more, sed hoc nostro, fuit eruditus,'
Quintus Catulus was learned not in that ancient manner, but in
this later one of our own^ C. Brut, 35.

a) I lie may refer to what was erewhile, or what will be here-

after (hence its locative olim has both meanings) : *Illam
veterem iudiciorum vim,* C. ' Sapiens non pendet ex
fiituris, sed exspectat ilia, fruitur praesentibus,' a wise
man hangs not on future things, but looks for them,
while he enjoys the present, C. Fin. L 19.

b) When special stress is laid on a proposition or fact, it is

introduced by illud: 'Illud animorum corporumque
dissimile, quod animi valentes morbo temptarinon possunt,
corpora possunt,' there is this striking difference between
minds and bodies, that healthy minds cannot be assaiUd
by disease, bodies can, C. T, D. iv. 14.

c) Ille is used to express fame or dignity : ' Medea ilia,' M^

celebrated Medea, C. p. L. Man, 9. 'Veneramini ilium
lovem, custodem huius urbis,' cuiore that great Jupiter^
guardian of this city, C. Cat. ii. 12. So with an attribute :
* An censes omnium rerumpublicarum nostram veterem
illam fiiisse optimam ? ' do you think that of all common-
wealths that old one of ours was the bestf C. Leg, ii la
Or with other pronouns : ' Instat hie nunc ille annus
egregius,' there is coming on now this fine, famous year^
C. Alt i. 18. * Ille ego liber, Ille ferox, tacui,' /, that
free, that haughty one, was mute, Ov. Met. i. JS7»

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^ v^ pt ix^

J 65- Uses of Pronouns 283

d) Ille, the other {of two named) : * Themistocles domino navis
qui sit aperit : at ille procul ab insula navem tenuit in
ancoris^' Themistocles disclosed to the ships captain who
he was: whereupon the other kept the vessel at anchor
some way from the island^ Nep. Them, 8. I Hi, the other
side, the other party : * lUorum qui dissentiunt,' C./. Z.
Man. 23.

3) When hie and ille refer to two things, hie designates either Hie
what is last mentioned, or what is nearer to the speaker's mind : jj'*'
ille, either what is first mentioned, or what is farther from the **
speaker's mind: *Idem et doeenti et diseenti propositum esse
debet, ut ille prodesse velit, hie proficere,' the teacher and learner
ought to have the same object; the former should desire to confer
advantage, the latter to obtain it. Sen. Efi, 108. * Scitum est illud
Catonis^ melius de <}uibusdam aeerbos mimicos mereri quam eos
amicos qui dulees videantur : illos saepe verum dicere, hos num-
quam,' it is a shrewd saying of Cato, that keen-tongued enemies de-
serve better of some men, than those friends who seem sweet-spoken :

the foTTner often tell the truth, the latter never, C. LeuL 24. * Me-
lior est certa pax quam sperata victoria; haee in tua, ilia in deorum
manu est,' better is sure peace than hoped-for victory; the one is in
your own power^ the other in theJ>ower of the gods, L. xxx. 30.

The two Pronouns are also used for distribution : hoe et illud,
this and that. So ille aut ille, ille et ille, this and that man, C p.
Rose. A. 21.

4) Iste has the same relation to tu(vos) that hie has to ego iste-
(nos). * Quae est ista praetura?' what sort of praetorship is
that of yours f C. Verr. ii. 2. iS. 'De istis rebus exspeeto tuas
litteras,' I await a letter from you about affairs in your parts, C.
Alt, ii5. 'Adventu tuo ista subsellia vacuefaeta sunt,'^ soon

as you arrived those benches (next you) were cleared, C. Cat i. 7. In
Cicero's speeches iste often means *the defendant,' or the person
attacked.

Contempt is not contained in the meaning of the Pronoun iste,
but it is implied sometimes, inasmuch as the speaker seems to repel
what he names from himself to some one else. 'Quidsibi isti
miseri volunt ? ' what do those wretches wantf C. * Errare male
cum Platone quam cum istis vera sentire,' I hadrcUher be wrong
with Plato than hold true doctrine with that crew, C. T. D, i. 17.

5) Is, the unemphatic Determinative Pronoun, is used

d) In reference to a Noun before mentioned: 'Veientes
regem creavere. Offendit ea res populonim Etruriae
animos, odio ipsius regis. Gravis iam is antea genti
frierat,' the people of Veil elected a king: that act dis-
pleased the population of Etruria, from their haired of
the king himself: {for) he had already been oppressive to
the nation cU a former time, L. v. i. * Maxunum oma-
mentum amicitiae tollit qui ex ea toUit vereeundiam,' he
takes away the chief grace of friendship, who takes from it
respectfulness, C. Lael, 22. ^ci\(>

Is.

J

284 Latin Wordlore. *S^S.

Its oblique cases are often left to be understood : ' Eadem
secreto ex aliis quaerit; reperit esse vera,' he asks the
same questions privately ef others^ and finds all true^ Caes.

B. G. i. 18.

B) In correlation to a Relative, which it usually precedes, bat
often, for the sake of emphasis, follows : Is qui hoc feciv
he who did this. * Magna sunt ea quae sunt optimis
proxima,' great are those things which are next to the best,

C. Or. 2. * Bestiae, in quo loco natae sunt, ex eo se
non commovent,' beasts do not move from the place they
were bom in, C. Fin, v. 15. It may be omitted : 'Qui
e nuce nucleum esse vult, frangit nucem,' he who wishes
to eat the kernel out of the walnut, breaks the walnut^
Plaut Cure, i. i. 55. ' Semper in proelio maximum est
periculum qui maxime timent,' ever in battle their peril is
most whose fear is greatest, SalL Cat. 58. * Quidquid
non licet, neias putare debemus,' whatever is unlawful wi
ought to think impious, C. Par. 3.

y) In the sense of ^one of a kind^ ' such :' in which sense it
may rdate to any person, and be followed by qui with
Incfic or (more usually) Subjunctive, or by ut with Subj. :
' Atque haec onmia is feci, qui sodalis et feuniUarissimus
Dolabellae eram,' and I who did all this was one, who
stood in the most intimate and familiar relations to Dola^
bella. C. Fam. xiL 14. * Neque enim tu is es q ui quid sis
nesc\2LS,*foryou are not the man to be ignorant of your own
powers, C. Fam. v. 12. ' Maths est ea stultitia, ut earn
nemo hominem, ea vis, ut nemo feminam, ea crudelitas,
ut nemo matrem appellare possit,' such is that mother's
folly that none can call her a human being ; such her via-
lence that none can term her a woman ; such her cruelty
that none can speak of her as a mother, C p. Clu. 7a
Obs. In such sentences as, ' The features of the mind are fairer
than those of the bodyj where the Demonstrative {those) is used in
English, Uie Latin icuom omits it : as ' Animi lineamenta pulchriora
sunt quam corporis,' C. Fin. iil 25. The use of an emphatic pro-
noun (hie or Ule) is no real exception to this rule : ' Nullam vutns
aliam mercedem laborum periculorumque desiderat, praeter hanc
laudis et gloriae/ virtue wants no other reward of tts perils and
toils, but this of praise and glory, C. p. Arch. 11. So, * Those
dwelling at Rome^ is in Latin not, £i Romae habitantes ; but either
Romae habitantes, or £i qui Romae habitant*

Idem. 6) The Definitive Pronoun idem (is-dem), ^ the same} is often
aptly rendered *also :' * Quidquid honestum, idem est utile,' what-^
ever is morally right is also advantageous, C. Off. ii. 3. * Non
omnes, qui Attice, eidem bene ; sed omnes, qui bene, eidemetiam
Attice loquuntur ' not all who speak in the Attic tnanner also speak
well; but all who speak well speak also in the Attic ma$mer. C.
Brut. 84.

Sometimes it implies a contrast (^ but yet ^ : 'Inventi multi sunt,
qui vitam profimdere pro patria parati essent, eidem gloriae iac-
turam ne minimam quidem fecere vellent,' many have been founet

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^ v^pt i-X^

^ 66. • Uses of Pronouns. 285

^Wffho were prHfared to yield up life for their country , yet would not
choose to make the smallest sacrifice o/flory^ C. Off. i. 24.

It is placed, like ipse, in apposition to other Pronouns: *Tu
idem dixisti/^M^ also satdy C. p. L. Man, 17. So haeceadem, qui
idem, &c.

Note I. Et is, isque, atque is, et is quidem, et hie quidem,
«t idem, idem que, atque idem (and that too), nee is {and that
Joo not), &c^ are used to lay stress on some quaUty of a word
before mentioned: 'Homo habet memoriam, et eam infinitam
remm innumerabilium,' man has memory , and an infinite one too, of
countless things, C. T. Z>. L 24. * Apollonium eognovi optimis
studiis deditum id que a puero,' / have known Apollonius to be
deifoted to sound learning, and that from boyhood, C. Fam. xiii. 16.

Note 2. The Adverb quidem is elegantly joined to Personal
and Demonstrative Pronouns, especially to ill e, when a concession
is made, but immediately qualified by an adversative clause (sed) ;
answering to the En^^lish * certainly . . . but:* 'Ignosco equi-
4em (ego quidem) tibi, sed tu quoque velim mihi ignoscas,' I par-
4ianyou certainly, but I would have you too pardon me, C. Q. Fr.
iii. I, 3. * Tuus dolor humanus is quidem, sed tamen magnopere
moderandus,' yours is a grief natural to man, I admit, but one
ivhich should be considerably modified, C. Att. xii. 10. * Ludo et
ioco udillo quidem licet, sed tum, cum seriis rebus sadsfeceris,'
you may indulge in sport and amusement, I grant, but not till you
havefulfUled serious engagements, C. Off, i. 29. The adversative
idause is omitted in C. Off.xLQ : 'Quae sordidissima est ilia qui-
-dem ratio,' &c, aprinciple which is, I admit, of the meanest kind.
See § 64 (4).

Note 3. Redundance of Demonstrative Pronouns occurs : * Par-
tnenides, Xenophanes minus bonis quamquam versibus sed tamen
ill is versibus increpant eorum Birogantizm/ Parmenides and Xeno-
phanes reprove their arrogance in verses, which, though not very
jCpod, are verses nevertheless, C. Ac. ii. 23. * Ista animi tranquil-
litas ea ipsa est beata vita,' that tranquillity of mind is itself hap-
Jnness, C. Fin. v. 8.

This peculiar redundance is especially remarkable in Relative
clauses : * Plato Titanum e genere statuit eos, qui, ut illi cadestibus,
sic hi adversentur magistratibus,' Plato assigns to the Titan race
those men who oppose magistrates, as the Titans opposed the gods,
C Leg, iii. 2. * Est istius furor repellendus qui quae maiores volu-
enmt, ea iste labefactavit,' we should put away from us his mad-
ness, who has shaken those institutions, which our ancestors thought
jproperto establish, C p. Dom. 42.

iii The Reflexive Pronouns se, suus. TheRe-

flexiye

Personal and Possessive Pronouns of the First and Second Per- ?«>-
sons may be used reflexively : that is, they may be referred to a
Subject of their own Person. But se and suus differ from the rest,
inasmuch as they cannot be used unless there be a Noun of their
own (die Third) Person, expressed or understood, to which they are
leferred. Although we can say, amat me, he loves me; amat te,
-he loves thee ; we cannot say, amo se, amas se, but amo eum, / love

nouns
se, suus.

lOOgle

286' Latin Wordlore. §66^

him ; amas ^MTdyyou love him ; not culpo suum factum, but culpo^
ei us factum, / blame his deed.

The general rules for the use of se, suus are these : —

i) First : they may be referred to a Subject Nominative of the
Third Person in their own Clause. * Fur telo se defendit,'/^ thief'
defends himself with a weapon^ Cp, Mil, 3. ' Atticus incitabat
omnis studio suo/ Atticus inspired all with his awn zeal^ Nep.
Att, I. * Sentit animus se vi sua moveri/ the soul feels that it is
moved by its own force, C. T. D, i. 23. The Pronoun ^u is que is
a frequent Subject of se, suus : * Ipse se quisque diligit, quod per
se sibi quisque cams est,' everyone loves himself because every-
one by the law of his own nature is precious to himself C Lael,
21.

2) Secondly : they may be referred to an Object (which usually
precedes) when this reference causes no ambiguity. 'Scipionem.
mipeUit ostentatio sui,' ostentation of self sways Scipio, Caes. B.
Ci. 4. 'Caesaremsua natura mitiorem facit,' Caesar's own cha-
racter makes him milder , C. Fam. vi. 13. ' E i nunc alia ducendast
domum, sua cognata,' he has now to marry another , his own kins--
woman, PlauL Cist, L i. *Multa sunt civibus inter se com-
munia,' many things are common to fellow-citizens, C. Off, i. 17.
'Scipio suas res Syracusanis restituit,' Scipio restored to Uu
Syracusans their property, L. xxix. i. * Apibus fructum restituo
suum/ 1 restore to the bees their produce, Phaed. iii. 13.

3) Thirdly, they may be referred to an Indefinite Object Case
(alicui, aliquem) understood : ' Habenda ratio non sua solum, sed
etiam aliorum,' men must take account not of themselves alone, hut
also of others. Especially in conjunction with an Infinitive : * De-
forme est de se ipsum praedicare,' it is unseemly to vaunt of one-^
self, C. Off, i. 38. 'Bellum est sua vitia nosse,' it is a fine thing to
know ottes own faults, C. Att, \\, 17.*

* The principles letated above hold good when se, suus, occur in Partidptal, Genmdial
and other dependence. 'Multa raea in se collata, etiam sua in me proferebat ofib»,'
h* brtmgkt forward tmtny services done by me to htm, and also those dome by khmse(fi^
me, C. >. SuU. 6. 'Constituit igitur ut ludi, absente se, fierentsuo nomine/ Ar
thir^ore arranged that in his absence the games should be held in his mune, C At/.
XV. zz. ' Tanto gratior populo f u i t quanto doctior maioribus su i s/ he was morr ^^cjhtlar
in /rvportion as he was more learned than his ancestors, lusL zviL 3. 'Si nulla
caritas erit quae facial amicitiam ipsam sua q>onte, vi sua, ex se et propter
se expetendam,' ^ there is no love to make friendship desirable on the JSrst offer, by itt
own force, from itse^,andf9r itself, C. Fin, il ao. 'Itaque redimeodi se captiTif
copiam ftocTe,' accordingly they gave the prisoners the opportutUty <if ransomtng ihgm
selves, L. xxiL 58. ' MithridatemTigranes excepit diffidentemque rebus suis cod-
firmavit,' Tigranes received and encouraged Mithridates, who was despairing ^ his
own reso$irces, C p. L. Man. 9. From such bold constructions as those of the th^
latter examples, in which the Reflexive is referred to the Object Case by virtue cS an
intervening Verb Infinite (expetendam, redimendi, diffidentem), has arisen one yel
bolder, in which the Preposition cum b equivalent to a Relative Clause : 'Dicaear-
chum cum Aristoxeno, aequali et condisdpulo sno, omittamus,' let vs peut amer
Dicaearchns, and Aristoxenushis cotUemporaey and fellow-pupil, CT. D,i, z8, where
cum &c squocum coniungimus Aristoxenum . . suum. A similar idiom is extended to
places where die Preposition in (more rarely ad, ab, intra) follows such Verbs as remictere,
Rtinere, reverti, inhere, cogere, removere, &c. the formula of command being adopted by
the writer from the speaJcer's mouth. Thus, 'Caesar Fabium cum legiooe sua reaittilt
m htbema,' Caesar sends bach Fabius and his legion to their winter encampment^ Caes.
B, G. V. 53, is equivalent to ' Caesar imperat, Fabius eum legiooe sua in hibema reitMw

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^ v^pt ix^

{ 6;. Uses of Pronouns. 287

a) The Cases of is (sometimes those of ipse) are used when
se, suus, would be wrong : ' Chilius te rogat, et ego eius
rogatu,' Chilius asks you, and lathis request, C Att. L 9.
*.£ranti Quinctio nuntiatum est eum dictatorem esse
factum,' news came to Quinctius while ploughing^ that he
was appointed dictator, C. Cat. M. 16.

¥) The Reflexive when referred to the Pronoun quisque (either
Subject or Object) generally stands immediately before
it : ' Mors sua quemque manet/ his death awaits every
moB, *Suus quoique mos,' every one has his own
faskufnylex. Ph. ii. 4. But sometimes after it : 'Quisque
suos patimur Manis/ Verg. Aen. vi. 743. So, *Ut quis-
que sibi maxime confidit/ C. LaeL 30.

c) The use of the Adjectival phrase suus quisque rthough not

noticed in Madvig's grammar) is explained ana illustrated
by him on C. Fin. v. 17 : *Quia cuiusque partis naturae et
in corpore et in animo suaquaequevis sit,' because every
part of nature both in body and soul ha^ its own particular
power. So 'suo quoque anno' on an Inscription. See
M. Lucr. XL 372.

d) The Plural Masculine sui is used for amici, familiares or

milites so idiomatically, that it sometimes appears to
transgress the laws of Pronominal reference : ' Is annus
Crassi omnem spem atque omnia vitae consilia morte
pervertit; fiiit hoc luctuosum suis,' that year overthrew
oy death all the hope and all the life-plans of Crassus : it
was an event full of sorrow to his friends, C. d. Or. iil 2.
' lam perventimi ad suos est '( « iam pervenerant ad suos),
L. xxxiH. 4.

On these Pronouns in Dependent Clauses see § 231 — 236.

Iv. The Definitive Pronoun ipse. ipse

i) This is of any person, and strengthens any Noun-term,
especially a Personal or Demonstrative Pronoun, with which it
is placed in attributive apposition : 'Ipse Pater dextra molitur
iulmina,' the Sire himself wields the lightnings with his right hand,

tantar.' So : ' Carthaginienses Magonem cum classe sua copiisque in Itafiam mit-
tont,' the Cartkaginiatts send Magowitk kisJUet and forces into Jiaiy, L. xxiiL 32.
'Corbulo, ut Armenios ad sua defendenda cogeret, exscindere parat castella/
CorhUo, in order to compel the Armenians to defend their possessions, prepares to de-
stray their forlst Tac. Ann. xiii. 39, where Corbulo may be supposed to say, 'Annenios
ad sua defendenda cogam.* In such instances, if the Subject of the sentence is of the
Third Person, the word or words to which the Reflexive suus is referred wUi be found
immediately before the Reflexive. If the Subject is not of the Third Person, or if re-
ference to it would be absurd, this is unnecessary. ' In sua terra cogam pugnare eum,'
I will compel him to fight in his own land^ L. xxviii. 44. * Suis flammis delete Fide-
ii^%^ destroy Fidenae with its own flames^ L. iv. 33. 'Deunant insidiari d(Mni suae
consoli,' they should cease to lay snares for the consul at his own house, C Cat. L 13.
In constructions, however, Kke some of those cited in thb note, it is optional to use the
Demonstr. instead of the Reft ; and the following passages (cited by Madvig, Gr. % 490)
•hew that ancient writers often did so: 'Omitto Isocratem disctpulosque eius
Ephorum et Naucratem,'C Or. 51. 'Pisonem nostrum merito eius amo pluiimum,'
C Fam. nv. a. 'Deum agnoscis ex operibus eius,' C T. D. i. 38.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

288 Latin Wordlore. 567..

Verg. 6^.1.329. 'Tarde nosmet ipsos cognoscimus/ we gain
knowledge of ourselves slowly, C. Fin. v. 15. *Ego ipse cum
eodem ipso non invitus erraverim,' / myself would be wrong with-
out reluctance in that very same man^s company, C. T. D.l 17.

2) Ipse implies that the notion, which it thus accentuates, is op-
posed to some other, expressed or understood. Cicero writes,
' Nemo est qui ipse se oderit,' there is no one who hates himself C
Fin. V. 10. If he had written Nemo est aui se ipsum oderit, the
English would still be, there is no one who hates himself Yet there
is a difference between the two Latin sentences, for, in the former,
ipse indicates the following contrast, *utcumque alii eum oderint,'
however others may hate him ; in the latter the following : 'utcumque
alios oderit,' however he may hate others. So, * Non egeo medidna :
me ipse consolor,' / wctnt no medicine^ I comfort myself C. p,
Cael. 3, where ipse with the subject implies, ' I and no other/ but
* me ipsum consolor ' would mean ' I comfort myself but nobody
else.'

i) The Pronoun, which ipse emphasises, may be understood :
'Quaeram ex ipsa,' I will inquire of herself (»ex ea ipsa), Q.p.
Cael. 14.

2^ When ipse strengthens the Subject, and a Reflexive Pronoun is
Object, that Pronoun usually stands before ipse : * Artaxerxes s e i p s e
reprehendit,' Artaxerxes blamed himself Nep. DcU. 5. * Artes se
ipsae per se tuentur singulae,' the several arts maintain themselves
on their own grounds, C. de Or. iL 2. But after qui, quidam, &c.,
or for stronger emphasis, ipse may precede the Pronoim Object :
'Non sunt composita mea verba: ipsase virtus satis ostendiL'
mine is no set speech : virtue of itself is conspicuous enough^ Salt
Jui^. 85. 'Qui ipse sibi sapiens prodesse non quit, nequiquam
sapit,' the wise man who cannot benefit himself is wise in vain, C
Fam. v. 6.

3) Ipse strengthens the Object usually, when something in the
context is opposed to that Object Thus, in the phrase killed him-
self , though ipse generally stands with the Subject (' lulius Priscus
se ipse intenecit,' Tac. H. iv. \\\ yet it may sometimes distinguish
the Object : ' Pompeianus miles fratrem suum, dein cognito faci-
nore se ipsum interfecit^' a soldier of Pompeius slew las brother ^
and then, discovering hts crime, killed himself Tac H. iii. 51.
Cicero writes, ' Sunt qui dicant, foedus quoddam esse sapientum
ne minus amicos quam se ipsos diligant,' some say there is a
kind of covenant among the wise to love their friends not less than
themselves, Fin. L 20. Yet it is a peculiarity of his to connect ipse
with the Subject, and so heighten its force, even when the opposi-
tion lies between the Pronoun and something else : *• Iste sic erat
humilis atque demissus, ut non modo populo Romano, sed
etiam sibi ipse condemnatus videretur,' the man was so lowly
and downcast, that not only to the Roman people but even to hitm^
self he seemed already condemned, C. Verr. Act i. 6. * Non ita
abundo ingenio, ut te consoler, cum ipse me non possim,' I have
not such excess of ability as to comfort you when I cannot comfifrt
myself C. Fam. iv. 8.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

§ 68. Uses of Pronouns. 289

4) Ipse is also used

tf) For ultro, of on^s own accord: ^psae lacte domum re-
ferent distenta capellae ubera,' the she-goats of their own
accord will bring home their milk-swollen udders, Verg.
B, iv. 21.

d) To define time exactly : *Cum Athenis decern ipsos dies
fuissem,' when I had been at Athens exactly ten days, C.
Fam. it 8. So, *nunc ipsum/ at this very moment , C.
Att» xii. 16. * Tunc ipsum,' at that exact time, C. de Fin,
ii. 2a On the other hand aliquis is used to state time
inexactly: 'Aliquos viginti dies/ some twenty days^
PlauL Men, v. 5. 47.

c) To express the chief person : * Pythagorei respondere sole-
bant, Ipse dixit,' the Pythagoreans used to reply. He
himself said so (i.e. Pythagoras), C. N, D. i. 5. Hence
slaves used to call their master and mistress, ipse, ipsa :
and Catullus uses ipsa for era : *Suamque norat Ipsam
tam bene quam cateUa matrem,' and knew its mistress as
well as a kitten knows its mother, iii. 6.

V. The Indefinite Pronouns.

68

i) The Indefinite Pronouns, quis, qui,* being Enclitic, cannot inde-
bcgin a sentence. They usually follow some particle (si, nisi, ne, ^pj^
an, num, ut, &c.) or a Relative. *Si <juis est sensus in morte,' nouns.
if there is any feeling in death, C PhtL ix. 6. *Si qui etiam
inferis sensus est,' ^ even the shades below have any feeling, C. Quis,
Fam. iv. 5. 'Oppida coeperunt munire et ponere leges, ne quis q«»-
fur esset, neu latro, neu quis adulter,' they began to build towns
and establish laws, that none should be a thief or bandit or adulterer,
Hor. S, i. 3. So num(|uis, ecquis, &c The Particles are simi-
larly combined, siqua, siquando, sicubi, necubi, ecquando, &c.

a) Quis Indef. is often connected with a case of its own : *Si
mala condiderit in quem quis carmina, ius est,' if one
man has composed libellous verses on another, there is a
remedy at law, Hor. S, ii. i. 82. Or with Inddl Particle :
' si quando quis faceret,' &c., L.

* It has been stated (p. 140) that the Interrogative and Indefinite forms quis, quid, are
substaniival, qui, quod, adjectival ; and the truth of this assertion is shown by the two
fact?, that quis in old Latin is of both genders, and that quid and quod always retained
their distinct characters as Substantive and Adjective. But it is also true that quis
(quae) is often used adjectively, as quis campus, puer quis in Horace, sensus aliquis in
Cicero ; the reply to which is that other Substantives are also used adjectively, as rex,
regina, incola, indigena, raptor, &c.

Another ctifficulty is the distinction of the Feminine Singular and Neuter Plural forms
qua, quae, of quis (qui) Indefinite. Some suppose that qua belongs to quis, quae
to qui; bu^this is mere conjectiupe without proof. Both forms are used adjectively,
and both (less often) substantively ; but adjectives may become substantives, and occa-
sionally substantives take the place of adjectives. The question thu.n remains undecided.
Cicero writes : 'ecquae civitas? ecqua religio ? u qiue pars ; si qua natio ; nquae prava
sint ; ne quadiscidia fiant ; aliqua ngnificatio virtutis ;' but not ' aliquae,' which occurs in
Lucretius. Upon the whole it may be stated that the form qua (Inde£ S. and PL) b
aorcQsual thaa quae, but that quae is also classical

U uyuized by Google

290 Latin Wordlore. 568.

b) Si quiSy si qui, stand for the Relative with a shade of un-
certainty : ' Errant si qui in bello omnis seomdos rerum
proventus expectant,' ihey are wrong who in war expect
all issues to be prosperous, Caes. B, G, vil 29.

i) Quis and. qui indefinite are sometimes used without a Par-
ticle, but only when the context expresses uncertainty t
* Potest quis errare aliquando/ a person may err now etnd
then, C. Div. i. 32. *Etiam quis forsitan hostis haesura
in nostro tela gerit latere/ and already perhaps some foe
carries darts that will fasten in my side^ Tib. i. 10. 1 3. Here
forsitan favours the use of qui5.

Nescio 2) * Nescio quis, nescio qui (I know not who or what=) some or
<i""i other^ are used as Indefinite Pronouns : 'Fortasse non ieiunum hoc
qS!^° nescio quid quod ego gessi et contemnendum videbitur//^.*^^
this something which I have done will seem not barren and despic-
able y C. Fam, XV. 17. Particles correspond in use, nescio quo^
nescio quando, &c.

Aiiqxiis, 3) Aliouis, aliqui, some, are somewhat less indefinite than quis,
aliqul qui, and imply a person or thing assumed to exist somewhere.
They do not need a Particle : ' Semper aliqui anquirendi sunt quos
diligamus/ we must always seek some persons to love, C Lael. 27.
*Sensus morienti aliquis esse potest,' ^«^ who is dying may have
some sensation, C. Cat. M, 20. But they can follow a Particle :
*Si est aliqui sensus in morte,' if there is any kind of feeling
in death, C. /. Ses, 62. Aliquando^ aliqua, alicubi, &&, correspond
in use to aliquis.

d) Occasionally aliquis signifies 'a person of importance :'
'Sese aliquem credens/ considering himself somebody (pi
importance), Pers. i. 129.

b) Aliquis itself (with its particles) has always positive force :
but may stand in a Negative sentence or clause : * Cum
scias . . . sceleri ac furori tuo non mentemaliquam aut
timorem tuum, sed fortunam populi Romani obstitisse,'
knowing as you do that your wicked madness was not
baulked by any right feeling or fear on your part, but by
the good forttine of the Roman people, C tn Cat, L 6u

Draeger {Histor, Synt p. 23) exemplifies at great length the
use of this Pronoim and its Particles.

Quis- 4) Quispiam is used with more emphasis than quis, and rather

piam, less than aliquis: 'Forsitan aliquis aliquando eiusmodi

quam, qui d pi am itcmt,* perchance somebody or other at some time or other

&c. may have done a thing of the kind, C. Verr, ii. 32. Quispiam

is used chiefly in positive sentences : quis quam chiefly in negative

and dubitative sentences : nonnullus only in a positive, ullus

only in a negative or dubitative construction. *Dicat (dixerit)

quispiam,' some one may say, C * Hereditas est pecunia, quae

morte ali cuius ad quempiam pervenit iure,' an inheritance is

money which by somebody's death has come to any one by rights C.

Top. 6. 'Zeuxis tabulas pinxi^ quarum nonnulfa pars usque ad.

lOOgle

5 68. Uses of Profwtins. 291

nostram memoriam mansit,' Zeuxis j^ainted pictures^ some of which
Jiave remained to our time, C Inv, li. i. * Nihil attinet quicquam
^sequi, qirod assequi non queas,' it avails not to pursue anything
-which you cannot attain^ C Off, i. 31. * Heu, cadit in quemquam
tantum scelus ? ' alas^ occurs there to any one such great wickedness f
Verg. B, ix. 17. ' Nihil est quod Deus efficere non possit, et qui-
<lem sinelabore ullo/ there is nothing which God cannot effect,
^nd indeed without any toily C. N, D. iii. 39. 'Indignor quic-
-quam reprehendi non quia crasse compositum illepideve putetur,
-sed quia nuper,' I am indignant that any work should be censured,
not because it is supposed to be of coarse or tasteless, but of modem,
composition, Hor. Ep, ii. i. 76. See M.Lucr, i. 1077.

Uspiam corresponds in use to quispiam ; usquain, umquam to
•quisquam and uUus ; nusquam, numquam, to non quisquam, non
ullus. Nemo » non quisquam ; ntillus » non uUus. Nemo quisquam
as used : also homo quisquam.

Rare instances occur of (juispiam with negatives, of quisquam
in positive sense, and of qui, aliqui where ullus would be usual

5) Quidam,a certain one,2LS opposed to aliquis, implies that the Quidwn.
subject is definitely known, though indefinitely described : thus we 9"»^
should say, ' Ouodam tempore natus simi : aliquo moriar,' /was ^'
Jfom at a certain time ; I shall die some time or other, * Accurrit

qui dam notus mihi nomine tantum,' a certain man runs up to me,
-vuhcm I only knew by name, Hor. S, i. 9. 3. It is joined with epi-
thets, hke the English word * certain : ' *Erat spinosa quaedam et
exiUs oratio,' his was a certain prickly and lean style, C. Or, i. 18.
It occasionally means ^some^ as opposed to ^ the whole^ or ^ others :'
''Null is piscibus supra quatemas pinnae sunt, quibusdam
binae, aliquibus nuUae,' no fishes have more than four fins, some
/wo, a few noTte at all, PL N, H. ix. 20. Hence it is used to qualify
an expression not meant to be taken strictly : 'In ideis Plato quid-
dam divinum esse dicebat,' Plato used to say that in ideas there
ss something divine, C. Ac, i. 9.

Quidam also stands in contrast to qui vis, quilibet, any you will,
*Ut saltatori motus non qui vis sed certus quidam est datus,
^ic vita agenda est certo genere quo dam non quolibet,' as to a
dancer is assigned not any optional movetnent, but a certain de-
Jinite one, so must life be passed in a certain definite way, not in any
we please, C. Brut. 50.

6) Quisque, quaeque, quicque, each of any number. Plautus Quis-
uses quisque »quisquis : *Quemque offendero,' whomsoever I find^ <»"«•
Capt IV. 2. For its other uses, see pp. 280, 287. On quem quisque,
&c, see M. Lucr, L 966.

7) The Universal Relatives, whether compounded with -cumque Uniw
or of the duplicated form (quisquis, &c.), have no special idioms £^^
distinguishing them from other Relatives : *Quoscumque de te
queri audivi, quacumque ratione potui placavi,' / appeased in
whatever way I could all whom I heard complaining of you, C. Q,

Fr. i. 2. * Quidquid erit tibi erit,' whatever there is shall be for
you,Q, Fam, il 10. * Quantiquanti bene emitur quod necesse
est,' what is necessary is well purchased at any price, C Att, xii.
24. On quicquid for quicque, each thing, see M. Zi«^, j^ 2§9. ooJe

u 2

292 Latin Wordlore, §69.

vi Pronominalia.

AUer, i) Alter is one of two : the fonns in -ter (as -r€f)oc in Greek)

g^» implying comparison of two. 'Agesilaus claudus ftiit altero pede/
AgesiloMs was lame of one foot ^ Nep. Ag, i. * Epaminondas habuit
collegas duos, quorum alter erat Pelopidas/ Epaminondas had
two colleaeuesy one of whom was Pelopidas^ Nep. Ep, 8. Thus it
answers the question u-ter, which of two f al-ter qui . . . the one
whOy alter qui . . . the other who, * Consules inter se agitabant
uti alter Sanmites hostis, alter Etruscos deligeret, et uter ad
utrum bellum dux idoneus magis esset,' the consuls were discuss^
ing, how that one of the two should choose the Samnites for enemy y
the other the Etruscans; and which commander was more suitalU^
for which war, L. x. 14. So, 'quidquid negat alter et alter,*'
whatever one denies^ the other denies also^ Hon Epist, i. 10. 4.

a) Two cases of alter (as of alius) may stand in the same

clause, distributing ambo, uterque,&c. 'Uter que horum
medium (juiddam volebat sequi : sed ita cadebat ut alter
ex alterius laude partem, uterque autem suam totam
haberet,' both these men wished to attcdn a mean ; but it so
fell out that one had a share of the other's credit, while each
possessed his own entire^ C. Brut 20. Uterque {each of
two) ; alteruter {one or the other of two) : ' Non est tuae
dignitatis atque fidei ut contra alter utrum, cum sis
utrique coniunctissimus, arma feras,' it squares not with
your dignity and honour^ to bear arms against one or the
other y oeing nearly allied to both, C. AU. ix. 10. Alter
alterum amant, they love one another; also expressed,
'amant se invicem,' *mutuo amant,' 'amant inter se/
Alteri . . . alteri, one party . , . the other party,

b) Alter means ^a second, * another,* besides one named or

implied : * Solus aut cum altero,' alone or with another^
C. Att, xi. 15. *Me ipsum accuso, deinde te, quasi me
alterum,' / reproach myself and then you, a sort of
second self C. Att, iii. 15. ^Alter erit turn Tiphys,' then
will there be a second Tiphys, Verg. B, iv. 34. 'Alter ab
illo,' next to him, Verg. B, v. 49. Alterum tantum, cts
much again,

2) Alius repeated in successive clauses signifies one . . . another^
^^' &c., without limit of number. 'Aliud equo est e natura, aliud
bovi, al iud homini,' one thing is ftatural to a horse, another to an
ox, another to a man, C. Fin, v. 9. Contrast is similarly effected
by the adverbs of alius ; aliter, sdias, alibi, alio, &c Alias con-
' tentius, alias remissius, at one time more vigorously, at another
more slackly. Here too the repetition of alius in the same clause,
or its juxtaposition with one ot its adverbs, or two of these adverbs
in the same clause, will denote a difference of the predicate for
different subjects. 'Duodeinceps reges alius alia via civitateni
auxerunt,' two successive kings increased the dine body in different
waysylu, i. 21. *Illi alias aliud isdem de rebus iudicant,' those
men judge one thing at one time, another at another, on the same
questions, C. de Or, ii. 30. 'Eadem aliter alibi nuncupantur,*
the same things are differently named in different places ^ PL A^. /T.

aonr. 4. Aliud ex alio, one thing after another ^,^,,

^^.v

§ ;a Uses of Prepositions. 293

Section V.
Uses of Prepositions. useof

i Prepositions with an ACCUSATIVE Case. "'^"'
I. Ad (/<?, at, &c.).

Usque ad is often used : usque ad Numantiam. Hor. has
* adusque supremum tempus,' even to his last hour. Also the Adv.
bisque, omitting ad. * Usque Puteolos,' as far as Pozstuoli, C. 'Tar-
sum usque/ C. *Ab ovo usque ad Ti^}ai^ from the eggs to the
apples, Hot., Le. £rom the beginning to the end of dinner.

1} Local Use.

a) Ad^ to, takes a Case of Place or Person, after a Verb ex-
pressing or implying motion : as ire, adire, accedere, du-
cere, adducere ad urbem, &c ; mitt ere, scribere ad ali-

?uem, &c. For simple Dat : * Dulce rideat ad patrem,'
latulL See M. Lucr. L 75a
H) Ad, at, takes a Case after a Verb not expressing motion :
esse ad lurbem : ad pedes iacere : ad quartum lapidem ;
victoria ad Cannas ; Curio fuit ad me, at my house ; ad
iudices» before the judges ; ad vinum, over wine; ad Opis,
at the temple of Ops, C.

2) Temporal Use.

a) limit of Time Ifo) : ad siunmam senectutem, to extreme old
4ige; ad hosce dies, to tnodem times; ad ultimum, to the very
-last; a mani usque ad vesperum, y^^/« morning to evening*, ad
multam noctem, till late in the night,

b) Point of Time : ad lucem, at daybreak ; ad postremum, at
last ; ad summum, in fine. Time fixed beforehand : exspecto te ad
KaL Febr., / look for you by the ist of February ; dies praestituta
-est quam ad solveres, a day was appointed you for paying.

c) Time within which : ad tempus, for a time, or at the right
time ; ad breve tempus, for a short time ; ad decem annos, ten
years hence.

3) Ad marks the limit of Number and Degree : ad octingentos ;
or adverbially, ad octingenti caesi, about 800 were slain, L. So.
ad imum omnes, to a man; ad assem, to the last farthing ; aa
stunmam, on the whole ; ad summam impudentiam, to the most
shameless height.

4) The derived uses are :

a) Addition : ad haec vulnera ; ad hoc, moreover.

tf) Standard : ad fistulam canere, to sing to the pipe ; ad
verbum ediscere, to learn word for word ; ad eum modtun,
of that kind; ad unguem, to a nicety ; ad amussim, accu-
rately.

e) Comparison : nihil est ad Persium, he is nothing to Persius.

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^v^ pt lx^

294 Latin Wordlore, f 70a.

d) Respect: Insignis ad laudem, honourably disHngtdshecL.

Ad speciem ; ad pondus. See M. Lucr, liL 214.

e) Occasion : Ad famam obsidionis, on report of the siege, Act^

ictum, after the blow. See M. Lucr, i. 185.

/) Reply : Ad ilia respondeo, to this I reply.

g) Purpose : Ad earn xtm^for that purpose : ad praedam,y5?r^
plunder : especially with Gerund and Gerundive : ad ves-
cxxi<\yxa\^for food\ ad agros coltndoSy for agriculture. So
servus ad remiun, rower ^ Liv., ad manum, anutnuensis ;.
Lygdamus ad cyathos, the cup-bearer Lygdamus, Prop. :
ad limina custos, a doorkeeper, Verg. And with a Case of
diat against which precaution or remedy is used : ad
morsus bestiarum,y5?r bites, ad morbos, against diseases.

II. Adversus, adversum (advorsus, advorsum) express

i) Place {over against, opposite) : Adversus Py dnam, opposite-
to Pydna, Quis hiaec est quae me advorsum incedit ^
who is this woman coming face to face with me t Plaut^
Ire advorsum alicui, to go to meet some i?«^ = obviam ire.

Exadversus is foimd : exadversus Athenas, opposite Athens,

2) Relation {towards, against). Amor adversus parentes, love-
towards parents, Adversus solem ne loquitor, you must
not speak against the sun,

III. A pud expresses near neighbourhood, generally to Persons^
rarely to Place : Apud oppidiun, near the town,

i) With Persons it is used in various senses : Apud Lycome-
dem, in the house of Lycomedes ; apud me, at my house.
Apud populum orationem habuit, he spoke before the people ;
apud iudices eosdem reus factus est, he was arraigned
before the same judges. Apud priscos Romanos hie mos
erat, this was the custom among the old Romans, Apud
Ciceronem, in the writings of Cicero \ apud Homerunx
(but in Iliade Homeri, in Ciceronis Libro de Officiis),

2) In phrases : Apud animum cogito, / am considering in my
mind, Haec apud me valent, these things have weighf
with me, Fac apud te sis, keep your wits about you,

IV. Ante {before) is applied to

j) Place : Hannibal ante portas est

2) Time : Ante lucem, before daybreak. Ante urbem conditam,

before the foundation of the city. Ante tris annos, three-
years ago (also tribus ante annis or tertio anno ante).
Multo ante, long before, Paulo ante, a short time before.
Ante domandimi, before taming, Verg.

3) Order and Preference : Hunc ante me diligo, / love him

above myself. Ante alios carissimus (or carior). Ante
omnia placent silvae, woods please above everything.

V. Pone (pos-ne) {behind) : Pone castra pabulatum ibant, they
went behind the camp to forage. Ante et pone, before and behind.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

I you Uses of Prepositions. 295

VI. Post (pos-te : see ante) describes

i) Place {behind) : Hostis post montem se occultabat, /he
enemy was hiding behind the mountain. Manus eius post
tergum religatae sunt, his hands were tied behind his Sack,

2) Time {after, since) : Post cenam, after supper. Post urbem

conditam, after thefimndaiion of the city. Post Christum
natum, after the birth of Christ. Post hominimi memo-
riam, siftce the memory of man. Post paucos dies (or
paucis post <liebu3), a Jew days after. Paulo post, soon
after. Longo post tempore, V.

3) Of Order and Dignity (after, behind) : * Neque erit Lydia

post Chloen,' nor shall Lydia be after Chloe, Hon

VII. Cis, citra (citera parte), {on this side of, within), is
applied to

i; Place : Cis Alpis, cis Padum, citra Euphraten, citra mare.
2) Time (very rarely) : Cis paucos dies hostis aderit, the enemy

will be here within a few days. Citra Kalendas Octobris,

before the \st of October.

Note. — Hence citra is used of measure in the sense of without
(Le. without reaching), short of: Citra controversiam,
without dispute. Citra ebrietatem, short of intoxication.

VIII. Ultra, from the root il-i0l»td (ultera parte^ on yonder
side, beyond) describes

1) Place : Ultra Aethiopiam, beyond Ethiopia. Ultra Gara-

mantas et Indos, beyond the Garamantes and Indians.

2) Measure : Ne sutor ultra crepidam (progrediatur), the cobbler

must not ^o beyond his last. Ultra puerilis annos est, he
is past childhood. Ultra feminam ferox, fierce beyond the
ncUure of woman. So, ultra fas ; ultra fidem.

IX. Trans {cuross, beyond) is applied to seas, rivers, hills, &c. :
Naves trans mare cumint, ships glide across the sea. Trans Eu-
phraten, beyond the Euphrates. Trans Alpis. Trans caput, V.

X. I. Circum {round, about) of Place: Terra curcum axem
vertitur, the earth turns about its axis, Circum haec loca com-
moror, / am staying about these spots. Tiurba circum regem, a
crowd around this king.

2. Circa (not used before Livy), describes

i) Place {round) : Urbes circa Capuam occupavit, he seised
the cities around Capua, Multos circa se habebat, he
kept many about him. Circa vias discurritur, there is a
skurry about the streets. Circa pectus, round the bosom,

2) Time and Number {about) : Circa Calendas Februarias,

about the 1st of February, Circa quingentos capti sunt,
about five hundred were taken,

3) Respect {about, concerning) in Post-Augustan Latinity :

Varia circa haec opinio est, there is variety of opinion on
this subject.

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J

296 Latin Wordlcre, § 70.

3. Circiter {about) denotes extension rounds and is used of
Time and Number : Circiter meridiem advenimus, we came about
noon. Decern circiter milia passuum abest, he is about ten fniles
away,

XL Contra (contera parte) denotes a tendency of two things to
come together, and describes

1) Place {over against) : Carthago ItaUam contra, Cartha^

over against Italy, Aspicedum contra me, look me in 3u
face,

2) Relation (against) : Contra naturam, against nature. Contra

legem, against law. Hoc contra ius fasque est, this is
against law and religion. Quod contra fit a plerisque,
most people do just the contrary, Non caru'st auro contra,
A^j worth his weight in gold,

XII. Erga (towards) is used of Relation : Tuam erga me bene-
volentiam agnosco, / acknowledge your goodwill towards me,
Scio quomodo erga me affectus sis, / know how you feel towards
me, £rga is once used of place by Plautus ( *^ facing),

XIII. Extra (extera parte) describes

i) Place {outside of without) : Extra urbem, outside the city.
Extra teli iactum, out of range of darts,

2) Relation (without^ beyond, clear of) : Extra culpam, peri-

culum, iocum, ordinem, modum, causam, &c.

3) Exception (except) : Nemo extra eum, nobody except him,

XIV. Intra (intera parte) (within) describes

i) Place : Intra urbem factum est, it happened within the city.
Intra montem Taurum, within Mount Taurus (for cis).

2) Time : Intra triginta dies, within thirty days,

3) Extent : Hortensii scripta intra fisunam sunt, the ^mritings

of Hortensius are short of their reputcUion, Intra modum,
intra legem epulari, to fecLst within measure y within law.
The Adv. intus (within) is also used with Accus. Intus
domum, Plaut Intus cellam, L.

XV. Inter signifies extension inside, and is used of—

i) Place (between) : Inter urbem et fluviimd, between the city
and river,

2) Time (between, during) : Inter horam tertiam et quartam,

between nine and ten o'clock. Inter prandendum (or inter
cenam) curis vaco, at dinner (or at supper) I am. free from
cares. Inter tot annos, during so many years. Inter
vias, on the road,

3) Relation (between, among) : Inter hominem et bduam

multum mterest, there is much difference between a man
and a brute. Constat inter omnis, all are agreed. Inter
arma silent leges, amidst arms laws are silent. Inter
cetera et illud dixit, among other things he said this too.

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1 70. Uses of Prepositions. 297

And of mutual relation with se ; as Inter se amant, they
love one another. Inter haec « interea, meanwhile.

XVI. Infra (infera parte) (beneath) describes

i) Place : Infra lunam nihil est non mortale, beneath the moon
there is nothing not mortal,

2) Time : Homerus non infra Lycurgum fuit, Homer was not

after Lycurgus,

3) Number : Non infra novena, not less than nine at a time,

4) Measure : Uri magnitudine sunt *paulo infra elephantos,

buffaloes are of a size rather under elephants,

5) Worth : Infra dignitatem meam, beneath my dignity.

XVII. Supra (supera parte) (ahove^ over) describes

i) Place : Caelum supra terram est, heaven is above earth,
Saltu supra venabula fertur, he bounds over the hunting
spears. Supra caput Supra me erat Atticus, infra Ver-
rius, Atticus sat above me, Verrius below.

2) Time : Supra banc memoriam vixit, he lived before these

times. Ut supra dixi, as I said above.

3) Number : Caesa sunt supra millia viginti, more than twenty

thousand were slain. Supra belli Sabini metum, over and
above the dread of a Sabine war.

4) Measure : Supra humanam formam altior^ taller than

human form. Supra modum, above measure.

XVIII. luxta (iugista parte, Corss.) describes

i) Place (adjoining) : Hortus meus iuxta viam est, my garden
adjoins the road,

2) Order (next to, as well as, akin to) : Iuxta deos in tua
manu positum est, next to the ^ods it lies in your hands.
Inermes iuxta armatos trucidati sunt, unarmed as well as
armed men were slaughtered. Celeritas iuxta formidinem
est, speed is akin to fear, Iuxta seditionem ventum est,
things almost came to mutiny. Solo caeloque iuxta gravi,
soil and climate being equally unhealthy.

XIX. Ob describes

i) Place (before) : Ob oculos mihi mors versata est, death was
before my eyes. FoUem sibi obstringit ob gujam, he ties a
bladder on his throat. Ob os trudere, to thrust in one's
face.

2) Cause (for, on account of with a view to) : Poenas ob stul-
titiam do, / suffer punishment for my folly. Pecuniam
ob absolvendum accepit, he received money to acquit. Ar-
gentum ob asinos, money to pay for the donkeys. Ager
oppositu'st pigneri ob decem mindiS, the estate is mortgaged
for ten minas. Frustra an ob rem, ineffectually, or to
some purpose. Ob industriam, studiously, Ob earn cau-
sam, on that account.

XX. Penes (/« the power of, resting with) : Penes imperatorem
est siunmum imperiiun, supreme power rests with the commander-

»gle

298 Latin Wordlore. j 7a

in-chief. Deum penes est custodia mundi, ike guardianship of
the world rests with God. Servi penes accusatorem sunt, the sl€tves
are in the prosecutor's power. Culpa te est penes, the fault lies
with you. Penes te es t are you in your senses t

XXI. Praeter means extension in front of, and has the uses

i) A long y beside y before : Praeter ripam, along the bank. Prae-
ter oculos, before their eyes. Via una praeter hostis erat,
the only road was along the enemy s flank.

2) Besides, except :' Vtdittex se neminem amat, ^ loves none

besides himself. Quod crimen dicis, praeter amasse,
meum ? what crime do you call mine, except having loved f

3) Beyond : Praeter modum, beyond measure. Praeter ceteros

clams, renowned beyond others.
4; Contrary to : Hoc praeter opinionem accidit, this happened
contrary to expectation. So, praeter spem.

XXII. Prope («^izr, nigh to) : Prope viam aedificat, ^ ^lo/^
near the road Prope Kalendas Sextilis, near the first of August.
Prope abesse ab aliquo, to be near to some person or plctce, Prope
secessionem plebis res venit, matters almost came to a secession of
the commons.

The Comparative propius, and Superlative proxime, also take an
Accusative : Propius urbem, nearer the city. Proxime montem,
very near the mountain.

XXIII. Propter (prope-ter) means 'extension near,' and de-
scribes—

i) Place {near, alongside of) : Volcanus tenuit insulas propter
Siciliam, Vulcan held the isles near Sicily. Propter aquam
ambulavimus, we walked beside the water. Propter te
sedet, he sits beside you. Cubantes propter, sleeping near.

2) Cause or Object (on account of) : Sapiens non propter
metum legibus paret, the wise man obeys not the laws on
account of fear. Ilia propter se expetenda sunt, those
things are desirable on their own account.

XXIV. Secundum, from sequor, dtnotes following^ and de-
scribes—

i) Place i^ext behind) : I secimdum me, ^o next to me. Se-
cundum aurem vulnus accepit, he recewed a wound behind
his ear. (Along) : Secimdum litus, along the shore.

2) Time (after) : Secundum Idus lanuarias veniam, / will

come afier the 13M of January.

3) Rank {neoct after) : Secundum te nemo mihi amicior, after

you no man is more fHendly to me. Secundum vocem
vultus valet, countenance tells next after voice.

4) Agreement (according to, in favour of) : Secundum natu-

ram vive, live according to nature. Secimdum Stoicos
onmia vitia paria sunt, according to the Stoics all faults
are equal. Pontifices secundum me decreverunt, the
priests decreed in my favour.

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1 71. Uses of Prepositions, 299

XXV. Per {through) signifies Passage from one end to another,
or in all directions, and describes —

i) Place : Per Macedonian!, through Macedonia. Sanguis
per venas in omne conpus dif!unditur, blood is dij^ed
through the veins into the whole body,

2) Duration of Time (throughout^ during) : Per tris annos,

/or three years. Per noctem cemuntur sidera, the stars
are seen all night. Per somnum, during sleep,

3) Agency (^, through) : Per procuratorem non per se ipsum

agit, he acts by an agent y not personally,

4) Manner or Means ipy) ; Eos per vim eiecit, he turned them

out by force. Per simulationem amicitiae me perdidit, A^
ruined me on pretence of friencUhip, Per litteras certiorem
te faciam, / will acquaint you by letter. So, per vices, by
turns ^ per silentium, in silence ^ per vxyxT^^ jocularly,

5) Motive or Cause : Per avaritiam id fecit, he did that through

avarice. Amicitia per se expetenda tsX^ friendship should
be sought for its own sake. Per me licet hoc agas, you
may do this with my free will. Per leges non licet civem
verberare, the laws do not allow beating a citizen. Per te
stetit quominus ego discederem, ^<?j^ were the cause of my
not departing,

6) Per is used in Prayers and Adjurations {by) : Per deos te

oro, I pray you by the gods.

Note, Per is sometimes disjoined from the word with which it
is compounded : as. Per mihi gratum est, it is very agree-
able to me. Per oviHa turbans, V. Or from its case ; Per
^o te deos oro, I pray you by the gods,

XXVI. Versus, versum (anc. vorsus, vorsum) {towards)^
always follow their Case : Hannibal Romam versus contendit,
Hannibal marched towards Rome, The best writers subjoin it to
a case governed by ad or in : Ad meridiem versus ibimus, we will
go towards the south. In Italiam versus se convertit, he turned
towards Italy,

ii Prepositions governing an Abl. Case. ji

1. A, ab, abs, express a ' proceeding from,' and describe—

i) Place : — {a) Motion from : Sidera ab ortu ad occasum corn-
meant, the stars move from east to west. Ab nobis domo'st,
// comes from our house.

b) Distance from : Mille passuum sex a Caesaris castris sub-

sedit, he halted six miles from Caesar's camp. See
Prope. A milibus passuum esse, /^^ ^^ a ^/^ <7^ See
M. Lucr. i. 554.

c) Position in regard to {on, on the side of) : A fronte, in

front, A tergo, in the rear, A sinistro comu, on the
left wing. A Platone {sLcio, I am on the side of Plato,
Zeno et ab eo cjui sunt, Zeno and his disciples. Hoc a
me est, this is in my favour. A senatu stetit, he took
the senates side. See M. Lucr, L 693, 935 ; v. 754, 1332 ;
vi. 968. ^QJp

30O Latin Wordlore. §71.

Obs. Procul ab is used : Procul a patria, Verg. And procul
without ab. Haud procul seditione, L. Usque ab. Ab usque, V.
Lucr. has ore foras, out from the mouth, iv. 554.

2) Time {from) : Ab antiquissimis temporibus hie mos in-

valuit, this custom prevailed Jrom the earliest times. So,
ab initio, a puero, a pueritia, ab incunabulis, a prima
aetate, &c A ^nmo^ from the first ox from the beginning,

3) Rank {after) : Proximus a rege, next after the king. Alter

ab illo. Alter ab undecimo, the 12th. Ab hoc sermone
profectus est, after this discourse he set out, Ab exequiis.
Ab igni, after (in consequence of) fire, M. Lucr, vL 968.

4) Separation {from) : A poena liber! sumus, we are free from

punishment. Defende te a periculo, defend yourself from
danger, Non ab re fuerit ea narrare, it will not be irre-
levant to relate these things, Abhorrere ab aliqua re, to
shrink from anything ; to dislike,

5) Origin in general {from) : Pecuniam a me accepit, he re-

ceived the money from me, Ab Egnatio solvet, he will
pay through Egnatius, A te mihi salutem dixit, he greeted
me from you, A superstitione animi vates adhibuit, he
called in seers from mental superstition, M. Lucr, iL 51.

6) Agent after Verbs Passive and Intransitive (^) : A cane

non magno saepe tenetur aper, a wild boar is often held
by a small dog, Oculi a sole dolent, my eyes are pained
by the sun, Ab hoste venire, to be sold by an enemy,

7) Respect (/«, in point of on the side of) : Ab animo aeger

fui, / was sick in mind, Firmus est ab equitatu, he is
strong in cavalry, A doctrina instructus est, he is well
furnished in point of learning, A patre nobilis erat, he
was noble on the father's side.

To this use belong the phrases for the offices of slaves and
freedmen at Rome, and the modem phrases for the posts
in a royal household, &c. Thus, (servus) ab epistulis
meant a letter-carrier or estafette ; (servus or libeitus) a
manu, an amanuensis ; a bibliotheca, a librarian ; a pedi-
hws^ a footman ; a potione, a butler or cupbearer^ &c. So,
Regi a secretis consiliis, a privy counsellor of the king,
Reginae a sacris, queen's chaplain,

IL De expresses

i) Place {down from^ from) : De rostris descendit, he came
down from the rostra, De manibus hostium effiigit, he
escaped from the enemy's hands, Susque deque, ^ anS
down,

2) Time {ere the close of at) : De prima luce, at daybreak. De
die, in daytime,^ De nocte, in the night, De multa nocte,
in the dead of night, De prandio, after luncheon. Diem
de die exspecto, I am waiting from day to day,

' Gcero** j'eu dt mots {Phil. \\ 34), 'non solum de die sed in diem ▼rrcpe/ links two
common phrases, *de die (potare)/ to carotut by dayUgkt^ and * in diem ▼!▼€«,* U tnt
for the day, so as to suggest that Antonius drank from before the evening of ooe day to
the davm of the next (de die in diemX

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jyi. Uses of Prepositions, 301

3) Origin : De summo loco, of highest rank, De scripto

dixit, he spoke from a written paper, De facie eum novi,
/ know him by sight, Erai domum de Crasso, / bought a
house of Crassus, Hoc audivi de patre, this I heard from
my father, De mannore signum, a bust of marble, Fies
de rhetore consul, from a rhetorician you will become
consul,

4) Partition (of) : Una de multis, one of many maidens, Ac-

cusator de plebe, a plebeian prosecutor, De tuo iUud
addis, you add of your own suggestion, De meo, at my
expense,

5) Respect {concerning^ of &c.) : Multa de eo scripta sunt,

much was written about him, Legati de pace, envoys to
treat for peace, De captivis commutandis, concerning an
exchange of prisoners, De nihilo irasci, to be angry about
nothing. Quid de me fiet? what will become of me?
De Gallis triumphavit, he triumphed over the Gauls,

6) Cause {Jory from^ &c.) : Multis et gravibus de causis, for

many important reasons. Hoc de communi sententia fac-
tum est, this was done by common vote, De via langue-
bam, / was ill from the journey,

7) Manner (according to^ on) in many phrases : De more, ac-

cording to custom. De industria, on purpose, De im-
proviso, unexpectedly. De novo, anew, De integro, afreshy
&c, De gradu conari, to combat on footy de genu, on the
knees,

III. E, ex, describe —
i) Place {out of from^ ' on, &c.) : Ex urbe venio. Ex Italia
discessit Ex arbore pendet, // hangs on a tree. Ex
equis pugnant, they fight on horseback. E longinquo,
from far. Ex propinquo, near. Ex obliquo, athwart. E
regione, in a direct line with. See M. Lucr. vi. 344.

2) Time {from, since) : Ex illo die numquam eum vidi, since

that day I never set eyes on him. Ex Metello consule,
from the consulship of Metellus, Ex itinere, on arrival,

3) Origin {from, of) : Ex eo audivi. Ex me quaesivit Ex

Pompeio sciam. Statua e marmore facta. Homo ex
animo constat et corpore, man consists of soul and body,

4) Transition {from, after) : Ex oratore arator factus est. So,

aliud ex alio, one thing after another : diem ex die, from
day to day. Pallidum e viridi folium, a palish green leaf

5) Partition {of) : Unus ex amicis meis, one of my friends,

6) Cause {from, for, by, &c.) : Ex quo manifestum est, whence

it is clear. Ex lassitudine dormio, / fcUl asleep from
weariness, E vino vacillat, he staggers from the effects of
wine. Ex vulneribus mortuus est, ne died of his wounds.
Vir ex doctrina nobilis, a man renowned for his learning.
Ex pedibus laborat, he has gout in his feet. Illud ex sena-
tus consulto factum est, that was done by vote of the senate.
Hoc mihi ex sententia evenit, this happened to my hearfs^]^

302 Latin Wordlore. §71.

content Ex animi sententia loqui, to speak with sincerity.
So, ex ordine, ex composito, by arrangement^ e re mea,
for my interest^ e republica,_^r the good of the state, with
other phrases. See p. 277.

7) Manner, in many phrases : Ex occulto, secretly , ex impro-
vise, ex insperato, unexpectedly, ex parte, in parL Heres
ex asse, heir to the whole property by will; heres ex
deunce, heres ex semfsse, &c.

IV. Cum {with) expresses

1) Company : Cum patre proficiscor, / go with my father.

As a Sociative Particle : Romulus cum fratre Remo, RO'
mulus and his brother Remus,

a) The Adv. simul is used with Abl. for simul cum. Simul
his, together with these, Hor. Ore simul cervix, Ov.

2) Coincidence of Time : Pariter cum ortu solis, exactly at

sunfise,

3) Community: Nihil mihi cum illo est, I have nothing to do

with him, Bellum gessit cum Helvetiis, he waged war
with the Helvetii, Tecum loquar, / will speak with you.
Conferre, comparare cum, to compare with.

4) Coincident Circumstances : Homines cum gladiis adsunt,

men with swords are present Esse cum imperio, to be in
chief command. Magno cum dolore loquor, / speak with
great pain, Illud cum causa fecit, he acted thus with
reason. Cum pemicie reipublicae, to the ruin of the state.
Cum clamore. Cum silentio. Cum lacrimis. Madida
cum veste, in wet clothes, 'as simple Abl.' See M. Lucr,
i- 755.
Note the phrase : cum to vX ... on condition that , . . Liv.

V. Absque {without) is chiefly found in the Comic poets :
Absque te esset, were it not for you ; sometimes in Cicero. Litterae
absque argumento, a letter devoid of matter,

VI. Sine (without) : Vana est sine viribus ira, anger without
strength is fruitless. Sine dubio, sine ulla dubitatione, without
any doubt,

Lucr. uses seorsum {apart from) with Abl. : seorsum corporc.

VII. Palam {in view of) : Palam populo, in the peoples sight

VIII. Clam, clanculum {without the knowledge of) : Qam
patre, without hisfather^s knowledge. In Comedy with Accusative :
Clam uxorem ; clanculum patrem.

IX. Coram {in the presence of) : Coram populo dixit, he spoke
before the people. Coram loqui cum aliquo, to speak with another
face to face,

X. Prae describes

I) Place {before) : I prae, sequar, go forward, I will follow ;
but generally before a Pronoun, and after the Verbs ago^

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^v^pt ix^

^71. Uses of Prepositions, 303

fero, gero : as Pastores prae se agant gregem, let shep^
herds drive the flock before them. Pugionem prae se fcrt,
he displays a dagger. Also metaphorically : Speciem
boni viri prae te i^x%^you exhibit the appearance of a good
man.

2) Comparison {compared with, before) : Prae nobis beatus es,

you are happy compared with us. Prae se neminem putati
he thinks none his superior. Utilitatis species prae hones-
tate recte contemnitur, the show of advantage is properly
despised in comparison with moral rectitude.

3) Cause^ {owing to, for) : Prae lacrimis scribere non possum,

/ cannot write for tears. Prae multitudine sagittarum
solem non videbitis, you will not see the sun for the number
of arrows. Prae laetitia lacrimae prosiliunt mihi, tears
start into my eyes for joy, Plant.

XL Pro expresses

i) Place {before) : Pro foribus, before the door, Stabat pro
litore classis, the fleet was lying off the coast. Pro rostris
dicebat, he was speaking from the rostra. Pro contione
laudatus est, he was thanked in full assembly,

2) Defence {in behalf of for) : Hoc non modo non pro me,

sed etiam contra me est, this is not only not for me, but
is even against me. Pro Ligario dixit, he spoke for Liga^
rius. Pro patria mori, to die for country,

3) Substitution {instead of, equivalent to, &c.) : Mihi pro

parente fuit, he was as a father to me. Vultus saepe pro
omnibus verbis est, countenance is often equivalent to any
'words. Pro praetore fuit, he was propraetor,

4) Retribution {for, in requital of) : Pro istis factis te ulds-

car, r II punish you for that conduct.

5) Resemblance and Respect {in the light of) : 1 11am educavi

pro mea, / brought her up as my daughter. Pro cive se
gerit, he comports himself as a citizen. Pro certo hoc
habui, / held this as certain. Pro comperto illud afFerunt,
they inform me as an assured fact

6) Proportion {according to) : Pro tua temperantia vales, j'^wr

good health ^accords with your temperafue. Pro viribua
contendam, / will try my best. Pro re nata me geram, /
will conduct myself as present circumstances dictate. Pro
re et tempore consilium capere, to take counsel according
to existing circumstances. Pro multitudine hominum an-
gustos habent finis, their extent is small compared with
their population. Proelium atrocius quam pro numero
pugnantium fuit, the battle was more furious than might
have been expected from the number of the combatants,

XII. Tenus {as far as), from root tan, ten, ^ stretch^ follows its
Case, and governs Abl. Sing, (rarely Plur.) and Plural Genitive :
Capulo tenus abdidit ensem, he buried his sword to the hilt, Nu-

uiyiuzeu uy x^jv^wVt Iv^

304 Latin Wordlore, §71.

tricum tenus, as far as the breast, Cnimm tenus. Observe verbo
tenus {as far as words go) ; quadam tenus {a certain way^ to some
extent) ; eatenus, hactenus, quatenus, understanding parte. The
AbL PL * Pectoribus tenus ' is found in Ovid : the Ace. S. * Tanain
tenus ' in Valerius Flaccus.

iii Prepositions governing an Accusative
or Ablative Case.

L .(d) In with Accusative signifies motion to^ and describes

i) Place {jntOy to^ upon, against ) : In carcerem coniectus est,
/te was thrown into prison. In aram confiigit, he fled for
refuge to the altar. In e<juum conscendit, he got on horse-
back. Ad urbem, vel potius in urbem, exercitum adduxit,
he led an army up to the city, or rather, into the city.

By a Constructio praegnans (one Verb having the force of
two) in with Accusative sometimes follows a Verb of
Rest : Vitruvium in carcerem asservari iussit, he ordered
Vitruvius to be kept in prison, Adesse in senatum iussit,
he bade him attend the senate, Portus in praedontmi po-
testatem fuere, the harbours were in the power of pirates.

2) Time {for) : In crastinum diem me invitavit, he invited me

for the morrow. Comitia constituta sunt in Kalendas
lanuarias, the elections were fixed for the \st of yanuary.
In perpetuum {for ever), in praesens {for the present), in
posterum,^^ the future, &c.

3) Transition {into) : Mutatur in lapidem. In soUicitudinem

versa fiducia est, confidence turned to anxiety,

4} Dimension {to) : In altitudinem pedum sedecim munun
perducit, he carries the wall to the height of sixteen feet,

5) Distribution : Censores bini in singulas civitates descripti

sunt, two censors were appointed for each state. Ad dena-
rios quinquaginta in singulos modios, at fifty denars the
bushel, Mutatur in dies et in horas, he changes daily and
hourly. In aestatem, every summer. M. Lucr, vi 712.

6) Relation {towards, against, See) : Liberalis in milites, liberal

towards the troops. Merita in rempubUcam, services to the
state. Cicero in Verrem dixit, Cicero spoke against Verres,
Viri in uxores potestatem habent, husbands have power
over their wives. In te oculi omnium defiguntur, all eyes
are fixed on you,

7) Manner {in, after) : In hunc modum locutus est, h^ spoke

after this fashion. In verba imperatoris iuraverunt, they
swore allegiance to the general. So, in universum, in
commune, in vicem (/« turn), in numerum, in measured
time, M. Lucr. ii. 631.

8) Purpose {for) : Gladiatores in ludos locavit, he engaged

gladiators for the games, Sontes in poenam dediti sunt,
the guilty were delivered for punishment, Onmia in maius

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

1 72. Uses of Prepositions. 305

celebravit, he exaggerated everything, Dabo tibi pecuniam
in rem familiarem, / will give you money for your house-
hold expenses. Quae in rem tuam sunt, what is for your
interest.

(i) In with an Ablative signifies rest in, and describes
i) Place {in) : In Italia. In urbe. In sole. In ore omnium
versaris, you are in everybody's mouth. In Miltiade erat
summa huma^itas, in Miltiades there was the greatest
courtesy. In conspectu est exercitus. In manibus est
Vcrgilius. So, in aprico est res, the affair is all smooth.
In incerto. In difiicili. In medio relictum est, it has
been left unsettled In luctu et sc^ualore sum, / am in
sorrow and mourning. In manu, tn hand.

(Off) : Agesilaus in ora consedit, Agesilaus halted on the
brink. Nix est in sununo monte, snow is on the summit of
the mountain. Pons in flumine factus est, a bridge was
formed on the river. In ^^o%^Atn% on horseback. Ponere
curam, cogitationem, &c, in aliqua re, to employ the mind
on some object.

{Among) : In magnis viris numeratur. Haec in bonis sunt
habenda, these must be counted among blessings,

2) Time {during, in) : Ter in anno rus imus, / go into the

country thrice a year. In praesenti nihil opus est, there
is no need at present. In annonae caritate civitati sub-
venit, when com was dear he helped the city. In tempore
veni. Impraesentiarum, under present circumstances, is a
corruption of *in praesentia harum rerum,' chiefly used by
elder and late authors, also by Nepos.

3) Circumstance {amidst, in) : In tanta perfidia veterum ami-

corum nihil supererat spei, amidst such treachery of old
friends no hope remained Etiam in summa bonorum
civium copia timemus, even amidst an abundance of good
citizens I am alarmed. In vino diserti stmius, we are
eloquent over wine. In dicendo, in agendo. In honore,
in pretio. Horridus in iaculis et pelle ursae. V.
{Jn the case of) : In hoc homine non accipio accusationem, in
this man^s case I admit no charge. Idem in bono servo
dici solet, the same is said of a good slave.

4) Cause {on the score ^ : In ea re gratias Deo agebamus,

for that we thanked God. Pausanias in eo est reprehensus,
Pausanias was blamed on that score.

IL {d) Sub with an Accusative describes

i) Place {under) literally and metaphorically, when motion is
implied : Armentum sub tecta referto, take the herd back
to shelter. Sub ictum venire, to come under fire. Sub
aciem primam succedere, to come up with the van. Sub
iugum Romani missi sunt, the Romans were made to pass^
under the yoke. Sub oculos mihi venit, he came under my
view. Sub iudicium cades, you will be subject to tried.
Sub sensus subiecta, within reach of the senses.

uiyiiized by CjOOQ IC

3o6 Latin Wordlore, §72.

2) Time (immediately after or before^ abouty against) : Sub eas
litteras recitatae sunt tuae, next after that letter yours was
read. Sub ortum lucis signa contulit, at daybreak he en-
gaged, Cenam parat uxor sub adventum viri, the wife
prepares supper against her husband^s arrival. Sub lacri-
mosa Troiae fancrOy just before Troy's sad destruction,

(b) Sub with an Ablative is applied to

1) Place {under)f rest being implied : Talpae sub terra habi-

tant; moles dwell under the ground, ludaea sub procura-
tore erat, Judea was under a procurator. Sub hac con-
dicione rediit, under this condition he returned. Sub
oculiS; in view,

2) Time {about ^ at) : Sub exitu anni, about the end of the year.

Sub eodem tempore. See M. Lucr, iv. 545-785 ; vL 413, 416.

III. {a) Super with an Accusative expresses

i) Place {over, above ^ beyond) : Alii super vallum praecipitan-
tur, others J^ing themselves over the entrenchment. Super
navem turris exstructa est, a tower was reared on the ship.
Super Sunium navigavit, he sailed beyond Sunium, Super
ipsum, above the host at table,

2) Number {besides): Super bellum annona premit, besides

war, dearth causes distress. Super haec. Super onmia,
over and above all else. Super tris modios accepi, / re-
ceived above three bushels. Alii super alios. Savia super
savia, kisses upon kisses,

3) Comparison {beyond) : Res super vota fluunt, matters pro-

ceed beyond our wishes. Super, principally^ V,

4) Time {during) : Super cenam collocuti sumus, during supper

we conversed,
Lucan uses desuper {over) with Accus. Desuper Alpb nubi-
ferae colli s, &c. L 68S.

{b) Super with an Ablative expresses

i) Place {over, upon) : Ensis super cervice pendet, a sword
hangs over his neck, Fronde supejr viridi requiescimuSy
we rest on green foliage,

2) Time {during, at) : Nocte super media, at midnight,

3) Subject Matter {about) : Multa super Priamo rogitans,

super Hectore multa, asking much about Priam^ much
about Hector, Verg.

IV. Subter {under, below), signifying extension under, gene-
rally governs an Accusative, but sometimes in poetry an Abla-
tive : Amnes saepe subter terram vias occultas agunt, rivers often
pursue secret courses under ground. Virtus omnia subter se habet,
virtue holds everything subject to itself, Subter densa testudine,
under a compact pent-house.

Note I. — The following Prepositions are also used as Adverbs s
ante.citra, circum, circa, circiter, contra, iuxta, infra, intra, pone, post,
prae (rare), prope, subter, super, supra, ultra, coram, clam, palam.

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^v^ pt i-X^

3 73. Correlation. 307

NoU 2. — Comminus ire, ' to close with^ is used by Propertius
with Dat and Accus. 'Haemonio comminus isse viro/ iii, i.
'^ Agrestis comminus ire sues/ iL 19. So Ov. F, v. 176.

Note 3. — Of the Prepositions the following are opposed in mean*
ing:—

ante to post (pone) infra to supra sub to super
ad — ab cis — (trans) prope — procul

in — ex citra — ultra clam — palam

Note 4. — Prepositions may sometimes stand in good prose

i) Between Pronoun and Noun : qua in re ; hanc ob causam ;
magno cum metu, &c.

2) After the Pronouns qui, hie, without Noun; quern contra

dicit ; quos inter, hunc adversus, &c. Not so found arc,
ab, cis, sub, pro, prae ; seldom, ad, de, ex, in.

3) With one or more words interposed between Preposition

and Case : ' in bella gerentibus ; ' * in suum cuique tri-
buendo; ' 'post autem Alexandri Magni mortem,' &c.
Poets often place Prepositions after their Cases, and sometimes
aloof from them: 'Vitiis nemo sine nasdtur,' Hor. ^. L 3, 68. See
M. Lucr, i. 841 ; iiL 140.
(On Prepositions in compositidn^ see § 52, § 59.)

Section VI.

73
Correlative Construction. corw-

L Pronominal Correlation.

The pronominal Root qui- quo- is the most influential word in
Latin ; for from it spring (i) Almost all Interrogative words ; (2) all
Relative words ; (3) most Subordinative Conjunctions.

A) i) Every Interrogative word may question
Directly or Obliquely.

Direct. Oblique.

quae estmulier? rogo quae sit mulier

unde estmulier? die unde sit midier

verumne est illud ? quaero verunme sit illud

Every Oblique Interrogative is Conjunctional, introducing a
Subordinate Sentence.

2) Every Pronominal Interrogative has corresponding to it at
least one Demonstrative Pronoun or Particle ; and a Relative Pro-
noun or Particle.

Interr.

Dem.

RcL

Interr.

Dem.

ReL

quis?
ubi?

is

ibi

qui
ubi

quare?
quando ?

ideo
tum

quod
quum (cum)

Every Relative Pronoun or Particle is Conjunctional, introducing
a Subordinate sentence. .

X 2 uiyiuzeu uy x_j ^^^ wVJ Iv^

3o8

Latin Wordlore.

§73-

B) Hence the following Correlations : the first four of which are
Adjectival, that is, they involve agreement with Substantives. The
rest are Adverbial, but capable of being changed into Adjectival
form : thus ubi ^quo in loco ? ubi . . . ibi »in eo loco ... in quo.

i) Correlation of Person or Thing.

Direct Interrog. Oblique Interrog:.

who {is hef)

who {he is)

Demonstr.
is, &C.

he

ReL
qui
who

b) quid (est ?) quid (sit) id, &c quod

what {is itf) what {it is) that which

(The forms ecquis, ecqui, ecquae, ecquid, ecquod are also used
interrogatively.)

c) uter (est ?) uter ^sit)

which of two {is which of two
hef) {he is)

2) Correlation of Quality.

qualis (est ?) qualis (sit)

of what kind ijs of what kind
hef) {he is)

3) Correlation of Quantity.

quantus (est ?) quantus (sit)
now great Us
hef)

how great (he

is (alter)
that one

talis
such

tantus
so great

qui
which

qualis
as

quantus
as

4)

ouot (sunt)
now many {are
theyf)

tot

so many

quot
as

ouot (sint)

now many

they are)

(This includes quotiens ? how many times f totiens • . . quotiens.)

5) Correlation of Place.

a) ubi (est ?)
where {tshef)

b) unde (est?)
whence {is hef)

c) quo (it ?)
whither {goes

hef) ^^

d) qua (it ?)

by which way
{goes hef)

ubi (sit)
where {he is)

unde (sit)
whence {he is)

quo (eat)
whither {he
goes)

[ua (eat)
which way

t

ibi
there

inde
thence

eo
thither

ea

by that
way

ubi
where

unde
whence

quo
whither

qua

ay which

{he goes)

(These include quorsum, whitherward, &c, quousque? quoad T
quatenus ? how far y &c. ; compounded with quo, qua.)

6) Correlation of Manner.

ut (flet ?) ut (fleat) ita

how {weeps he f) how {he weeps) so

(Similarly quomodo ? ita

quemadmodum ? ita

ut

as
quomodo
quemadmodum.>

uy 'v^j v^ v^pt ix^

§ 73- Correlation. 309

7j Correlation of Degree.

Direct Interrof;. Oblique Interrog. Demonstr. ReL

quam (celer est ?) auam (c. sit^ tarn quam
now {swift is hef) now s. {he ts) so as

(For tain . . . quam may be used aeque . . . atque ^ac^ and
many other Demonstratives with atque (ac). In the Correlation of
Inequality quam follows Comparatives and some other words which
<x>ntain the idea of comparison.)

8) Correlation of Cause.

^^^n (venit?) ^^^n (veniat)^^^, I ^"?^l
our J ^ ^ cur M '^" ^proptereaf quia i

wAy {comes ke f) why {he comes) therefore because

9) Correlation of Time.

a) quando (it ?) quando (eat) tum quum
when {goes he T) when Qie goes) then when

b) quamdiu (ma- quamdiu (ma- tamdiu quam

net ?) neat)

how long {stays how long {he so long as
hef) stays)

So quousque, quoad, quatenus, are answered demonstratively and
relatively by several forms : as, eousque . . . dum (donee, quoad) ;
usque . . . dum (donee, quoad) ; eatenus . . . dum Cdonec) ;
tamdiu . . . quam, &c.

C) Examples of Direct Pronominal Interrogation.

i) * Quis fiiit horrendos primus qui protulit enses?' who was it
that first produced drecuiful swords f Tib. i. 10. i. *Qui cantus
moderata orationis pronimtiatione dulcior inveniri potest ? quod
<:armen artiiiciosa verborum conclusione aptius V what song can we
find sweeter than a well-uttered speech f what poetry neater than a
skilful period f C. d. Or, ii. 8. * Ecqui pudor est, ecqua reUgio,
Verres ? ecqui metus ?' have you any shame ^ Verresf any scruple f
any fear t C. Verr. iv. 8. * Ubi aut qualis est tuamens?' where or
£f what nature is your soulf C. T, D, i. 27. * Ut valet Put me-
minit nostri?' how is his health f how does he keep me in mind.f
Hon Epist, i. 3. jjin exclamation :) * Quam non est facilis virtus,
quam vero difficilis eius diutuma simulatio ! ' how far from easy is
virtue^ how difficult in truth the long-continued pretence of it I C.
Att. vii. I. 'Quam timeo quorsum evadas ! ' how I dread what
yoi^re coming to! Ten An, i. i. 100. *Gnaeus autem noster ut
totus iacet ! ' how totally prostrate is our friend Gnaeus / C. Att, vii.
J9. Quanti est sapere, how valuable is wisdom / Ten Eun. iv. 7.

2) Several Interrogatives in one Sentence :

'Considera, Piso, quis quem fraudasse dicatur,' consider^ Piso^
who is said to have defrauded whom, C. p. Q, Rose, 7. * U ter utri
insidias fecit ? ' which plotted against which f C. p. Mil, 9.

3) Quotus quisque literally is, ^ecuh {unit) of what total number '
^^one in how w^z«y,' and might be answered : centensimus quisque,

.one in a hundred', vicensimus quisque, i?;*^ in twenty; decimus quis-

uiyiuzeu uy ■v^j ^^^ W VJ Iv

J

3IO Latin Wordlore, § 74^

que, one in ten, &c Hence it came to mean, k(na small a propor^
tionf how few f * Quotas enim quisque fonnosus est?' how
few men are handsome f C. N. D, i. 28.

4) Quid is used in abrupt Interrogation with ellipse of a Verb :
Quid ? wellf how f Sec. quid multa ? why be prolix f quid quaeris t
what would you have more f Quid tandem ? why pray f So, quid
enim ? quid ergo ? quid turn ? quid quod . . . ? need I add OuUt

5) Quin for qui non? 'Quin quod est ferendum fers?' wof^t
you bear what must be borne ? Ter. Ph, ii. 3. 82. Quidni pK>ssim t
why can 1 not t {»to be sure I can}, C. T. Z>. v. 5. Quippini ? why
notf to be sure, Plaut On quin with Indie, see M. Lucr, i. 588.

D) Correlation between Demonstrative and Relative :
i) * Fere liben ter homines id quod volunt credunt,' men gene-
rally believe with readiness what they wish^ Caes. B, G, iii. 18.
'Quam quisque norit artem in hac se exerceat,* let every one
practise the profession he knows, * Non sunt tanti ulla merita
quanta insolentia hominis quantumque fastidium,' none of the
mat^s deserts are on a par with the greatness of his insolence and
pridCy C. d. Or, ii. 52. * Ubi bene, ibi patria,' country is where we
are well off. Inc. * Ibit eo quo vis qui zonam -^x^x^X^ he who has
lost his purse will go where you please, Hon Epist. iL 2.40. * Quam
audax est ad conandum tarn est obscurus in agendo,* he is as
secret in action as he is bold in enterprise, C. Verr. ii. 2. * Ut
magistratibus leges ita populo praesunt magfistratus,' as laws
govern maf;istrates, so do magistrates the people, C Leg, iil i.
* Quid egens tunc apparebit cum animam ages,' what you have
done will appear when you are at your last gasp, Sen. Ep, 26.

2) Demonstrative with a Relative of different Correlation : * I n
ea urbe es ubi ( = in qua) nata et alta est ratio ac moderatio
vitae,'j'<7w are in that city wherein regulation and government of
life were bom and reared, C. Fam. vi. i. * I bi imperiumerit unde
victoria fiierit,' empire will be on the side of victory, L. L 24.

3) Demonstrative understood : *Donum redde unde accepisti,
render back the gift to the donor, Ter. Eun, L 2. 34. This is the
most frequent form.

4) The Correlation of cum and tum, originally of Time, is em-
ployed to distribute two notions, the one (with cum) general, the
other (with tum) special, to which attention is thus invited. * Mul-
tum cum in omnibus rebus tum in re militari potest fortuna,'
fortune can do much in all things, especially in war, Caes. B, G,
vL 30. ' Exspecta hospitem cum minime edacem tum inimicum
cenis sumptuosis,' look for a guest who is not only a small eater, but
also no friend to expensive dinners, C. Fanu ix. 23.

ii Correlations of Manner.

Ut (uti) is a Relative Particle (orig. = quod). Its uses are :
As Interrogative {how f).
As a Subordinative Conjunction {that, &c.).
As a Coordinative Conjunction of Comparison {as).

The Interrogative and Subordinative uses are elsewhere noticed.

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^v^pt ix^

; 74- Correlation, 311

i) As Coordinative, ut, as well as quomodo, quemadmodum
{fl5)y is found in correlation usually with the Demonstratives it a,
siCy also with it idem, item, &c., eodemmodo, ad eundemmodum,
isto modo, &c. — pro eo : and compounded : sicut (sicuti) ; velut
(veluti). Or they may be used without a Demonstrative.

A) Correlation of ut, &c. with Demonstrative. (M. Lucr^ ii. 901.)
*Ut optasti ita est,' it is as you wished^ C. Fam, ii. 10. * Ut

male posuimus initia, sic cetera sequentur,' according to our bad
beginnings the rest will follow^ C. Att, x. 20. * Ut vir doctissimus
fecit Plato item mihi credo esse faciendum,' / think I should act
as the learned Plato did, C. p, Clu. 24. * Non ille ut plerique, sed
isto mo do ut tu, distincte graviter ornate dicebat,' he did not speak
as most doy but in that manner 0/ yours, with clearness, power^ and
elegance, C. N. D, i. 21. * Quemadmodum soles de ceteris rebus,
sic de amicitia disput^' argue concerning friendship, c^ you are
wont to do on other subjects, C. LaeL 4. * Necesse est, quo tu me
modo esse voles, ita esse, mater,' / must be as you wish me^
mother^ Plaut Cist, i. i. 48. * Ita ut fit,' in the ordinary way,

a) Ita . . . ut in asseverations : *Ita me di ament ut ego
tam meapte causa laetor quam illius,' so may the gods
love pte as I rejoice on my own account as much as his.
Ten Haul, i. 3. 8. Also ita or sic without ut, parentheti-
cally: *Sollicitat, ita vivam, me tua valetudo,' your
health, upon my life, makes me anxious, C. Fam, xvi. 20.
See Hor. C, i. 3. i.
l>) Ut is used with concessive meaning in one clause, sic or ita
following with adversative force in another: 'Uterrare,
mi Fiance, potuisti, sic decipi te non potuisse quis non
videt ?' err indeed you might, dear Plancus, but deceived
you could not have been^ C. Fam, x. 20.

B) Without Demonstrative :

* Praesertim ut nunc sunt mores,' especially as fashions now are,
Ten F^, i 2. 5. Ut res dant sese, in the present state of affairs.
These Conjunctions are constantly used in parenthesis = id quod :
as, utaiunt,^zj they say ; ut opinor, as I think ; ut videtur, as you
please ; quemadmodum spero ; quomodo mihi persuades, &c.
Also, ut nimc est, ut nunc quidem est {under present circumstances),
ut potest, ut potui, ut potero, {as far as possible).

2) Ut, sicut, in comparisons, usually express a more real like-
ness than quasi, tamquam : 'Sicut unus paterfamilias his de
rebus loquor,' / speak on these subjects like any other head of a
family, C. d Or, i. 29. *Inspicere tamc^uam in speculum in
vitas hominum,' to look into men's lives, as into a mirror, Ter. Ad.
iii. 3.61.

3) Ut is used

a) To introduce a modifying expression, *■ considered as being^
^for^ without a Verb : *Chsthenes multum, ut tempori-
bus illis, valuit dicendo,' Clisthenes had great powers of
speaking for those times, C. Brut, 7.

/^ Also with a Causal force {as being) : * Apud me, ut
bonum iudicem, argumenta plus quam testes valent,'

uized by Google

J

312 Latin Wordlore. $75.

with nuy as a discreet judge, circumstantial proofs have
more weight than witnesses^ C. d. Or, L 38.

y) Hence, with a Verb, to imply that some one fact is in
conformity with some other: *Aiunt hominem, ut erat
f ur i o s u s, respondisse,' they say the man^ raging as he waSj
repliedy C./. Rose, Am, 12. *Horum auctoritate finitumi
adducti, ut sunt Gallorum subita et repentina consilia,
Trebium retinent,' the neighbouring tribes^ led on by these
men's influence^ with the precipitation usual in the mea-
sures of the Gauls ^ detain Trebius, Caes. B. G. iiL 8. This
sense may also be conveyed by the Relative qui (^quia
talis) or by the Preposition pro. Thus it is the same
thing to use any of Uiese phrases :

Iut es prudens
qua es prudentia
quae tua est prudentia
pro tua prudentia

(You
tacebas \ with your usual prudence
[were silent

75 iii. Correlations of Likeness and Unlike-

ness.

Atque, ac (not used before vowels), in the Correlation of Like-
ness follow the Adjectives and Pronouns, aequus, par, similis, talis,
idem, totidem; and the Adverbs, ae que, item, itidem, iuxta, pariter,
perinde, proinde, similiter, simul : in the Correlation of Unlikeness
they follow the Adjectives alius, contrarius, dissimilis, dispar, di-
versus ; and the Adverbs aliter, &c contra, secus.

Ut is also found in the Correlation of Likeness after several of
the words cited : que after iuxta : et in both kinds : quam in the
Correlation of Unlikeness alone in the best age, but iuxta quam in
Livy, aeque, perinde quam in post- Augustan writers.

i) Correlation of Likeness :— *Modo ne in aequo hostes vestri
nostrique apud vos sint ac nos socii,* proTnded our common enemies
be not on the same footing in your esteem as we your cUlieSy L. xxxix.
37. * Animus te erga idem est a c fuit,' the feeling towards you is
tlie same as it waSfTer, Haul, il i. 'Pari eum at que illos imperio
esse iussit,' he ordered him to be equal in command with the others^
Nep. Dat, 3. * Aliauid ab illo simile at que a ceteris est factum,'
he did something like what others didy C. Phil, i. 4- * Faxo eum
tali mactatum at que hie est infortunio,* / w/7/ make him suffer
such a misfortune as this man has suffered, Ter. Ph, v. 9. * Pa-
riter me nunc opera adiuvas ac re -dudum opitulata tSy you assist
me now with your zeal just as you helped me some time ago with
your money, Ter. Ph. v. 3. 3. *Hi quidem coluntur aeque at que
illi,' these are worshipped equally with the former^ C. Is, D, iii. la
'Simul at que natum animal est, gaudet voluptate/ as soon as an
animal is bom, it delights in pleasure, C. Fin, ii. 10. ' Desiderium
absentium nihil perinde ac vicinitas acuit,' nothing sharpens re-
gret for the absent like neighbourhood, PL Ep, vi. i. < Ostendant
milites se iuxta hieme atque aestate bella gerere posse,' let the
troops shew they can wage war in winter as well as in summer.

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-% 75. Correlation, 313

L V. 6. * Omnia in Themistocle fuenint paria et Coriolano/ all the
/acts in the case of Themistocles were like those in the case of Coruh-
ianuSf C £r. 11. 'Ad Luceriam iuxta obsidentis obsessosque
inopia vexavit.' scarcity distressed the besiegers at Luceria as muck
as the besiepdy L. ix. 13, 'Miltiades tot idem navibus at que erat
profectus Athenas redut,* Miltiades returned to Athens with as
many ships as he had gone out with^ Nep. Milt, 7. So, * Haud
centensimam partem dixi' atque possim expnmere,W hat/e not
said a hundredth part of what I could utter, Plaut M, GL iil i.
Horace has plus ac, more than, Catullus non minus ac.

c^ Idem, iuxta, are used with Prep, cum and its Case : 'Eo-
dem mecum patre genitus est/ he has the same father
as myself Tac. A, xv. 2. * Quo in loco res nostrae sint
iuxta mecum omnes mtellegitis/ M^ state of our affairs
you all understand as well as I do. Sail C 58.
Horace uses idem with a Dative : * Invitum qui servat idem
facit occidenti,' one who rescues a man against his will
does the same as one who kills , ad Pis, 467.

h) Pro eo (/« proportion) goes before ac, ut, quantum {as),
' Pro eo ac debui,' as I was bound, C. Fam, iv. 5. * Pro
eo ac mereor,' according to my desert, C. in Cat, iv. 2.
* Pro eo ut temporis difficultas tulit,' as far as the existing
difficulties allowed, C. Verr, iil 54. * Pro eo quanti te
fiacio,' in proportion to my esteem for you, C. Fam, iii. 31.

c) Vront {according as). < Prout ipse amabat litteras,' in ac-

cordance with his own love of learning, Nep. Att, i.

d) Praeut {compared with), praequam {compared with) are

Comic : * Praeut futurumst,' compared with what is to be
Plaut Bacch, iv. 9. 5. * Praequam quod molestumst/ com'-
pared with the trouble, Plaut Amph, ii. 2. 3.
i) Proquam is Lucretian, ii. 1137.

2) Correlation of Unlikeness :

'im sunt alio ingenio atque tu,' they are of different temper
Jrom you, C. Leg, 11. 7. 'Stoici multa falsa esse dicunt longeque
aliter se habere ac sensibus videantur,' />5^ Stoics say many things
are delusive and very different from what they seem to the senses,Q,
Ac, iL 31. * Eadem sunt membra in utriusque disputatione, sed
paulo secus a me atque ab iUo distributa,' there are the same
^^oers in the argument of each, but laid out by me somewhat
atfferently from his method, C. d. Or. iil 30. < Vides omnia fere
contra ac dicta sint evenisse,>^« see that almost everything has
turned out contrary to what was foretold, C. Div, ii. 24. * Brutus
luvenis erat longe alius ingenio quam cuius simulationem indu-
erat, Brutus was a youth of very different character from that he
^^^^fned, L. L 56. ' Multiplex quam pro numero damnum
est, the loss is out of all proportion to the number, L. vii. 8. ' Eruca
<liversae est quam lactuca naturae, V^/^fw^v/ is of a different cha-
racter from Uttuce,V\. N, H xlx.^? -^

a) Alius is used by Horace with Ablative ; * Neve putes alium
sapiente bonoque beatum,' and you will deem none
other happy than the wise and good man, Epist, i. 16. 2a

uiyiuzeu uy x^jv^wVt Iv^

314 Latin Wordlore, §76.

b) Contrast is also expressed by repeating alius, or any de-
rivative of alius : * Aliud ratio est, aliud oratio,' reason
is one things speech another ^SiMxxd est ratio atque (et)
oratio. See p. 317.

76
Quam. iv. Correlations of Degree with quam.

The uses of quam differ from those of quomodo and quem-
admodum.

As an Interrogative particle (how), it intensifies Adjectives, Ad-
verbs, and a few Verbs of feeling. See pp. 279-80.

Correlative to tarn expressed or understood (as), it compares the
qualities of things in equal ratio. See p. 309.

Following Comparative words, quam (than) compares things in
a ratio of inequality.

Following ante, prius, post, pridie, &c., quam forms Conjunctions
represented by the English Conjunctions before, after. See Syntax
(Compound Sentences of Time).

Quamdiu (correlative to tamdiu), as long as, is also used as a
Conjunction of Time ; but quam dudum, quam pridem, how long
ago, are Interrogative only.

Com- A) Comparison of Equality with quam (as).

of Eqiia- i) The idioms in which quam (as, how) is attracted to other Ad-
^^- verbs and to Adjectives are remarkable and of frequent use. Thus,
it intensifies Positive words of quality ( = very) ; where the fuU ex-
pression might be tam quam potest. * Ab eius summo, sicut palmae,
rami quam late diffimduntur,' the boughs spread very wicUly from
its summit, like those of the palm-tree, Caes. B, G. vi. 26. * Cenam
afferri quamopimam \m^tr2LV\t,^ he ordered a very splendid repast
to be brought in, Caes. B. H. 33. * Sunt vestrum, indices, quam
multi, qui Pisonem cognoverunt,' there are very many of you,
gentlemen, who knew Piso, C. Verr. iv. 25.

2) With a Verb quam = tam (tantum) quam : as in the Conjunc-
tions quam- vis, quam-libet, how you will, as much as you will\
*quamvis multos,' as many as you will, C. p. Rose. A. 16. So,
*Quamvelitsit potens,' be she cts influential as she will, C. p. Cael.
26. ^Quam vol en t in conviviis faceti sint,' be they as witty as
they please at dinner parties, C. p. Cael. 28. Quam potest, as muck
as possible.

3) The Adjective or Adverb with quam is raised to the Superla-
tive, in order to express the utmost intensity : * Relinquebatur ut
quam plurimos collis occuparet et quam latissimas regiones
praesidiis teneret,* // remained for him to occupy as many hills and
hold by garrisons as large an extent of country as he could, Caes.
B. C iiL 44. See p. 279.

4) Tam . . . quam with Superlative and Comparative words is
an archaic construction. 'Magis quam id reputo tam magis
uror,' the more I think of it, the more I am annoyed, Plaut Bac. v.
I. 5. * Quam pessime quisque fecit, tam maxime tutus est,' M^
worse any man has acted, the safer he is. Sail. lug. 31.

5) Quam by a peculiar attraction (also frequent in Greek) follows
a certain number of Positive Adverbs expressing intensity, espe-

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^v^pt lx^

§ 76. Correlation, 315

dally mire, and, more rarely, admodum, nimis, oppido, per, sane^
valde: Perquam doctus, very teamed \ 'Mire quam illius loci
cogitatio delectat,' / am wonderfully pleased with the very thought
of the piace^ C. Att, i. 11. * Sane quam sum gavisus,' / rejoiced
exceedingly, ' Suos valde quam paucos habet,' C. Fam, xL 13.

JS) The Comparison of Inequality with quam {than) is used after com-
Comparative words unless an Ablative supplies its place. pftrisoo

i) Plus, amplius, magis, minus, potius, non plus, non magis, non ^"*^'y
minus, &c., are used in this comparison, as t am in that of equality :
* Prodest plus imperator quam orator,' a general is of more service
than an orator , C Br, 73. Plus is used in quantitative comparison,
magis in intensive, minus in both these ; amplius in comparison
of extension, potius in that of preference. Non amplius, haud
ampliuSy are used ; but amplius haud is quite inadmissible.

2) If two qualities of the same subject are to be compared, magis
quam may connect the Adjectives. * Celer tuus disertus magis
est quam s^^\^ns,^ your friend Celer is fluent rather than wise, C.
Att. xi la Or, more elegantly, both are Comparative. *Pauli
Aemilii contio fuit verio r quam gratior populo,' the harangue
of Pauhis Aemilius was more truthful than popular, L. xxii. 38.
*Romanibella quaedam fortius quam felicius gesserunt,' the
Romans waged some wars with more valour than success, L. v. 43.
Tacitus has *vementius quam caute,' Agr, 4.

3) Often the Comparative implies some excess of the Positive
quality: 'Senectus est natura loquacior,' old age is naturally
somewhat talkative (or rather too talkative), C. Cat, M, 16. 'The-
mistocles liber ius vivebat,' Themistocles lived too freely, Nep.
Them, i. So plures (i.e. uno) means several, ' In coliunba sentio
pluris videri colores, nee esse plus uno,' in the dove I notice a
semblance of several colours, but not more than one actually, C. Ac.
iL 25. In old Latinity, plures means the departed, the dead,

4) A Comparative and quam may be followed by Particles and
Pronouns: * Siculis plus trumenti imperabatur quam quantum
exararant,' the Sicilians were ordered to pay more com than they had
harvested, C. Verr, iii. 23. See pro (Prepositions).

5) Quam may follow the verbs praestare, malle: ^Accipere
quam facere praestat iniuriam,' C. T, D. v. 19.

6) In Plautus it follows a Positive : 'Tacita bona est mulier
semper quam loquens,' a woman is always better silent than
faking, Rud, iv. 47a

7) An ellipse of quam is frequent after plus, amplius : plus
annum, more than a year; amplius sex menses ; amplius triennium,
C. * Plus quingentos colaphos infregit mihi,' he inflicted on me more
than five hundred blows, Ter. Ad ii. i. 46.

Obs, In Correlation, a Nom. in the second member without verb
expressed may answer to an Accus. in the first : Docui an imam
• . . minoribus esse principiis factam quam liquidus umor aquai
aut nebula aut fumus, Lucr. iiL 426. See M. Lucr. iiL 456.

uiyiuzeu uy x_j ^^^ wVJ Iv

77
Coordi-

316 Latin Wordlore. §77.

Section VII.

Coordination.

L Coordination by Conjunctions.

"****^ Coordinate Sentences are introduced by the Coordinate Con-
junctions enumerated § 57, or by the Relative and its Particles.

Annex- •^) Annexive Conjunctions*

^„. i) The First Class contains, (i) et, que, atque or (before con-

junc- sonants only) ac; (2) neque or nee, neve or ncu.

dons. £t associates diings of equal importance.

Que appends a usual adjunct ; being attached, as enclitic, to the
word, or to the first word of the clause, which it annexes.*

Atque (ac) ^ad-que, adds something important^ as it were by
afterthought

Neque (nee), «^r, and not^ associates negative propositions;
neve (neu) associates prohibitions.

2) The Second Class is Intensive, and associates emphati-
cally. Such are etiam-et iam, also^ even^ for which et itself is
often used; (juoque, also^ even, an emphatic que; item » eo
modo, likewise ; necnon, also^ moreinter. On etiam quoque,
quoque etiam, &c, see M. Lucr. iiL 208.

3) The Annexive Conjunctions et, que, neque, neve, are fre-
quently doubled in Distributive Correlation. The chief forms arc:
et . . . et, neque . . . neque, neve . . . neve : 'Et monere et
moneri propnum est verae amicitiae/ both advising and betng
advised is the property of true friendskip, C. LaeL 25. Mllud
neque taceri ullo modo neque dici pro dignitate potest,' that
matter can neither by any means be omitted from my speech^ nor
yet be spoken as it deserves, C. Verr, ii. 1. 34. ' Carthaginiensibus
condiciones pacis dictae, beUum neve in Africa neve extra Africam
iniussu populi Romani facerent,' the terms of peace dictated to the
Carthaginians were that they should wage no war in or out of
Africa, without authority from the Roman people, L. xxx. 37.

Que . . . que, et . . . que, que ... et, are poetic, but rare in
prose. On et or que in protasis without conjimcdon in apodosis,
see V. Aen, xi. 171.

4) Affirmative and Negative Propositions are associated by et . . .
neque, neque . .. et, nee . . . que: ' Intell^tis Pompeio et
animum praesto fuisse nee consilium defiiisse,' you perceive that
Pompeius had both courage for the occasion, and no lack of counselj
C. Phil, xiii. 6. *Vitia erunt donee homines; sed neque haec
continua, et meliorum interventu pensantur,' vices will exist as long
as men; but as, on the one hand, their operation is not perpetueU, so
also they find a counterpoise in the occasional action of better prin^
ciples, Tac. H, iv. 74. See M. Lucr. i. 280.

* -que sometimes stands after the second word, if the first b a Preposition or odicr
«mall particle : in eoque ; a meque ; tam variisque, &c. And later still in poetry, to
assist metre : nvjiltus ut in terras deplueretque lapis, Tib. iL 5. 71.

y Google

§77- Coordination, 317

5) Distributive association is likewise effected by the sequences,
cum • . . turn; turn . . . turn; qua . . . qua; modo . . •
modo; nunc . . . nunc; modo . • . nunc; simul . . •
simul ; partim . . . partim ; pars . . . pars.

Also by alter. . . alter; alius . . . alius; and its particles,
aliter • . . aliter; alias . . . alias; alibi . . , alibi; &c

Examples :— ' Agesilaus cum a ceteris scriptoribus, tum a
Xenopbonte collaudatus est,' Agesilaus has been extolled both by
oUier writers y and especially by Xenophon^ Nep. Ag, i, * Hae stellae
tum occultantiu: tum rursus aperiuntur/ these stars are at one time
hidden^ at another again display ed^ C. N. D, ii. 51. 'Socrates non
tum hoc, tum illud, sed idem dicebat semper,' Socrates did not
say one thing at one tinUy another at another; but the same thing
alwaysy C. LaeL 4. 'Scripsisti epistulam ad me plenam consiu
summaeque tum benevolentiae tum etiam prudentiae,'j'^« have
written me a letter full of good advice ^ and of great kindness as
well as prudence, C Att, ix. 5. * Omnium Fabiorum, qua plebis,
qua patrum, eximia virtus fuit,' all the Fabii, both plebeians and'
senators, were men of eminent merit, L. ii. 45. *Animalia cibum
partim oris hiatu et dentibus ipsis capessunt, partim unguium
tenadtate arripiunt, partim aduncitate rostrorum; alia sugunt,
alia carpunt, alia vorant, alia mandunt,' some animals take their
food by opening the mouth and applying the teeth, some seize it by
their grasping claws, some by their crooked beaks, some suck, others
peck, others swallow down, others chew, C. N, D, ii. 47. * Natura
alt e rum alterius indigere voluit, quoniam quod alteri deest
praesto plerumque est alteri,' Nature would have one man stand
in need of another, since what one lacks another generally has, Colum.
Pr. 6. 'Aliter cmn tyranno, aliter cum amico vivitur,' we live
in one way with a tyrant, in another with a friend, C. Lael, 10.

6) The Particles used to distribute thought in regular series (Or- Ordi-
dinative) are, primum (/« the first place), deinde (i« the next place), ^^
variously followed by one or more of the words, tum, postea, mox, tides.
praeterea, porro, insuper : and often wound up with denique, in
short, finally, or postremo (tun), in the last place,

'Primum latine Apollo nunquam locutus est; deinde ista
sors inaudita Graecis est ; praeterea Pyrrhi temporibus jam Apollo
versus facere desierat; postremo Pyrrhus hanc amphiboham versus
intell^ere potuisset nihilo magis in se quam in Romanos valere,' in
the first place Apollo never spoke in Latin ; in the next the Greeks
never heard of that oracle ; moreover, in the times of Pyrrhus, Apollo
had already ceased to make verses; in fine, Pyrrhus would have
been able to perceive that the ambiguity in this verse told no more
in his favour than in favour of the Romans, C. Div, ii. 56.

Sometimes tum precedes deinde ; and denique is followed by
postremo. In Cic. Fin, v. 23 (where see Madvig), we find primum
. . . tum .... deinde . . . post . . . tum . . . deinde, without
denique or postremo. See also M. Lucr, iii. 529.

In these sequences primum is used ; seldom primo, which means
originally, at first, but sometimes in the first place, deinde fol-
lowing.

uiyiuzeu uy ■<

.0

gle

3i8 Latin Wordlore. § 78-79,

a) On Asyndeton and Polysyndeton see p. 269 k).

b) Anaphora is the construction which, instead of using An-

nexive Conjunctions, repeats in each clause one or more
words : * Promisit, sed difficulter, sed subductis superciliis,
sed malignis verbis,' hepromisedy but hardly ^ with knitted
brows y and in spiteful language^ Sen. Ben, i. i. * Si recte
Cato iudicavit, non recte frumentarius ille, non recte
aedium pestilentium venditor tacuit,' if Cato judged rightly y
then the corn-factor I cited was not rightly silent i nor yU
the vendor of an unwholesome house. C. Off, iiL 16.
78 -^ ^ M

xKsjunc- B) Disjunctive or Alternative Conjunctions.

<>>n- i) These are aut ; vel, -ve ; sive, seu.

iToi^ Aut distinguishes notions, and opposes them to one another.

Vel ^ancient Imperative of volo) and its enclitic -ve make
optional distinction {pry if you please),

Sive (seu) sometimes means orif\ but, as here cited, it implies
a distinction of name rather than of fact

' Audendum est aliquid universis, aut omnia singulis patienda,'
we must dare something as a body^ or individucUly endure all things^
L. vi. 16. * Sequimur vel antecedimus,' Curt * loco seriove,' in jest
or earnest, L. 'Discessus sive potius fuga,' departure or rather
flight, C.

2) Disjunctive Particles are doubled for the purpose of Distribu-
tion : 'Aut nemo aut, si quisquam, Cato sapiens fiiit,' either na
man or, if any, Cato was wise, C. luxeL 2. * Vel vi, vd clam, vd
precario,' either by force or by stealth, or by petition, Q,p. Ug, 3.

3) Vel may mean * evenJ * Per me vel stertas Ucet,' you may
even snore if you will for me, C. Acu. 29. And ^for instance.*
' Amoris tui vestigia vel de Tigellio perspexi,' C. Fam, vii. 24.

Vel certe, or at least : vel etiam, or perhaps. See p. 279.
79
^y«^- C) Adversative Conjunctions.

Con- The Adversative Conjimctions are autem,sed; verum, vero ;

Jj^ tamen ; at (ast), atqui ; ceterum.

i) Autem (akin to aut), the weakest of these, does not oppose
strongly, but corrects slightly, adds, or continues, with the English
but, now, or and. It is postpositive, following the first word or (after
est, sunt) the second word in its clause : *Magnes lapis est, qui
ferrum ad se trahit : rationem autem, cur id fiat, afferre non pos-
sumus,* the magnet is a stone which attracts iron ; but a reason
for this effect we cannot assign, C. Div. i. 86. ' Bonum est autem
recta praecipere,* Lact.

d) Autem (followed by immo vero) is used with a word re-
peated interrogatively, with a view to correction. * Ferendus
tibi in hoc mens error : ferendus autem ? immo vero
etiam adiuvandus,' you must endure my mistake here:
endure, do I say t you must e^fen abet it, C. Att. xiL 42.
2) Sed, a form of se- {separate), distinguishes with more or less
of opposition. After a negative, it supplies an adverse or differing
notion: 'Otifructus est non contentio animi sed relaxatio,' the
advantage of leisure is not mental exertion, but reUixaiion, C. d.

uiyiuzeu uy x^j^^^^^ -x i-V^

% 79- Coordination, 3 19

Or, iL 5. Otherwise it is corrective : * Contemno magnitudinem
doloris. Sed si est tantus dolor quantus Philoctetae/ &c I despise
greatness of pain. But suppose it as great as that of PhilocteteSy &c.
C. 71 D. ii. 19. Or it is used in passing on to new points or topics :
^Ego sane a Quinto nostro dissentio : sed ea quae restant audia-
mus,' / quite differ from our friend Quintus, But let us hear what
remains to be said^ C. N, D,i\, i.

3) Verum {but truly) resembles sed in use, but is stronger ;
'Non qtiid nobis utile, verum quid oratori necessarium sit, quae-
rimus,' we are not inquiring what is profitable to us, but rather
what is necessary for an orator, C. d. Or, i. 60.

Sed and verum are praepositive, standing first in their clause.

4) Vero {but in truth) when used as a Conjunction is postposi-
tive, and generally corrects by heightening me previous notion :
* Quidquid est quod bonum sit, id expetendum est ; quod autem ex-
petendum, id certe approbandum ; quod vero approbaris, idgratiun
acceptumque habendum,' whatever is good, is desirable; what is
desirable, is surely to be approved; again what you approve must
be deemed agreeable and acceptable, C T, D, v. 25.

5) Tamen {yet, however, nevertheless) detracts from t];ie force of
a concession, either expressed by etsi, quamvis, &c., or implied in
the context It stands in any part of the sentence where it may be
most emphatic. See Syntax (Concessive Sentences).

Sed tamen, attamen^ verumtamen, et tamen {but yet), are used.

6) At (anciently ast) is strongly adversative : and is used in ob-
jection, exclamation, interrogation, imprecation, &c.

' Non placet M. Antonio consulatus meus ; at placuit P. Servilio,'
&c. my consulship is not liked by Marcus Antonius, but it was
liked by Publius Servilius, &c C. Phil, ii. 12. *At te di deaeque
perduint,' may the gods and goddesses destroy thee ! Ter. Hec, i. 2.
59. *Aeschines in Demosthenem invehitur : at quam rhetorice,
quam copiose!' Aeschines upbraids Demosthenes: aye, and how
skilfully, how copiously, C. 7". D. iii. 26.

d) At » at tamen : ' Si se ipsos illi nostri hberatores e con-
spectu nostro abstulerunt, at exemplum reliquerunt,' if
those champions of our freedom have removed themselves
from our view, yet they have left us their example, C. PML
ii. 44.

B) At enim, at vero, as well as at alone, are used, like AX\o
v^ A/n in Greek, to introduce an objection which must be
answered. 'At enim ad Verrem pecunia ista non per-
venit Quae est ista defensio ?' &c. but that money, it is
urged, never reached Verres, What a lame defence is
here? &c., C. Verr, ii. 10. * At vero malum est liberos
amittere. Malum, nisi hoc peius sit, haec sufferre et per-
peti,' C. Fam, iv. 5. * At ego, inquit, vobis radonem osten-
dam, qua tanta mala ista effugiatis,' Sail Cat, 40.

c) Atqui {yes but, but indeed) adds an objection which needs
to be considered. ' O rem, inquis, difficilem atque inex-
plicabilem ! Atqui explicanda est,' O what a difficult
and inexplicable matter, you say f Yes, but it must be ex^
plained, C. Att, viii. 3. See l/l,Lucr. i. 755. ^ j

uiyiuzeu uy ■N^Jv-/v_-'>t Iv^

8o

320 Latin Wordlore. {80-82.

7) Ceterum (but for the rest, but) is used by historians. ' Qui
Romanorum amicitiam colunt, multum laborem suscipiunt: cete-
rum ex omnibus maxime tuti sunt^' SalL lug, 14. So ceteroqui(ii).

Oratti D) Causal Conjunctions.

j^ i) Nam {Jory for instance^ to be sure) introduces a cause as ex-

twos. planatory ; enim (which follows the first or, after est, the second

word of a clause) introduces a proo£ Nam que is a strengthened

form of nam, etenim of enim : they are usually, in prose, the first

words in their clause.

a) Nam is used in urgent Interrogations, either appended to

the Interrogative (cjuisnam, cumam, &c.), or, in old Latin
chiefly, preceding it. *Nam quid ego nunc dicam de patre?*
why what can I now say 0/ my father? Ter. An, L 5, 17,

b) Enim is linked with other Particles : etenim, for, neque

enim, sed enim, at enim, verum enim, enimvero,
verum enimvero. All these may b^n a sentence.
*Enimvero, Dave, nihil loci'st segnitiae/ why really^
Daims, there is no room for laziness^ Ter. An, l 3. i,

c) Enim may be emphatic (jes^ 'Id enim est, inquies,

ostentum,' C. Div. ii. 26. 'Tibi enim, tibi, maxima luno,'

V. Aen, viii. 84.
8x ^ . .

Illative ^ Illative Conjimctions.

W i) Igitur, ergo, therefore, itaque, proinde (proin).

I g i t u r expresses a reasonable inference : ergo a necessary infer-
ence; itaque (and so) an inference arising from the antecedence;
proinde {so then) an inference proportioned to the antecedence.

2) Ideo, idcirco, propterea {on that account), point to a ground of
fact (quod). Hoc, on this ground, M. Lucr, hi 531.

have

3) The Relative words quare, quamobrem, quapropter, quocirca,
Lve a Conclusive sense : {wherefore, on which account),^

83

Coonu- ii* Coordination by the Relative and its Par-

^'SL- tides.

**^ 1) The Relative itself may be equal to a Personal or Demon-

strative Pronoun with a Particle (et, autcm, enim, igitur, &c).

'Res loquitur ipsa: quae( = et ea) semper valet plurimum,' M^
fact itself speaks; and this always has most weight, C. p. Mil, 2a
'Sunt igitur firmi et constantes eligendi : cuius ( = eius autem)
generis est magna penuria,* yfrw and steady friends must be
chosen: but of this class there is aereat dearth, C. Lael, 17. * Mul-
tas ad res perutiles Xenophontis libri stmt, quos ( «eos igitur) legite
studiose,' the works of Xenophon are useful for many purposes :
read them then, I beg, with care, C. Cat. M, 17.

Note, A Particle which appears with a Relative, belongs really
to a Demonstrative tmderstood (or expressed in another clause).
'Quod est bonum omne laudabUe est; quod autem laudabile

^ The uses of Latin Adverbs and Coi\)unctions are a very extendve subject, wiildi can-
not be fully treated in a Grammar of moderate size. Hand's unfimshed edition of Tursel-
Itnns de Particulis extends only to the letter P, and fills four large ocUvo volumes.

lOOgle

f 83, Coordination. 32 1

est, omne est honcstum; bonum igitur quod est, honestum est,' C,
Fin. iiL 8, where autem and igitur belong to id understood.

2) The attraction of the Antecedent to the Relative Clause is a
frequent idiom. Hence a peculiar use of the Relative arises.
* Moriar ni, quae tua gloria est, puto te malle a Caesare con-
suli quam inaurari,' upon my life I ininkj such is your vanityyvou
vfould rather be consulted l^ Caesar than plated with gold, C. ram.
viL 13. 'Quanta potuit adhiberi festinatio,' L. xlv. i.

3) When a Noun has an Attribute, especially a Superlative, and
a Relative Clause further explaining it, the Attribute is often at-
tracted to the Clause : 'Themistocles noctu de servis suis, quern
habuit fidelissimum, ad Xerxem misit.' Themistocles sent to
Xerxes by night the most faithjul slave he nod, Nep. Them, 4.

4) When the Relative Clause has another subordinate to it, the
Rdative may be constructed not with its own, but with its subordl-
Bate Clause : ' Aberat omnis dolor, qui si adesset Ubr quem si
b adesset) non molliter ferret,' all pain wcls absent y but had any been
present^ he would have borne it without weakness, C. Fin, ii. 20.

5) A Relative may be connected with a Participial construction.
' Non sunt ea bona dicenda nee habenda, quibus abundantem
licet esse miserrimum^' those things ought not to be called or held
goody amidst the overflow of which one mc^ be utterly wretched, C.

T, D. V. 15.

With an Infinitive Clause. 'In eos, quos speramus nobis
profnturos, non dubitamus beneficia conferre,' we do not hesitate
to confer benefits on those from whom we hope to derive advantage,
C. Of.l 15.

With an Interrogation. 'Magnus orator fiiit Demosthenes :
quem quis umquam dicendo superavit?' Demosthenes was a great
orator : for who ever surpassed Aim in speaking f C.

6} The Relative not only connects Clauses with Principal Sen-
tences, but it is used, especially by Cicero, in the beginning of Prin-
cipal Sentences, to shew their logical connexion with something which
has gone before. Such are the phrases quo facto, qua re cog-
nita, quae cum ita sint, qua de causa, &c.

Also quod {^loWy but, in fact , &c) stands before Conjunctions,
si, nisi, etsi, quoniam, quia, quum, ubi, utinam, &c. : 'Fit
protinus hac re audita ex castris Gallorum fiiga : quod nisi cr&*
oris subsidiis ac totius die! labore milites fiiissent defessi, omnes
hostium copiae deleri potuissent,' on this intelligence the Gauls
forsook their camp : in fact, if our troops had not been worn out
by frequent skirmishes and a whole da^s fatigue, the entire forces
of the enemy might have been destroyed, Caes. B, G, vii. 88. See C
Offn L 14, Div, XL 62, Fim. i. 20 ; Liv. xxul 34, xxxvi. 2.

7) Quod is also used (M. Lucr^ ii, 248.)

a) as quantum : 'Tu, (juod poteris, nos consiliis iuvabis,'
you will help me with your advice as far as you can, C
Att, X 2. ' Epicurus se unus, quod sciam, sapientem pro->
fiteri est ausus,' Epicurus is the only man^ so far as I
know, who ventured to prof ess wisdom, Q, Fin, ii. 3.

uiyiuzeu uy n^JVJvJVJ Iv

322 Latin Wardlare. %%%.

b) opening a sentence in relation to something about to be

stated {as to) : see M. Lucr. iv. 855 : * Quod scribis te
velle scire qui sit reipublicae status, summa dissensio est,'
as to the wish you express in your Utter to know the am-
diUon of public affairs^ all is dtscordy C. Fam, i. 7.

c) as quare : ^Est quod te visam,' there is something I must

see you for, Plaut * Credo ego vos znirari qu id sit quod
ego surrexerim/ / imagine you are wondering for what
reason I have stood up^ C.

d) occasionally for ex quo {since) : *Dies tertius est quod

audivi recitantem Augurinum/ // is now three days since I
heard Augurinus ready PL Ep, iv. 27.
So cum : *Multi anni sunt cum ille in acre meo est,* // is

many years that he is in my ^ood books, C. Fam. xv. 14.
Andtantum auod for vix ubi, vixdum : 'Qui tantum
quod ad hostis pervenerat, Datames signa inferri iubet,'
he liad but just reached the enemy when Datames ordered
the standards to advance, Nep. Dat. 6. 'Tantum quod
ex Aroinati veneram, cum mihi litterae a te redditae sunt,'
I had just arrived from my house at Arpinum, when a
Utter from you was delivered to me, C. Fam, vii. 23.
NoU I. The transition by which the Relative quod i^hich) be-
comes the Conjimction of Fact quod {that) and tne Causal Con-
junction quod (because) is apparent from such examples. An an-
alogous transition appears in the English that, and the Greek ^1.
Concede quod postulas, I grant (the thing) that you ask.
Rectum est quod postulas, (the thing) that you ask is right,
Nefas est quod postulas, (the thine) that you ask is a sin.
Gaudeo quod venisti, I am glad that you are come,
Gratum est quod venisti, it is apUasure that you are come,
Consolatio est quod venisti, it is a comfort that you are come.
Hoc consolatur quod venisti, this comforts, that you are come,
Fugit iddrco q.uod timet, hekUs because that he fears.
Venit ideo quod pactus est, he came because that he agreed
Felix est quod sapiens tsX,heis happy in that he is wise.

Note 2. On change of construction after ReL, see M. Lucr. L
720, and Verg. Aen. vL 284.

8) The place of the Relative can be taken by its Particles, ubi,
unde, quo, qua, &c

Ubi may stand for in quo, in qua, in quibus, of place,
person, or thing : * Porticus haec ipsa, ubi ( - in qua) inambulamus/
this very colonnade in which we are walking, C, d Or. H 5.

Unde stands for ex quo, qua, quibus, a quo, qua, quibus^
&c., and is also referred to place, person, or thing: * Pontes
unde (ex quibus) hauriretis,' sources from which you might
draw, C d Or, i, 46. 'Eloquentia, unde (»a qua) longe
absum,' eloquence, from which I am far removed, C. Brut 92.

Quo for ad quem, quam, quod, quos, quae, &c. * Dignas
Roma locus quo (-ad quem) deus omnis eaX,* Rome is a place
worthy to be visited by every deity, Ov. F. iv. 270.

Such Particles are connected with mood according to die same
rules as the Relative Pronoun.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

§83. Negative Words. 323

Section VIII.
Negative Words. j^^

i Ne and its Compounds. words.

i) From the Negative Root na come the Particles nS^ ng.

N^ the lighter form, is used as an encUtic Interrogative. Ne.

It enters into the composition of many words : n^que (nee),
xie-uter, ne-utiquam, non, nisi (for n5-si), nihil (for n€-hil), nemo
/for n^homo), nulhis (ne-ullus), ntimquam (ne-umquam), nusquam
(ne-usquam) : nS-queo, ne-scio, nolo (nS-volo), n^fas and its deri-
vatives: as nee, of nec-dum, nec-non, nec-opinus, nqg^-otium,
]i<^-lego. On nee for non, see M. Lucr, ii. 23.

Ne, the strengthened form, is used in prohibitive and final con-
struction, and in the phrases ne . . . quidem, nedum, &c.

It enters into the composition of words : ne-ve (neu), nS-cubi,
&C. ; ne-quaquam, ne-quiquam, ne-quam ; in old Latin more
largely, as funeia ne-fimera m Catullus.

On ni, nei, as old forms of ne, see M. Lucr, ii. 734.

2) Non,haud (anc. haut), not, deny Predication or Attribution,
Non simply denies : haud somewhat more strongly.

Cicero rarely uses haud with a Verb, except in the phrase 'haud
sdo an' (often in MSS. hauscio an). But 'Haud equidem assen-
tior,' Leg, iiL 11. See also Cat, M, xxiii. 82, Div, ii. 39.

The ordinary use of haud is with Adjectives and Adverbs. Thus
in C. haud deter ior, haud mediocris, haud sane, haud paulo,haud
facQe, haud fere quisquam, haud umquam. Comic poets use haud
with Verbs, especially with possum: Virgil rarely with finite
Verbs. Horace has * haud mihi dero.'

3) Nihil (nil) maybe used as a Particle [^n no wise) : nihil opus
est, nihil moror, nihU me fallis. Rarely with Adjectives and Par-
ticiples: 'Nihil similis/ L. 'Senatus nihil sane fntentus,' SalL
Cat. 17. * Animos nil magnae laudis egentis,* Virg. Ae, v. 751.

4^ Soquicquam : 'Nehoc quidem ipso quicquam opus fiiit
iu^cio,' even of this judgment there was no need, C. d, Inv, iL 27.

5) N ullu s is used with the force of non. ' Sextus ab armis nul-
lus discedit,' Sextus does not lay down his armsy C. Att, xv. 22.

6) The Substantive nemo (ne-homo) is used for nullus : as

' Nemo pictor/ no painter, C. * Nemo fere adulescens,' hardly any ,

young man ; even ' hominem neminem,' C. Fam, xiii. 55. ' Nemo
MXLWS^ not one person, L. iii. 12. So quisquam, though Substan-
tival, is found with homo, civis, &c.

On the other hand, Gen. nullius, AbL nuUo, are used as Cases of
nemo, iarely of nihil 'Si iniuste neminem laesit, si nullius
aures voluntatemve violavit, si nemini, ut levissime dicam, odio nee
domi nee mihtiae fiiit,' if he has harmed no one unjustly ^ if he has
done violence to no man^ by word or act, if, to say the leasts he has

Y 2

Digitized byCjOOQlC

324 Latin Wordlore. §84.

been disagreeable to none at home or abroad^ &&, C p, Mur. 4a
' Ut quisque sic munitus est ut nullo ^eat,' according as each man
is so provided as to want nobody s help^ C. LaeL 9.

a) Non ita, baud ita^ are used as modified Negatives : non

ita pridem, haud ita pridem, (not very long aeo).
Neutiquam (not at all) is chiefly found in Comedy : also in a

few places of Cicero and Livy. L. has neutique.
Nequiquam, (to no purpose), Nequaquam^ haudquaquam, {by

no means),
ff) Vix, scarcely, hardly, is a modified Negative.

c) Minus is used as nearly » non. 'Nonnimiquam ea, quae

praedicta sunt^ minus eveniunt,' sometimes predictions JSul
to turn out true^ C. Div, i. 14. Especially quominus ( -ut
eo minus), and sin minus, but if not,
Minime {least of all ^ not at all) is a strong Negative.

d) The enclitic dum {awhile, yet) is compoimded with all the

Negatives except nemo ; also with vix ; nondum, haud'
dum, nullusdum, nihildum, vixdimL

ii Succeeding Negatives.

i) A Native precedes the word which it affects ; and if another
Negative follows within the same predication, the negation is an-
nulled, and the predication becomes Affirmative.

Hence arise new Pronominal forms ; some Indefinite :
nonnuUus nearly ■> aliqui
nonnemo — *• aliquis

nonnihil — >• aliquid

nonnumquam — « aliquando

some Universal : as,

nuUus non nearly » onmis

nemo non — » onmes or unusquisque

nihil non — a omnia

numquam non — = semper

nusquam non — ■■ ubique

So, neque . . . non is nearly >etiam (also).

2) Non followed by non forms a strong affirmative : thus, non
possum nonanecesse est mihi. ^Non potui non dare litteras
ad Caesarem,' I could not but write to Caesar, C. Att, viiL 2.

So, nemo . . • non : nihil . . . non, &c *Tuum consilium nemo
potest non maxime laudare,' nobody can help praising your de-
sign highly, C. Fam. iv. 7.

Non modo, non tantum, not only ; modo non, tantum non, only
not t» all but'. *.Modo non montis auri poUicens,' promising all
but mountains of gold, Ter. Ph, i. 2. 18.

3) If a negative proposition branches into two clauses with
neque . . . neque, the proposition remains negative :'* Caesar
numquam ne^ue fecit neque fecisset ea quae nunc ex falsts
eius commentanis proferuntur,' Caesar never did nor would have
done the things wluch are produced from his spurious manuscr^ts^
C Fam. xiv. 13.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

5S5- Negative Words. 325

^i) As the English * and not* is usually expressed by neque ;
and by * et non ' only when the native belongs emphati-
cally to the following word ; so * and none^ * and no-
tkingi * and nobody ^ ' and never ^ &c., are expressed by
* neque ullus,' * neque quicquam,' *nec quisquam,' 'nee
umquam/ &c ; not by et nullus, et nihil, et nemo, et num-
quam, &c. : but if the negative is emphasised, the latter
forms must be used : * Domus temere et nullo consilio
administratur/ the household is conducted in a confused
wayy and without any plan^ C. d Inv, L 34.

^) Neque is used with vero, tamen, enim, rarely autem, to con-
nect Adversative and Causal Sentences nqg^tivdy.

85
iii Ne . . . quidem, nedum, non modo, &c. Ne..

<tukieB.

i) Ne . . . ()uidem«»/7/ eveny takes the emphatic words be-
tween the particles. * Ne ad Catonem quidem provocabo/ /
will not appeal even to Cato^ C. Att, iv. i. Anodier negative
may go bdore, with the predicative word : *Non fogio ne hos
quidem mores,' I do not shun even these morals^ C. Verr. iiL 9a

Nee is rarely used for ne . . . quidem. ' Esse aliquid manis
et subterranea regna nee pueri credunt,' thcU ghosts and sublet'
ranean realms have any existence not even boys Believe^ luv. iL 152.

2) Nedum indicates that a predication is out of the question. NediM.
Hence with previous negative, it means ' much less ; ' with affirm-
ative (usually) * not to say* * Satrapa si siet amator, numquam
suiferreeius sumptus queat, nedum tu possis,' if a satrap were

her lover y he could not support her expenses y much less can' you ^
Ter. Haul. iiL i. 43. 'Nulla simulacra urbibus, nedum templis,
sinunt,' th^ allow HO images to their cities^ much less to their
templesy Tac H, v. 5. 'Tu quoniam quartana cares et nedum
morbum removisti sed etiam gravedinem, te vegetum nobis in
Graecia siste,' since you are free from quartan fever^ and rid not to
say of disease but even of languor^ present yourself to us in Greece
flourishing^ C. Att. x. 16.

Sometimes, but not in Cicero, nedum after an affirmative
means ' much more not* * Et consules bellicosos creates, c^ui vd
in pace bellum excitare possent, nedum in bello respirare civitatem
forent passuri,' warlike consuls had been elected^ wnd could sHr up
war even in peace ^ much more in war would not suffer the stcUe to
take breathy L. xlv. 29. See also Hot, ad Pis, 69.

3) When the principal sentence contains not onfyy an Adversa-
tive clause ipui) succeeds. Hence non modo, non solum, are
followed by sea, verum, sed etiam, verum etiam^ &c. : 'Non
solum verbis arte positis moventur onmes, verum etiam numeris
ac vocibus/ all men are affected not only by words skilfully ar^
rangedy but also by measures and soundSy C. d Or, iiL 5a

a) Also, non modo non, non solum non are followed by
sed, sed etiam, &c, or by sed ne . . . quidem, sed
neque, &c: ' Hoc non modo non pro me, sed contra
me est potius,' this is not only not for me^ but even against
mey C. d Or. iiL 20. ' Ego non modo ^^,M^ '&&^^.C

326 Latin Wordlore. (86.

sed ne reprehendo qu idem factum tiiiim,'/iM«iw/tf«Ar
not angry with you^ but do not even blame your deed^ C
p. Suit i8.
^) When both sentences have a common verb, non modo
may be elliptically placed in the former, for non mo do
non: ^Talis vir non modo facere, sed ne cogitare

?uidem quicquam audebit, quod non honestum sit*
=» sed etiam cogitare non audebit), such a man mil not
venture, not merely to do^ but even to conceive anything
which is not morally right, C. Off, iii. 19. 'Nihil eis
Venes non modo de fructu, sed ne de bonis qui-
dem suis reliqui fecit' Verres left them nothing, I do not
say of their produce^ but even of their property^ C. Verr.
iiL 4^.

c) The sentences are sometimes inverted, so that non modo «

much less: 'Ne sues quidem id velint, non modo ipse,'
not even swine would desire that, much less hiniself
C. r. D. i. 38.

d) Non tam, not so much, is followed by sed 01 sed magis. See

M. Lucr. iii. 823.

Section IX.
^ ^ Questions and Answers,
and* 1. Questions (direct or oblique: see S 73).

An-

""•^ Interrogation may be Single. or Disjunctive^
gj^* i Single Interrogation without a Particle.

^S! An Interrogation in English is indicated by the Verb at the

beginning, ' Will you gof But in Latin the sense or tone shews
the distinction. * Certe patrem tuum non occidisti ?' custeredly
you did not kill your father f Suet. Aug 33, which suggests the
reply, Certe non occidi. * Infelix est rabricius quod nis suum
fodit?' is Fabricius unhappy in having to dighis^oundf Sen.
Prov^ 3. Answer, Non est. Sometimes the question is remon-
strative, and equivalent to a strong exhortation: 'Non pudet ad
morem discincti vivere Nattae?^ are you not ashamed of Uinng
in the fashion of dissolute Natta t Pers, iii. 31. Or attention is
awakened: as 'Cernis odoratis ut luceat ignibus aether?' seest
thou with scented fires how shines the sky t Ov. /^ i. 75. * Viden
tu hunc?* Plant. Capt iii. 4. 25. Videtisne ut, &a

ii Single Interrogation with a Particle.

i) Num expects a negative answer ; nonne, an affirmative ;
ne asks indifferentiy : * N um formidulosus, obsecro, cs, mi homo ?
— Egone formidulosus? nemo'st hominum, qui vivat, minus/
you in a fright^ pray, my good fellow t^I in a fright? tto u
alive is less so. Ten Eun. iv. 6. 19. 'Nonne miseri sumus ? »

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^\^ -x i-V^

|g6. Questicms and Answers. 327

d) Numne, numnam, are used : also ecquis, numquis : ' Deum
ipsum numne vidisti ?' have you seen God Himself f (no),
C. N, D. i. 31. * N um nam ego perii V am I a lost man f
(I hope not), Ter. Eun, v. 4. 25. 'Ecquis me vivit
hodie fortimatior?' lives there any this day more lucky
ikon If Ter. Eun. v. 8. i. * Numquis hic est ? nemo
est : numquis hinc me sequitur?' is there any one
here t nobody: is any one following me out t Ter. Eun.

2j An properly signifies ^or, and introduces the second and fol-
lowmg members of double, triple, &c. questions. When it seems to
introduce a single interrogation, it really refers to a previous ques-
tion conceived in the mind (' is this admitted or^ &c.). Hence it
confirms a statement by exhibiting the inadmissibility of the op-
posite notion : * Oratorem irasci minime decet, simulare non de-
decet An tibi irasci tum videmur cimi quid in causis acrius et
vehementius dicimus ? ' anger is unbecoming in an orator y the sem-
blance of anger is not unbecoming, (Do you allow this ?) or do you
suppose we are really angry when we speak with more than usual
vehemence f C. T. 2>. iv. 25 — meaning : *we are not really angry
when we so speak ; the semblance dierefore affords no argmnent
against the maxim that anger is imbecoming in an orator.'

Sometimes an refers to aliudne understood : 'Quid dices? an

Siciliam virtute tua liberatam?' what will you sayt that by your

valour Sicily was freed f C. Verr. v. 2. 5. (Will you say anything

else, or, &c » will you not probably say that, &c.) See 5 87, Foot-note.

d) An has a peculiar use after Verbs expressing uncertainty, as

nescio, haud scio, dubito. When in English we say, * /

know not whether he is coming,* we imply a probability

that ' he will not come : ' but in Latin, nescio an veniat

usually means existimo eum venire. So, 'Nescio an

modum excesserint,' / am inclined to think they have over'

stepped the limit, lust. xiii. 2. Hence it is used almost

adverbially: ' Sapientissimus et haud scio an omnium

praestantissimus,' /A/ wisest and perhaps the most excellent

of all, C. N. Z>. ii. 4.

3) The doubled Conjunction may mark uncertainty : ' Hanc
orationem in Origines suas rettulit paucis antequam mor-
tuus est an diebus an mensibus,' tnis speech he entered in
his Origines a few days (must we say) or months before
he diea,C, Brut, 23. This idiom is frequent in Tacitus.

c) If it were wished to express the meanings ^probably not{
' I am inclined to think not,* &c., a Negative was intro-
duced in the subordination : Nescio an non veniat, /
think he is not coming, ' Quaere rationem cur ita vide-
atur : quam ut maxime inveneris, quod haud scio an
non possis, non tu ostenderis,' &c., seek a ground for this
opinion; but though you be ever so successful in finding
oney which I rather think you cannot do, you will not have
shewn. Sec, C. Ac, ii. 25. 'Contigit tibi, quod haud scio
a n n e m i n i,' there has happened to you what I rather think
has befallen no one else, C. Qu, Fr, i. i. It is questioned

uiyiuzeu uy x^j v^ v^ pt iv-

328 Latin Wordlore. §87.

whether the same sense is obtained by using, instead of
Negatives, those Pronouns and Adverbs which are only
found in negative or hypothetical sentences, quisquam,
ullus, unquam^ &c. ; but, as the reading in all Uie places
cited is doubtful, it is safer to use the Negatives for this
purpose.
d) Writers of the Silver age sometimes give nescio an the
negative force^ ^ I think not*

Di^ iii Disjunctive Interrogation has four varie-

tiveln- ties.

SS**" In First Member. In Second Member.

i) utrum (utrumne) an

2) ne an

3) No Particle an (anne)

4) No Particle ne.*

i) * Utrum ea vestra an nostra culpa est ?' is that your fault or
ours t C. Ac. iv. 29. * Quod nescire malum est agitamus, utrumne
divitiis homines an sint virtute beati,' we discussy what it is an
evil to be ignorant of, whether men are happy by riches or virtue^
Hor. S. il 6. 73.

2) ' Quod si dies notandus fuit, eumne potius notaret, quo natu&
an eum, quo sapiens factus est ?' now, if a day was to be marked^
should he have marked that rather, on which he was bom, or that on
which he became wise? C. *Quaeritur virtus suamne propter
dignitatem an propter fructus aliquos expetatur,* it is a question
whether virtue be sought for its own worth or for some profits ac-
cruing, C. d. Or, iii. 29.

3) * Recto itinere duxisti exercitum ad hostis an super omnes an-
fractus viarum ? ' did you march your army straight to the enemy ^
or by every winding roadf L. xxxviii. 45. ' Retert oratorem qui
audiant, senatus an populus an judices, frequentes an paud an
singuli,' it is of moment who an orator's audience are, the senate or
people or bench of judges ; a crowd or a few persons or an iniS-
vidual, C. d. Or, iii. 55.

4) 'Albus aterne fiieris ignorans,' not knowing whether you
were white or black, Q, Phil. ii. 16. *Tarquinius Superbus Prisci
Tarquinii filius neposne fuerit, parum liquet," whether TarquiH
the rroud was son or grandson of Tarquin the elder, is not certain,
L. L 41. This form is only used in Oblique Interrogation.

a) An ... an, ne . . . ne, are poetic, but rare in prose :
* Distat an maturitas uvarum in torcularibus fiat an in
ramis,' // makes a difference whether the p^afes become
ripe in the press-rooms or on the boughs, Plin. N. H, xv. I.
*Quiteneant . . . hominesne feraene Quaerere consti-

» Madvig (C>>wr. 930), with whom Hand concurs (TVrrr. vr. j,n\ denies that the fem
num . . an can be cUssed with the other Di^unctive fonns, in which one altenatn*
must be affirmed. As num always points to a negative answer, an, when annexed to
it, becomes aUno8t=annon. *Num furis? an prudens ludis me obecura casendo?' a^t
yougoingmad^ or do ytmpur^asefy deceiv* mt with dar^fffUcUsf Kfx.S.iL %. ^Tm-
idjring tluu the Utter is the &ct.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

f 8S. Questions and A nswers. 329

tuit,' he resolves to inquire who inhabit it . . , whether
men or wild beasts^ Verg, Aen. I 308.
Q If in the Second Member there is a Negation of the former,
necne or annon is used, generally without, sometimes
with, the Verb repeated : 'Fiat necne fiat id quaeritur,' the
question is whether it does happen or not^ C. Fam, i. 39. ' Di
utrum sint necne sint quaeritur/ it is in question whether
gods exist or not, C. Jv, D, iii. 7. * Num tabulas habet
annon ? ' has he the accounts or not t C. p. Qu. Necne is
not used after nimi ; and only in Oblique Interrogation.

11. Answers.

88

L Affirmative Answers in Latin are given in Aflame-
three ways. Swi^

1} By repeating the emphatic word of the question in the required
person or case : * Abiit Chtipho. — Solus ? S olus/ Clitipho is gone.
Alone t AlonCy Ter. Haut v. i. 31. *Virtutes narro. — Meas?
Tuas.' I talk of virtues. JVhat, mincf^Vours, Ter. Ad iv. i.
19. 'Tunenegas? Nego hercle vero,' do you deny itf Ves,
upon my wordy I do^ Plant Men, iv. 2. 67.

2) By some expression equivalent to a repetition of the emphatic
woid: 'Die, Chaerea tuam vestem detraxit tibi? Factum,' say^
did Chaerea strip your coat offf He did^ Ter. Eun, iv. 4. 39. Or
increasing the emphasis : 'Pater est? Ipsust,' w // my father t
Himself Ter. 'An voluptas in bonis habenda est? At que in
rsiZiiXTCix^ ^\i\^qt£lI is pleasure to be reckoned among goods f Ay^
and among the greatesty C.

3) By Afl&rmative Particles, either alone, or joined to the em-
phatic word. Such are, it a, sane, etiam, verum, utique, vero,
certe, ita plane, ita enimvero, ita prorsus, omnino, admodum, recte,
profecto. ' Numquid vis ? Etiam,' do you want anything t YeSy
Ter. * Visne potiora tantum interrogem ? Sane,' would you have
me ask only the principal matters f Exactly so, C. ' Fuisti saepe,
credo, cum Athenis esses, in scholis philosophorum ? Vero, ac
libenter cmidetayyou were often, I suppose, when yott were at Athens,
in the schools of the philosophers f Yes, and with pleasure, C. T.
D.'± II.

d) Nimirum, nempe, quippe, videlicet, scilicet (obviously,
to be sure, why), express irony: 'Quern hunc appellas,
Zeno ? Beatum, inquit Etiam beatissimmn ? Quippe,
inquiet,' what call you this man, Zeno f Happy, says he. ■
Supremely happy, too f Why yes, he will say, C. Pin, v.
28. ' Tibi ego possem irasci ? Scilicet,' could I have been
angry with you f Very likely I C. Qu, Fr, \, 3.

^) Certo always affirms positively {for certain^ : certe some-
times affirms positively, sometimes restnctively {at all
events, at least), Vero affirms positively {of a trutH), or it
may be used as an Adversative Particle. Vere means
verily, really, truly.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

330 Latin Wordlare. {89-9CX

2^- iL Negative Answers are also given in three

nreis. WayS.

i) By repeating the emphatic word with a Negative Particle :
'Estne frater intus? N on est,' is my brother inf No^ Ter. Ad,
iv. 2. 3a

2) By Negative Particles alone, such as non, non vero, non ita,
mioime, minime vero, nihil sane, nihil vero minus, nequaquam, ne
id qtiidem, &a ' Cognitorem adscribit Sthenio. Quern? Cogna-
torn aliquem aut propinquum? Non. Thermitanum aliquem,
honestum hominem ac nobilem? Neidquidem. At Siculum,
in quo aliquis splendor dignitasque esset? Minime,' ^ assigns to
Sthenius a defender. IVhom f Was it some blood-relation or kins-
man t No. Some inhabitant of Thermae, a man of honour and
- - '- - ' - — r/^buti ~

ranh f Not even that. Well, but a Sicilian^ possessing some
nence and dignity f Far from it, C. Verr. iL 43. ' Non opus est ?
Non hercle vero,' is there no occasion f None, I assure you, Teiv
Haut iiL 3. 50.

3) By inmio {nay rather ^ih^ Greek iiivo^v), when the answer
is not simply Negative, but at the same time corrective of the
opinion implied in the question : ' Ubi fuit Sulla, ntmi Romae ?
Immo longe afuit,' where was Sulla t was he at Rome? Nt^,
he was at a great distance ^om it, C. p. Sull. 19. * Visne adesse me
una? Immo longe abi,' would you like me to attend with you t
No, keep at a distance, Ter. ' Sicine hunc decipis ? Immoenim-
vero hie me decipit,' is it thus you deceive himt Nay, to tell the
truth, he is deceiving me, Ter. Ph. iii. 2. 43. Immo is also used
when the answer admits the fact, but adds some heightening circum-
stance : as ' Hie tamen vivit Vivit ? Immo etiam in senatum
venit,' yet this man lives. Lives f Yea^ even comes into the senate,
C. Ccd. I. * Tenaxne est ? Immo pertmax,' is he tenacious / Yes,
and pertinacious, Plaut Capt. iL 2. 39.

a) Recte, optime, are used not only affirmatively, but also as
polite Negatives : ' Rogo munquid velit Recte, inquit/
2 ask if he wants anything. All right, says hi^
Ter. EuH. iL 3. 4. So, benlgne ^yoiire very kind) b
used as a polite mode of declining : as in French, y> vans
remercie. See Hor. Epist iL 7. 16.

Section X.
^ Uses of the Verb.*

^*^ (In Ch. III. Sections I.— IIL, Verbal uses have, to some extent,

been explained along with the forms of the Verb. Throughout
Syntax tney again appear as affecting construction generally. The
matter of the present Section is therefore limited to a few points.)

* Every finite Verb is a predicative word, having Number, PerMxi, Mood and T<
In regard of Number and Person, it is determined hy its Subject ; in regard of m*
of action (Mood) and Time (TenseX it is determined by its relatioos to the speaker

Urns when Dido in Viigil says, * Veniet mihi fiuna,' HU rtp9rt wiU i

uiyiuzeu uy \^jVjw>t l\^

§ 91. Indicative Tenses. 331

L The Indicative or Fact-Mood and its 9«
Tenses. ^^

A. Mood See § 37. ^"^

The Indicative is the Fact-Mood, used to declare (state categor-
ically) : scribo, I write ; scribaniy I will write^ &c
Such declaration may be
i) Independent, in a principal sentence.

Scribo ad filinm, / Tvrite to my son : non scripsi ad Lucium ; and
(in the form of Interrogation), scribesne ad patrem ?

2) Subordinate, if the clause in which it stands is purely objective
(independent of mental conception).

Thus the Indicative may be used in clauses of fact (quod), cause
(quod, quia, &c.), condition (si, nisi), concession (etsi, quamquam,
ac), time (cum, quando, ubi, antequam, postc[uam, dum, donee,
&c): and in clauses introduced by the Relative Pronoim or a
Rdative Particle ; whenever such clauses are free from those forms
of thought which require (as hereafter shewn) the Subjunctive.

Examples : Gratum est quod vSnis (venies, venisti, &c.).
Gaudeo quod (cum, si, &c) vSnis, &a Gaudebo si (cum) venies
(veneris). Non gaudebo nisi v€nis (venies, veneris). Gaude-
bam ami (quia) veniebas (veneras). Mane dum redeo. £0
quamquam aeger sum. Ibo etsi tu noles (nolueris).

B. Tenses.

The relations of the Indicative Tenses Active (shewn § 38) may indk.
be thus re-stated. Teoaefc

Writing, as an action, is to me

I. a. simply present : scribo, / «7X^.

b, — past : scripsi, I wrote.

c. — future: scribam,/jA/z//wn)(<ft
II. 1. a. now present : scribo, I am writing.

b. — past : scripsi, I have written.

c. — future : scripturus sum, I am about to write.

2. a. formerly present : scribebam, / was writing.

b. — past : scripseram, /^<z^ze/rr//^

c. — future : scripturus eram, / was about to write.

'veniet'if determined in Number (Sing.) and Person (3rd) by its Subject 'fiuna:' its
Mood is Indicatxre and iu Tense Future, because Dido d$clam iHiat will ka^^tt^
tober. See | 37.

Had she said, 'Veniat mibi fama,' 'may ike rtport cottu to me,* 'veniat' would be re-
lated in the same req)ects to 'Oiuna :' but its Mood (Conjunctive in Optative Sense) and
Tense (Q) would be determined by the fitct that Dido states a comceivedwuk that some-
thing Moy Ad(^(^ to her in time coming.

If we suppose the expression to be, * optabat Dido veniret nbi fiuna,' ' DHowisktd ilk
rtpcrt mi^t com§ U k^r,* 'veniret ' again follows the Number and Person of 'fama ; ' and
is agmn Conjunctive in Optadve Sense because a conceived wish b expressed : but its
Tense becomes C. because instead of coming directly from the q>eaker's mouth as
'vemat* did) it depends on Uie narrator's statement, 'optabat,' whidi, being Past, re-
quires (as hernnafter shewn) the Historic Consecution : and what is stated is, that Dido
im ii»ie past c§meHv§d a wish that something might ka^>^va time Mtm future to her.

uiyiuzeu uy x^j v^ v^ pt i-V-

332 Latin Wordlore. §91.

3. €L hereafter present : (scribam, / jA/z// he writing).

b. — past : scripsero, / shall have written.

c. — ftiture : scripturus ero, / shall be ab&ui to

write*

Forms \mder I. are the Simple or Aorist (indefinite) Tenses.

Forms under II. are the Relative Tenses.

The Passive Tenses correspond similarly.

Note. I. The form II. i.a. (Present with Present reladon) is seldom
needed except when there is a clause with dum : * Dum tu sectaris
apros, ego retia servo,' while you are chasing boars, lam watching
neU Verg. B. iii. 74. * Dum aes exigitur, dum mula ligatur, tota
abit' hora,' while the fare is being taken, and the mule harnessed, a
whole hour passes, Hor. .SIL 5. 13. , . , .

The form 3. a. (Future with Present relation) is rarely needed.

A) The Present Tense expresses

1) Momentary Present action. *Procumbithumi bos,'/^ ^i^
falls prosiraU, Verg. Aen, v. 481. ' Momento turbinis exit Marcus
Dama,' as soon as twirled he comes forth Marcus Dama, Pcrs. v.

2) Action or state occasionally, habitually, or permanentW pre-
sent 'Domesticus otior,' / lounge at home, Hor. ^. L o. 127..
* Honos alit artis,' honour nurtures the arts, C. 7". Z>. L 3. * Deus
est, qui sentit, qui regit et moderatur, et est aeternus,' there
is a god, who perceives, who rules and governs, and is eterncd, C
Rep, vL 24.

3) The opinion or statement of an author, who is cited as if still
living and speaking: 'Laudat Africanum Panaetius,' &c, C
*ScribitCato/C. &C.

Peculiar uses of the Present are :

d) The Anticipative Present, sometimes found as an emphatic
substitute for the Future : ' Ni propere fit auod impero,
vinciri vos iam iubeo,' if what I command is net done
with speed, I order you to be put in chains this moment,
L. xxxvL 28. * Abeo an maneo ? ' shall I go or stay t Ter.
Ph, V. I. < Imusne sessum ? ' shall we go Mtdsit downt C

d. Or. iil 5.

b) The Historic Present, used for the Past in animated and
picturesque narrative, whether in history, oratory, or
poetry : * Dimisso senatu, decemviri prodeunt in con-
tionem, abdicantque se magistratu, ingenti hominum
laetitia,' when the senate broke uPj the decemvirs go forth
to the assembled people, and resign office, to the great delight
of the public, L. ill 54.

Note 2. Here may be noticed the idiom of the Historic Infinitive
(Pres. Imper£) used predicatively for a Finite Verb ; a construction
analo^us to the omission of the verb sum, inasmuch as it leaves
out, like this, the expression of time, number, and person. Both
constructions are found occuning together : < Ceterum fiacies totius
negotii varia incerta foeda atque miserabilis; dispersi a
suis pars cedere, alii insequi ; neque signa neque ordines

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^v^ pt ix^

1 91. Indicative Tenses. 333

observare; ubi quemque periculum ceperat, ibi resistere ac
propulsare; anna, tela, equi, viri, hostes, cives permixti ; nihil
consilio neque imperio agi ; fors omnia regcre,' now the aspect of
the whole affair was confused^ indecisive, shocking and pitiable;
parties scattered Jrom their comrades were some retiring^ others
advancing; observing neither standards nor ranks; where peril
encountered each man, there was he resisting and repelling : arms,
darts, steeds, men, foes, countrymen were intermingled, nothing was
proceeding by counsel or command: chance directed cUL Sa£ lug,
51. This construction, in which the Infinitive may be considered
Imperfect, is frequently used by poets as well as historians.

c) The Historic Present is commonly used in a Temporal

clause with dum, even when the Principal Sentence is
Past or Future : ^Dum obsequor adolescentibus, me
senem esse sum oblitus,' in complying with young men, I
have forgotten that I am old, C. d C?*. il 4.

d) The Present obtains a Past sense also when joined with

iam, iam diu (dudum, pridem) : ' Annum iam audis Cratip-
pom,* you have now for a year been attending the lectures
of Cratippus^ C O^, i. i. * lamdudum video,' / have
seen it this long time, Hor. Sat. i. 9. 15. ' lampridem
cupio Alexandriam visere,' / have been long desirous to
visit Alexandria, C. Alt, ii. 5.
i) Poets use the Historic Present with great license for the
Perfect : * Quantum mutatus ab illo Hectore, qui redit
exuvias indutus Achillis,' how changed from that Hector
who returned clad in the spoils of Achilles, Verg. Aen. ii.
275.

B) The Perfect Tense expresses

1) As Aorist, the simple statement of a past fact : ^ Veni, vidi,
vici,' / came, I saw, I conquered, Caes.

2) As Present with Past relation, the statement of a fact com-
I^ete at the present moment ' D i xi,' / have spoken, Cic. * Ve n it
summa dies,' the last day is come, Verg. Aen. ii. 324.

It b idiomatically used to express:

a) The rapid completion of action (poetic) : *Fugere ferae,'

beasts have fled, Verg. G, i. 330.

b) Cessation of existence (poetic) : * F u i m u s Troes, f u i t Ilium,'

we Trojans have been, Troy has been (i.e. exists no longer),
Verg. Aen. il 325.

c) General habit: ' (Rege) amisso rupere fidem constructaque

meUa diripuere,' if the queen^oee is lost they break faith
and pull down their honey stores, Verg. G. iv. 213.
Prose writers use this idiom in clauses with cum, si, &c.
*Cum fortuna reflavit affligimur,' when fortune blows
contrary, we are flung down, C. Off. it 6.

d) Anticipation, for the Future Perfect : 'Brutus si conser-

vatus erit, vicimus,' if Brutus shall have been saved, we
have won the day, C. Fam. xiL 6.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

334 Latin Wordlore. §91.

C) The Imperfect expresses
i) Action going on in time past along with other action (Past
with Present relation) : 'I bam forte Via Sacra . . . accurrit qui-
dam/ &c., / was walking by chance along the Sacred Road {when)
n certain man ran up to me^ &c., Hor. Sat. L 9. i.

2) Action repeated or habitual in time past ; 'Dicebat melius
quam scripsit Hortensius,' Hortensius used to speak better than he
nas written^ C Or, 38. ' Noctes vigilabat ad ipsum mane, di^n
totum stertebaty'Aif used to lie awake whole nights till day breaks
and snore all day long, Hor. S,\, 3. 17.

3) Action in time past, intended or begun, but not completed :
* Aeneas . . . lenibat dictis animum,' Aeneas was trying to softtn
her mind with his words, Verg. Aen, vi. 468. * Num dubitas id me
imperante facere, quod iam tua sponte faciebas ?' /ii?^^?^ hesitate
to do at my command what you were already on the point of doing
voluntarily f C. CcU, i. 5. * Huius deditioms ipse, qui dedebatur,
suasor et auctor fuit,* of this surrender the very man who was to be
surrendered wcls the mover and adviser^ C. Off, iiL 30.

D) The Pluperfect expresses action past in a time itself past,
and often stands in connection with other Tenses : * Cum esset De-
mosthenes, multi oratores magni et dari fiierunt, et antea fuerant,
nee postea defecerunt,' in the time of Demosthenes there were many
great and renowned orators, and there had been such before^ nor did
they fail afterwards^ C. Or, 2. * Post(}uam lux certior erat, et
Romani, qui caedibus superfuerant, m arcem confugerant,
conticescebatque tumultus, tum Tarentinos convocari iubet,'
when the light became stronger, atid the Romans, who had suruivul
the massacre, had escaped into the citadel, and the uproar was getting
quiet, he then orders the Tarentines to be convoked, L. xxv. la

d) As Causes expressing habit are in the Perfect with cum,
si, ubi, simul ac, when the principal Verb is Present
(see above B c), so they are in the Pluperfect with the
same Conjunctions, when the principal Verb is Imperfect.
' Gyges, cum palam eius anuli ad palmam converterat,
a nuUo videbatur, ipse autem onmia videbat; idem
rursus videbatur cum in locum anulum inverterat,' at
often as Gyges turned the bezel of that ring towards his
palm, he was visible to none, while he saw everything
himself: moreover he came into sight (^goin, as often as kk
turned the ring back to its place, C, Off iii. 9, * Si hostis
deterrere nequiverant, disiectos ab tergo circumveni-
ebant,' if they could not deter the enemy, they surrounded
their divisions in the rear, SalL lug, 5a

(The relations of the Past Indicative Tenses, also of the Historic
Present and Infinitive, are well exemplified in C. Verr. iv. 27;
Sail. lug, 50-51.)

"T«Bsflt ^^te 3. A Roman, writing a letter, arranged the Tenses with re-
in letter- ference to the time when the letter would be received. Hence many
*^>n»- facts, which to the writer were Present, are stated as Past in regard
to the receiver. And other facts, which to the writer were Past, are

Digitized by VjOOQIC

wmmg.

191. Indicative Tenses. 335

stated in the Huperfect, for the same reason. The English practice
being different, a Roman letter must be translated not literally,
bat into our idiom : * Pridie Idus haec scripsi ante lucem. Eo die
apod Pomponium in eius nuptiis eram cenaturus/ / A/it/^ writ-
ten this before daybreak on the day before the Ides, I am going
to dine mth Pomponius to-day at his wedding, C. Q. F. ii. 3.
'Nihil habebam quod scriberem: neque enun novi quicquam
audieram, et ad tuas omnis rescripseram pridie/ / have no-
thing to write about: for I have heard no newSy and I replied to
all your letters yesterday ^ C. Att. ix. 10. But matters which will
remain present to the receiver, are stated in the Present : * Ego hie
cogito commoiari, quoad me reficiam,' / think of remaining
here whilst I am recruiting my healthy C. Fam. viL 26.

E) The Simple Future expresses what its name implies, simple
action in the Future : * Ut voles me esse, ita ero,* / will be as
you shall wish me to be. Plant Pseud L 3

a) It is often used as a polite Imperative : * Quod superest,
puerum Ciceronem curabis et amabis,' for the rest,
please to treat young Cicero with care and ejection, C.
AU. iv. 7. See Hor. Epist L 18. 37-40-

F) The Future Perfect expresses action to be fulfilled in Futvure
time: *Qui Antonium oppresserit, is bellum confecerit,' he,
who shall have crushed Antonius, will have finished the war, C.
Fam. X. 20.

tf) It may be connected with the Simple Future, or used for
the Simple Future, with a view to Emphasis : * Ut semen-
tern feceris, ita metes,' oj you shall have sown, so
will you reap, C d. Or, il 65. *Si quid acciderit novi,
facies ut sciam,* should anything new happen, please to
let me know, C Fam. xiv. 8. *Quid inventum sit, paulo
post videro,' what has been discovered, I shall very soon
see, C. Ac, ii. 24. *A, si pergis, abiero,'/wy, if you go
on, I shall be off, Ten Ad, i. 2. 47. ' Sitne msJum dolor
necne Stoici viderint,' whether pain is an evU or not^
the Stoics will have to see, C. T. D.\L 18.

G) In the Future Periphrastic Conjugation (-urns sum,
eram, fui, fueram, ero, ftiero, &c.) the Indicative Tenses are called
Present, Perfect, &c., according to the forms of sum : and the general
distinctions above stated apply to them, but not the idiomatic uses.

This Conjugation expresses

i) ' Being about to;^ * being on the point of: ' * Apes e vol at u r ae
sunt,' M^ bees are about to swarm, Varr. K, R, iii. 16. ' Vos cum
Mandonio arma consociaturi fuistis,' you were on the point of
allying your arms with Mandonius, L. xxviiL 28.

2) ^ Being likely to ; ' ^ being sure to :^ * Haec sine doctrina cre-
dituri fuerunt,' this they were sure to believe without learning,
C. T. D,'\.2i (»*they would have believed' See the use of this
form, and of uie In£ -urum fuisse, in the Apodosis of Condi-
tional Sentences).

Digitized byCjOOQlC

336 Latin Wordlore. §91.

3) * Being destined to * (am tOy are to^ &c) : * Si una interitums
est animus cum corpore/ o^c, if the soul is to perish with the dody^
&c, C Cat. M, 22. 'Quidquid ex Agricola amavimus manet
mansurumque est in animis hominum,' all that we have loved
of Agricola abides and is destined to abide in the memory of nten^
Tac Agr, 46. *Me ipsum ames oportet, si veri amici futuri
siunus,' j'^j* must love me myself if we are to be true friends^ C.
Fin. iL 26. See Conditional Sentences : and Consecution of Tenses,

(On the Gerundive Conjugation -ndus sum, -ndum est, &c, see
Syntax of * the Verb Infinite.')

Note 4. Latin writers often use Verbs and phrases expressing dufy^
necessity, propriety, possibility y &a, in the Past Indicative Tenses
instead of the Conjunctive, to indicate that it was proper or possible
at that time to do something which however was not done.

i) Past Tenses of debere ; decere ; oportere ; aequum (aequius,.
melius, par, utilius, &c.) esse; posse ; rnalle ; licere, &c * Omnibus
eum contiuneliis onerasti, quem patris loco colere debebas,' you
have loaded with every insult one whom you ought to have revered
as a father, C. Phil. ii. 38. *Ad mortem duci te iam pridem
oportebat,'^^^ ought long ago to have been dragged to deathy C
in Cat, i. i. Heci fundamenta reipublicae serius quam d ecu it,'
/ laid the foundations of the commonwealth at a later time than I
should have done, C. Phil. v. 1 1. * Haec tecum coram malueram,'
/ would rather have discussed these things with you face to face, C
Fam^ vil 3. 'Quanto melius fuerat promissum patris non esse
servatum,' how much better had it been that the father^ s promise had
not been kept, C. Off. vL 25. < Hie tamen hanc mecum poteras
requiescere noctem,' yet you might have rested here with me this
night, Verg. ^. L 80.

2) Periphrastic Past Tenses, Futtu« and Gerundive : ' Romani
Poenos dqpoposcerunt^ aui Saguntum oppugnassent : deditos ultimis
cruciatibus affectun fuerunt/ the Romans demanded those Car-
thaginians who had besieged Saguntum; they would have exe^
cuted them, if surrendered^ with the uttermost tortures, L. xxL 44.
*Non Asiaenomen obiciendum Murenae fuit,' Murena should
not have been reproached with the mention of Asia, C. p. Mur. 5.

a) Analogous idioms are the Indicatives possum, longum est,
infinitum est, &c., where English idiom would write */
could,* Ut were tedious,* &c. f Possum persequi multa
oblectamenta rerum rusticarum : sed ea ipsa quae dixi
fuisse sendo long^ora,' I could detail the many delights of
farming operations ; but even what I have said I feel to
have been rather tedious, C Cat. M. 16. ^Longum est
mulorum persequi utilitates et asinorum,' // were tedious to
detail the advantages of mules and asses, C W. Z7. iL 64.
See M. Lucr. L 40a

(On the Indicative in the Apodosis of Conditional Sumptio Ficti,
8ee Syntax of Conditional Sentences.)

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

§ 92. The Imperative, 337

ii The Imperative or Will-Mood. § 37. im^-

tivc.

1) The Imperative Present commands or entreats. * Quae cum
tta sint, Catilina, perge cjuo coepisti ; egredere aliquando ex
urbe ; patent portae : proficiscere/ such being the case, CaUlinOy
proceed on your chosen path ; quit the city at some time; the gates are
open: ^0 forth, C. in Cat, i. 5. 'Pergite, adulescentes, atque in
id studium, in quo estis, i n c u m b i t e/ ^<? ^«, young men, and devote
yourselves to that study, on which you are engaged, C. d. Or i. 8.

2) The Imperative forms in -to -tote may entreat or conmiand :
but they oftener conmiand ; being used in legal forms : * Cum
faciam vitula pro frugibus, ipse venito,* when I shall be sacrificing,
a calf for the crops, you must come yourself, Verg. B, iii. ^^.
*Divis omnibus pontifices, singulis flamines sunto; virginesque
Vestales in urbe custodiunto ignem foci publici sempitemum/
all gods in common must have pontifices, each particular god a
flamenj and the Vestal virpns in the city must ^ard for ever
the fire of the public hearth, C. Leg, ii. 20. ' Regio imperio duo
sunto iique consules appellantor//A^r^ shall be two magistrates
with royal power, and they shall be called consuls, C. Leg, iii. 3. See
PlauL Pseud, iii. 2. 66, &c

3) Ne with Imperative Present (ne crede, ne credite, Verg.) be-
longs to poetry : but is rare in prose. L. has *ne timete.' (See
Conjimctive Mood.) With Imperative Future it is used in legal
forms, *Hominem mortuum in urbe ne sepelito neve urito/ thou
shall not bury or bum a corpse in the city, C. Leg, ii. 58.

4) A Periphrasis of the exhorting Imperative is made by fac,
fac ut, cura ut, velim, with Subjunctive, and in poetry by me-
mento with Subjunctive or Infimtive; and a Periphrasis of the
forbidding Imperative by fac ne, cave, nolim, with Subjunctive ;
or by noli, and (poeticsuly) parce, mitte, omitte, absiste, fuge, &c.,
with Infinitive.

'Magnum fac animum habeas,' mind you have a lofty spirit,
C. Q^, Fr, L 2. 5. * Cura ut valeas,' take care of your health, C.
*Aequam memento rebus in arduis servare mentem,*/e?« wiw/
remember to keep an even mind in difficult circumstances, Hor. C.
iL 3. I. 'Cave facias,' beware of doing it, C. Att, xiii. 33. 'Hoc
nolim me iocari ^mX.^%^ I would not have you think I say this in
jesty C. Fam, ix. 15. 'Nolite id velle, quod fieri non potest*
do not wish what cannot be, C. Phil, vii. 9. 'Mitte sectari rosa
quo locorum sera moretur/ search not in what spot the rose lingers
late, Hor. C, i. 38. 3. 'Vos timere absistite,' cease ye to fear,
Phaedr. iii. 2. 18. 'Fuge suspicari,' do not suspect, Hor.

5) Imperative forms are modified by the polite phrases s i s, sul t i s,
sodes, amabo, &c., please, pray (see p. 235). Sis is frequent in
comedy (once in Cic.) ; suit is often in Plautus. Sodes, C. (once?);
frequent in comic and other poets. Amabo, amabo te ( = si me
amas) in comedy often ; and m Cic. So, Cave sis, vide sis, &a
' Refer te sis ad veritatem,' C. 'Hoc aeite sultis,' Plaut ' Scin'
quid te amabo ut facias?' xA^z// / tell you, please, what to dot
Plaut ' Id agite, amabo/ C.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

tive.

338 Latin Wordlore. § 93-94.

Om?? iii. The Conjunctive or Thought-Mood.

jnnc-

tive. (On the Conjunctive as the mood of menial conception generally,

and on its twofold use, (i) as Pure or independent Conjunctive ;
(2) as Subjunctive or dependent, see § 37. 2.)

p„^ iv. The Thought-mood is properly termed C o n j u n c t i ve by all
Con- German scholars, seeing that its use is to join with both the other
'^^^^' Moods, and assist their power of expressing speech. It joins with
the Indicative so as to state and question in a tone either contingent
on a condition, or modified by mental reserve in the nature of a
condition. It joins with the Imperative, so as to supply its deficient
forms, and also to express the various shades of will-speech in
modified tone. The Conjunctive Mood has four Tenses, called
Present, Perfect, Imperfect, and Pluperfisct, the powers and uses of
which are best learnt from reading and practice. See p. 163.
Though the Futures are wanting, all the Tenses are capable of
referring to Futiure time, when required.

I. Pure Conjunctive of contingent or modified Statement (liga-
tion takes non, or haud).

A) When a condition is formally expressed, Eam si moneas
(monueris), / wiV/ ^£?, if you advise: irem (issem) si moneres
(monuisses), / would have gone^ if you had advised : non eam
nisi tu moneas (monueris), 7 will not go unless you advise ; non
irem (issem) nisi tu moneres (monuisses), / should not have been
going {should not have gone) if you had not advised, ' Tu, si hie sis,
aliter sentias.' *Improbe feceris nisi monueris,' Cic. 'Si
luxuriae temperaret, avaritiam non time res,' had he curbed luxury^
you would not have dreculed avarice in him, Tac. * Si redisset
filius, pater ei veniam daret (dedisset),' had the son come back^
his father would have forgiven hitn. *Si non des, optet,' Hor.
Si non dares (dedisses) optaret (optasset).

B) When a condition is informally expressed : see § 217, 3.
Eam (irem, issem) te monente, if you advise {advised), or a te
monitus, if advised by you : non eam (irem issem) te invito,
against your will, or prohibitus a te, if forbidden by you. * O p t a n t i
tibi divfim promittere nemo auder et,' no god would have ventured
to promise had you expressed the wish, V. * Non illi quisquam se
impune tulisset obvius armato,' no man would home en-
countered him, armed for battle, with impunity, V. * S i n e D e o non
e s s e t mundus,' Cic. * 1 1 a laudem in venias et amicos pares,' Tcr.

C) When a condition is implied, especially with Verb in 2nd
Person. *Migrantes cernas,'/^*^ may see them on the move, V.
'Marte videres fervere Leucaten,' >'^«^ might have seen LeucaU
boiling with war (\.t, had you been present). 'Pelago credas
innare revulsas Cycladas,' V. 'Nee quisquam . . . putet,' &c V.
Aen, viil 704. *Crederes victos,' L.

D) When modified to avoid positiveness or bluffiiess. * Dub item
haud equidem,'V. Velim,nolim, vellem, nollem are frequently
used on this ground. 'Nollem accidisset,' / itfish it had not
happened, C. Fam, iil 30. 'Vellem adesse posset Panaetius,' I

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^ v^ p* i.x^

S 94. The Conjunctive. 339

^vish PanaeHus could have been present^ C. T. D. i. 33. Also with
ibrsitan or f ortasse : forsitan quaeratis ; roges fortasse;

* forsitan et Priami fuerint quae fata requiras/ V. Aen. ii. 506.

* Vix verisimile fortasse videatur,' Cic. Especially Cj is used to
convey assertion or opinion moderatdy. Crediderim, / ^i/w in-
dined to believe : vix crediderim, / can scarcely believe. *Non
te transierim/ V. *Ausim vel tenui vitem committere sulco/
V. G. iL 289. And with forsitan.

This and the next use are sometimes called Potential

l\. E) Pure Conjunctive of the modified Question (Negation has
non).

a) A direct question of inquiry or of feeling implies more of
mental dubitation when used in the Conjunctive. As in
the Indicative, it may be of single or disjunctive form.

Quid hoc homine faciatis ? what are you to do with this man ?
*Quis Troiae nesciat urbem?' V. 'Quid d em, quid non d em/
Hon 'Quid faciam? roger anne rogem?' Ov. 'Eloquar an
sileam?* V. *Tibi ego irascerer, mi frater? tibi ego possem
irasci?* Cic Quid facerem ? quo fugerem? Iremusne annon?
quare non iremus? issemne nisi voluissem?

III. Pure Conjunctiva of modified Will-speech (Negation has
ne).

F) Concessive use : aUowing, granting, &c.

' L u a n t peccata,' let them {they may) pay the penalty of their
sins, V. 'Vendat aedes vir bonus,' suppose a good man
has a house on sale. Haec sint falsa sane, granting
this to be quite untrue. *Fuerit malus civis,' suppose he
was a bad citizen. 'Ne sit sununum malum dolor,
maliun certe est,' allowing pain not to be the greatest evil,
an evil it is at all events, Cic. 'Verum anceps pugnae
ftierat fortuna: fuisset; quem metui moritura?' but the
chance of war had been doubtful; suppose it were : whom
could I fear with death in view f V. Aen. iv.

j} Ut is used in concession. 'Ut desint vires, tamen est
Laudanda voluntas,' though strength be lacking, yet will-
ingness is praiseworthy, Ov. Ep. P. iii. 4.

a Optative and Precative Uses.

i) The Optative use conveys a wish, and (when in direct con-
struction without ' utinam *) by C,. (Negation has ne.)

Sis felix, may you be happy, * Valeant ci ves mei, sint florentcs,
sint b^ti,' Cic. ' Exoriare aliquis nostris ex ossibus ultor,'
V. Aen. iv.

It is fi-equently used in imprecation. *Ne sim salvus si
aliter loquor ac scntio,' may I never be saved if I speak
other, than I think, Cic. *Moriar nisi vera lo<^uor.'
With ita (sic) . . . ut ' Ita vivam ut te amo maxime.'
And without ut 'Ita culmo surgeret alto,' Hor. S. iL
*Ita me di ament,' Cic. uyuzeuuy ^^^^.^

22 ^

340 Latin Wordlore. § 95.

a) Utinam, utinamne (rarely non) are used with the Optative.

With C^ it expresses a possible wish : Utinam possim,
I wish I may be able ; utinam ne adsit, / wish he may
not be present. With Cj an impracticable one : utinam
possem, / wish I could (but I cannot); utinam ne
adesset, / wish he were not present (but he is or waj).
With C4 a bygone possibility : utinam potuissem^ /
wish I nod been able (but I was not) : utinam non adfiiisset,
/ wish he had not been present (but he was).

b) Ut for utinam is sometimes found : Ut ilium di deaeque

perduint, may the gods and goddesses destroy him^ Ter.

c) O si (rarely si alone) with Opt is poetic ' O mihi prae-

teritos re fe rat si luppiter annos/ O if yove would bring
back to fne the past years, V. Aen, viii. 560. See vi. 187.
O utinam may be used.

2) The Precative use is chiefly in the Second Person, when
a sacred being or a superior is addressed : 'Sis bonus
o felixque tuis/ V. Aen. v. 65. *Adsis o placidusque
iuves et sidera caelo dextra feras/ V. Aen, iv. 578.

H) Hortative and Jussive Uses : exhorting, commanding, &c
Negative has ne.

The principal Hortative use is in the First Person PluraL
The Jussive use in the Third Persons conveys a com-
mand more or less stringent Thus 'naviget* (V. Aen,
iv. 287) is a strong mandate : the instructions in the
Georgics given in the Third Persons Conjunctive are
precepts rightly called jussive. See G, iii. 300, 329.

i) * Surgamus,' V. -£. X. 'Eamus omnes,' Hor. -^. *Mori-
amur et in media anna ruamus/ V. Aen, li. *Aegri-
tudinem depellamus/ Cic.

2) 'Ecferant quae secum hue attulerunt,' Ter. 'Vincat
utilitas reipublicae.' * S i t sermo lenis, i n s i t in eo lepos/ Cic
*Vilicus ne sit ambulator, sobrius sit semper, ad cenam
ne quo eat,familiam exerceat, ne plus censeat sapere
se quan\ dominum, parasitum ne auem habeat' Cato.
*Donis impii ne placare audeant aeos,' Cic JLeg, ii. 16.

The most remarkable examples are those which convey this use
of the Will-speech Conjunctive into past time by C,, C^ 'Prae-
d i c e r e s, you should have told me beforehand. Plant. * Rem tuam
curares,' /(?« should have been minding your own business, Ter.
'Dictis, Albane maneres/you should have remained true to your
word, O Alban, V. 'Ne poposcisses,* you ought not to have de^
manded, Cic. This usage is not confined to the Second Person ;
'Animam ipse dedissem, atque haec pompa domum me, non.
Pallanta, referret,' V. Aen, xi. 162 ; see x. 854.

Second ^^ Permissive and exhorting Use of Second Person Conjunctive.

Perswi The Second Person of C, is often supposed to be Pure

P^"-. where it is really Subjunctive, depending on a Verlx

junctive: Reddas, Hor. C. i. 3. 7 ; dones, 1. 31. 18, depend on

precor. Captes, Hor. S. ii. 5. 23, on dico. * Sis . . ,

$ 95- 77^^ Pure Conjunctive. 341

sequare . . . cures/ C. Fatn, x. 16, carry on the construc-
tion after * hoc animo esse ut : ' and the punctuation
should shew this. < Sis . . . scias/ L. xxvi. 50, de-
pend on paciscor. * Ne pigrere/ C. Att xiv. i, on
quaeso.

b) Prohibitive use of Second Person Conjunctive.

Terence has *Si certum est facere, facias ; verum ne post
culpam confer as in me,' if you are bent on doing it ^ you
may; but please not afterwards to throw the blame on me,
Eun, ii. 3. 97. In classical Latin this form (ne with
Second Person of Cj) is not used as an independent pro-
hibition, but ne with Second Person of C, is so used fre-
quently. * Quod dubitas ne feceris/ what you doubt^ do
not perform, Plin. Ep. i. 18. 'Ilium iocum ne sis as-
pematus/ do not contemn that jest, C. Qu, F. ii. 12. ' Tu
ne quaesieris/ &c. Hor. C i. 11. i.

When Horace writes, « Ne forte credas,' &c., he means lest
perchance you should believe, C, iv. 9. i. And so often.
On Periphrastic forms of exhortation and prohibition, see p. 337.

V. Examples of Pure Conjunctive:—

v4) See Examples under § 313 fi, y, p. 408.

B) See f 217, 3, p. 473.

O 'Pecuniae an famae minus parceret haud facile disc e meres/ Sail. Caf. 25.
^Quo postquam venerunt, mirandum in modum, canes venaticos dice res, ita odora-
bantur omnia et pervesdgabant/ C Verr^ iv. 13. ' Ilium indignanti similem simiiemque
minanti aspiceres,' V. Aen. viii. 650.

D) 'Tu velim sic existimes tibique persuadeas, omne perfugium bonorum in te esse
positum, si, quod nolim, adversi quid evenerit,' C Fam. xii. 6. 'Malim mihi Crasst
unam i»t> Curio dictionem, quam castellanos triumphos duos/ C. Br, 73. ' Ego me
Phidiam esse mallem quam vel optimum fabrum tignarium/ C. Br. 73. 'Vellem te
ad Stoicos inclinavisses/ C. Fin. iii. 3. ' Hie quae rat quispiam, cuiusnam causa tanta
molitio £u:ta sit/ C N. D. iL 53. 'Primum ego me illorum, dederim quibus esse
poetas, excerpam numero; neque enim concludere versum dixeris esse satis/ Hor.
.S". L 4. 39. 'Forsitan qubpiam dixerit ; nonne sapiens, si fame ipse conficiatur,
abstuleritcibumalteri?' C. Off. iii. 6.

E) 'Quid nunc te, asine, litteras doceam?* C. Pis. 30. 'Quid videatur ei
magnnm in rebus humanis, cui aetemitas omnis totiusque mundi nota sit magnitudo ? '
C T. D. iv. 17. 'Quid enumerem artium multitudinem, sine quibus vita omnlno
nnllaesse potuisset?' Q.Off.\\.\. 'Faveas tu hosti ? bononun spem virtutemque
debilites? et te consularem aut senatoremaut denique civem putes?' C. Phil. vii.
ao. ' Apud exercitum mihi fueris tot annos? forum non attigeris? afueris tarn
diu? et, cum longo intervallo veneris, cum iis, qui in foro habitarunt, de dignitate
contendas?' C Mur. 9. 'Ego mihi putarem in patria non futunun locum?' C.
Mil. 34. 'Putaresne unquam accidere posse ut mihi verba deessent?' C Fam. ii.
II. 'Coiinthiis bcllum indicamus annon?' Cic.

F) 'At tamen dicat sine. Age dicat, sino/ Ten An. v. 3, 24. 'Fuerint
<:ai»di, fuerint irati, fuerint pertinaces : sceleris vero crimine, furoris, parricidi,
liceat Cn. Pompeio mortuo, 1 i c ea t multis aliis carere,' C. Lig. 6. ' Nemo is, inquies,
lunquam fiiit. N e f u e r i t,* Cic.

G. z) ' Quod bonum faustum felixque s 1 1 populo Romano/ L. i. 28. ' Filiam despondi
ego : di bene vertant ! ' Plant. AuL ii. 3. 'Tecum esse, ita mihi omnia quae opto
contingant ut vehementcr velim/ C. Fam. v. 21. 'Sollicitat, ita vivam, mi Tiro,
me tua valetudo,' C Fam. xvi. 20. ' N e v i va m, si tibi concede, ut eius rei tu cupidior
ids quam ego sum/ C. Fam. vii. 23. ' N e istuc luppiter optimus maximus s i r i t,' L.
jKxvvA. 28. 'Utinam tibi istam mentem dii immortales duint?' C. Cat. L 9.
'Utinam, Quirites, virorum fortium atque innocentium copiam tantam habereti8,ut

342 Latin Wordlore. % 96.

96 V. The Subjunctive.

Sub-

June- The Subjunctive is always a Mood of d e p e n d e n c e, and, in most

^^ instances, of mental conception : but some of its functions in Latin

are not of the latter description, especially its Consecutive use.
A Subjunctive Clause* sometimes has no link connecting it

with the prior Verb : *Sine te ex or em,' let me prevail on you,

<Vellem adfuisses,' I wish you had been present. But usually it

is introduced by a Conjunction or Relative.

I) A Finite Subordinate Clause, by classical usage, is always
Subjunctive, when it contains

a) A dependent Consequence {so thaty such thai^.

Such a clause may be introiduced by ut, quin ; or by the
Relative qui consecutive. See Consecutive Clauses, and
Ut-clause Enuntiative.

b) A dependent Purpose {in order that, lesty &c.).

Such a Clause may be mtroduced by ut, ne, quo, q uo mi-
nus; or by the Relative qui final : sometimes by a Particle
of Time or Condition; antequam, dum, &c See Final
Clauses, and Petitio Obliqua,

c) A dependence on a Verb of Fear, introduced by ne, lesty

or ut, lest not. See Petitio Obliqua.

d) A dependent Question, introduced by any Interrogative

Pronoun or Particle. See Interrogatio Obliqua.

II) A Finite Subordinate Clause is Subjunctive, when It contains
a mental conception

haec vobis deliberatio difllcilis esset 1 ' C L. Man. la * lUud utinam ne ver«
scriberem!' C Fam, v. 17. *Quod utinam ne Phonnioni id suadere in mentem
incidisset/ Ten Ph, L 3. 5. 'Utinam minus vitae cupidi fuisscmus,'C Famt,
V. 17. * Haec ad te die natali meo scripsi : quo utinam susceptus non essem, act
nequidexeademmatreposteanatumessetf C Att. xL 9.

3) 'Nihil ig no veris; nihil gratiae causa fee eris; misencordta commotus ne
sis,' CAfur. 31. *Ne fueris hie tu/ Hon E^i. i. 6. 40. 'Cum te bene con-
finnaveris, ad nos venias/ C. Fam. xvi. 13. So teneas, L. xxii. 53. Afficias, xxvi.
5a Hot. S. iL 3. 8a6 {^Uast to, pray",

ff- i) 'Meminerimus, etiam advcrsus infimos iustitiam esse servandam,' C. Offl
i. 13. 'Imitemur nostras Brutos, Camillos, Decios; amemus patriam, pareamus
senatui. consulamus bonis, id esse optimum putemus, quod erit rectissimum,*
C Sesi. 68.

a) 'Orator vide at in primis, quibus dc rebus loquatur; a seriis, severitatenk
adhibeat ; a iocosis, leporem/ C. Oj^. i. 37. 'Sumatur nobis quidam piaestans vir
optimis arttbus, isque animo parumper et cogitatione f i n ga t u r/ C 7*. /?. v. 24. * Fortasse
pater Cliniae aliquanto iniquior erat. Pateretur; nam quem ferret, si parentem non
ferret suum?' Ter. Haut. i. a. 28. ' Forsitan non nemo vir fortis et acris aniau
magnique dixerit : Restitisses, repugnasses, mortem pugnans oppetisses,*
C Sest. 20k 'Ne quis tamquam parva fastidiat gnunmatices elementa/ Qu. L 4.
'Neu desint epulis rosae,' Hon C. i. 36. 15 *Tu ista ne asciveris neve
fueris commentidU rebus assensus/ C Ac.n, 40.

not

TJic term Qause is used to signify ' any member of a Compound Sentence * which t»
n the 'Prindpol Sentence." The 'Infinitive Clause' means what is often called
Accusative and Infinitive.' See Enuntiatio Obliqua. Distinguished from thit is '»
F«ut© Clause ;' that is, one of which the Verb U Finite

uiyiuzeu uy x^jv^v^pt lx^

§ 97« ^^ Subjunctive, 343

a) Of Cause : introduced by cum, sincCf by qui causal (usu-

ally) ; by non quod, non quia, &c. See Causal Clauses.

b) Of Condition : after dum, modo ; or when si, nisi are re-

lated to a conceptive Apodosis : *si possim velim;'
*si p OSS em vellem,' &c. See Conditional Sentences.

c) Of Concession : introduced by ut, licet, and (usually) cum,

quamvis, although. Also when etsi,etiamsi, tametsi
are related to a conceptive Apodosis. 'Etsi possem,
nollem.' See Concessive Sentences.

d) Of Comparison : introduced by quasi, ut si, &c., velut,

tamquam, &c. See Comparative Sentences.

Ill) A Finite Subordinate Cause is Subjunctive when it is really
dependent on

a) An Infinitive Clause (oratio obliqua).
'Audio te abesse quod aegrotes.'
6) An assertion or opinion of some other than the writer or
speaker, implied but not formally expressed in the prin-
cipal or prior Verb {virtual oratio obliqua).
'Laudat Africanum Panaetius quod fuerit abstinens,' Cic.
'Accusatus est Socrates quod corrumperet iuventu-

tem,' Qu. See p. 345.
Obs, The Subjunctives a and b we call Suboblique. They
may be introduced by any Conjunction, or by a Relative
Pronoun or Particle.
c) A Conjunctive Verb or prior Subjunctive (oratio obliqua).
'Omnia dixisses quae in animo haberes.' * Vellem onmia
dixisses quae in animo haberes.'
Note. The following are Idiomatic Uses : —

a) A Subjunctive with cum, when (rarely with other Temporal
Conjunctions) of a past action antecedent to another
past action (quasi-causal).
*In Cumano cumessem, venit ad me Hortensius,* when T
was at my house in Cumae, Hortensius came to see me^ Cic.
* Decessit Agesilaus cum in portum venisset,' Agesiiaus
died after coming into harbour, Nep. Ag,

0) A Subjunctive of repeated action (Iterative) with a Particle
or Relative. This construction is most frequent in past
time, historically, the principal verb being generally Im-
perfect : but it is very reasonably extended to time present
m philosophical statements by M. Lucr. iii. 736.

y) A Subjunctive, generally of the Second Pers. Sing., in
dependence on a sentence containing a maxim {yy^iirf).
See Madv. Gr, 370 ; M. Lucr, i. 327, ii. 36, 41.
'Bonus segnior. fit ubi neglegas,' a good person becomes
slacker f when you neglect him^ SalL lug, 31.

vL Classification of the Particles and Pro- 97
nouns which introduce Subordinate Clauses,
according to the Mood introduced.

uiyiiized by CjOOQ IC

344 Latin Wordlore, . § 98.

A) Pronouns and Particles which always, in classical Latin prose,
introduce a Subjunctive.
d) Conjunctions:

i) Consecutive: ut; quin.

2) Final : ut ; ne ; quo ; quominus.

3) Causal: o\m, since,

4) Conditional : dum ; modo, dummodo ; provided that,

5) Concessive: licet, iit; cum, quamvis (usually).

6) Comparative : quasi ; ut si ; ac si ; velut, tamquam, ceu, &c

b) The Relative qui, or a Relative Particle, when used

i) Consecutively ( = talis ut) ; 2) Finally (t« order thai) ;
3) Causally ( « cum, since) ; 4) Concessively {although),

c) Interrogative Words, obliquely constructed : such are

\\ Pronouns : quis ; qui ; uter ; quaUs ; quantus ; quot ; quotus.
2) Particles : quam, quemadmodum, quomodo, ut, how\ quare.

cur, quamobrem, quapropter ; quotiens ; quando ; ubi ;

unde ; quo, quousque, quorsum ; utrum, an, -nS, num.

d) Any Particle or Relative, when the Clause itself is in sense

dependent on Oratio Obliqua, actual or virtual ; or on a
Conjunctive Mood.
See also the Iterative and Gnomic uses above. Note jS. 7.

E) Pronouns and Particles which always (except in the circum-
stances above named) introduce an Indicative.

fl) Conjunctions:

i) Causal: quod; quia; quoniam ; quando; quandoquidem ;
siquidem.

2) Temporal : quando ; ubi ; ut (when^ &c.) ; quotiens ; simul

ac ; simul ; postquam ; dum, donee, quoad, whilst, A}so
cum, when : but see its idiom, Note, p. 343. a,

3) Concessive: quamquam; utut

d) The Relative qui, and Relative Particles.

C) Particles which introduce an Indicative or a Subjimctive,
according as the notion conveyed is one of fact or contingency.

1) Temporal: dum, donee, quoad, «;////; antequam, prius-

quam, which are used with Subjunctive when purpose is
contained, or doubtfulness conveyed.

2) Conditional and Concessive: si, nisi; etsi, etiamsi,

tametsi.

Ods, The reason of mood is independent of Conjunctions ; but
Conjunctions distinguish the relations of Clauses more clearly, as
Prepositions distinguish the relations of Nouns.

^^ vii Consecution of Tenses in Subjunctive
cution Construction. See § 229.
Tenses. The General Rule is that

Primary Tenses (S^ S3) follow Primary (Present ; Future).

Historic — (S3S,) — Historic (Past Tenses).

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

§9S.

Consecution of Tenses.

345

Examples illustrating the Consecution of Tenses.

I.

i) quer&is
you complain

querar-is (e)

you may complain

querer-is (e)

you will complain

questus eris )

questus fueris) '

you will have complained

questus sis

questus fueris

you may have complained

questurus es (sis, &c.)
you are {may be^ &c.) about
to compicdn

2) querebar-is (e)

you were complaining

questus es
you complained

questus eras

you had complained

quererer-is (e)

you would complain

questus esses

you would have complained

questurus eras

you were about to complain

quod te deseram
that I forsake you

quod te deseruerim
that I have forsaken you

quod te deserturus sim

that I am about to forsake you

quod tui memor non sim
that I am not mindful of you

quod tui memor non fuerim
that I have not been mitidful of
you

quod tui memor non futurus sim
thai I shall not be mindful of
you

quod tibi non succurram
thai I do not succour you

quod tibi non succurrerim
that I have not succoured you

rl tibi non succursurus sim
I am not about to succour
you

I miod te desererem
that I was forsaking you

quod te deseruissem
that I had forsaken you

quod te deserturus for em
that I was about to forsake you

quod tui memor non ess em
that I was not mindful of you

quod tui memor non fuissem
that I had not been mindful of
you

quod tui memor non futurus

essem
that Twos not going to be mind'

fill of you

quod tibi non succurrerem
that I did not succour you

quod tibi non succurrissem
that I had not succoured you

quod tibi non succursurus fo-
rem

that I did not mean to succour

you

.O'

gle

346

£Uipsis
ofVerh

Latin Word/ore. §99,

II.

i) orant ; orent f ne se deseram

orabunt ; oraturi sunt J ut sui memor sim

oraverint; oranto ( ut sibi succurram

2) orabant ; orarent f ne se desererem

oravenint ; oraturi erant ] ut sui memor essem

oraverant; oravissent I ut sibi succurrerem

Note. On the Verb Infinite see § 15 and § 4a Its further uses
are most conveniently shewn in Syntax, Ch. I. II. III.

99
EUipsis viii Ellipsis of the Verb.

i) Est, sunt, esse, are often suppressed: sometimes other
forms of the Verb of Being.

' Summum ius summa iniuria,' C OJ^. i. 10 (s. est), * Habenda
ratio valetudinis, utendum modicis exercitationibus,' C. Cat, Af.
1 1 (s. est), * Omnia praeclara rara,' C. Laet. 21 (s. sunt), ' lucundi
acti labores,* C. Ftn. ii. 32 {s,sunt), * Aurum vestibus inlitum mi-
rat a,' Hor. Civ. 9. 15 (for mirata est). *Sed haec vetera {sunt)-.
illud recens {esi)y Caesarem meo consilio inter fectum* {esse\ but
these are old stories : here is a new one^ that Caesar was slain by
my advice^ C. Phil, ii. 11. *Ludi Romani biduum instaurati'
{sunt)^ L. xxix. 38. * Potest incidere comparatio, de duobus honestis
utrum honestius' {sit), C. Off, i. 43.

a) The Participle Perfect (Passive or Deponent) is often used
in the Nom. Case with an Ellipsis of esse, being really a
Prolative Infinitive dependent on fertur, dicitur, me-
moratur, narratur, &c. 'Sic miser instantis afTatus
dicitur undas,' Mart d, Spect, 25. 5 (for affatus esse).
* Fertur Prometheus addere principi limo coactus par-
ticulam undique desectam,' Hor. C, i. 16. 13 (for coactus
esse). 'Quidam memoratur Athenis . . , populi con-
temnere voces sic solitus,' Hor. .S". i. i. 64 (for solitus esse).
Tabula qua Paridis propter narratur amorem Graecia
barbariae lento Colli sa duello,' Hor. Epist, I 2. 6 (for
collisa esse). And often in prose : * Q. Fabius Maximus
sic eum proficiscentem allocutus fertur,' L xxii. 38 (for
allocutus esse). * Cap t a eo proelio tria milia peditum et
equites trecenti d i c u n t u r,' L. xxii. 50. See Note at p. 428.

2) Inquit, inquam, &c. are omitted. ' At iUe' . . . 'tum Brutus*
... * tum ego,* &C.

3) Forms of dicere, facere, fieri, &c. 'Scite Chrysippus'
(dicit), C. * Cave turpe quicquam * (Jdcias)^ C. * Ne quid crudeliter '
\jiaf), C. * Cicero Attico salutem ' {dicif), C, * Crassus verbum
nullum contra gratiam ' ( dixit), C. * Expecto quid ad ista '
(dicturus sis), C, * Quas tu mihi intercessiones * (narras) ? C.

* Finem ille ' {/ecit)f'C. ' Clamor inde concursusque ' (/actus est), L.

Forms of dicere are suppressed in the phrases, * Quid multa ? »

* Quid plura .? ' * Ne multis,' &c. And forms of fieri in such phrases
as * Quid tum ? ' * Quid postea ? ' &c.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

§ 99. Ellipsis of the Verb. 347

Livy often uses the phrases, * nihil aliud quam,' *quid aliud quam/
in which forms of the verb facere may be supplied. ' Per bid-
uum nihil aliud quam stetenint parati ad pug^andum/ ^r /xt/tf
days they did nothing but stand in readiness for battle^ L. xxvi. 2a
The phrase becomes adverbial = merely^ only, * N ihi 1 al iud quam
perfusis vano timore Romanis,' the Romans being merely panic-
stnuk^ L. il 63. * Si nihil aliud/ if nothing else comes of it, * Vin-
cam silentium et, si nihil aliud (faciam), certe graviter inter-
pellabo/ Curt iv. 28.

4) Other Verbs are suppressed, which the mind can easily supply.
* Sed haec coram' {tractabimus\ C. ' Litteranim aliquid interea'
Uiabis\ C. * A Chnrsippo pedem nunquam ' {movet\ C. * Sed ad
ista alias' {respondebo\ C. *Sed non necesse est nunc omnia'
{commemorare), C. * l5i meliora ' {dent), ' A me C. Caesar pecu-
niam ' {postulat) ? C. * Ad Tamum cogitabam ' {ire\ C. * Unde
n^ lapidem' (petam)? Hor. 'Nihil ad rem;* *Quid ad me'
(attinet) ? With many more instances.

5) In the phrases, * Quo mihi ? ' *quo tibi ?' * usui' is to be supplied,
quo being an old form of cui. * Quo tibi, Pasiphae, pretiosas
sumere vestis ?' Ov. ( = * cui usui est tibi ? '), But there is a further
ellipse of habere or consequi: 'Quo mihi fortunam, si non
conceditur uti ? ' Hor. ( = cui usui est mihi habere fortunam ?),

6) Proverbs, being generally known and imderstood, are often
cited elliptically : * Fortuna fortis' (adiuvat). * Minima de malis'

ieligenda sunt), * Sus Minervam * {docere vult), * Cuneus cuneum'
trudif), *Manusmanum' {lavat), 'Bis ad eundem' {lapidem
offendere), 'Nee sibi nee alteri' {prodcst), 'Comici oculum'
{configere). 'Bene tibi' {dico)y &c. 'Bene Messallam' {valere
iudeo)^ Tib.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

PART 11.
LATIN SYNTAX.

ZOO

en-
tences.

CHAPTER I.
THE DOCTRINE OF SENTENCES.

Speech in a connected series forms Discourse.
Sen^ As Words are the Parts of Speech, so the Parts of
Discourse are Sentences.

1. Sentences are either Affirmative or Negative.
Psittacus loquitur, Psittacus non loquitur,
the parrot speaks, the parrot does not speak,

2. Sentences are either Simple or Compound.

i) A Simple Sentence is the expression of a single thought,
and contains one Finite Verb :

Psittacus loquitur, Psittacus non loquitur,

the parrot speaks, the parrot does not speak.

2) A Compound Sentence consists of two or more Simple
Sentences forming one sentence. Of such Simple Sentences, one
is the Principal Sentence, the others are Clauses.

a) Psittacus hominem imitatur, itaque loquitur,
the parrot imitates man, and so it speaks,

b) Psittacus, quamvis hominem imitetur, non loquitiu-,
the parrot does not speak, although it imitates man.

In {a) * Psittacus hominem imitatur' is the Principal Sentence;
* Itaque loquitur 'a Coordinate Clause; that is, connected but
not constructively dependent. In {b) *■ Psittacus non loquitur' is
the Principal Sentence ; * Quamvis nominem imitetur' a Subor-
dinate Clause; that is, constructively dependent.

3. Every Simple Sentence is in one of three forms :

I. Enuntia tio (statement) :

Psittacus loquitur, the parrot speaks,

II. Pet I TIO (will-speech) :

Loquere, psittace, sfteaky parrot,
Loquatur psittacus, let the parrot speak,

III. Interrogatio (question):

Quid loquitur psittacus ? what does the parrot speak f

uiyiuzeu uy x^jv^v^pt ix^

{ loi. Simple Sentence, 349

4. Each of these forms, in the Principal construction of a Com- Oratio
pound Sentence, is said to be Recta (direct). Ob%i?

If it is subordinated so as to become Subject or Object of the
Principal Verb, it is called Obi i qua (oblique or indirect).

I. Enuntiatio Obliqua (Indirect Statement) is mostly con-
structed as * Accusative and Infinitive ;'

rConstat) \

(// is afacfy I psittacum loqui,

(Scimus) 1 that the parrot speaks,

{it/e know) )

II. Petitio Obliqua (Indirect Will-speech) is mostly con-
structed as * Subjunctive with ut or ne :'

^Poscitur) \

(1/ is required) ut psittacus loquatur,
?Rogamus) that the parrot speak,

\we ask) )

III. iNTERROGATio Obliqua (Indirect Question) is constructed
as * Subjunctive after an Interrogative Pronoun or Particle :'

Hncertum est) \

[it is doubtful) quid psittacus loquatur,
fNarra) what the parrot speaks,

{declare) )

Obs, Clauses of these three kinds are called Substantival,
because they stand, like Substantives, in the relation of Subject or
Object, or in Apposition.

Note, As Discourse chiefly consists of Enunciations, Syntax
chiefly considers Simple Sentences of this form. But its funda-
mental rules are equally apphcable to the other two forms.

CHAPTER II.

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.

i The Simple Sentence has two essential The"
members: |j^

i) The grammatical Subject) that of which the
action or state is predicated or declared ;

2) The grammatical* Predicate ; that by which the
action or state of the Subject is declared.

tenoe.

Subject

Predicate.

Psittacus

loquitur,

the parrot

speaks.

* ' Grammatical ' in contradistinction to ' logical.' A Predicate in formal logic is ahvajrs
a Nominal term Y : every X (some X, no X) is Y.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

350 Latin Syntax. § 102.

1) The Subject must be—

(i) a Substantive, or that which takes the power of a Sub-
stantive; as
(2J a Pronoun \

(3) an Adjective [used Substantively.

(4) an Adverb j

(5) a Verb-Noun Infinitive.

(6) a Vocable, or term cited as word or phrase merely.

(7) a Substantival Clause. See Ch. I. Obs.

2) As the Verb is the Part of Speech by which action or state
is declared, the Predicate must be a Verb ; and, as action and
state are predicated in Time, it must be a Finite Verb.

Examples : —

Sttldect Prsdicate.

(1) Deus regnat,
God rules.

(2) Nos paremus,
we obey,

(3) Omnia florent,
all things bloom,

(4) Satis temporis datur,
enough time is given,

(5) Navigare delectat,
sailing gives delight,

(6) 'Instant' \

they come clamatur,

' Ad arma' * is shouted,
to arms

(7) Quae sit natura lucis ambigitur,
what is the nature of light is disputed.

Such is the true Norm of Predication : that the Simple Sen-
tence contains or implies a Subject and a Finite Verb.

This general truth is not overthrown by the following fiMuent
exceptions :

I. Predication is made without a Subject expressed :

i) when Pronoun Subjects are implied in the Verb. See 1 39.
2) in some of the constructions csdled Impersonal Sec \ 50.

II. Predication is made without a Verb expressed wh«i the
mind can be trusted to supply one. See § 99,

III. Predication is made by a Verb not Finite :

i) in the construction called the Historic Infinitive. See

p. 332.
2) when a Participle stands for a Finite Verb, as often in

poetry, and in Livy and Tacitus. See f 99, i.

Examples of such Exceptions :

I. I. Necveni, V. Venisti tandem, V.

2. Pudetpigetque factl Quidagitur? Statur, Ter.

II. Hie tibi certa domus, V. Quidam curiosior, Simonide.
tu ex opibus nil sumis tuis ? Phaed.

HI. I. Turn sic affarietcuras his demeredictiSjV.

2. Fusi hostes, L. Extemplo turbati animi, V.^^Ao

§ I02. Copulative Verbs, 351

ii. Incomplete Predication.

Some Verbs do not make a complete predication. Of these the
chief is the Verb of Being, sum, esse, which is completely predi-
cative only when it denotes mere existence. Seges est ubi Troia
f uit, com is where Troy wasy Ov.

Usually it is a Copula^ coupling the Subject with another term,
called the Complement, which qualifies the Subject : the Predi-
cate being then Copula with Complement

Predicate.

Subject.

Copula.

Complonent

Seges

est

matura.

the com

is

ripe.

Troia

fuit .

urbs munitissima, ,

Troy

was

a strongly fortified city.

Verbs which so couple a Subject and Complement are called
Copulative Verbs.

Many other Verbs are (or may be) incompletely Predicative, if
their predication is extended (or Extensible) by an Infinitive
(vii.). A few of these are also Copulative.

Verbs of incomplete Predication are, therefore —

i) Copulative, but not Extensible: (a) sum, forem, fio; and
(sometimes) appareo, existo, evado, maneo, nascor ; also (poetic)
audio, be called \ {b) many passive verbs of being called or named ;
appellor, vocor, nominor, nuncupor, usurpor, scribor, inscribor:
bein^ chosen or declared; creor, legor, eligor, sufficior, declarer,
prodor, renuntior : being known, deemed, counted^ found ; cogno-
scor, iudicor, habeor, numeror, deprehendor, invenior, reperior.

2) Copulative and Extensible: videor {seem), dicor, memoror,
censeor, credor, existimor, putor, perhibeor, arguor.

3) Extensible, but not Copulative : possum, nequeo, debeo ;
volo, malo, nolo, audeo ; soleo, consuesco ; coepi, incipio, meditor ;
desino ; pergo ; conor, laboro ; with many more : a few passive
verbs, as feror, narror, nuntior, trader. See vii. and § 180, where
it is said that, if the Infinitive extending any Verb is Copulative, a
nominal Complement following will agree with the Subject

a. The Complement of a Copulative Verb may be —

^1) An Adjective agreeing with the Subject as its Attribute.

(2) A Substantive agreeing with the Subject as its Apposite.

(3) A Phrase : sometimes an Adverb.

Examples of Copula with Complement.

Predicate.
Subject. Copul. Verb. Complement.

(1) Homo est mortalis

man is mortal

Puer fiet doctus

the boy will become learned

Vos habemini prudentes

/^ are held prudent - j

352

Latin Syntax,

§ IQ2.

Examples of Copula with Complement (continued).

Predicate.

Subject.

oJpuLVcrix

Complement.*

(2) Homines
men

sunt

animalla

are

animals

Mulier

evadit

victrix

the woman

comes out

conqueress
philosophi

Isti

appellantur

those nun

are called

philosophers

(3) Bona

sunt

viri

the goods

are

the husband's

Facundia

censetur

magni

eloquence

is counted

o/mat value
in Donis

Divitiae

numerantur

riches

are reckoned '

among goods

Navigare

est

voluptati

sailing

is

a pleasure

Conatus

fuenmt

ftustra

endeavours

were

in vain

b. Examples of Nominative Complement after Infinitive.

Socrates parens philosc^hiae dici potest, C. Fin, ii. i.
Aelius Stoicus esse voluit, C. Brut, 56. Cato esse quam
videri bonus malebat, Sail. Cat, 54. Xanthippe, Socrads uxor,
morosa admodum fuisse fertur et iurgiosa, GelL i. 17. Ora-
cula evanuerunt postquam homines minus creduli esse coepe-
runt,C.i9/v.ii.57. Brevis esselaboro; obscurusfio,H.^.P.25.
Animus hominis dives, non area, appellari solet, C. Par, vi. i.
Tyndaridaefratres victoriae nuntii fuisse perhibentur, C. Tusc,
i. 12. Piso minor haberi est coeptus postea, C. Brut, 69. Fis
anus, et tamen vis formosa videri, H. C. iv. 13. L, Papirius
Crassus primus Papisius est vocari desitus, C. Fam, ix. 21.
Cimi floret, existimari potest alba viola, PI. iv. 11 ; vi. 22,
Atilius prudens esse in iure civili putabatur, C. Att. vL i.*

Add to these the important examples of Participle Perfl (passive
or deponent) used as Prolative Infinitive, esse being understood :
§ 99a, and p. 428, Note.

* The term Complement must be understood to mean ' Predicadve ComplemeDt/ tluit
is, the word or phmse which commutes predication, when the Verb is Copulative. Frendi
writers employ this term to denote the Cases which compUU the construction of vaxious
Verbs : but, as these are sufficiently described by other names (Object ; Redinent, &C.X
It is better to reserve the word Complement for that which has no other appropriate
name : as the term Predicate (in its logical sense) is applicable only in a few instances.
Some German writers use the term ' Nominalpr&dikat.'

* In Oblique Oration, when the Verb becomes Infinitive, its Accusative Subject is called
an Oblique Subject ; and if that Verb is Copuladve, its Accus. Complement is called an
Oblique 0>mpIement Thus in ' Puto psittacum loqui ; ' ' puto psittacum (esse) loquacem ;'
psittacum is Oblique Subject, loquacem Oblique Complement. See % 108, p. 360.

(Note o^ } 103.) A Phrase means a few words (sometimes a single word idiomatically
used) expressing a distinct notion, but not containing predication, formal or virtuaL Thus
in the sentences, Vir est magni ingeni: Caesar cum Balbo venit ; hoc nobis
dedecori est; we call ' magni ingeni,' * cum Balbo,' and ' dedecori,' Phrases.

An Enthesis means a group of words not containing a formal predication, bat con-
vertible by a slight change of form into a Clause : 'ab exilio regressus ; ' 'philosophna
nobilis : * ' me absente.' See II. 3) p. 354.

A Clause has been explained to mean a coordinate or subordinate Simple Sentences

uiyiuzeu uy x_j^^^v_^pt i-X^

I03. Relations in the Simple Sentence. 353

iii Relations in the Simple Sentence. Reh3i».

The Simple Sentence receives expansion from Words,
Phrases, and Entheses used as Adjuncts, and standing
in the various Relations which words in a Simple Sen-
tence bear to one another. These Relations are : —

I. Predicative.

V. Circumstantive.

II. Qualitative.

VI. Proprietive.

III. Objective.

VII. Prolative.

IV. Receptive.

VIII. Annexive.*

I. The FREDiCATrvE Relation.

This subsists between the Finite Verb and the Subject The Sub-
ject is (or is taken to be) a Nominative Case ; and its Verb is so
related as to agree with it in Number and Person.

d) A Subject Singular in form but Plural in sense is called a
Collective Subject^ and its Predication may agree with the
sense and not with the form : ' Pars militum occisi sunt,'
part of the soldiers were slain. See p. 269 D),

ff) A Subject consisting of several Nouns in Annex! ve Rela-
tion is called a Composite Subject, and usually takes a
Plural Predicate : *Rex, regina, et regia classis profecti
sunt/ the king, queen and royal fleet set out,

c) Impersonal Construction is a peculiar Predication, in which
either an expressed Predicate implies an unexpressed
Subject \ pudet ( -pudor pudet) ; ourritur ( «- cursus curri-
tur) ; or a Verb-form (Gerundive) becomes a Subject :
parendum est. See § 5a

II. The Qualitative Relation.

(i.) Between an Attribute and the Noun to which it is in
Attribution : ^magnae divitiae,' ^^^ r(^A^j ; Mocti
viri/ learned men ; *iste psittacus/ that parrot,
(2.) Between a Noim Apposite and the Noun to which it
stands in Apposition: 'Cicero consul/ Cicero the
consul % 'rex Croesus,' king Croesus,
The qualifying word will agree with its Noun as far as possible.
Sec § 167. Verb-Nouns and Clauses are considered Neuter.
See Examples on p. 360.*

* In the dasnficatkns of Language, eadh class does not exclude all the members of
every other claas. We find the same words ranked as Substantive and A4iective, as
Koun and Verb, as Adverb and Preposition, &c So the classification here given is not
in-validated by the fact that some words, phrases, cas^ &c, may be referred to more
tban one of these Relations : that the Complement, for instance, is both Predicative and
Qtialttadve, the Genitive sometimes Qualitative, sometimes Objective, &c

* Substantives receive as Adjuncts not only Attributes and Apposites, but many other
qualifying expressions : Genidves Possessive, Qualitative, and Objective : Abladves of
Quality and Manner : firequently Prepositions with Cases : sometimes Adverbs.

Examples : Sullae exerdtus ; vir magni ingeni ; senex promissa barba ; philosoi^uis
nominf^ non re ; obtemperatio legibus ; domnm reditio ; mansio Formiis ; interitus ferro,
Came, frigore, pestilentia ; excessus e viu : litterae a Caesare ; liber de Offidis : oollo-
4iaium cum Balbo ; omwa ante bella : tua semper lenitas, &c

AA

Digitized by VjOOQ IC

354 Latin Syntax. % 103.

This relation appears in four varieties :

1) Attribute or Apposite as Epithet: 'docti viri;' *rex

Croesus.'

2) Attribute or Apposite as Enthesis: 'Cicero, ab cxilio tan-

dem regressus, in senatum vcnit,' Cicero^ having at
length returned from exile, came into the senaU (r^^ressus
-ubi regressus erat). * Socrates, philosophus in primis
nobilis, veneno interiit,' SocrateSy an eminently renowned
philosopher, died by poison (philosophus - qui philosophus
fuit).

3) Attribute or Apposite, agreeing with the Noun, but in close

union with the Verb, in the manner of an adverb : * Cicero
primus in senatum venit,' Cicero came first into the
senate. 'Caesar aedem Fortimae consul vovit,' Caesar
when consul vowed a temple to Fortune.

4) Attribute or Apposite as Complement, already described

and exemplifies:^ p. 352.

III. The Objective Relation.

When the Predicate is a Transitive Verb, the predication is often
without meaning until a word is added expressing that on which
the Verb acts. This is called the Object, and its relation to the
Verb and Subject is the Objective Relation.

Thus, * Romulus interfecit,' Romulus slew, is deficient in sense
until we add ' Remum,* Remus.

'Remum' is in the Accusative Case, as Object of the Verb
interfecit, and in Objective Relation to that Verb and to its
Subject Romulus. See Syntax of Accusative. .

d) Anything which may be the Subject of a sentence may also
be the Object: and when a Verb-noun, a Vocable, a
Clause, or an Adverb, is used as Object, it b taken to be
in the Accusative Case.

b) Verbs of askings teaching, concealing, take two Objects, one

of the Person, the other of the Thing: 'Doceo te litteras,'
/ Uach you letters. See § 130.

c) Factive Verbs take a second Accusative in attribution or

apposition as complement to the first : 'Socratem sapien-
tissimum puto,' / deem Socrates vet

i..3^.x«t».«* puto,' / deem Socrates very wise. 'Caesar
Octavium scripsit heredem/ Caesar left Octavius his
heir. See §§ 102, 131.
Such an Attribute or Apposite is called an Oblique Com*
plement See Note, p. 352.

IV. The Receptive Relation.

The Dative is the Case of the Recipient, that is, of tne person
or thing interested in an action or state ; for, to, upon, or against
which the action or state occurs : ' Non nobis sed reipublicae
nati simius,' we are bom not for ourselves, but for the common-
wealth. *Do Jtibi librum,' I give a book to you. 'Pax grata
civibus,' fl pecu:e welcome to the citizens. ' Poeni bellum inferunt
Rom an is/ /A/ Carthaginians wage war against the Romans,

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^v^pt lx^

1 103. Relations in the Simple Sentence. 355

The Relation of such a Dative to the Verb or Adjective govern-
ing ity and to their Nouns, is the Receptive Relation.^

a) The Dative of some Nouns is used as a Complement (Pre-
dicative Dative or Dative of the Purpose) : See § 142.

* Haec mihi voluptati sunt/ these things are a pleasure to
me, * Habet nos derisu 1/ he holds us in derision,

V. The CiRCXJMSTANTIVE RELATION.

This limits the Verb and Adjective principally, also the Substan-
tive and Adverb, by Adjuncts, which may be :

(i) Adverbs; (2) Noun-cases or Phrases; (3) Entheses.

The chief Case of Circumstance is the Ablative; but also the
Accusative, sometimes the Genitive, may express limiting cir-
cumstances.

Limiting Phrases are especially Prepositions with their Cases.

A frequent limiting Construction is the Ablative Absolute ; that
is, a Noun with Participle (or with a second Noun) in the Ablative
Case.

The Circumstances es^ressed in this relation are numerous : as,

Cause ; Instrument ; Agent ; Price ; Matter : — Respect ; Mea-
sure ; Manner ; Condition ; Quality ; Time ; Place Where : —
PJace Whence ; Separation ; Origin ; Comparison, &c.

Examples:

i) *0 dea certe,' O surely a goddess. * Vir longe optimus,'
a man by far the best, * \md h o d i e,' / have lived to-day,

2) 'Gladiis ccrtant/ they contend with swords, *Vir pro-
cero corpore,' a man 0/ tall frame, * Fraude non vi
periit,' he died by fraud, not by force, ^Centum annos
vixit,' A^ lived a hundred years, *Hic nis in urbe est,
here is country in the city, ^ Remus a Romulo occisus
est,' Remus was killed by Romulus, ' Vir natus ad glori-
am,' <i man born for glory,

3)*Occiso Gaio, Claudius imperavit,* Gains being slain,
Claudius became emperor, 'Solecadente dormitant a ves,'
when the sun sets, birds sleep, ^Torquato consule
natus est Horatius,' Horace was bom in the consulship of
Torquatus, See §§ 161, 238, 239,

■ Veri)s or A4jectives which Cake a Dativtf for their appropriate case, as pa re ere, U

If the Verb, as dare, U give, takes an Accusathre also, it is a Trajective Verb
TransitiYe.
Verbs may be classed according to the Cases they take :

TransitiTe Verba . . . taking Accusative . . as Qnid-Verbs.

TrsQective Verbs ... „ Dative ... „ Cui-Verbs.

Ti^ective Verba Transitive „ Ace. and Dative „ Cui-Quid- Verbs.

Transitive Verbs taking Double Accusative . . „ Quem-Quid-Vetbs.

Factive Verbs „ Qnid-Quale-Verbs.

Tha Accusative is often called the Case of the Nearer Object ; and the Dative the Case
«f the Remoter Object. ^alp

uiyiuzeu uy x_j ^^^ >^>t IV
A A « O

356 Latin Syntax. g 103.

VI. The Proprietive Relation.

When the Genitive Case of a Noun depends on another Noma
which it has for a possession^ a part, or, generally, as a notion
which it qualifies or determines. See \\ 162-176.

Examples:

« Templum M i n e r v ae,' M/ tunple of Minerva. ' Multi mill*
turn,' many of the soldiers. * Vir magni inge^ii/ a moM
of great genius. * Cupido pecuniae,' the desire of money,

a) The Pn^rietive Relation is, in some examples, a spedal
instance of the Qualitative: thus, Vir magni in^eni
->vir ingeniosissimus; in others it is a specisu in-
stance of the Objective Relation; thus 'Cupido pe-
cuniae' is nearly the same as 'cupere pecuniam.'

d) Genitives of an Objective nature are joined to many Ad-
jectives : ' Memor leti/ mindful of death ; and to some
Verbs, ' Generis miseresce Xm^' pity thy offspring.

VII. The Prolative Relation.

When Predication is extended (profertur) by an Infinitive ad^
joined to certain extensible Verbs and Participles or Adjectives.

Examines:
'Noli contendere,' do not contend. 'Ego videor videre
res futuras,^ / seem to see future things. * lussus con-
fundere foedus,' ordered to break the treaty. 'Ludere
pertinax,' persisting to play.

That such an Infinitive is not an Objective V^b-Noun appears
from the fact that Infinitives of Copulative Verbs, so constructed^
keep the Complement in the same Case with the Subject:

'Puervult fieri doctus,' the boy wishes to become learned.
'Nonomnes possumus esse ^hWoso^hi,^ we cemnot all
be philosophers. 'Homerus caecus fuisse creditur/
Homer is believed to have been blind
See § i8a

a) Other uses of the Infinitive in the Simple Sentence £UI

under the Predicative or Objective Relation : Supines under
the Circumstantive Relation; the Gerund is ranked ac-
cddinf^ to its Case; Participles follow the rules of
Adjectives.

b) Cases of Nouns depend on the Infinite as well as on die

Finite Verb.

VIII. The Annexive Relation.

When a word is annexed to the construction of a similar word
preceding, either by a Conjunction, or the Conjunction being omitted.

Examines:

' PiUvis e t u m br a sumus,' we are dust and shade. * Non nobis

nati sumus, sed patriae,' we are not bom for ourselves^

but for our country. ' Patriae nati sumus, non nobis,' w

are bom for our country ^ not for ourselves. ' Arma vi-

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^ v^pt i.x^

i 104-5. ^^ Relative Pronoun. 357

rumque cano/ arms and the man I sin£, 'Pater ct
mater mortui sunt,' my father and mother are dead
* Pater, mater, fratres periere,' father, mother, brothers
have perished 'Me amat ut fratrem suum/ he loves
me as his own brother.

a) One Finite Verb annexed to another makesi strictly speak-
ing, a new sentence: but is often conveniently rsmked
under this Relation:
* Odi prdasuua vdgus et arceo/ / hate and keep aloof the
profane mob, ' Abiit, excessit, evasit, erupit,' he has de-
parted, gone forth, escaped, burst out

17. Interjections and Vocative.

1) To the forms constructed in a Simple Sentence, imder the
eight Relations heretofore mentioned, must be added INTERJECTIONS
and Intenectional utterances, especially the Case (of the person or
thing adih-essed) called the Vocative, which, wiui or without an
Interjection, is attached to the Sentence, but not constructed wiUi
it; thus, with its adjuncts, fomnng an appendage, which may be
called a Vocative Elcthesis. Thus Horace (Carm. i. 1. 1) b^^ins
with a Vocative Ecthesis of two lines :

Maecenas, atavis edite regibus,
O et praesidinm et dulce decus meum.
Stmt cfuos curriculo pulverem Olympicum
Collegisse iuvat, fte.

2) Ecthesis appears also in the Accusative Case, with or without
Interjection; in the Nominative Case, usually with Interjection; in
the Dative, never widiout InteijectioiL

V. Notice of the Relative Pronoua

The consideration of the Relative belongs properly to the head
id Compound Sentences; but it is introduced here so far as to
establish its agreement in Gender, Number, and Person with its
Antecedent that is, with the Term in the Prior Sentence to which
it stands rdated. To this extent the Relative Pronoun is Qualitar
tive ; but, as respects Case, it may (in its own clause) be Subject
Nominative or fall under any of the following Relations : Objective,
Receptive, Circumstantive, or Proprietive.

It corresponds to any Person. See §§ 108, 1 14, 204.

Note. The Relative Pronoun, qui, quae, quod, may be explained
as standing between two Noun-terms, with the former of which it
agrees in Goider, Number, and Person; with the latter in Case.

i) Sometimes both Noun-terms are expressed: 'Erant itinera
duo, quibus itineribus exire possent,' there were two roads fy
which they m^ht go forth. L.

2) Usually the latter is omitted: 'Animum rege, qui, nisi
park, impeiat,' rule the temper, which, unless it obeys, commands
^ e. qui animus), Hor.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

358 Latin Syntax. § 106.

3) Sometimes the former is omitted in poetry: 'Sic tibi dent
nymphae quae levct unda sitim/ so may the nymphs give thee what
water may assuage thirst (i.e. undam quae unda), Ov.

4) Sometimes both : * Sunt quibus in satira videor nimis acer/
there are some to whom I seem too keen in satire (i. e. homines
quibus hominibus), Hor.

b) The following scheme illustrates this principle.

i^ Vir quem virum vides rex est (full form).

2) Vir qtum .... vides rex est (usual form).

3) . . * quem virum vides rex est

4) . . . quem . . . • vides rex est

r) Any Noun-tenn may be the Antecedent to a Relative.

m6 vi Rules for the Conversion of an Active
into a Passive Sentence.

i) The Nominative of an Agent becomes Ablative (if expresse(^
with the Preposition a, ab :

Act. Nos currimus, 1

Pass. A nobis curritur,' '*•

Or the Person may be suppressed :

^^s. ii^S^S ) ^--io to ike stars.

Obs, The Ablative of the Agent may also be used with the Quasi-^
Passive Verbs fio, vapulo, veneo :

Haec a legionibus fiebant,

these things were being dofte by the legions.

Testis a reo vapulavit,

the witness was beaten by the defendant.

Nolim ab hoste venire,

/ would not be sold by an enemy,

2) The Nominative of an Instrument becomes Ablative without
Preposition :

Act Flores caput omant, \ flowers adorn the head.
Pass. Flonbus caput omatur, > y**^^* '***^^ '^ '*««»•

3) The Object of a Transitive Verb becomes the Subject :

Act Deus mundum creavit, ) ^^ ^ ^^ ^^

Pass. A Deo mundus creatus est, > ^^ ''"'^ *^ wor^a.

4) If there are two Objects (Person and Thing) the Accusative of

the Thing remains:

Act Rogas me sententiam, ) ^^^ _ . ^. ^^ >»a.-.v«
Pass. R^or ate sententiam, J you ask me my ofiimon.

5) Factive construction becomes Copulative:

A. Clodium plebs tribunum creavit, y the plebeians elected
P. Qodius a plebe creatus est tribunus, > Clodius tribune.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

II07-8. Agreement 359

6) Other Cases remain, and Intransitive Verbs become Imper-
sonal

Act Pater librum fi 1 i o dat, j the father gives a book to his
Pass. A patre liber filio datur, ' son.

Act Medi.cinae indigemus, . ) j j- -

Pass. Medicinaeanobisindigetur, i '^^ need medicine.

Act Mihi isti nocere non'possunt, i .t^ ^ z _.

Pass. Mihi abistis noceri non potest, f'^-^ ^^''^^ ^^^ ^

Note. On the Construction of Impersonal Verbs see § 5a

CHAPTER III.
CONSTRUCTIONS OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.
These fall into three Sections. wy

I. Agreement
II. Case-construction.
III. Verb-construction, so far as concerns the Simple
Sentence.

Section I.

AGREEMENT.

108

Agreement, in Syntax, is the assimilation of the Agr^.
form of one word to that of another.

i The Four Concords.

There are four Rules of Agreement, called CON-
CORDS: namely.

Concord I. — A Finite Verb agrees with its Subject-
Nominative in Number and Person.

Examples :

'Ego doceo; nos docemus.' 'Tu disces; vos discetis.'
'Magister hortetur; magistri hortentur.' 'Vivere est cogi-
tare.* * Omnia sunt rectc' ' Quod venisti gratum est'

Concord II. — An Adj ecti ve agrees in Gender,
Number, and Case with that to which it is in Attribu-
tioa

Concord III. — A Substantive agrees in Case with
that to which it is in Apposition.

Obs. — Concords II. and III. are true for every various position
ctf the Attribute or Apposite — ^whether they are Epithets, as in the

uiyiuzeu uy x^j v^ wVJ Iv^

360 Latin Syntax, § to6.

examples marked (i) of the two lists which follow : Entheses, as in
those marked (2); Adverbial, as in those marked (3) ; or Com-
plements, as in those marked (4) and (5).

. Examples.

II. (i) Vir bonus ille bonam banc axorem habet, that good

man has this good wife,

(2) hirundo pullis suis orbata queritur, the swallow

bereft of tts young complains.

(3) quis vita male acta felix moritur ? who^ after a life ill-

spent^ dies happy f

(4) cari sunt parentes ; caraest patria, dear are parents;

dear is country.

(5) pueri discendo fiunt docti, boys by learning became

learned

(6) haec est nobilis ilia ad Trasimenum pugna, this is

that renowned battle at Lake Trasimenus^

(7) quid sit futurum eras incertum est, what wiU

happen to-morrow is uncertain.

(8) malim pueros esse quam videri bonos, I would rather

boys should be, than seem, good

(9) tacere aliquando utile putamus, to be silent at times we

deem expedient,
(10) scire tuum nihil esX^your knowledge is nothing,

Obs, — In (7) 'incertum* agrees with the Clause * quid sit futurum
eras.' In (8) *bonos* (Oblique Complement) agrees with ' pueros,'
which is Oblique Subject of each Infinitive. Hence it is seen that
Copulative Verbs, Finite or Infinite, have the same case kA agreeing
words after as before them. Example .(9) is of the same kin^
for esse might be supplied to utile. See IIL (6).

III. (i) Nos pueri patrem Lollium imitabimur, we boys wiU

imitate our father Lollius,

(2) eflfodiuntur opes, irritamenta malorum, riches are dug

out, incentives of evil.

(3) Cicero legem Maniliam praetor suasit, Cicero recom^

mended the Manilian law when praetor.

(4) spes est expectatio boni, hope is the expectation of

good.

(5) syllaba longa brevi subiecta vocatur iambus, a long

syllable following a short one is called icunbus.

(6) Athenas omnium doctrinarum inventrices esse ere-

dimus, we believe Athens to be the inventress of all
sciences.

(7) cogita oratorem institui, rem arduam, reflect that

an orator is being formed, a difficult business.

(8) Tungri sunt Galliae ci vitas, the Tungriare a staUef

GauL

Obs.^ln (7) rem is in Apposition to the Clause 'oratcurem
instituL'

Digitized byCjOOQlC

i 109-iia Agreement 361

Concord IV. — ^The Relative Pronoun Qui, quae,
quod, agrees with its Antecedent in Gender, Number,
and Person ; but in Case it follows the construction of
its own clause. See § 105.

I. TUy filia, quae nos amas, oboedies nobis, aui te
am am us, you^ daughter^ who love us^ will obey us^
who love you,

3. Deum veneramur, qui nos creavit, we worship God
who created us,

3. adsum quern quauentis, I am present whom ye seek.

4. habeo quibuscum colloquar, I have sotne to talk with.

5. in tempore ad earn veni, quod rerum omnium est

primum, / came to her at the right moment^ which is
the most important thing of alL

6. nos, id quod debent, virtutes delectant, virtues delight

us^ as they ought.

Obs, — In 3, the Antecedent is ego, in 4, ali<juos, understood ; in
5, the Principal sentence is the Antecedent : in 6, id is in apposi*
tion to the sentence ' nos virtutes delectant' (Id quod »ut)

ii Ellipsis of the Subject

i) Pronoun Subjects (ego, nos, tu, vos, is, ei) are omitted, unless
required for emphasis : * Si vales bene est, ego valeo,' if you are
well, I rejoice ; I am well, C. Fam, xiii, 6. * O di profanum volgus
ct arceo,' / hate and keep aloof the profane vulgar, Hor. C iii.
I. I. ' Poscimur,' we are required, Hon C. i. 32. i.

2) When a Subject of the Third Person is omitted, it is generally
known firom the context.

On the omission of homines fFr. on. Germ. ma^C) before aiunt,
ferunt, &c., see p. 275. 'Teque terunt irae paenituisse tuae,' emd
they say you have repented of your an^er, Ov. A, A, ii. 592. The
adverb volgo sometimes accompanies this ellipsis: *Volgo ex
oppidisgratulabantur Pompeio,' they came in crowds from the
towns to congratulate Pompeius, C T, D, i. 35.

3) Impersonal Verbs have no Substantive or Pronoun expressed
as Subject But many have a Verb-noun Infinitive : * Ire iuvat ;
fugere dedecet,' &c Many have a Clausular Subject : * Oportet
haec fieri:' 'interest ut te videam,' &c. The Subject of others is
implied in the Verb itself : ' Pudet facti ; taedet vitae ; mistret
hominis,' &c.: also in Pluit^ tonat^ grandinat, &c., and in
Passive Impersonals, Itur, statur, vivitur, &c. See § 5a

On Ellipsis, see pp. 267, 274, 346.

iii Attraction of the Verb.

i) A Copulative Verb sometimes agrees with the Complement
*Amantium irae amoris integratio est,' lover^ quarrels are the
renewal of lave, Ter. An. iii. 3. 28. 'Quas geritis vestis sordida
lana fuit,' the clothes which ye wear were dirty wool, Ov. A, A.
ifi. 222. ^ ,

Digitized by VjOOQIC

109

362 Latin Syntax. §111.

2) This Attraction may affect Gender. ' Non omnis error stul-
titia est dicenda,' not every error must be called folly ^ C. Div.
iL 43. * Gens universa Veneti appellati/ the entire race were
called Veneti^ L. i. i.

3) A Verb sometimes agrees with the Appdsite rather than with
the true Subject. *Tungri Galliae ci vitas fontem habet insig>
nem,' Tongres, a city o/Gaul, has a remarkable fountain^ PL N, //.
xxxL 2.

iv. Synesis in the first and second Concords-
See p. 269.

i) Feminine or Neuter words implying males are found with
Masculine agreement: ' lUa furia qui . . . &c impunitatcm est
assecutus/ thefiiry who (namely Clodius) 3lc, obtained impumty,
C. Fofn. i. 9. * M ilia triginta capitum dicimturcapti/ thirty thou-^
sand prisoners are said to have been taken, L. xxviL 16. ' Ubi
illicestscelusy qui . . . * where is that villain who . . . / Ter.
An, iii. 5. Analogous to this is Liy/s practice of mentioning
the name of a town, and then continuing the construction as if he
had mentioned the inhabitants: 'Saguntum civitas longe op-
ulentissima ultra Iberum fiiit Oriundi a Zacyntho insula dicun>
tur mixtique/ &c., the city of Saguntum was by far the wealthiest
beyond the Ebro : they (cives) are said to have ori^nated from the
isle of ZantCy and to have been mingled, &c, L. xxl 7.

2) Singular Collective Nouns, pars,multitudo, volgus, turba^
vis, iuventus, nobilitas, plebs, &c., are used by Livy, Sallust, and
the poets, with Plural Predicates, and agreement of Gender mra
iTvvtmv, *• Locros onmis multitudo abeunt,' the whole number
remove to Locri, L. xxiv. 3. 'Pars perexigua, duce amisso, Ro-
mam inermes delatisunt,'<j very small fifrtion, having lost their
leader, were brought unarmed to Rome, L. ii. 14. This construc-
tion is rare in Caesar, not used by Cicero.

3) The Distributive words and phrases quisque, uterque,.
pars,alius ... alium, alter. . . alterum, vir . . .virum,&c,
are apparently used as Subjects to Plural Predicates, but may be
explained as apposite to Plural Subjects understood : *Uterque
eorum exercitum e castris educunt/ they both lead out an army
from the camp, Caes. B, G, iii. 30. * At nostri, repentino metu
perculsi, sibi quisque pro moribus consulunt; alii fiigere, alii
armacapere: mag^a pars volnerati aut occisi,' Imt our men,
seized with a sudden panic, provided for themselves according to
their several habits ; some fled, others took arms: a great portion
were wounded or slain, SaU. lug, 57. * Alius alii subsidium fe-
runt,' they bring support one to another, Caes. B. G,vL 76, 'Vir
virum legebant/ each man picked another, L. x. 38.

4) The Adverb partim is plurally constructed by Cicero, with
Gender «oro iriVfwp : * Eorum partim in pompa partim in ade
illustres esse vohierunt,' sofne of them chose to be brilliant in pra^
cession, some on the battlefield, C. d. Or. ii. 94. * Partim e nobis

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5 iia. Composite Subject, 363

timidi sunt, partim a republica aversi,' the one fart of us are
cowardsy the other unfriendty to the state, C. Phit, viii. 32.

5. Mille is generally Plural, sometimes Singular. See § 34.

V. Composite Subject {(rvKKajf^ui),

Two or more Subjects united in one Predication are called a
Composite Subject See p. 268.

A. i) If the Subjects so united form an evidently Plural notion,
the Predicate will be Plural: 'Pompeius, Lentulus, Scipio
foede perierunt,' C. Fam. ul 18. 'Castor et Pollux ex equis
pugnare visi sunt,' C. N, D. ii. 2. 'lus et iniuria natura
diiudicantur,' right aftd wrong are naturally distinguished^ C.
Le^.'x. 16. *Aetas, metus, magister, prohibebant,' age, ti-
midity y and a tutor forbade, Ter. An, \, i. 27. Sometimes, when the
Pref). cum unites the Subjects: 'Ipse dux cum aliquot principibus
capiuntur,' the commander himself with some heading men were
capttiredy L. xxi. 6a *Ilia cum Lauso de Numitore sati,' Ov. F,
iv. 55. But Cicero prefers the Singular in this last construction,
*Tu cum Sexto scire velim quid cogites,' / should like to know
what you and Sextus think, Att, vii. 14.

2} If their union forms one complex Singular notion, the Verb
may be Singular. 'Tempusnecessi tasque postulat,' C. Offi i. 23.
'Religio et fides anteponatur amicitiae,' C. ^^ iii. 10. So
'Senatus populusque Romanus' forms one complex notion, and
usually, but not always, takes a Singular Predicate.

3) If one of the Subjects is ist Pers. Sing, (ego), the Predicate
may be ist Pers. Plur.

If one of the Subjects is 2nd Pers. Sing, (tu) and none ist Pers.,
the Predicate may be 2nd Pers. Plur.

*Si tu et Tullia, lux nostra, valet is, ego et suavissimus Cicero
valemus,' If you and my darling Tullia are well, I and our sweet
boy are in good health, C Fam, xiv. 5.

4) If the Subjects are sentient beings and of the same Gender,
the Attributes follow that Gender ; if of different Genders, the At-
tributes are Plural Masculine.

' Non mihi venistis Semele Ledeve docendae,' ye are not
come a Semele or a Leda to be taught by me, Ov. A. A, iii. 251.
'Pater mihi et mater mortui sunt,' my father and mother are
dead, Ter. Eun. iii. 3. 1 1.

5) If they are non-sentient things and of the same Gender, that
G^der may be kept by the Attributes, or these may be Neuter : if
of different Genders, the Attributes are usually Neuter PluraL

* Grainmatice quondam ac musice iunctae fuere/ grammar
and music were formerly combined, Qu. i. 10. 17. ' 'Ira et avar-
itia imperio potentiora erant,' anger and avarice were more
powerful than authority, L. xxxvi. 32. 'Fregellis mums et porta de
cado tacta erant,* at Fregellae a wall and gate had been struck by
lightning, L. xxxiL 29. ^ M. Lucr, iiL 136.

6) If sentient beings and non-sentient things are combined, the
former will sometimes regulate the Gender: 'Rex regiaque

Digitized byCjOOQlC

364 Latin Syntax. 1 113.

classis una profecti/ the king and the royal fleet set out to-
gether^ L. xxi. 50. But Neuter Attributes are more usual : * Ro-
mani regem regnumque Macedoniae sua futura sdunt,' the
Romans knew that the king and kingdom of Macedonia will be theirs,
L. xL 10.

B. i) Often, however, the Verb and Attributes are constnioled
with only one of the Subjects, and mentally supplied with the rest
(zeugma). That one will be nearest to the Predication, and gene-
rally the most important *• Nunc mihi niliil libri, nihil litterae, ni-
hil ^ocUXTi^L'^xoA^^X^ now neither books nor literature nor learn-
ing avail me aughty C Att. x, 10. * Homerus fuit et Hesiodus
ante Romam conditam,' Homer and Hesiod were before the founda-
tion of Rome^ C. T. D. L I. 'Dicebat idem Cotta, Curio/ Cotta
said the same, and Curio, C Off. il 17. * Cum quaesturam nos,
consulatum Cotta, aedilitatem peteret Hortensius,' wA^n /stood
for the quaestorship, Cotta for the consulship, Hortensius for the
edileship, C. Brut 92. So, *Et tu et omnes homines sciunt,'
you and all mankind know, C. Fam. sdii. 8.

2) The agreement of Gender with a nearer word appears in this
Example : * Visae noctumo tempore feces ardorque caeli/ meteors
were seen in the night and a fiery sky, C. in Cat. lii. 8.

3) Singular agreement with the more distant Noun is rare:
< Luc us quidem ille et haec Arpinatium quercus agnoscttur, saepe
amelectusin Mario,' I recognise yonder grove, and this oak of
the Arpinates, which I have often read of in the Marius, C Leg.
i. I.

4) 'Unus et alter' takes a Singular Verb: 'Unus et alter
a s s u i t u r pannus,' one or two patcnes are stitched on, Hor. ad Pis,
15.

5) When the Subjects are connected by aut, the Predicates
sometimes appear as Singular^ sometimes as Plural : ' Si Aeacus
aut Minos diceret,' C. Off, l 28. < Si quid Socrates aut Ari»>
tippus . . . fecerint locutive sint,' C. Off. L 41. But with aut
. . . aut, the Singular alone is used. Et . . . et, neque . . . nequc,
usually lead to a Singular Predicate, but sometimes to a PhiraL

In short, the construction of a Composite Subject exhibits every
variety of usage.

d) Such instances as the following belong to Attraction: 'Ei
canora semper omnia quam decus et pudicitia f uit,' everything
was at all times dearer to him than decency and modesty, SaU. Cat
25.

113 vi Idioms of Attribution and Apposition.

i) As Complfsment, the Adjective may be attributed to any
Noun-term; as Epithet, chiefly to a Substantive : but someCiniea %»
an Infinitive: ' Velle suum cuique est,' every one has hist

inclination. ^Totum hoc diiplicet philosophari,'a^/iiftr^M»-
losophising they dislike, Cic Fin, L i. 'Me hoc ipsum nihil

"me delight, C a

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

agere delectat,' this 'far niente* itself is to me delig^ful, C dU
Or. ii. 6.

1 113. Attribution and Apposition. 365

2) Sometimes, in Copulative construction, an Adjectival Pro-
noun seems to take the place of Subject, and the Substantive, to
which it refers, that of Complement. So placed, the Adjectival
word usually agrees with die Substantive : ' H ae simt fere de animis
sententiae,' these are pretty nearly the (current) opinions on the
souly Cic. * H ic mums aheneus esto, nil conscire sibi,' let this be a
wall of brass^ to be conscious of nothing {wrong)y Hor. Epist. i. i.
61. But sometimes the Pronoun is substantivSQy Neuter : 'Quod

?K) fiii ad Trasimenum, ad Cannas, id tu hodie es,' what I was at
rasimenusy at Cannae, you are now, L. xxx. 30. * Nunc scio quid
sit amor,' now know J what love is, Veig. B, viii. 43.

3) The Adverbial and Proleptic uses of the Attribute and Appo-
site am important idioms, noticed p. 37S.

a) Attribute : 'Turn tu insiste audax muris,' then do thou

advance on the walls boldly, L. iii. 26. 'Castris se pavi-
dus tenebat,' he kept himself within the camp timidly, L
'Vespertinus pete tectum,' seek the roof at eventide,
Hor. Epist. L 6. 2a 'Aeneas se matutmus agebat/
Aeneas set himself in motion at mom, Verg. Aen, viii. 465.
'Domesticus otior,' / lounge at home, Hor. S, i. 6. 127.
' Hostes rari se ostendere coeperunt,' the enemy began to
show themselves in small parties, Caes. B, G. v. 17.
'Memini, tametsi nullus moneas,' I remember, without
any suggestion from you, Ten Eun, ii. i. 10. * Hannibal
princeps in proelium ibat, ultimus conserto proelio ex-
cedebat,' Hannibal used to be the first to go to battle, and
after the engagement the last to quit the field, L. xxi. 4.
'Omnan crede diem tibi diluxisse supremum,' believe
that every day that hcLS dawned on you is your last, Hon
Epist, i. 4. Thus, where the Engfish generally uses a
Relative Pronoun : He was the first {last or only one) who
came, the Latin more concisely says Primus (ultimus,
solus) venit

b) Adverbial Apposition limits the agency of the Subject in re-

spect of time, age, office, capacity, &c. : * Furius, noster
familiaris, puer didicit quod discendum fuit,' my intimate
friend Furius learnt in boyhood what he had to learn, C.
d. Or, iii. 23. 'Cato senex scribere historiam instituit/
Cato began to write history in old age, Suet Ner, 31. * C.
lunius aedem Salutis,quam con s uTvoverat, censor loca-
verat, dictator dedicavit,' Gaius Junius dedicated in his
dictatorship the temple of Salus, which he had vowed in
his consulship, and given a contract for in his censorship,
L. X. I. Under this head may be placed such phrases as,
Ante meconsulem {before my consulship), post me quaes-
torem {after my quaestorship). See p. 273.

4) If Neuter Adjectives are so constructed as to qualify Mas-
co&ie or Feminine Nouns, they must be regarded as words which
have acquired the nature of Substantives, and as standing in ap-
position : 'Turpe senex miles, turpe senilis amor,' unseemly is
em aged soldier, unseemly an old mans love, Ov. Am. i. 9. * Mors

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^v^pt i-V-

366 Latin Syntax. § 113.

omnium rerum extremum est, death is the final close of all things ^
C. Fam, vi. 21. * Turpitude peius est quam dolor/ dishonour is
worse than pain^ C. /. £>. ii. 13. ' Patres et plebem, in valid a et
inermia, ludificatur/ he deludes the Senate and Commons^ weak
and defenceless bodies y Tac. Ann, L 46.

5) The Apposite usually agrees in Number with its Noun, but
not necessarily : * Tulliola, deliciolae nostrae, * TuUiOj my little
darlings C. Alt L 8, Substantiva Mobilia, having two forms. Mas-
culine and Feminine, will agree, as ^ as possible, in Gender with
their Noun: Usus magister egregius/ experience^ an excellent
teacher J Plin. Efist. L 2a * Vita rustica parcimomae magistra
est,' a country Itfe is the teacher qf thrifty C. p. S. Rose, 27. Such
words are also used as epithets,^ chiefly by poets : * Re gin a pe-
cunia,' queen Money , Hor. Epist, 1. 6. 36. An Apposite may seem
to take a different case from its noun : ' Archias natus est Anti-
ochiae, celebri quondam urbe,' Archias was horn otAntioch^a
once populous city^ C,p, Arch, 3.

6) Peculiar forms of Apposition :

a) Apposition to a Pronoun Subject understood :

^Hannibal peto pacem,' /, Hannibal^ sue for peace^ L. xxx.
30. ^QuaUs artifcx pereol' what an artist dies in me
Jit Idie)\ Suet Ner, 49.

b) Apposition of the Part to the Whole :

* Galli Ruscinonem, aliquot populi, conveniunt,' M^ Gauls^
a few tribes^ meet at Ruscino, Ln xxL 24. ' Duae filiae
harum^ altera occisa, altera capta est,' the two daughters
of these women, one was slain, the other captured, Caes. B.
G, i. 53. 'Cetera multitude sorte decimus quisque ad
suppficium lecti sunt/ the remaining crowd were picked,
every tenth man, for execution, Ln il 59. * Vos sibi a u i s q u e
consilium capitis,' ^^ consult each for himself, SalL C, 52.

c) Apposition of the Proper Names of one Person :

P. Cornelius Scipio AAicanus Aemilianus, See p. 193.

d) Apposition annexed by Conjunctions, such as ut, velut,

quasi, ceu, tamquam, quamvis :
'Aegyptii canem et felem ut deos colunt,' the Egyptians
worship the dog and cat as deities, C. Leg. i. 1 1, * Herodotus
quasi sedatus amnis fluit,' Herodotus flows as a calm
fiver, C. Or, 1 2. * Ficta omnia celeriter, tamquam flos-
c u 1 i, decidunt,' all unreal things quickly droop like flowers,
C. Off,\\, 12. * Manlius filium suum, quamvis victoreni,
occidit/ Manlius slew his son, though conqueror, Flor. L

^) Apposition which requires a Noun answering a question to
l3e in the same case as the Noun which it answers :
'Quone malo mentem concussa? Timore deorum,' by what
malady disturbed in mindf — By fear of the gods, Hor. S,
ii. 3« 293, But here, too, the cases may seem to differ :
* Quanti emptum ?— Parvo. Quanti ei:go ?— Octussibus^'
Hor. ^. ii. 3. 155. r ooalr-

uiyiiized by VjOOQ LC

j 114. Agreement of Relative. 367

7) A single Adjective is seldom referred to more than one Noun
■except as Complement When it is otherwise referred to more
than one, and the Genders differ, it usually agrees with the nearest:
^Romanis cuncta maria terraeque patebant,' all seas and lands
^were open to the Romans^ SalL C. 10.

Sometimes it is Neuter Plural, like a Complement :

^Gallorum genti natura corpora animosque magna magis

quam firm a dedit/ nature has given to the Gauls great rather than

strong bodies and minds, L. v. 44.

8) A Noun subdivided by more than one Singular Attribute is
sometimes found Singular, sometimes Plural :

* Lcgio Martia quartaque rempublicam defendunt,' the Martian
legion and the fourth defend the commonwealth, C. Phil, v. 1 7. * In
i^iem tractae prima ac vicesima legiones/ the first and twentieth
legions were drawn into the mad revolt, Tac. Ann,\, y.,

A Noun in apposition to several others will be Plural in the same
Case with them :

'Eupolis atque Cratinus Aristophanesque poetae/ the poets
Eupolis and Cratinus and Aristophanes, Hor. .SI L 4. i.

Sometimes the Nomen or Cognomen is in apposition to the
Praenomina of two or more persons :

' M. et Q. Cice rones/ the Ciceros, Marcus and Quintus: *C. et
L. Memmii/ the Memmii, Gaius and Lucius,

yii Synesis, Ellipsis and Attraction in Re- X14
lative Construction.

1. d) The agreement of the Relative may follow meaning :

'Multitudo, qui convenerant . . /

b) The agreement of a Relative with a Composite Subject is
in pnnciple the same as that of an Adjective.
'Pater et mater qui mortui stmt' • , . 'Fortuna, decus,
honos, quae fortuita stmt . . .'

^) A Personal Pronoim as Antecedent may be implied in a
Possessive :
' Onmes laudare fortunas me as, qui gnatum haberem tali
ingenio praeditum,' all were extolling my good fortune
in having a son of such a character, Ter. An, L i. 97.

2. d) Ellipsis of the Antecedent is frequent See Concord iv.

Ex. 3. 4. But that of the word or words which govern
the Relative (when they are to be supplied from the ante-
cedence) is less so :
'Nos imitamur quos cuique visum est (i.e. eos quos cuique
visum est imitari),' we imitate those, whom we severally
think proper to imitate, C Off, i. 30. This idiom some-
times resembles Attraction : ' Si aliquid agis eorum quo-
rum consuesti, gaudeo (i.e. eorum quorum aliquid agere
consuesti),' if you are pursuing any of your wonted occu-

potions, I am glad, C. Fam, v^ 14.

uiyiu

.0

gle

3(i8 Latin Syntax, § iM-

b) When the Relative has been used in one Case, another Case

of it is sometimes suppressed :
* Bocchus cum peditibus, quos filius eius adduxerat, neque
in priore pugna adfuerant, postremam Romanorum
aciem invadunt,' Bocchus and the infantry ^ which his son
had brought «/, and which hcul not been present in the
former battle^ attack the rear of the Romans^ SalL /. loi.

3. tf) The Relative may agree with an Apposite, or not :

*Flumen Scaldis quod . . .' 'Flumen Rhodanus quL . /

^) The Relative may agree with the Ccmiplement of its own.
Clause, rather than with its Antecedent :
* Thebae, quod Boeotiae caput est,' L.

Madvig's rule is (Gr, S 319) that, if the Antec is defined without
the aid of the clause, the Rel agrees with its CompL ; if not, with
the Antec But many exceptions occur.

c) The Antecedent is drawn into the same Clause and Case as

the Relative : * Quam artem novi, exerceo.' Or the Ante-
cedent may remain in its own sentence, and be repeated
in the Relative Clause : *• Dies instat, quo die . . .'

Sometimes the attracted Antecedent precedes the Rdative :
' Urbem quam statuo vestra est,* V. Aen, L 573.

Horace has a daring Attraction : ^ Quis non malarum quas
amor curas habet Haec inter oblivisdtur ? ' J^^^m^ iL

d) An Attribute, especially unus, pauci and Superlatives, may

be attracted to the Relative Case and Clause (§ 82. 5.) :
'Tempestivis conviviis delector cum aequalibus, qui pauci
admodum restant,' I enjoy early dinners with contempora^
riesyveryfew of whom remain^ C. Cat, M. 14. * ConsiHis pare,
quae nunc pulcherrima Nautes dat senior,' V. Aen. v.

i) Attraction of the Relative to the Case of the Antecedent is
rare : * ludice quo nosti populo/ in the judgment of that
public with which you are acquaintedf Hor. S. L 6. 15.
This is sometimes complicated with Ellipsis of the Ante-
cedent or of the governing word, or of both : ' Haec cadere
possunt in quos nolis (Le. in eos in quos nolis ea cadere)/
C. d. Or. il 60.

viii Qualis, quantus, quot

Qualis {such as\ quantus {as great as), follow the same rule
as qui only when they are place! between two Cases (expressed
or understood) of the same person or thing: 'Non sum q^ualts
eram,' / am not what I was, Hor. C. iv. i. * Crocodilus pant ova
quanta anseres,' the crocodile lays eggs as big as geese lay^ PL
N, H. xviii. 25. But if they are used to compare two different
Nouns, they agree in Gender, Number, and Case with the latter;
while their Demonstratives (talis, tantus) agree with the former :
•Talis est, qualem te esse video, he is such as I see you are, C.
p, Afur. 14. *Dixi tanta contentione quantum forum est/ /
^oke with exertion of voice as great as the forum is, C. Fam, xiL y.
So tot . . . quot, which arc undeclined.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

§ 114. Agreement of Relative. 369

Abnormal constructions are: 'Animae (^ualis neque can-
didiores terra tulit, neque quis me sit devinctior alter/
Hor. S, i. 5. 41. 'Nardo perunctum quale non perfectius
meae laborarint manus,' Hor. Epod. v. 57.^

* Examples of the Rules of Agreement, for practice.

A* {^Subject: PndicaU: Com^tment: Attributicn.) 'Mens peccat, noo corpus.'
L.L58. ' No s consules desnmuSy'C Co/, i I. 'Nitimur in vetitom semper cup i-
musque negata,' Or. Am, iiL a. 'Natura tu illi pater es, conaliis ego,' Ter. A<L
i.3. 'Haru^cmnmunuserat exta inspicere/ Vai M. i. X. 'Quid sit optimum
neminem fugit/ Qu. xL a. 'Viyiturparvobene/ Hor. C il id. 13. 'lusta omnia,
decora sunt: iniusta contra, ut turpia, sic indeoora,' C Q^ L 94. '^CatiUaae ineraK
satis eloquentiae, sapientiae parum,' SalL C. 5. 'Vivere ipsum turpe est nobis'
C ^^. JciiL at. 'Dulce satis umor,' Vety. B. iiL 13. 'Omnia ars imitatio est
naturae/ Sen. J?/. 65. 'Terra altrix nostra diei noctisque effectriz eademque
cnstot est,'C Univ. xo. 'Servus, cum manu mittitur, fit libertinus,' Qu. viL 3.
'DeAmidtiaeoIibro dictum est, qui inscribitur Laelius,' C. Off.iLt^. 'Athenis
tenue caelum, ex quo acntiores etiam ptitantur Attid,' C Fat. 4. 'Poste-
riores cogitadones, ut aiunt, sapientiores esse solent,' C. PhiL xii. a. 'Omnia
orta ooddtmt et aucta senescunt,' Sail Itig. x. ' Romam serae avaritia atque luxuria
immigravcnmt,' L. Praef. ' Scythae pcipetuo intacti aut invicti mansere/ /m/. iL 3.
'Marins^ septimum consul, domi suae senex est mortuus,' C N. D.m.yi, Apud
matrcm recte est,'C. ^^/. L 7. 'Sum Dyrrachii hoc tempore, et sum tuto,'C.
Pmam. sdy. 3. 'Nihil est tamangusti animi tamque parvi quamaMare<ttvitia8,'
C. Off, i. aa 'Libertas et anima nostra in dubio est,' SaU. C. 5a. 'Ne Perides
qoidcQ dixit Attice, cui primae sine oontxoversia deferebantur,' C Or. 9.

B. {JSynesis.) 'Pars in crucom acti, pars bestiis obiecti ttint,' Sail. Ing. 14.
' Volgus Maoedonum Demetrium cum iagenti &v«nB conspiciebanV X*. xxw. 55.
'Smnwliumcaesitriamillia duo^nti, capfti quattuor milia ducentv' L* <• 34*
'Optimus quisque iussis paru«re,'Tac H. \y. as. 'Dux uterque pari culpa
■Mritas adversa intMperis defuere,'Tac. H. iv. 34. 'Hie uterque me intuebatur,
Mfltque ad audiendum significabant paratos,' C Fitt, ii. z. (Cicero never has a Plural
V«rb with uterque : see Madvig ad L c)

CijCom^odU Subject.) 'Dant veniaa genito-r co»iiinxq«e,'OiR. F. iL 88^
'Spectantur in chartistenuitas, candor, laevor,' PL JV. //^ xiT. xa. 'Perintn^
legem consules ereati sunt Valerias et Horatius,' L. ii. 35. ' Ego a« tu
aimpUdasime inter nos hodie loquimur/ Tac. H. L 15. ' Haec neque ego neq«e
tn fecimus,'Ter. Ad. L a. 33. 'Ex eo die ego et leo ia eodem spocn TixiBua*
GdL ▼. X4. 'Quid est quod tu aut ilia cum fbrtuna hoc noaMse qucri possiti«»' C
^4NW.iv. 5. 'NecsenatusglociarinecprineepspoteranC,'PBii. JP>. TS* 'Sfigiem
BuOaM Vesta nee ignis habent,' Or. F. vL 098. 'Demosthe&es enm ceteris
populisdto m exniium 4rant expulsi/ Nep^ Phoe. a. 'Dea InTcntus Tecmi-
ousque deus id non sunt passi,' L. ▼. 54. 'Serpens, sltis^ ardor* harenae,
dulcia virtuti,* Lucan. ix. 403. 'Societas hominqm et aequalitas et iustitia
per se expetenda sunt,' C. Lig. L x8. ' Omnibus in rebna temeritas ignora-
tioquevitiosaest,'C^(».iu.ax. 'Mens et animus et consilium et sententia.
civitatis posita est u legibus,' C /. Clu. 53. ' Bene de republica mereri, laudari»
coli, diligi, gloriosum est,' C Phil. L 14. 'Mihl magnae curaeestut tu ipse
tuique omnes scire possint me tibi esse amidsamum,' L. xxix. X7. 'Tarquinius
cum prole fugit,' Ov. F. iL 851. ' lane, fiue aeternos pacem padsque minis -
tros,' Ov. F. L 287. 'O noctes cenaeque deum, quibus ipse meique ante bres pro>
prios Tescor,' Hor. S. iL 6. 65.

D. iAp^otitum.) 'Alexander, victor tot regum atque populorura, irae suceabrnt,*
Sen. Ep. 1x3. ' Quid dtcam de thesanro omnium rerum memoria?' C eL Or. L s>
'AquitaniaaGarumna flumiae ad Pyrenaeos montis pertiaet,' Caes. B. G.\,%
'Oppidum Genabura pons fluminis Ligeris continet,' Caes. B. G, viL xz.*
' Hostis hostem ocddere volni,' L. iL xa. 'Duo exercitva Aveotinum iase-
distis,' L. ix. 34. ' Duo consules dut amii alter fenro alter morbo perieranC
I«. xlL x8. 'Civilis omnium coningea parvosque liberos oondslete a teq;«iubet»
hortamenta victoriae vel pulsis pudorem,' Tac H. iv. 6x. 'Batavi maohinas
etiam, insolitum siU, ausi,' Tac H. iv. 313. 'Numqnam ingenium ad res ^xnimuam»,

D B uiyiuzeu uy x^j^^^^^ -x i-N-

native
Case.

370 Latin Syntax. % 115-16.

Section II.

CASB-CONSTRUCriON.

A. The Nominative Case.

No^Iii. i The Nominative is the Case of the Subject
of a Finite Verb and of those words which
agree in Case with the Subject. See Concords 1.
IL III.
"^ ii Thus the Nominative stands as Comple-
ment

i) Of Finite Copulative Verbs.

i) Of Copulative Verbs Infinite, prolatively used.

0 'Galba medius inter Neronem et Othonem imperator ex-
stitit,' Galba was the emperor intervening between Nero and Otko,
Suet g:. 6. 'Subtilisveterum iudex et callidus audis,'^<?«
are called a nice and shrewd critic of ancient authors, Hor. S. u. 7.

parendum atque imperandum, habilius fiiit/ L. xxL 4. 'CorioH oppidum
captum est a Marcio/ L. U. 33. * Ludi Taurilia per biduum facti/ L. xadz. sa.
'Oculi tamquam speculatores altisstmum locum obtinent,' C M /?. iL X40.
' Dies quo ceperat imperium Gaius Paltlta vocatus est, velut argamentum
rorsus conditae urbis,' Suet, CaL z6. ' Caelius historiam, ut homo neque doctns neq^
maxime aptus ad dicendum, ut potuit dolavit,' Cd, Or.iL ^ * Cottam cum Titurio
legatos amisimus/ Flor. iiL xa 'Duae urbes potentisnmae Carthago atqve
Numantia ab eodem Sdpione sunt deletae,* C. /. L. Man, 60. ' Soceri tibi
Marsque Venusque contigerunt,' Ov. M, iiL xja 'Duo fulmina Ronani ioqteri
subito in Hispania Co. et P. Scipiones exstincti %mvl\^' Z, p. Balb. 15. 'Acerrime
deliciae meae Dicaearchus contra immortalitatem disseruit/ C T. D. i. 77*
'Pompeius nostri amores ipse se afflixit,' C. Att. iL 19. 'Cetera tnrba, bos»
iaquam, cenamus avis,' Hor. •S'. iL 8. s6. ' Hoc dedimus nos tibi nomen eques (fi)r
equitesV Ov. F. iL ia8. 'Nee multo post diem obiit utroque libenmim superstite,
Tiberio Drusoque Neronibus,* Suet. Tib. 4. 'Corinthi Achaiae urbe Vespa-
sianns certos nuntios accepit de interitu Galbae,' Tac H. iL x. 5. < Quid meritn's ?
Crncem,'Ter. An, iu. 5. 15. 'Cuius esf Amphitruonis,' Plant Amfk. ▼. 3. taa.
'Q\iantiemit? Vili,' Plaut Ep, L x. 49.

E, {Relaiiv* and Antecedent.) a. 'Pax ita convenerat ut Etruscis Latimsque flnvius
Albula, quam nunc Tiberim vocant, finis esset,'L. L 8. 'Est locus in carcere, quod
Tullianum appellatur, circiter duodedm pedes humi depressus,' SaU. Cat. 55. 'Yelens
belliuiexortum, qutbus Sabini arma coniunxeranti^' L. iL 53. ' Habebam intmicum oca
C Marium, sed duo importuna prodigia, q-uos egestas, quos aeris alieni magnttudoi,
quos levitas, quos improbitas tribuno plebis constrictos addixerat,' C /. Stt, xd
'Ad quadraginta milia mihtum, quod roboris in Samnio erat, convenerant,' L. x. 38.
'lUud, mi Tiro, te rogo, ne sumptui parcas uUa in re quod ad valetudinem opus sit,*
C Pom. xvL 4. 'luniores, id maxime quod Kaesonis sodalium fuit, auxere irasin
plebem,' L. iiL 14. 'Parent pietati fideique di, per quae populus Romanus ad
tantum fastigi venit,' L. xliv. a. ' Minime miror qui insanire ocdpiunt ex iniuria,' Ter.
Ad iL z. 43. 'En dextra fidesque quern secum patrios aiunt portare penads,* Vesg.
Aen, vt. 598. 'Dividebat agros quibus volebat,' C Off, L xz. ' Lacedaemonii Agin
regem, quod numquam antea apud eos acdderat, necaverunt,* C Off. iL 93. 'Rapdm
quibus qiiisque poterat elatis iam continens agmen migrandum unpleverat vias,' I*. L
09. ' Pomptinus a tetractatus est praestandacsingulari fide, cuius tui bencficiisnm
ego testis,' C Fatn, iiL xa ' Accusator non ferendus est is, qui quod in ahero yitium
reprehendit in eo ipso deprehenditur,' C Verr, iiL a. 'Nullo modo animus andieiitii

uiyiuzeu uy x^jv^v^pt ix^

JII7-I9- Vocative Case, 371

101. *Princeps in senatu tertium lectus est P. Scipio Afri-
canus,' Publius Scipio Africanus was for the third time chosen
prince of the SenaiCy L. xxxviii. 28. 'Amicitia virtutuin adiu-
trix a natura data est, non vitiorum comes,' C. Lael, 22.

2) 'Aristaeus inventor olei esse dicitur,' Aristaeus is said
io be the discoverer of oily C. Verr, iv. 57. * Cato esse quam videri
bonus malebat,' Cato preferred being to seeming goody Sail C. 54.
« Socrates parens philosophiae iure dici potest,' Socrates may
justly be called the father of philosophy y C. Ftn. ii. i. * Ad auream
arietis pellem profecti dicuntur A^onautae,' the Argonauts are
said to have gone after the golden fleece y Varr. R, R, ii. i (esse
43eing omitted;.

iii The Nominative may stand with the Inter-
jections en, ecce, o, and others.

*En dextra fidesque!' lo the right hand and the pledged

Jaithl Verg. Aen, iv. 597. *Sed ecce nuntii, ecce litterae,

Caesarem ad Corfinium,' but lo couriers and letters stating that

Caesar is at Cotiiniumy C. Att. viil 3. *0 vir fortis atque

amicus !' O the brave and friendly man I Ter. Ph, ii. 2, la

B. The Vocative Case,

1x8

i. The Vocative is used without or with an vocative

X17

Interjection: fili, Pompei, luppiter: O fili, O
Pompei; pro luppiter.

ii The Nominative takes the place of the
Vocative:

ij When the Noun is Collective: *L pete virginea, populus,
sufnmen ab ?iX2iygOy people y seek incense from the virgin's altar, Ov.
i^ iv. 731. * O Pompilius sanguis,' Hor. ad Pis, 292.

2) When the word is an Attribute or Apposite enthetically or
-adverbially used: *Tu quoque Cydon Dardania stratus dextra,'
Verg. Aeft, x 320. * Nudus iaciture sepulcro,' St. Th, vii. 777.

3) Yet poets sometimes keep the Vocative in such circxun-
stances : * Sic venias hodierne,' .r^ mayst thou come to-day y Tib. i.
7.53. *Rufe mihi frustra ac nequiquam credite amice,' O

Case.

119

^aut indtari aut teneri potest, qui modus a me non tentatus sit,' C Or. 38. ' Haec
est quam Scipio laudat in tibris et quam nuudme probat temperationem reipublicae/
C Leg. iiL 5. ' Poeta id sibi negoti credidit solum dari populo ut placerent q u a s fecisset
fabulas/ Ter. An. Pr, 3. 'TuUia. qui iUius in te amor fuit, hoc certe te facere non
vuk,' C Fatm, iv.'S. 'Cuius lenitatis est Galba, iam fortasse promisit/ Tac H.
L 37. ' Qua es prudentia, nihil te fugiet,* C. Fam, xi. 13. (See p. 3x2.) ' Sarmatis
neque conti neque gladii, quos praelongos utraque manu regunt, usui erant,' Tac
If. i. 79. 'Consul, qui unus supererat, moritur/ L. iii. 7.

bu 'Talis est quaecumque respublica qua! is eius aut natura aut voluntas qui illam
regit/ C Fe^. L 31. 'Hoc bellum est, quale bellum nulla barbaria gessit,' C $u Cat.
iL X. 'Videre mihi videor tantam dimicationem quanta numquam fuit,' C. Ati.
▼it 1. j-^ T

S3 2 uiymzeu uy VjOOv LC

372 Latin Syntax. % i9o~u

Rufus vainly and to no purpose believed my friend^ CatulL 75.
'Quibus Hector ab oris exsj^ectate venisP'/rvM what shores^
Hector^ earnest thou expected f Veig. Aen, iL 282. Seo Pers. iiL a8»
Ausonius has ' lane, veni^ novus anaey veni,' Id, vuL i.

C The Accusativ$ Case,

I90

Ajcusa- i. The Accusative is the Case of the Attained
SL Nearer Object: also of the Contained Object

Any Agent mav become an Object : a striker may be stnicky Ac
But not every Object can be an Agent in a proper sense. There-
fore it is that in Neuter Nouns (as belluniy regnmn ; md, fiar, &c)^
the Accusative is the primary, the Nominative only a secondary,
form. Therefore also, when a Proposition (as, * the parrot speaks 0
quits the form of statement and passes into an abstract notion
(' the parrot's speaking*)? ^"^e the Finite Verb becomes Infinitive

Soqui), the Nominative becomes Accusative (psittacum) ; that is,
le Subject of an Infinitive is an Accusative in Latin. Such a
notion, 'psittacum loqui,' is essentially Objective, but, like the
Nominative of a Neuter word, it can, by a secondary usc^ become
the Subject of a Proposition ; * psittacum loqui credibile est,' the
parrafs speaking (that the parrot ^eaks) is credible.

X9t

General iL Transitlvc Verbs of any class take an
*"**^ Accusative of the Attained Nearer Object

1. mater alit pullos,

the mother nourishes the young ones.

2. inprimis venerare Deum,
in the first place worship God.

3. pudet me stultitiae,

/ am ashamed (lit ' It shames me*) of my folly.

The First Example, in Passive form, becomes
pulli a matre aluntur.

The Second (where the Verb is Deponent) and the Third (fdiere
it is Impersonal) cannot assume the Passive form.

This IS the standard Rule^ because Transitive Verbs are so lai^
a class. But to draw the line whidi diodes Intransitive fixmn
Transitive Verbs is not easy. Intransitive Verbs are often used
with Transitive force : ardcre, flere, pallere, sitire, &c Tran-
sitive Verbs may drop their Object and seem to be Intransitive :
amare, durare, obtiner^ &c.

The following considerations may throw light on this subject

tained Object that which IbUowsIatnmaitiTe Verbs. ^ 7 ™ w«.

uiyiuzeu uy ■N^JVjvJVt Lv

jf 122. Accusative Case, 373

lia

, iii. The Contained Object or Cognate Accu- o^
native. Object

i) Every Verb has at least one Object, its own Activity, rq)re-
sented by its most abstract Verbal Noun in ^on-) -to: agere
actionem, stare stationem, ire itionem, narrare narra-
tionem, &c

This purest abstract form is not, however, used by Latin authors
in connection with Verbs. But other Substantives, more c<mcrete,
are so used with the Verbs to which they belong : the construction
being that called * the Cognate Accusative/ or * Accusative of the
VerM Operation,' or * Contained Accusative.' Such instances
■are:

Canere cantilenam, Ter. ; cenare cenam, Plant. ; furcre furorepay
Verg. ; gaudere eaudium, C. ; iurare iusiurandum, C. ; insanire
insaniam, Sen.; ludere ludum, Hor.; nocere noxam^ L.; ridere
Tisum, C. ; servire servitutem, C. ; somniare sommum, Plaut ;
vivere vitam, Plaut. ; moveri motus, Lucr.

When such e>q)ressions occur, the Substantive usually has an
epithet: Ludum insolentem ludere, Hor.

2) Instead of the purely Cognate Accusative, Intransitive Verbs
oftener take a Contamed Accusative expressing some more limited
operation of the Verb :

Agere {to pass) aetatem ; agere (to ad) partis ; cantare mdos ;
coronari Olympia {fo be crowned as an Olympian w<:/pr«vincere
Olympia) ; currere stadium ; degere vitam, &c ; dormire noctem;
errare Utora ; ire viaoo^ &c ; iurare numen, &c. ; praelucerc spem ;
ludere aleam ; ludere carmina ; militare bc^um ; mentiri auspicia ;
nataie aquas, &c. ; navigare aequor, &c. ; prandere hdus ; pugnare
proelia ; quadrare acervum ; respondere lus ; resonate Amaryllida
<alcyonen) ; saltare (moveri) Satyrum (Cydopa) ; sonare vitium
(hominem), &c. ; triumphare hostem ; vagari terras ; vehi maria ;
vivere aetatem (BacchanaUa, Nestora), &c.; vigilare noctem;
sincere causam (indicium), &c.

Especially Verbs which express

^) Odour or flavour : olere crocos (pastillos, lampadem, anti-
quitatem, &c.), redolere flores ; spirare odorem ; eirfialare
mephitim ; sapere mella (aprum, mare, plebdum, &c).

^) Visible emanation: manare mella; depluere lacrimas;
spirare flafnmas ; stiUare rorem ; sudare dectra ; erum-
pere liquores, &c.

Such constructions are chiefly poetic : but many of them occur
In prose.

3) Other Intransitive Verbs take a Contained Accusative only or
chiefly of Neuter Pronouns and Pronominal words :

Quod, quid, aliquid, quicquam, nescio quid, nihil, hoc, id,
idem, illud, istud, utrumque : quae, omnia, cuncta, eadem, multa,
pauca, &c. See M. Lucr, vi. 404.

Among such Verbs are: cog ere, dolere, dubitare, disserere^

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^ v^ -x i_n^

374 Latin Syntax. ; 123.

gaudere, gloriariy laborare, laetari, obsequi, peccare, stomacharv
succensere, &a
And the expressions : animum advertere, auctor sum (/ advise).

4) Out of this usage have grown a large number of Accusative
phiasesy which have an Adverbial use :

Cetera (alia, plera^ue), multum, plus, plurimum, summum, aeter-
num, &c. ; suam vicem ; auod genus ; id genus^ omne genus ;
magnam partem ; istuc (iUud, id) aetatis ; hoc noctis ; id temporis^
id auctoritatis, &c.

All these belong to prose style.

5) A Contained Accusative of the Neuter Adjective, Singidar or
Plural, is used by poets freely in an adverbial manner, especially
with Verbs which express sensitive or sensible action :

Dulce ridere (loqui) ; immane spirare ^sonare) ; suave re-
sonare ; perfidum ridere ; turbidum laetari ; lugubre rubere ; im-
mensum attolli (crescere); altum dormire; lene virere; suave
olere ; lucidum fulgere ; falsum renidere ; acerba tueri ; sera
comare ; vana tumere ; rauca gemere ; crebra ferire ; plura mo-
rari ; insueta rudere ; sollemnia insanire, with many more.

6) A form of the Contained Accusative, largely used by poets,
sometimes by Livy and prose writers of the silver age, is 'the
Accusative of Respect,' also called *Accusativus Partis,*
because it defines more nearly the part affected of the Object.
Often an Ablative appears with it, sometimes a Dative.

This construction is taken by some Intransitive Verbs : tremere
artus (ossa), torpere nervos, tumere colla, dolere caput (oculos), &c.

Oftener by Passive Verbs : suffundi ora rubore ; eopleri moi-
tem; molliri ingenium ; diduci animum; pingi alvum notis ;
'Capita Phrygio velamur amictu,' V. Aen, iu.

Most frequency by Passive Participles and Adjectives :

Tcctus caligine vultum; omatus crinis apio ; mutata men-
tern ; labefactus animum ; laniata genas, &c ; madidus unguento
comam; os umerosque deosimilis; crura thymo plenae; nudae
bracchia et pedes.

Sometimes by Substantives :

Orapuerpulcherquehabitum; cetera fossor.

W3 iv. Medial Object

Different from the Accusative of the Part, and having more the
nature of an Attained Accusative, is that which poets often give to-
Passive Verbs and their Participles, used Reflexively, like the Greek
Middle Verb. Thus cingi (-cingere se), indui (-induere se),
exui ( = exuere se), pasci (-pascere se), coUigi (ecolligere sc),
suspendi ( = suspendere se), &c, take fas it were) a Second Object
of die thmg girt on, put on, put off, fed on, gathered up, hung on^
occ. In prose this is rare, but sometimes found.

' Exuitur comua,' she puts off her hoi-ns, Ov. M, ix. 52. ' Inutile
ferrum cingitur,' he girds himself with useless sUel, Verg. Ae. ik

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^v^pt ix^

f 124-5. -^ ccusaiive Case. 375

51a ' Pascuntur silvas/ they graze on the forests^ Vw. G, iii. 314*
*Laevo suspensi loculos tabulamque lacerto/ having their
satchel and slate hung on their left arm, Hor. S. i. 6. 74. So
'chlamydem circumdata,'^z/«>r^.^ mantle thrown round her, Verg.
-<4^. iv. 13. 7; *saturata dolorem/ having htr resentment glutted,
Verg. Aen, v. 608.

▼. The Accusative of Limiting Circum-
stances (Time, Space, Measure), S 103, V.
i) The Accusative of Duration of Time :

'Annum iam audis Cratippum,' you have been a scholar of
Craiipfms for a year, C. Off.i, i. 'Pericles quadraginta annos
praefuit Ahenis,' Pericles was prime minister of Athens forty
years, C d. Or, iii. 34.

And after natus, expressing age :

*Dionysius quinque et viginti natus annos dominatum
occupavit,' Dionysius seized the government at the age of twenty-
five years, C. T, D, v. 20.

This last Accusative sometimes continues even when the Com-
parative (mai or, minor) is introduced :

'Dionysius mai or annos sexaginta A^c^ssit,* Dionysius died
when more than sixty years old, Nep. Eum, 2.

2) The Accusative of Distance of Time past with abhinc :

' Pater abhinc duo et viginti annos est mortuus,' the father
died twenty-two years ago, C. Verr, ii. 9.

3) The Accusative of Space traversed and of Distance :

' Milia tum pransi tria repimus,' then after luncheon we crawl
three miles, Hor. S, i. 5. 25. * Hadrumetum abest a Zama circiter
milia passuum trecenta,' Hculrumetum is about 300 miles from
Zama, Nep. Hann. 6.

4) The Accusative of Measure of Length, Breadth, Height,
Depth, with the Adjectives longus, latus, altus : also of Weight
with the word p on do :

Longum (latum, altum) ducentos pedes . . . quatema cubita,
&c, digitos sex, &c. So, lib ram pondo, a pound weight,

(The Ablative and Genitive are used in Constructions of Time,
Space, and Measure: also Prepositions; per, ad, intra, supra,
in, &C.)

▼i Accusative of Place Whither.

The Accusative of Place whither is chiefly used when the Place
is a town or small island (sometimes, as by poets, more exten-
sively) ; also when it is expressed by domum Qiome), rus {^nto the
country),

'Legati Athenas missi sunt,' L. iii. 31. 'Caesar Narbonem
profectus est,' Caes. B, G, iii. 7. ' Ibimus Afros,' Vei^. B, i.
64. 'Veni consulis Antoni domum,' C. Fam, xi. 28. *Ego rus
ibo/ Ter. Eun, ii. i. 10. So» domum itio, reditio, reditus. The

X24

lOogle

37^ Latin Syntax. % 126-27.

phrases Mre infitias,' to deny^ 'ire exsequias,' to attend a
fumralf are constructed on this modd. The Prepositions ad, in,
usque, are also much used in expressing Motion to a Place. See
Prepositions.*

ia6 viL Transitive Verbs used Intransitively.

The Subject of a Transitive Verb may be made its Object :
Moveo me, moves te, movet se, &c. ; and some Transitive Verbs
may omit this Pronoun, and so become Intransitive. Such are,

Aequo, ago, abstineo, augeo, deflecto, duro, habeo^ indino,
insinuo, lavo, minuo, moveo, muto, pasco, pono, praecipito,remitto,
turbo, urgeo, verto, averto, vibro, volvo, and others. See M. Lucr.
iii. 502 ; V. 931.

Ex. 'Abstineto irarum,' abstain from angry feelings^ Hon C,
iii. 27. 69. *A veritate deflectit,' m swerves from truths C. /.
Caec. 51. * Bene habet,' it is well^ luv. * Nilus praecipitat ex
altissimis montibus,' the Nile dashes from very high mountains^ C
aS*. Sc. 13. ' Ubi nos laverimus lav at o,' when we have bathed^
bathe, Ter. Eun, iiL 5. 48. ' Minuente aestu,' the heat moderating^
Caes. B, G, iii. 12. 'Res humanae semper in adversa mutant,'
human affairs always change to adversity y SalL lug. 104. ' Re-
miser ant dolores pedum,' the fains of the feet had adated^ C Br,
34. * lam verterat fortuna^* ^f/««/ had now changed, L. v. 49.
* Venti posuere,* M/ winds have dropped, Verg. Ae. vii. 27.

Conversely, many Passive forms are used reflexively :
Congregor, delector, effiindor, exerceor, fallor, feror, favor, moveor,
mutor, oblector, pascor, versor, vertor, avertor, volvor, &c. See iv.

127 viii Intransitive Verbs used Transitively.

The tendency of Intransitive Verbs to become TransitiTe is
variously shewn.

i) Many Static Verbs take the cause or motive of the stite as
an Object, and so become Transitive. Such are

Doleo, lugeo, maereo, grieve, grieve far\ tremo, trembU^
tremble at; erubesco, blusn, blush /or; ardeo, bum, bum /or;
esurio, hunger, hunger /or ; sitio, thirst, thirst /or ; lateo, lie kid,
lie hid from ; maneo, remain, await ; miror, wonder, wonder aii
pereo, depereo, die or waste away, die or waste for love o/; queror,
complain, complain 0/; sileo, taceo, am silent, am silent o/; audeo,
dare; calleo, am enured, am /amiliar with; fastidio, loathe \
horreo, horresco, shudder; paveo, pavesco, quake ; palleo, pallesco,
turn pale, &c

Ex. * Doleo casum tuum,' I grieve /or your misfortune, C * Pon-
tum palluit,' she turned pale at the sea, Hor. C, liL 27, 26. ' Ern-
bescit soloecismum,' ne blushes for his solecism. Sen. Ep, 95.
' Nutum divitis hor ret,' he shudders at the rich mat^s nod, Hoc.
Epist L 18. II.

* The Acxusadves of Time, Space, Measure and Place, are m the natare of the
CoDtaioed Accusative. Thus 'ire Romam's 'ire iter Romae.*

Digitized by VjOOQIC

{ 127. Acctisative Case. 377

2) Verbs of Intransitive action take as Object that which excites
the action: latro, ^ar*, bark at; sibilo, Au^r; rideo, laugk^ laugh
4U ; fleo, weep^ weep^ ; gemo, gemisco, groan^ groan for,

'Populus me sioilat,' the populace hiss tiUy Hon S. L i. 66.
"* Flet nee em fili/ she weeps fir her son^s deaths Tac.

Note, Most in these classes have no personal Passive: ardeo,
audeo, calleo, lateo^ pereo, pavco> palleo, &c A few are found
Passive: 'Quo plus sunt potae plus sitiuntur aquae/ water is
thirsted for more, the more it has been drunk , Ov. F, L 216.

3) Various Verbs, usually Intransitive, take a Transitive force in
certain senses:

Annuere, grant ; adsuescere, consuescere, insuescere, accustom ;
desinere, leave off\ ctnsere, enroll ; cunctsxi, dela^f ; deproperare,
festinare, maturare, properare, speed; iaculari, shoot; laborare,
elaboiare, work out ; fugere, escape from ; migrare, transgress ;
morari, dela^; pergere, continue; plaudere, pat; putare, reckon,
prune; sumcere, supply; mere, proruere, overthrow, rake up;
suTgere, rouse up ; vergere, inclifie, &c

On the other hand, some Verbs, usually Transitive, have also a
peculiar Intransitive use : such are,

Audire, (hear) be called; differre, (sunder) disagree ; debere, (owe)
be bound (ou^ht) ; superare, (surpass) survive, remain. Credere,
Unirust) oeheve, takes Dat or Ace of thing, Dat of person,
Sortiri, cdlot, or take by lot, is Transitive in each sense.

4) Many Compounds of Intransitive Verbs, especially verbs of
Motion, obtain a Transitive or Semitransitive force, chiefly when
compounded with Prepositions governing an Accusative, ad, ante,
circum, in, inter, ob, per, praeter, sub, trans :

Adire, a^redi, allabi, adsilire, anteire, antecedere, antecurrere,
antegredi, antevenire, circimiire, circumnavigare, circumvenire,
inire, ingredi, iUabi, innare, innatare, insilire, insultare, invadere,
invehi, obire, obambulare, obequitare, perambulare, percurrere,
permeare, praeterire, subire, transcurrere, transire, tranare, trans-
gredi, transilire, transvolare, &c.

Some which do not contain motion :

Adiacere, accumbere, adstare, adsidere, alloqui, circumsonare,
circumsedere, circumstare, impugnare, inclamare, incubare, insi-
dere, instare, inundare, oppugnare, obsidere, occumbere, &c.

Many of these may take a Dative instead of an Accusative :
Allabi, illabi, innare, succedere, subrepere, incubare, instare, &c

Some Verbs of motion, compounded with Prepositions which
govern an Ablative, cum, e, prae, can be used as Transitive :

Coire, convenire, egredi, elabi, erumpere, evadere, excedere,
exire, praecedere, praecurrere, praefluere, praegredi, praevenire :

And some not of motion :

Abnuere, aversari, edormire, expugnare, &c

Most of these also vary their construction.

Note I. We call those Verbs Semitransitive which, though they
take an Attained Object, are not used Passively :

Adiacere, adsidere, and others in the preceding lists^

uiyiuzeu uy ■n^JVJvJVJ Iv^

378 Latin Syntax, § 128.

The test of an Active Transitive Verb is Personal use as Passive :

' Tamesis uno loco pedibus transiri potest/ the Thames can be

forded in one spot^ Caes. B, G. v. 18. 'Circumsedemur copiis

omnibus/ we are beset by all the forces, C. Att, xv. 9. Therefore

transeo and circumsedeo are used as Transitive Verbs.

So, 'Quidam oratores si arriderentur, esset id ipsum Attico-
rum,' if certain orators were smiled on, this would be a true sample
of Attic fashion, C. Opt, G, O. 4.

Note 2. Intransitive Verbs which take a Contained Object are
often used transitively in the third Persons Passive :

*Tota mihi dormitur Yi\em^s,W sleep the whole winter, Mart,
xiii. 59. ' Noctes vigilantur amarae/ there are bitter night-
watches, Ov. H, xii. 169. *Tertia vivitur aetas/ a third age of
life is passing, Ov. M, xii. 187. ' Multo pisce natantur aquae,' the
waters are swum by many a fish, Ov. A. A,\, ifi.

Rare instances of Trajective Verbs personally Passive are found :
invideor in Horace; imperor both in Horace and Cicero. But
Impersonal Passive Construction is regular in such Verbs.

5) Sometimes the Preposition is repeated after Compound Verbs,
or another introduced :

*Sestius ad urbem advolavit,' SesUus flew to the city^ Q.p,
Ses, ^ 'Orator peragrat per animos hominum/ an orator
travels through the minds of men, C. d Or. L 51. * Pittacus acce-
dere quemquam vetat in funus iiiorvaa,* Pittacus forbids anyoni
to approach the funeral of other people, C. Leg, ii. 26.

This happens also with Prepositions governing the Ablative :
' Excedere ex urbe/ ' eripere ab aliquo pecuniam,' &c.

Hence some Compound Verbs, the Primitives of which are Tran-
sitive, have two Accusatives ; one of which is die Object of the
Simple Verb, the other depends on the Preposition. The Preposi-
tions admitting this construction are trans, ad, circum, praeter :
'Petreius iusiurandum adigit Afranium/ Petreius makes
Afranius (take) an oath, Caes. B. C, i, 70. * Postquam id animum
advertit,' when he turned his mind to this, Caes. B, G. v. 18.
* AllobrogesPompeius suapraesidia circumduxit/P^Jw/wkr
led the Allobroges round his posts, Caes. B, C, iii. 61.

The Passive construction retains the Accusative governed by the
Preposition: *Scopulos praetervecta videtur oratio mea,' m/
speech seems to have cleared the rocks, C. p, Coel, 21.

128 ix. Idiomatic Uses.

i) The Abstract Verbal Noun itself appears in the Comic poets*
with an Accusative: 'Quid tibi banc cu ratio est rem?' what
concern have you with this affair f Plant Amph, i. 3. 21.

2) The Participial in -bundus is sometimes used with an Accu«
sative : ' Populabundus agros/ laying waste the lands, GelL xL 15.
Livy uses perosus, hating, with Accusative. Exosus and pertaesns.
are so used by writers of the silver age.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

tivem .
Ecthe-
sis.

§ 12^130. Accusative Case. 379

3) Comic poetry shews that it was an idiom of Roman conversa-
tion to begin a sentence with an unconstructed Accusative, ante-
cedent to a Relative also in the Accusative :

* Naucratem quem convenire volui, in navi non erat,' Naucrates
whom I wished to meet was not on boards Plaut Amph, iv. i. i.
' Eunu chum quem dedisti nobis quas turbas &^iV that eunuch
whom you gave us, what trouble he has given / Ter. Eun, iv.
3. II.

a) The Greek idiom was also used, by which the true Subject
of a Relative Clause is made the Object of the principal
sentence :
* Scin'me in quibus sim gaudiis V do you know how overjoyed
I amf Plaut Bac, iv. 6. 28. * Serviun meum Strobilum
miror ubi sit/ / wonder where is my slave StrobiluSy Plaut
AuL iv. 7. 16.

Note. Many Verbs take a great variety of Objects, thus forming
an extensive phraseology, which may be studied in good dictionaries
with advantage. Such Verbs are : ago, capio, do, facio, fero,
habeo, volo and their compounds.

X. The Exclamatory Accusative. t^^

i) The Accusative may stand with one of the Interjections O,
heu, eheu, pro, en, ecce, &c., or without an Interjection:

* O fallacem hominum spem fragilemque fortunam,' O the
deceitful hope of men and frail fortune, C. d. Or. iii. 2. 7. * En
quattuor aras ! Ecce duas tibi Daphni, duas altaria Phoebo/
10, four altars / behold two for thee, bafihnis, and two of higher
elevation for Phoebus. Verg. £. v. 65. * Pro deorum atque homi-
num fidem,' C. 71 D. v, 16. 'Heu stirpem invisam!' Verg.
Aen. vii 293. * Me miserum V C. Fam, xiv. i. ' Operam tuam
multam, qui et haec cures et mea expedias,' how much trouble
you take in both minding these affairs and expediting mine, C. Att.
xiii 6.

2) This Accusative may take the form of an Interrogation :
*Huncine hominem? hancine impudentiam, iudices, han-
cine audaciam?' what a man is this? what shamelessness, gen-
tlemen, what audacity ? C. Verr. v. 25.

(On the Government of the Accusative by Prepositions, see § 70.)

xL Accusative of two Objects. DoMft

i) Certain Verbs of teaching, asking, concealing, sometimes tire.
take two Accusatives, one Contained, of the Matter, the other
Attained, of the Person.

' Quis musicam docuit Epaminondam?' who taught
Epaminondas music f Nep. Praef, 'Numquam divitias deos
rogavi,' / never asked the gods for riches. Mart iv. 77. i. ' Anti-
gonus iter quod habebat omnis eel at,' Antigonus concealed
from all the road he was taking, Nep. Eum.Z.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

380 Latin Syntax. § 131.

Such Verbs are :

Doceo (and its compounds, edoceo, dedoceo), erudio (in poetry),
rogOy interrogo, oro, exoro, posco, reposco, flagito, percontor,
postulo, cek>; and (in Horace) lacesso, veneror. Consulo wiUi
double Accusative is rare.

2) Moneo and its compounds, cogo, and some other Verbs,
may have this construction when the Accusative of the Matter is a
Neuter Pronoun or Pronominal :

'Illud me praedare admones,' ^<;» remind me of that fact
excellently^ C. Att ix. 9. 2. *Multa extis admonemur/ we are
admonisned of many things by entrails^ C. N, D, iu 66. And this
is the most (^mmon Accusative after Verbs of asking.

3) Verbs diinformingy warnings enquiring^ concealing^ may take
an Ablative of the Matter with de :

<De paratis incendiis senatum edocet,'^ informs the Senate
of the intended conflagrations y Sail. C. 4JS. ' Non est profecto de
illo veneno celata mater,' certainly his mother was not kept in
ignorance of that poison^ C. /. Clu* 66.

4) Peto, con ten do, take an Ablative of the Person with a, ab :
which may also follow rogo, oro, exoro,posco,postulo,flagito :

* Hoc a te peto,' this I CLsk ofyouy C

5) Quaero, scitor, sciscitor, percontor, exigo, take an
Ablative of the Person with ab, ex: 'Zeuxis quaes! vit ab iis
quasnam virgines fbrmosas haberent,' Zeuxis enquired of them
what beautiful maidens they had, C. d Inv, il i.

6) The Contained Accusative of the Matter may remain in the
Passive :

*In primis cultum agrorum docenda est ^Xa^ life must firsi
be taught agriculture, PL N, H, xv. i. * Livius est primus ro-
gatus sententiam,' Livius was first asked his opinion, L.
xxxviL 14.

,3x xii. Oblique Double Accusative with Verbs

of making, thinking &c. (Factive).

i) A simple Copulative Sentence, of which the Verb is sum, may
become an Oblique Clause (Accusative with Infinitive), and (the
Infinitive being omitted) the Clause may be made to depend on a
principal sentence with one of these Verbs.
Examples :
Numa est rex ; Numam esse regem; Numam r^;em :
' 'Populus Romanus Numam regem creavit,'
the Roman people elected Numa king,

Tu es doctus et prudens; te esse doctum et pnidentem; te
doctum et pnidentem :
*Puto te doctum et prudentem,'
/ count you learned andprndent

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

I X31. Accusative Case, 381

Eumenes est sepeliendus ; Eumenem esse sepeliendum ; £u-
menem sepeliendum :

'Antigonus Eumenem sepeliendum tradidit'
Antigonus gave Eumenes to be buried,

Nvmam, te, Eumenem, are Oblique Subjects (becoming Objects).
Regeniy doctum, prudentem, sepeliendum, are Oblique Comple-
ments. This use of the Gerundive is very frequent

a) The Verbs whTch form thia construction are :

a) The Active forms of the Copulative Verbs enumerated

on p. 351.

b) Also many other Verbs :

Adiungo, adsdsco, arbitror, constituo, do, &cio, impertior,
monstro, pe£o, pono, praebeo, praesto {exhibit, make\
reddo, smno, tribuo^ asc

3) Instead of an Apposite cm: Attribute, the Complement in
any such form of Construction may sometimes be one of the Pre-
positions pro, in, with an Ablative Case, inter with Accusative, or
loco, numero, &c, with a Genitive.

Thus the English sentence^ */ hold Gaius my friend^ may be
rendered in many ways :

Gaium amicum babeo.
Gains a me amicus habetur.

Gaium habeo
Gaius a me habetnr

'po anuco.
mamicis.
intoramicos.
I in amicorum numero.

Eiamples of Accasatiye.

u. {AtUamd Ace.) 'Ea, quae leriter sensnm voluptate moTent, fitdllime fugi-
unt satietatem,' C d. Or. iii, 25. ' Nulla an imitari sollertiam naturae potest,'
C.I/. />. L 33. 'Solet DionysiuB, c«m aliquid forioee fecit, paenitere/C Ati.
viii. 5.

uL {Coniabud Ace,) 'DenUtus trinmph%vit triumphos novem, GelL iL xi.
'Magna Toce iuravi verissimum pulchcrrimumque iusiarandum, quod
populus idem magna voce me vere iurasse iuraviV C Fam. v. a. * AguiOius iura vit
morbum,' C Ait. I i. 'Quomodo tiU placebit lovem lapidem iurarc^ cum sdas,
lovem iratum esse nenuni posse?' C Fam. vil za. 'Claudius aleam studiosissime
lusitf'Suet Claud. 33. * Curios simulant et Bacchanalia vivunt,' luv iL a. 'Qui
stadium currit, eniti et contendere debet ut vinoat,' C Off. vL za "Itgellius
noctes vigilabat ad ipsum mane/ Hor. 5*. L 3. zj. 'Si Xences, cum tantis
daasibus tantisque copiismare ambulavisset, terram navigasset, melseauferre
ex Hymetto voluisse diceret, certe sine causa videretur tanta conatus,' C Fin. il 34.
'Nero sub exku -ntae palam Toverat saltaturum se Veigilii Turnum,' Suet Ner. 54.
'Inter alia •prodigia carnem pluit,' L. ifi. za 'Magis laudatur unguentxmi, quod
ceram, quamquod crocum olere videtur/ C d. Or. iii 95. 'Deftutio genere ipeo
doctrinara redolet,' C d. Or. iL 25. ' Ib Hispania mnka in sportarSs mellaherbam
earn sapiunt,' PHn. N. H. lA, Z, 'Hand tibi voltus mortalis, nee toz hominem
sonat,' Vv^ Atm. L aaS. 'Utrumque laetor, et sine dolors corporis te fuisse et
animo valuiflse/ C Fam. vu. z. 'De Q. Frabre nihil ego te accuaaTi/ C Fam. xiv. z.
' Cetera assentior Crauo/ C d. Or. L 9. ' Q. Fabius Maximus moritur, exactae
aetatis; si quidem verum est, augnrem dous etsexaginta annos fuisse, quod quidam
auctores sunt,'L. xxx. 96. 'Stupentis tribunos et suam iam vicem anxioslibe<
zavit onere omsensus popuH Romani,' L. Tiit. 35. 'Suevi non multum frumento, sed
maximam partem laote atque pecore Tivunt,' Caes. B. G. iy. z. 'Scis me orationes
aut aliquid id genus solitom scribere/ C Att. xiiL za. 'Siapud teplns auctoritas

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382 Latin Syntax, % 132.

D. The Dative Case,
132
Dative i The Dative is the Case of that which is
^^*** interested in an action or state. It has three
principal uses in Latin:

I. AsRemoter Object, it completes the constniction of many
Verbs, Transitive and Intransitive ; of many Adjectives, sometimes
of Adverbs^ rarely of Substantives :

Dare librum (alicui) ; coronam capiti iinponere ; placere,
irasci (alicui) ; vicinus, cams, odiosus ^alicui) : convenienter
naturae : utiliter patriae : obtemperatio legibus.

mea valuisset, nihil sane esset quod nos paeniteret,' CadQ, Fr. La. Id doIns onerisy
hominibiis id aetatis, imponitur/C d. Or. L 47. 'Romanonun nemo id anccor^
tatis adent,' Tac Aim, xiL z8. 'Cometae sanguind lugubre rubent,' VerS' Aem, x.
373. ' Artabanus, ubi data fides a kgatis reddendae dominationi venisse, adlevatnr
animum/ Tac. Ann, vi. 43. 'Arminius impetu equi pervasit oblitus faciem sno
cruore ne nosceretur/ Tac Ann. u. 17. * Hannibal, dum nuirum Sagunti incaatius
subit, adversum femur tragula graviter ictus cecidit,' L. zxL 7. 'Noo ilia ixio
calathisve Minervae femineas adsueta manus/ Verg. Aen. viL 805.

iv. {Medial Ohj.) 'Die quibus in terns inscripti nomina r^fum nascantur flofes,*
Veig. B. iu. X06. 'Septem et viginti virgines, longam iadutae vestem, carmen in
lunonem reginam canentes ibant,' L. xzviL 37. ' Domitianus sacellum lovi cmserra-
tori aramque posuit casus suos in marmore expressam/ Tac. H. iiL 74.

V. (Aceus. qfTimt, Space, Measure.) 'Multa saeculasic viguit Pythagoreonta
nomen, ut nulli alii' docti viderentur/ Q,T,D,i. x6. ' Duodequadraginta annos
tyrannus Syracusanorum fiiit Dionjrsius, cum quinque et viginti annos natus
dominatum occupavisset,' C 7". D. v. aa 'Abhinc triennium onnmigravit hoc
viciniae/ Ter. An. i. z. 43. ' A recu cansdentia transversum unguem non oportet
discedere/ C Att. xiiL aa 'Zama quinque dierum iter ab Karthagine abest,' L.
XXX. 39. 'Milites aggerem, latum pedes trecentos, ahum pedes octoginta
exstruxenmt,' Caes. ^. ^. vii 04,

vL Accus. ef Place.) * Athenienses bello Ptersico sua omnia, quae moreri poteiaat,
partimSalaminem, partimTroezenemaqMrtarunt/ Nep. TJkem, a. 'Hannibal in
hibema Capuam concessit,' L, xxiii. z8. 'Galli quondam longe ab suis sedibos
Delphos usque ad oraculum orlns terrae spoliandum profecti 8unt,'C /. ^(W/L 19.
'P(»npeius Africam exploravit ; inde Sardiniam cum classe venit,' C. /. L. Mam. is.
'Aristotdes, Theophrastus, Zeno, innumerabiles alii philosc^hi numquam do mum
reverterc,' C. T. D. v. 37. *Sdpio rus ex urbe, tanquam e vinculis, evolabat,' C. d. Or.
n. 6. 'Hdvetii oppida sua omnia incendunt, ut, domum reditionis spe sublata,
paratiores ad omnia pericula subeimda essent,' Caes. B. G. i. 5. 'Magni domum coo-
cursus ad Afranium fiebant,' Caes. B. C. I 53. 'Hoc nemo eat infitias, Thebas,
quamdiu Epaminondas praefUerit reipublicae, caput fuissetotius Graeciae,' Nep. j5>. la
* Exequias Chremeti, quibus est commodum, ire tempus est,' Ter. Pk. v. 8. 37.

viL 'Terra dies duodequadraginta movit,' L. xxxv. 40. 'Aermoyetur nobiscom,'
C. N. /?. iL 33. * Suevi lavantur in fluminibus,' Caes. B. G. ir, x.

viiL 'Nemo tarn ferns fiiit quin Alcibiadis casum lacrimarit,' Nq>. Ale. & 'Td
magistri equitum virgas ac securis dictatoris tremere atque horrere solent,' L. zxfi.
37. 'Nee honores sitio, nee desidero gloriam,' C Q. Fr. iii. 5. *Commissa
tacere qui nequit, hie niger est,' Hor. .S*. i. 4. 84. '£a quae disputavidisserere
malui quam iudicare,' C. N. Z>. iiL 40. ' Risi nivem atram,' C Q. Fr. ii. 13.
'Vigila iliud, quod ilEidle est, ne qmd mihi temporSs prorogetur,' C Famt. iL la
'Quisudo deproperare apio coronaswcuratvemyrto?' Hor.'C. iL 7. 33. ' Quam expedita
tua consilia, quam evigiiata tuiso^tationibus I ' C Att. ix. za. ' De natora deonun
Cotta sic disputat, ut hominum nondeleat rdigionem, credo, ne communia iura migrare
videatur,' C Div.'i. $. 'Matutine pater, seu lane libentius audis,* Hor. 5*. ii. 6. aa 'Me
miascrami quid iam credas aut cui credas?' Ter. Ad iiL a. 'Insepulta membra
different lupi,' Hor. E^. v. 99. 'Haec cogiutione inter ic differnnt, re qnideB

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3 132. Dative Case, 383

II. As Recipient or Acquisitive (Dativus Commodi et Incom-
modi) it is added to any Predication to express that for whom or

for which something is, or is done :

Legere virgines Vestae : esse patrem urbL
(The Datives I. II. oftener express persons than things.)

III. Idiomatically, the Latin Dative is used to express a Pur-
pose in constructions which generally complete the construction
of sum^ do, habeo, fio, verto, venio, and other verbs.

Esse cordi, bono, usui, odio, honori, &c. ; vitio, culpae, crimini
dare ; contemptui, derisui, habere ; auxilio, subsidio, venire, &c.

copulata sunt,' C 71 D. iv. zz. 'Aequalege necessitassortitur insigniset imos,'
Hor. C HL z. Z5. ' Gens Qaudia regnum in plebem sortita,' L. iil 58. ' Hie tibi
rostra CatoadvolaCC Ait, L 14. 'Tenunc alloquor, .^fiicane/^iZ/r/nraM. iv.
IV 'AppelliturnavisSyracusaSy'C Kifrr. V. 25. * Dictator triumphant u r b e m
iavehitur/L. ii. 3z. 'Creati consnles Kalendis Sextilibus, ut tunc prindpium anni
agebatur, consulatnm ineunt/ L. iiL 6. 'Achaeoc Aetoli, navibus per fretum,
quod Naupactum et Patras interfluit, exerdtu traiecto, depopulati erant,' L.
jonriL 39. 'Pythagoras multas regiones barbarorum pedibus obiit,' C Fin, v.
99. 'Qnaeritur, sitne honestum, gloriae causa mortem obire?' C d. Or. ill 99.
'Diligentissime semper illiun diem et illud munus solitus es obire/ C LaeL iL 'Ad
Antonium nuttuntur qui nuntient ne Mutinamobsideat,'C PhiL vL a. 'Eu[^irates
fiabyloniam mediam permeat,' Plin. H. N. v. 36. 'Non orat Rosdus ut earn
noctempervigilet,' C.>. ^. J?0<r. 35. 'Populussolet nonnumquam dignosprae-
terire/C >. PIohc. 3. 'Crassus Euphratem nulla belli causa transire voluit/
C PsM. iiL aa. 'Hannibal cum reliquis copiis Pyrenaeum transgreditur,' L.
3ud. 94. 'Haec Fetialis, quum finis suprascandit, haec portam ingrediens
peragit,' L. i. 33. 'Germani intra annos quattuordedm tectum non subierant,'
Caes. i?. G. L 36. 'Eqmtes Pompeiani aciem Caesaris a latere aperto circumire
coeperunt/ Caes. B.. G. iiL 93. 'Angustias Themistocles quaerebat ne multitudine
circumiretur/ Nep. Them, 3. ' Eumenes extremo tempore circumventus est/
Nep.^MW.5. "Themistocles adire ad raagistratum noluit,' Nep. Tk,^, 'Ubii
onbantut Caesar exercitum modo Rhenum transportaret/ Caes. ^. ^. iv.
19. 'Transadigit costas et cratis pectoris ensem,' Verg. Aetu xiL 508.
'Hannibal nonaginta milia peditum duodecim milia equitum Iberum tra-
duxit/ L. xxL 33. 'Scipio colloquium baud abnuit,' L. xxx 99. 'Verginius
orabat ne se, ut parricidam libenmi, aversarentur/ L. iL 5a ' Utinam, Cn. Pompei.
cum C Caesare societatem aut numquam coisses, aut numquam diremissesl' C
PkiL iL za ' Non eos solum con venire aveo, quos ipse cognovi, sed iUos etiam, de
quibus audivi et 1^/ C CeU. M. 23. 'Urbem unam mihi amicissimam declinavi/
C. >. Platte. ^\. 'Struthiocamelialtitudinemequitis inudentis equo excedunt/
YL N. H. -x. \. 'Edormi crapulam/ C PkiL iL za. ' Historia non debet egredi
veritatem,' Plin. Ep. viL 33. 'Dedus M. Livium pontificera praeire iussit verba,
qtdbusse legionesque hostium pro exerdtu populi Romani Quiritium devoveret/ L. x. 28.

X. 'En miserum hominem!' C Fin. iL 3a 'O hominem fortunatum,' C. p.
Qmnc. 25. 'Me caecum, qui haec ante non viderim,' C Ati. x. za 'Di vostram
fideml'

xL {Double Oii^t.) Eloquentia effidt ut ea quae sdmus alios docerepossimus,'
C ^. X>. iL 57. Achad quoque auxilia Philippum regem orabant/ L. xxviiL 5.
'Orationes me duas postulas,' C Att. n. 7. 'Pauca militespro tempore hor-
tatur/ SalL /«;f. 49. 'Rascilius de privatis me primum sententiam rogavit/C
Q.Fr.iA.!. 'Verresparentespretiumprosepultura liberumposcebat/ C Verr.
L 3. 'Iboet consulam banc rem amicos, quid fadundum censeant,' Plaut Men.
iv. 3. a6w 'Non te celavi sermonem Ampiif'C /'AMv. iL z6. ' Scito, me non esse
rogatnm sententiam,' C../4//. L Z3. 'Hocnoscelatos non oportuit,' Ter. /T^r.
IT. 4. 33. ' Non audimus ea quae a natura monemur,' C LaeL 34.

»L (Factive CotutrttctioiC) 'Neminem pecunia divitem fecit,' Sen. Ep. zao.
'Interrex creatur M. Furius Camillus, qui P. Cornelium Scipionem inter-
reeemprodidit^'L. v. 3Z. 'Ciceronem universa dvitas consulem declaravit/
P tnPts. z. 'Ubi illitot di, sinumeramusetiam caelum deum?' C. AT. Z>. L Z3.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

8

384 Latin Syntax, § 133-^

w ii (I) The Dative of the Remoter Object.

The Words which govern this Dative are Verbs or Adjectives
containing the general notions of

Proximity and Remoteness.
Demonstration and Obscurity.

3) Gratification and Disfavour.

4) Rule and Subservience.

But many words, having these meanings, either take some other
Case,^ or, while they take a Dative, admit other constructions also.
On this account it is desirable to name first those Verbs which
take a Dative onfyy and then to add lists of Verbs with other
varieties of Construction : and so in the Adjectives.

^^ A) 1. Verbs with which a Remoter Object, if expressed at all^
is always a Dative, are chiefly the following :

The Impersonal Verbs : accidit, conducit, contingit, con*
venit, expedit, libet, licet, liquet, placet, praestat, restat,
usuvenit, vacat : (ras est, necesse est, opus est, usus
est), &c'

Verbs of affirming^ relating , shewing^ proving^ &c — affirmo,
confirmo, dico, exhibeo, mdVco, monstro, demonstro, narro^
ostendo, patefacio, praecipio, probo, suadeo, persuadeo^
dissuadeo, auctor sum, &c. (Trans.)

Appearing^ being knoTvn^ being near, &c — appareo, innotesco,
pateo, videor, obviam eo, praest(f sum, &c (Intrans.)

Giving, lending, paying, owing, entrusting, &c.— conunodo,
concedo, credo, divido, do, fero, and Uieir compounds,
mando, ministro, praebeo, praesto, pendo, redhibeo, re-
linquo, solvo, suppedito, trado, tribuo, debeo, committo,
fido, confido, cedo, &c. (Trans.)

Promising, re/using, grudg^'ng-^poVdceor, promitto, redpio,
spondee, despondeo ; — nego, recaso, renuo, invideo, &c
(Trans.)

Congratulating, thanking ;^4hreatening i gratulor, grator^
gnitias (gratiam) ago, (refero, habe<^ ; — ^minor, minitor,
&c.

Dedicating, consecrating, sacri/icing, vo7tnng—6!Lco, dedico,
sacro, consecro, operor, immolo, sacrifico, voveo, devoveo,
&c (Trans.)

Assisting, favouring, benefiting, satis^ng c—injuring, op-
posing : auxilior, benefacio, fiiveo, gratificor, medeor,
opitmor, parco, patrocinor, prosum, satisdo, satis^cio.

' Mont era Vesontione mums drcomdatotarcemefficit.' Cms. B.G.x.^ 'SootaMft
lodusmandi se incolam et ciTemarbitrabatur/C. T. jD.y, 37. ^NemocretSt.
max ei, quern fidelem putat,' C>. S. Jfasc. 30. 'Laeliam Decimum cogno-
vimus yirum bonum et non iIlitteratum,'C. dl Or.'u, 6. 'Lentuhisattribait
nos trucidandos Ceth^;o, ceteroscivis interficiendosGabinio. nrbem inflam-
mandam Casdo, totam Italiam yastandam diriptendamque Cadlinae' C. m Cat,
iv. 6.

* Thus ddecto. iuvo, rego. though resembling in sense tonie of the Verbs hcrettftar
recounted, are always TransitiTe, taking no Case but the Accusative.

lOOgle

S 135. Dative Case, 385

studeo, subvenio, succurro : — adverser, incommodo, in-
sidlor, malefacio, noceo, obsto, obsum, officio, repugno,
resisto, &c. (Intrans.)

Believing^ flatterinzy assenting^ pleasing :— distrusting^ dis-
pieasingy upbraiding, revinng^ being angryy &c — credo,
fido, confido, benedico, blandior,assentor, assentior, ignosco,
indulgeo, placeo, morigeror, morem gcro, convicior, diffido,
obtrecto, displiceo, exprobro, irascor, maledico, stom-
achor, succensco, &c. (Chiefly Intrans.)

Rulingy commanding^ obeying, sertdng—donnnaTf impero,
regno :— ancillor, oedo, famulor, oboedio, pareo, servio,
inservio, subservio, sidfragor, supplico, &c (Intrans.)
Observe the expression, dicto audiens sum, / ob^.

On nubo, vaco, see iii.

To these must be added nimierous Verbs compounded with the
particles :

Ad, ante, ab, con, de, e, in, inter, ob, post, prae, pro, re,
sub, super, bene, male, satis :

Addo, addico, affiilgeo, desum, indormio, impendeo, oppono,
posthabeo, praefero, subiungo, satisfacio, &c.

Among such Compounds, however, some admit an Accusative
where a Dative might stand : many repeat their Preposition with
its Case, or admit another Preposition and Case, where a Dative
might stand. Generally the Dative prevails in poetry. Prepositions
in prose. But this is not true of all such Verbs : and as no Grammar
can exhaust the combinations of Verbs and Cases, the student
should observe these in reading, with the aid of a good Dictionary.

2. a) Verbs used with Dative or Accusative :

Adiaceo, adno, adstrepo, adsulto, adulor, aemulor, allatro, 13$
antecedo, anteeo, antevenio, assideo, ausculto, comitor,
decet, deficio, inhio, innato, inno, insto, intervenio, lateo,
medicor, moderor, obambulo, obequito, obstrepo, obtrecto,
obumbro, occumbo, plaudo, praecedo, praecello, praecurro,
praemineo, praesideo, praestolor, supersto, supervenio.

Observe mitto, nuntio, scribo, alicui or ad aliquem.
b) Verbs implying agreement, communion, comparison, &c.,
take either a Dative or, oftener in prose, the Preposition
cum with its Case, or the phrase inter se. Such are

Coeo, cohaereo, communico, comparo, compono, concilio,
confero, congrego; also, apto, haereo, iungo, misceo,
necto, socio, and their compounds with cum.

This applies also to Verbs of contention, certo, contendo,
pugno, &c

c) Verbs which imply disagreement, disunion, difference, dis-
tanccy &c., take either a Dative or, often in prose, a
Preposition with Case, usually ab, sometimes inter.
Sucn are,
Absum, diflero, discrepo, dissentio, dissideo, disto, &c.

uiyiuzeu uy ■n^JVJvJVJ Iv

386 Latin Syntax, § 136.

d) Verbs which imply taking away, defending^ protecting

from^ &c., take eidier a Dative of the Remoter Object or,
oftener in prose, a Preposition with Ablative. Such are,
Abstraho, adimo, aufero, detraho, eripio, eximo; arceo,
defendo, depello, propulso, &c

e) Verbs which may take either a Dative of the Object with

an Accusative of the Thing, or an Accusative Object with
an Ablative of the Thing. Such are,
Adspergere, inspergere, circumdare, ciromifundere, donare,
munerare (i), exuere, induere, intercludere, impertire :
Dono tibi munus ; dono te munere.

f) Interdico is best known in the phrase, Mnterdicere alicui

aqua et igni,' to banish by the form of exclusion from fire
and water \ but *interdicere rem alicui' is a good
Latin construction ; also 'interdicere alicui de re.'

^) Verbs which may take Dative alone or Accusative of Thing
with Dative of Person :

Condonare {remits forgive); ignoscere {excuse, pareton) ;
credere {believe, lend) ; gnitukui {congratulate) ; imp^are
{command) ; indulgere {grant, induce) ; minari, minitari
(threaten) ; probare (prove, make good ) ; suadere {recom^
mend) ; persuadere {Persuade, convince) ; invidere {enyy^
grudge). Also fidere, confidere {trust),

Persuadere alteri ut, &c., to persuade one to, &c

Persuasit hoc mihi, he convinced me of this. Persuasum
habeo; mihi persuasiun est, / am convinced: hoc mihi
persuasum est

Invidere {to grudge) alteri re aliqua is a construction some-
times used.

Such Verbs cannot be so used in the Passive as to make that
which was the Dative their Subject, though Horace has imperor;
invideor: Lucr. officiuntur, iL 156, where see Mimro. Regularly,
the Dative remains in the Passive : and, if there was an Accus..
this becomes the Subject; if none, the Verb is Impersonal : * Id
mihi probatur : ' ' Invidetur mihi.'

»3^ 3. Examples of Verbs which vary construction with meaning :

Accedere {to approach) muris ; muros, poet ; ad muros ; in
senatum. Accedere {to join, concur with) alicui. Acce-
dere {to be added) : ahquid accedit (accesMt) alicuL

Aequare {to level) agrum. Aequare, aequiparare {t0 make
equal) nunc iUi ; banc rem illi. So adaequare, exaequare.

Aequare, aequiparare {to be equal to) aliquenu

C^y^xQ {to take caution for) sQomXa^X', agris; alicuL Cavere
{to beware of) canem. Cavere a vcneno.

Cedere {to retire) patria. Cedere {to yield) fortunae. Cedcre
{to give up) ahquid de iure suo alicui, &c

Constare sibi {to be consistent). Constat (// is an established
fact). Constare parvo, magno, &c, to cost little, much, &c.

Consulere: Si me consulis, ego tibi consulam, if youctm-
suit me, I will consult for your interest.

uiyiiized by CjOOQ IC

i 13d. Dative Case, 387

Convenire {to suit) alicui, in aliquem. Convenire {to meeiS
aliquem. Convenit mihi tecum, you and I are agreed.
Inter se convenit ursis, dears agree together, Convenit^ it
suits, it is agreed,

Cupere {to desire) aliquid. Cupere {to wish) alicui {in some-
oodys interest),

Deficere {to fail) aliquem ; alicuL Deficere ab aliquo, to
revolt from.

Dare litteras alicui {to give a letter for delivery), rarely
{^ivrite to). Dare litteras ad aliquem, to post a letter to
some one,

Dolet mihi {I grieve) : doleo rem.

Exctisare, purgare {to excuse, clear) se alteri ; se apud alte-
rum. Excusare morbum, to plead the excuse of illness,

Imponere {to lay on) rem alteri ; rem rei ; aliquid in ali-
quid; abquid in aliquo. Imponere alicui, to cheat any
one,

Incimibere {to lean on) rei. Incumbere {to devote oneself)
ad rem, in rem.

Interest inter {there is a difference between) hoc et iflud.
Interest omnium, nostra, &c, it is the interest of all, of us,
&c Interesse {to be present <i/) rei, in re.

Mactare {to slaughter) deo victimam, {to sacrifice) victim^.
Mactare aliquem honoribus, to grace with honours, Mac-
tare suppliciis, to visit with punishment,

Manere {to remain) alicuL Manere {to awaif) aliquem.

Metuere, timere, &c {to fear) aliquem; aliquid; alicui {for

somebody),
Moderari, temperare {to curb) reL Moderari, temperare {to

govern) rem. Temperare {to refrain) a re. Temperare

{to spare) alteri.

Parcerc {to spare) alteri. Parcere {to forbear) a re. Parcere
{to spare) aliquid sibi, aliquid alterL

Petere, precari {to beg) aliquid sibi ; aliquid alteri. Petere
{to sue for) consulatum, &c. Petere {to entreat) aliquid ab
altero. Petere {fo seek) locum.

Praeire {fo go before) alicui. Praeire {to recite) verba alteri
{words for another to repeat),

Praestare Uo excel) alteri aliqua re. Praestare {to assure, to
warrant) aliquid alicui. Praestare {to prove, exhibit) se
talem.

Praevertere {to prefer) alic(uid alicui rei. Praevertere {to
anticipate) ahquid or ahquem. Praeverti {to despatch
first) re*

Prospicere, providere {to provide for the good of) alicuL
Prospicere, providere {to foresee) rem, de re.

Recipere {to give assurance) alicuL Rocipere {to receive).

Q Q ^ uiyiuzeu uy 'N^j^^^ wVt Iv^

388 Latin Syntax. S 137-81

aliquem. Recipere {to betake) se aliquo. Redpere (fa
retake^ recover) res, urbem, &c.

Renuntiare (to announce) alicui aliquid (de aliqua re). Re-
nuntiare {to proclaini) aliquem consulem, &c, Renuntiare
{fo renounce) alicui reL

Solvere {fo pay) alicui pecuniam^ &c Solvere {to release)

aliquem re.
Succedere {fo succeed) alteri, alicui rei ; in locum alicuius.

Succedere {fo come up to) portas, muris, &c
Sufficere {to suffice) alicui ; alicui reL Sufficere {to supply)

aliquem ; aliquid.
Supersedere {to sit upofi) rei; rem. Sitpersedere (to d£s»

pense with) re ; rarely reL
Velle aliquem, to want somebody. Bene velle alicui, to wish

well to somebody. Nolle alicui, to wish ill to,

«3y ff) The principal Adjectives used with a Dative Object are :

Cognatus, conti^us, conterminus, finitimus; praesens, pro-
pinquus, propior, proximus, vicuius, &c, assuetus, con-
suetus, &c., acclinis, aptus, accommodatus, commodus,
congruens, consentaneus, conveniens, decorus, habilis, ho-
nestus, idoneus, natus, necesse, necessarius, opportunus,
promptu§, proclivis, &c., aequalis, aemulus, idem, concors,
consors, &c., concolor, &c : — par, compar, similis, assi-
milis, contrarius, diversus, insuetus, &c, incommodus,
indecorus, inopportunus, turpis, &c., dispar, impar, inae-
qualis, discors, dissimilis, dissonus, discolor, &c

Apertus, certus, cognatus, compertus, conspicuus, evidou^
liquidus, manifestus, notus, patens: — ambiguus, caecos,
dubius, incertus, obscurus, &c.

Aequus, amicus, acceptus, benignus, benevolus, blandu%
bonus, cams, clemens, dexter, dulcis, familiaris, fructuosus»
gratus, iucundus, lenis, mitis, propitius, prosper, saluber,
salutaris, secundus, suavis, utilis ; expeditus, fkcilis, levis,
obvius, pervius : — caIamitosus,damnosus, exiti^s,funestusy
inutilis, malus, noxius, periculosus, pestifer; adv^sus,
amarus, asper, crudelis, fatalis, hostilis, infensus, infestus,
inimicus, iniquus, iratus, laevus, letalis, sinister, saevus;
tristis, ingratus, invisus, molestus, odiosus, terribilis; in-
credulus, infidus, infidelis ; contumax, rebellis ; arduus^
difficilis, durus, gravis, invius, laboriosus, &c

Imperiosus: — dicto-audiens, obnoxius, obsequiosus, stnn-
missus, supplex, &c.

138 a) Adjectives which take Dative or Genitive are :

Aequalis, afiinis, alienus, communis, conscius, par, dispar,
proprius, similis, dissimilis, superstes.

The following also may be treated as Substantives, and so
take a Gemtive :

Digitized byCjOOQlC

1 139-41. Dative Case. 389

Aemulus, amicus, inimicus, cognatus, necessarius, propin*
quuS; socius, supplex, vicinus.
All en us also takes an Ablative with or without ab.
Prop ri us is used by Cicero with Genitive only.
Propior, prosdmus are found with Accusative; also with ab and
its case.

^) Adjectives of fitness, aptus, commodus, idoneus, natus, pro-

cUvis, promptus, &c., may take ad (rem).
7) Many Adjectives which express feeling or behaviour may
take in, erga (aliquem) :
Acer, acerbusy crudeUs, durus, ini(}uus, iniuriosus, saevus,
severus, &c ; benignus^ comis, hberalis, miti% piusy im*
pius^ gratus, ingratus^ &c.

C) Adverbs derived from Adjectives are sometimes used with a x»
Dative:

Constanter sibi, convenienter naturae, utiliter patriae.

ZJ) Verbal Substantives governing Dative rarely occur: 140

Obtemperatio legibus ; remedia morbis, &c.

But such words as hostis, legatus, &c, being of an Adjectival
nature, are followed by a Dative ; and others are so used when the
Dative is Acquisitive.

iii (II) The Recipient or Acquisitive Dative. 141
(Dat Commodi et IncommodL)

'Pisistratus sibi non patriae Megarensis vicit/ Pisistraius
conquered the Megarians for himself not for his country y lust ii. 8.
*Neque mihi ex cuiusquam amplitudine aut praesidia periculis
aut adiumenta honor ib us quaero,' Q, p, L. Man, 7,^ 'Filius
Blaesi militibus missionem petebat/ Tac. Ann. i. 19. 'Cato . . •
urbi pater est urbique maritus,' Lucan. L

i) Here may be ranked the Datives with vacare, to be at
leisure (alicui rei), nubere, /i? wed, properly ^to take the
veil for ^ (viro), and those with Verbs of care^ caution^
fear : consul ere, studere, cupere, cavere, prospicere,
providere, metuere, timere, &c. {dMcvLi)^ to consuUylook outy
fear (for somebody or something).

2) Est, sunt, &C., with a Dative, express 'having:' Suus

cuique mos est,' every one has his own custom. Ten
*Sex filii nobis, duae filiae sunt,' we have six sons and
two daughters, L. xliL 34.

3) Facio, fio are used with a Dative :

*Quid facies huicP'C. *Quid mihi futurum est ?' C.
Also in the same sense, with de and Ablative :

Quid de me fiet ? what will become of met And with AbL
alone : Quid me fiet ? Quid te futurum'st? Ten

4) The Dative of a Pronoun, loosely added, and expressing

general reference to a person, is called Dativus Ethicus :

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^ v^pt i-V-

390 Latin Syntax. j 142.

* Quid mihi Cdsus agit ?' haw does my Celsusget on t Hor.

Epist. i. 3, 15. * Quid ait nobis Sannio ?' what says our
Sannio f

5) Similar to this is the Dative with the Inteijectioiis hem^

ecce: Hem Davum tibi^ see^her^s Davusi £cce tibi
Antonius, &c.

6) Hei, vae take a Dative :

* H ei misero mihi/ alas for wretched me^ Ter. Vac victisy.

woe to the conquered^ L.

7) A Recipient Dative, instead of an Ablative of the Agent,

may be joined to Passive Participles, especially to Gerun-
dives ; also to Pardcipials in -b 11 is :

* Formidatus O thoni,' dreaded of Otho^ luv. * Bella matri-

bus detestata,' wars abhorred by mothers^ Hor. * Proe-
^ - ha coniugibus loquenda,' battles for wives to talk ofl

Hor. * Non ulli aflabilis/ Verg.
Poets extend this idiom to Personal Passive Verbs : * Noa

intellegor ulli,' Ov. ' Carmina quae scribuntur aquae

potoribus,' Hor. Epist, i. 19. 3.
In prose it is rare. * Dissimillunis bestiis communiter cibus

quaeritur,* C. N, D, ii. 48.

8) To such predications as ^ Cui fhuic) nomen est, quibus

(his) nomen datur, damus,' ac, the Name itself is some-
times joined as an attracted Dative :

' Volitans, cui nomen asilo Romanum est,' an insect whose
Roman name is asilus, Verg. G. iiL 147. ' In campis,
<}uibus nomen erat Raudiis. decertavere,' they fought
tn plains called the Raudian, VelL ii 2.

(But a Nominative or Genitive of the Name is found: '£t
morbo nomen est avaritia,' C. ' Nomen Mercuri est
mihi,' Plaut Am, ProL 19.)

9) Analogous to this are the attractions : * Hoc mihi volenti

est,' Sail. * Quibus bellum volentibus erat,' who-
wished for war, Tac
10) When a Copulative Infinitive (esse, fieri, &c) depends on
a Verb with Dative Object, the Complement is generally
Dative : * Mihi non licet esse neglegenti,' C. Att. L 17.
*Da mihi fallere, da iusto sanctoc^ue videri,' Hor.
Epist, i. 16. 61. But it may be Accusative : * Primum ego
me illorum, dederim quibus esse poetas excerpam
numero,' Hor. S. iv. 39 (where OreUi reads poetb without
authority or necessity).
Note. The Dative of Place Whither is poetic : * It clamor caelo,*
a shout reaches the sky, Verg. Ae. v. 451.

X4t iv. (Ill) The Predicative Dative of Purpose.

This is usually found with a Second Dative of the Recipient :
Odio esse (cordi esse) alteri, to be an object of hate (liking) to
another; vitio vertere alteri, to impute as a fault to another. So,
commodo, dedecori, delectationi^ emolumento, honori, voluptati,
&c, esse alicui, crimini dare alten ; auxilio, subsidio venire alteri.

uiyiuzeu uy x^j v^v^pt ix^

J '4«. Dative Case. 391

But a second Dative is not always used : Habere aliquem con-
temptui, derisui, ludibrio ; habere rempublicam quaestui ; ponere
(opponere) aliquid pigneri, to pawn, mortgage; canere receptui, to
sound a retreat,

(Akin to this construction is that of the Dative Gerund and
Gerundive: solvendo esse, to be solvent; tresviri reipublicae con-
stituendae, three commissioners for settling the government,)

In Personal Passive construction both Datives remain ; Libw a
patre filio dono datus est*

Examples of the Dative Case.

I. {JDatime 0/ Remoter Object,) 'Zenoni placuit, bonum esse solum, quod ho-
nestum esseC^'C T.D,y, 11. 'Omnibus bonis ezpeditsalvam esse rempublicam,'
C PhiL xiiL 8. 'Non vacat exiguis rebus adesse lovi,' Or. TV. iL 916. 'Cicero
mens salutem tibi dicit,' C Att. ▼. 9. ' Diem mihi dizerat, multam irrogarat/ C
^ MiL 37. 'Qui sibi semitam non sapiunt, alteri monstrant viam/ Enn.
'Anguis Sullae apparuit immolanti,' C. Div. ii. yx 'Tironem Dolabellae
obviam misi,* C Att, xiL 5. 'Dionysius nobis praesto fuit,* C. Att, iv. la.
'Pompeio et Senatui pads auctorfui,' C Att. iz. zz. 'Quantum consuetudini
fama«que dandum sit, id curent yivi,' C T, D, i, 45. 'Is deniquehonos mihi
Tideri solet, qui non propter vf/tm. futuri benefidi, sed propter magna meritadaxis
Tiris defertur et datur,'C Fam. z. zo. 'lam non ago tibi gratias; cui ente
re Tiz referre possum, huic verbis non patitur res satisfieri,' C ad Brut, ii z.
'Attid neptem Caesar Tiberio Claudio Neroni privigno suo despondit,' Nep.
Att. Z9. ' Dissodatis animis dvium, alii SuUanis, alii Cinnanis partibus favebant,'
N. Ait, a. 'Omnino irasci amicis non temere soleo, ne si merentur quidem,' C
PkU, viil s 'Tirooes iureiurando accepto nihil iis nocituros hostis se Otacilio
dediderunt,*Caes. B. C, iii 98. 'ludidsest innocentiae subvenire,'C>i Ci$i,
s. 'Antiochus si parere voluisset consiliis Hannibalis, propuu Tiberi q)iam
Thermopylis desumma imperi dimicasset,' Nep. J/ohm. 8. ' Imperat aut servit
coUecta pecunia cuique,' Hor. £/ist. I za 47. ' Cur succumbis cedisque for*
tunaef ' C 7*. Z>. iii. zj. 'Non Caesari solum, sed etiam amicis eius omnibus
pro Ligario ezsule Cicero supplicavit,' C Pom, tL Z4. 'Cui Gellius benedizit
unquam bono t ' C /. Sext. 5s. 'Tu verbis solves numquamquod mi re malefeceris,'
Ter. AiC il i. za 'Pdopidas omnibus periculis adfuit,' Nep. Pel 4. 'Erat
supta ^OKor Attid Q. Tullio Ciceroni,' Nep. Att 5. 'Venus nupsit Vulcano;
Asbuten Adonidi nupsisse proditum est,' C. iV. Z>. iiL 93. ' Brutus collegae soo
impoium abrogavit,' C Br. Z4. 'Sthenius est is, qui nobis assidet,' C yerr. il 34.
* Leg— omnium salutem singulorum saluti anteponunt,' C Pirn. iiL Z9. 'Dionysius
aurenm lovi Olympio detrazit amimhim, eique laneum pallium iniecit, cum id
esse ad omne anni tempus dioeret,' C iV. A iiL 34. ' Est viri et duds^ non deesse
fortunae praebenti se, et oblau casu flectere ad consilium,' L. zzviiL 44. 'Praetor
interdizit de vi hominibus armatis,' C >. Caec. 8. 'Hortensius veritus est ne
Fufins tribunns plebis ei legi intercederet, qtiae ez senatus consulto ferebatur,'C
Att L z6i. 'Ut Thucydidis condsis sententiis oflScit Theopompus elatione atque
altitudine orationis suae, quod idem Lysiae Demosthenes, sic Catonis luminibus
obstruzit poeterionun quasi ezaggerata altius orado,' C Br. 17, 'Hannibal A lez-
andro Magno non postponendus est,' lust, xxx, 4. 'Certis rebus certa signa
praecurrunt,' C Dw, i. 53. 'Deus animum, ut dominum atque imperantem,
oboediend praefecit corpori,' C l/niv. 7. 'Nihil semper floret: aetas succedit
aetati,' C Pkil zi Z5. 'Numquam Atticus potenti adulatus est Antonio,' N.
Att. 8. 'Non ita adulatus sum fortunam alterius, ut me meae paeniteret, C £Ho,
n. 9. 'Lictores praetoribus anteeunt cum fasdbus duobus,' C d. L. Agr. ML 34.
'Te semper anteit torva Necesntas,' Hor. C, L 35. Z7. 'lis aemulamur, qui ea
habent quae nos habere cupimus,' C. T, D. x. zp. 'Quod me Agamemnonem
aemulari potM, ialleris,' Nep. Ep. 5. 'Cui nullum probrum dicere poterat, eius
obtrectare laudes voliut,' L. zlv. 37. ' Non id laboro, ut, si qui mihi ohtrectent,
a te refutentur,' C Pom. iz. zz. 'Mihi ausculta; vide ne tibi desis,' C /. S.
RcK. 36. 'Homines auscultant crimina,' Plant Pseud. L 5. za. 'In Formiano
tibi praestolor,' C Att. iL Z5. 'Curionis adventum L. Caesar Alius ad Clupeam

* The saying ' On bono fuit 7 ' whoee interest W€U it f deserves special nodce, because
It is often erroneously dted in a different sense. See C.>. Mil. la ; Phil. iL Z4. t

uiyiuzeu uy x^j ^^^ wVt Iv

Case.

392 Latin Syntax. § 143.

E. The Ablative Case.

^f^ i The Ablative is the Modal Case, or Case of
Circumstances which modify the predication adverbially.
Besides its proper Ablative functions (taken in Greek by
the Grenitive), it comprises those of the Primitive Instru-
mental (partly taken in Greek by the Dative) and most
functions of the Locative Case.
Its uses may be conveniently taken in the following order :

I. Instrumental Ablative: comprising Cause; Instrument;

Agent; Price; Matter.
II. Locative Ablative: comprising Respect;* Difference;
Manner; Condition; Quality; Tmie When; Place
Where and by Which.
III. Ablative Proper : comprising Place Whence ; S^>aration;
Origin ; Thing Compared.

praestolabatur,' Caes. B. C. u. 93. 'Aucta fiuna cladis ingens terror Patres
invasit, dictatoremque did placebat/ L ix. 38. 'In GalHam Antontas invasit, ia
Asiam Dolabella,' C Phil, xL 2. ' Equidem at veni ad urbem, minis invaierat
liuornon solum improbis sed etiam his qui boni habentur ut pugnare ctqierent,' C
Fa$H. xvL la. 'Est mihi magnae curae, ut ita erudiatur Luaidlns, ut patri re-
spondeat/ C Fm, iii. a. ' Respondebisne ad haecf ' C PkiL ii 43. 'St
inest in oratione mixta modestiae gravitas, nihil admirabilius fieri potest/ C Oj^.
ii. 14. 'Inerant lunaria fronti comua/ Ov. M. ix. 687. ' Caritati ipsios soli
loDgo tempore assuescitur/ L. ii. x. ' Assuetae sanguine et praeda av«s»' Flee.
L I. 'In omnia familiaria iura assuetus,' L. xxiv. 5. ' Natura vi lationis hominem
conciliat homini/ C. Off. L 4. 'Ratio etoratb conciliat inter sehomiaes,'C.
Off. L z6. ' Ennius equi fortb et victoris senectuti comparat suam,' C CW. M, 5.
'Quaeso, pontifices, et hominem cum homine, et tempus cum tempore, et rem cum
re comparate,' C /. Dom. 5a ' Longe mea discrepat istis et vox et ratio,' Hor.
S,\,6.g9. 'IdatuisUtterisdiscrepabaty'C ^//. iL T. 'Duae l^es inter se dis-
crepant/ C d. Inv. a. 'Conexum sit prindpium consequenti orationi,' C d. Or.
n. 8a ' Anudtia cum Toluptate conectitur/ C /^M. i. 90. ' Mamertini hoooceaa
debitum detraxerunt non homini, sed ordini,' C Verr. iv. xx. 'Saoerdotem ab
ipsa avis detraxisti/C d. Har. 13. 'Ille non cessat de nobis detrahere,' C
AH. XL iz. 'Orationi adspergentur etiam sales, qui in dicendo nimium quantum
valent,' C Or. 96. ' Pythagoras ne ApoUini quidem Delio hostiam immolare vohut,
ne aram sanguine adspergeret,' C AT. i>. 3d. ' Dionynus fossam latam cubicufauri
lecto circumdedit,' C. T. D. v. 90. ' Deus animum circumdedit corpore,' C
Ufdv. 6. ' Equites Hannoni se circumfudere,' L. xxix. 34. 'Agfwilaum aauci.
quod mel non habebant, cera circumfuderunt,' Nep. Ag. 3. 'Attkus Athemensis
vniversos frumento donavit/ Nep. Ait. 9. 'Ciceroni populus Romanus aeter-
nitatem immortalitatemque donavit,' C in Pit. 3. 'In deversotio erant ea
composita, quibus rex te munerare constituerat,' C/. Deiot. & * Di earn potestateim
dabunt, ut benefidum benemerenti muneres,' Plaut Ca^t. ▼. x. X5. Doctrinis
aetas puerilis impertiri debet,' Nep. AH. t. 'Terentia impertit tibi multam
salutem,' C AH. il 12. 'Sto expectans si quid mihi imperent,' Ter. Ewu iiL 5. 46.
' Conon ad mare missus est, ut maritimis civitatibus navis longas imperaret,* Ne|».
Ag. 4. 'Matronis Medea persuasit ne nbi vitio verterent quod abesset a patria,'
C Fam, viL 6. 'Hoc mihi non modo confirmavit, sed etiam persuasit,' C. Ati.
xvi. 5. 'Nihil facile persuadetur invitis,' Qu. iv. 3. 'Cato iis sqHs noa inrt-
debat, quibus nihil ad dignitatem posset accedere,'C AH. viL 3. 'AfiommlaDdi
atque gloriae maxime invideri solet,' C d. Or. iL 51. 'Afiricae solo oleum e(

* Respect, DilTerence, Manner, Condition, Quality, Time, may be considered Loca-
tive, as logically limiting the portion of that which they modify. In many ^^^f^pW it
is not easy to say whether the Ablative should be referred to Canaq, Instrument, Matter^
or Manner. ^-^ _

uyuizedbyCiOOgle

§ 144. Ablative Case, 393

ii (I) Instrumental Ablative. 244

A) The Ablative of Cause answers the question Ovnng to

i) It chiefly limits state; and is therefore joined to Verbs
Intransitive or Passive^ to their Participles, and to
Adjectives.

Tinum natura invidet,' PL N» H. xr. a. 'Invidet igne rogi miseris,' Ltican.
vn. 798. 'Manusextreiiui Doo accessit operibuSy'C Br, 33. ' Noodum ad rem*
pnblicam access!/ C /. S. Rote. z. 'Dolor accessit bonis viris: virtus non
est Jirnninnra/ C Att, L z^ ' Rumore adventus nostri Cassio animiis accessit,' C
^//. V. aa 'Accedam in i^erisque Ciceroni,' Qu. ix. 4. a. 'Athenienses consu*
Itierant ApoUinem Pythium, quas potissimum religiones tenerent,' C Leg. u. z6L
'Di constilunt rebus humanis,* C Div. L 51. 'Prudentianumquan deficit ora-
torem,' C Br. 24. ' Cum iam ampliiis horis sex continenter pugnaretur, non solum
Yiresy sed edam tela nostris deficiebant/ Caes. B. C?. iiL 5. ' Indulge valetudini
tuae, cui quidem tu adhuc, dtun mihi deservis, servisti non satis,' C /^4Mt. xvi i&
' Indulsit ornamenta consularia procuratoribus,' Suet. Clmmd, 34. ' Praestat
honeitfas incolnmitati,' C Inv. iL 58. ' Atheniensium dvitas antiquitate, humanitate,
doctiiaa praestabat omnis,' Nep. Ait. 3. ' Ser. Sulpicius hooorem debitum patri
praestitit,' C /'iUil ix. 5. 'Trebatium obiurgavi, quod parum valetudini par-
cerety' C Famt. xL vj. ' Precantur ut et a caedibus et ab incendiis parceretur/
I* xxT. 35. 'Libros oratorios in manibus habeo, quos, ut spero, Talde tibi probabo,'
C Ait. IT. 14. ' Atticae meae velim me ita excuses, ut omnem cu^nm in te trans-
lens,' C Ait. XT. 98. 'Quod te mihi de Sempronio purgas, acdpio excusationem,'
C Fam, xu. 35. 'Amonius leges civitati per vim jimposuit,' C PAtl viL 5.
'MeteUum multi fiUi in rogum imppsuerunt,' C 7*. Z>. L 35. ' Imposuistis in
cervicibus nostris sempitemmn dominum,' C N. JD.l. 90. ' Non recuso quin, si cui-
quamVeRctnllainreumquamtemperaTerit, vosquoqueei temperetis/C. l^err.
H. 6. 'Quis taUa iando temperet a lacrimisf Verg. Ae. iL 8. 'Nobilitas Ser.
Solpidi hominibus litteratis et historids erat notior, populo vero ob8curior,'C
f.Mur,"!. 'Voluptatibusmaximif fastidiumfinitimumest,'C<£ Or. in. Z5. 'Audivi
te esse Caesari familiarem/ C Fam. viL Z4. 'Omnia voluptas honestati est
contraria,' C Off. iiL 33. ' Fidelissimi ante omnia homini sunt canis atque
eqonsy' PL N. H. vuL 4a 'Nee fertilis ilia iuTencis, nee pecori opportuna
a^esnec commoda Baccho,' Veig. G. iv. laS. 'Romulus multitudini gratior
lint, quam Patribus; longe ante alios acceptissimus militum animis,' L. L Z5.
' nia expugnatio fani antiqutssimi lunonis Samiae, quam luctuosa Samiis Aiit, qtiam
acerba toti Asiae T C Vtrr. L Z9. ' £a virtus est praestantis viri, quae est
fructuosa aliis, ipsi autem laboriosa, periculosa, aut certe gratuila,' C d.
Or. iL 85. ' SoUertia pestifera multis admodum paucis salutaris est,' C N. D.m,
97. ' Fakmum mihi semper idoneum visum est deversorio,' C Fam. vL 19.
'Verba innocenti reperire facile est; modum verborum misero tenere diflScile,*
Curt. vL za 'Senatori necessarium est nosse rem pubticam,* C Leg. iiL z8.
' Bpaminoadas vehit gratulabundus patriae exspiravit,' lust vL 8. ' Syracusani
noi>is dicto audientes sunt,' C Verr. v. 33. 'Apud Germanos probrosum est
atiperstitem principi suo ex ade recessisse,' Tac G. Z4. 'Socrates nee patroniun
qnaesivit ad iudidum capitis nee iudicibus supplex fiiit,' C 7*. Z>. L 99. ' Ennio
aequalis fuit Livius, qui primus &bulam dedit,' C Br. z8. ' Aequ'alis temporum
illorum,' C Dm. L aa ' Vetilius id didt quod illi causae maxime est alienum,' C
f, Ceue. 9k ' Eascripsiad tequaenonalienaesse ducerem a dignitate,' C /Vzjw. iv.
7. ' Afienum dignitatis,' C /«». L 4. ' Nihil est a me commissum, quod esset alienum
nostra amicitia,' C Fam. xL 97. 'Omni aetati mars est communis,* C. Cat. M.
19. ' Haecitaiustitiae propria sunt ut sint virtutum reliquarum communia,'
C. Fin. V. 93. 'Studitun conservandi honunis commune mihi vobiscum esse
debebit,' C /. Rob. z. 'Natus abdomini suo non laudi atque gloriae,'C in
Pis, 17. 'Ad laudem et ad decus nati sumus,' C Fin. v. 99. 'Thracibus est
fernim et promptus libertati aut ad mortem animus,* T%c. Ann, iv. 46. ' T.
Manlzus perindulgens est in patrem, acerbe severus in filium,' C. Off. iiL 31.
• lugurtha propior montem pedites coUocat,' SalL lug. 49. * Treviri proximi
Rbeno flmnini sunt,' Caes. B. G. iiL zz. ' Ubii proximi Rhenum incohmt,* C^^
A GIL 54. * Snmmnm bonum a Stoids didtur, conveaienter naturae vivere,*Ci^M.

uiyiuzeu uy •^^j\^^^pLL\^

394 Latin Syntax. % 144.

Plecti neglegentia ; mori senectute ; pallescere culpa ; impe-
ditus morbo ; pallidas ira ; ardens amore ; fessus inedia
et fluctibuSy &c.

It may limit Transitive Verbs, especially when it expresses

feelmg or motive :
Hac mente, hoc consilio, laetitia, odio, &c, ^Eurere, dicere

aliquid, &c.

2) It includes the phrases: causa, gratis ergo, nomine^
for the sake of, * Quaestus causa,* j'^?^ the sake of gain ; but
mea, tua, &c, causa. * Turpitudinis effugiendae gratia,'/^
the sake of avoiding di^ace, * Virtutis ergo (nomine)/ on
the score of merit.

iiL 7. 'Ex quibtudam sdipibus et herbis remedta morbis et volneribns rtigimiis*
C A^. /?. il 64.

II. (paiitms Ccmmcdi et IncotmmadL) * Non solum nobis dhrites ease Tolnams»
sed liberis, propinquis, amicis, nuudmeque retpublicae/ C Off, iiL 15. 'Si
domus pulchxa est, intellrgimu.% earn domtnis affdificatam esse» non muribos,' C. im
Caecil. 3. ' Tibi aras, tibi occas, tibi seris» tibi eidem metis,' PlaoL Merc L z. 7s.
' Caesar reperiebat favere Dumnorigem et cnpere Helvetiis propter affinttaxem**
Caes. B, (?. I z8. ' Tibi favemus ; tibi optamus cam re]iq>ublicam, in qna toonua
renovare memoriam atque augere possis,' C. Br. qj. * Pro deum fidem, quid vobu
vultisT' L. iiL 67. 'Athenienris CUsthenes lunoni Samiae, cum rebus timeret suts»
filianim dotes credidit/ C Leg, il z6. ' Germani ab parvuUs labori ac duritiae
student,' Caes. B, G. tL ax. ' Scabiem pecori et iumentis caveto^' Cato, R, R, 5.
'Bene mihi, bene Tobis, bene omnibus nobis!* Plaut. Pert, v. z. aa 'ConsnHte
▼obis, prospidte patriae,' C in Cat, iv. a. 'Ntuna virgines Vestae legit, Salioc
Item Marti Gradivo/ L. L aa 'Improbo et stnlto et inerti nemim b»e caae
potest,' C Par, 2. 'Tibi bene ex animo volo,' Ter. Haut, ▼. a. 6. ' Multis de canais
ego huic causae patronus exstiti,' C. /. S, Rose a. ' Semper in dvitate, quibus
opes nuUae sunt, bonis invident,' SalL Cat, 37. 'An nesds loogas regibns csae
manusf ' Ov. Her. xviL 166. 'Filius mens si quid peccat, mihi peccat,' Ter. Ad, L
a. 35. 'Quid miht L. Paufinepos quaerit, quo modo duo soles viai sintt' C R^
i 19. ' Ecce tibi, qui rex populi Roroani dominusque omnium gentium ease oqoco>
pieric, idque perfeceriti' C. Off iiL ax. ' Audita est Brenni, reguli GaUonun, intole-
randa Romania vox: Vae victis esse,' L. ▼. 48. 'Cui non sunt auditae Demo*-
thenis vigiliaef* C. T, D, iv. 19. 'Mihi consilium captum iamdinest,'C Feme,
V. 19. 'Ut esse possem orator, magno studio mihi a pueritia est elaboratuBB,*C
»» CaeciL ta. ' Legendus mihi saepius est Cato Maior,' C. Att. xtv. ax. ' Restat
Chremesqui mihi exorandus est,' Ter. An, L i. 130. ' Hie tibi nt potins qnam
tu mirabilis illi,* Hor. Bput L 6. 23. 'Vix audior uUi,* Ov. -£>. *jr /». 3L 9.
' Duo sunt Rosdi, quorum alteri Capitoni cognomen est,' C /. 5. Reec. t, ' Axtns
Clausus, cui poatea Appio Claudio fuit Romae ncmien, ab RegiUo magna cfieodnm
ooffiitatus manu Romam transftigit,' L. iL z6. ' Illis timidis et ignavis licet ease :
vobis necesse est fortibus viris esse,' L. zxL 44. ' Medios ^%%^ (noa)iaBiBon
Hccbit,* C Att, X. 8.

III. (Predicative Dative,) ' Vitamrusticamtu probroet criminiputasesser* C
^. S, Resc, 17. 'Otho quidquid epistularum erat, ne cui periculo aut noxac apud
victorem forent, concremavit,' Suet Otk, xa ' Spero homines inteOectuzoa, quanto
sit omnibus odio crudeKtas, et quanto amori probitas et dementia,* C Patm,
XV. X9. ' Ampla domus dedecori domino saepe fit, si est in ea solitudo,' C Qf:
L 39. 'Vitio mihi dant quod mortem hominis necessarii graviter fero,' C Pmtm,
acL 38. ' Pergite, ut fiidtis, adulesoentes, atque in id studium, in qtio estis, incmabkc,
ut et vobis honori, et amicis utilitati, et reipublicae emolumeato esse
possitis,' C d Or. L 8. ' Flaminius consul ante signum lovis Statoris sine causa repente
conddit, nee eam rem habuit reltgioni,'C. Z>m L 35. 'Habere quaestui icm.
publicam turpe et ne&rium est,' C Off, iL aa. ' Virtus sola neque datur dono Beqne
accipitur,' SalL 7*^. 85. ' ^^

Digitized byCjOOQlC

S 145-47. Ablative Case. 395

3) Also the phrases iussu, iniussu, monitu, mandatu, per*

missuy rogatu, &C.9 ope, opera, beneficio, dolo, &c.

4) Cause may be expressed by the Prepositions ab, de, ex,

per, prae.
Ab animi levitate; per aetatem; multis de causis; prae
gaudio.

B) The Ablative of the Instrument answers the question 141
By what means f

i) It limits Verbs Active or Passive, and their Participles.
Pugnare gladiis ; defendere se comibus ; lapide ictus ;
veneno exstingui, &c.

2) The Ablative of an Abstract Noun may be Instrumental :

* Forma et moribus conciliare aliquem.'

3) The Preposition Cum with its Case is sometimes used as

equivalent to a Participle with Instrumental Ablative :

' Homines cum gladiis ' -> homines gladiis armatL

C) The Ablative of the Personal Agent with the Preposi- 146
tion ab, byy answers the question By whom f

i) It is Joined to Verbs Passive or Quasi-passive and their
Participles :

* Mundus a Deo administratur ; ' ab hoste venire ; ab improbis
expulsus, &c.

2) The Preposition per is used to express both Instrument

and Agent: Per dolum, per insidias capi; per bonos
restitui, &c.

3) Abstract terms, though in general Instrumentally used in

the Ablative, are sometimes treated as Agents :
'Piget dicere ut vobis animus ab ignavia atque socordia
comiptus sit,* // tf sad to state how your mind has been
corrupted by idleness and sloth^ SalL lug, 31 ; M. Ijucr,
L813.

U) The Ablative of Price answers the questions For how 149
mucht At what cost f

i) It accompanies Verbs of purchase^ sale, barter, l^l^*^g>
lettingy bidding, costing, &c, or any other with which Cost
or Vsdue can be connected. Such are
Emece and its compounds, mercari, opsonari, vendere,
venire ; conducere, locare, collocare ; licere, liceri, licitari,
&c., constare, stare, vaiere, esse, &c., aestimare, &c.

Also Adjectives implying cost, deamess, cheapness :
VenaUs, vendibilis, parabilis, cams, viUs, &c.

Emere, &c., venalis esse, &a, pretio, grandi pecunia, centum
nummis, viginti denariis, centum milibus, mille drachmis
Oninis, talentis), &c

396 Latin Syntax. j i4g.

2) The following Ablatives of Cost are used with such words,
the Noun pretio being understood:
Magno^ parvo, minimo, paululo, plurimo^ nimio, dimidio,

duplo, vili, &C.
Tanto, quanto may be used; but Price is more usually-
expressed by their Genitives tanti, c^uanti, also by the
Genitives pluris, minor is, maximi^ which Adjectives
are not used in the Ablative of Price without pretio.

d} Valuation is usually expressed by the Genitives magni,
parvi, &c. (pretii), and others. See Genitive.

b) The Verbs mutare, commutare, permutare, vert ere {to
exchange\X3k& either an Accusative of the thing parted with,
and an Ablative of the thin^ taken : ' Mutare pacem bello/
to exchange peace for war, i.t, to go to war; or (especially
in poetry) an Accusative of the tmng taken, and an Abla-
tive of the thing parted with : ' Permutare otio divitias,' to
take wealth in exchange for ease.

,^ E) The Ablative of Matter answers the questions WJure*
with f (in a material sense ;) Whereof f
It accompanies a great number of Verbs and Adjectives :
i) Transitive Verbs of sacrijicing; adorning^ enduing^ amdng;
dignifying, afflicting^ punishing; nourishing^ supporting^
delighting: fashioning, instructing, furnishing; bindings
&c.:
Facere, immolare, Utare, libare, &c. victima, hosda, agno,
&c vino, lacte, &c :— omare, induere, armare, &c veste,
corona, ense, &c : — afEcere, mactare, &c. benefido,
honore, iniuria, poena, &c.: afficere admiratione; affid
morbo, &c. : — alere, pascere, iuvare, ddectare, oblectare,
&c. opibus, sermonibus, &c: — formare, informare, insti-
tuere, munire, &c. doctrina, bonis artibus, subsidiis,
&c.: — obligare, devincire, obstringere, tenere, &c. iure-
jurando, religione, &c.

2) Intransitive Verbs of consisting, being made; being accus*

tomed; depending; being strong, bein^ distressed ; flour--
ishing, languishing; rejoicing, boasting, grieving; rely^
ingy distrusting ; &c.:

Constare, conflari, contineri, fieri ; suescere, assuescere; pen-
dere; pollere, valere, vigere, lascivire, laborare ; florcre, lan-
guescere; gaudere, laetari, exsultare, triumphare, gloriari;
dolere, maerere ; fidere, confidere, niti ; (macte esto) ; dif-
fidere, &c.

Constare also takes ex. * Omnis ex re atque verbis con-
stat oratio/ all speech consists of matter and words^ C d
Or, iii. 5.

3) Adjectives and Participles in meaning akin to some of these

Verbs :
Compositus, conflatus, concretus, factus; praeditos («ri-
dued), beatus, felix, contentus, fretus {relying); la^us,
superbus ; fisus, diffisus, coniunctus, assuetus, assuefiutii%
insuetus, &c.
The last six also take a Dative.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

g 148. Ablative Case. yyj

4) Dignus {^awrthy)y indignus {unworthy) :
Sometimes also with Genitive.

They are applied either to person or to thing :

Vir dignus est laude : vox indigna est responsione.
Dignari, to deem worthy^ or to be deemed worthy (honore.
&c.)9 is always used passively by Cicero; by poets and
later prose writers actively abo.

5) Opus est, there is needy opus habere, to have need (consilio,

prudentia, duce^ &c.)
Generally used with Ablative, or with Genitive by poets.
Opus may also stand as Complement : ' Dux nobis et auctor

opus est,' we need a leader and adviser ^ C. Fam. iL 6.

Usus est, there is occasion^ is sometimes found :
* Nunc viribus usus,' now there is occasion for strength^Vttg,
Ae, viiL 441.

Opus is used with Passive Participial words :

*Ita dictu opus est,' so must we needs say, Ter. Haut. v.

1.68. <Pnusquam incipias, consulto opus est,' ere

you begin, there is need of consultation, SalL Cat, i.

*Opus fiiit Hirtio convento^' there was occasion for

an interview with Hirtius, C. Att, x. 14.

6) Fungi, to perform, fulfil, with compoimds defungi, per-

fungi; mil, tq enjoy, with perfrui; uti, to use, vdUi
abuti; vesci, to feed on, eat; potiri, to acquire, gain pos^
session of
The Ablative with these Verbs (which is properly instru-
mental) is construed like an Object They were originally
Reflexive, and are used with Accusative in £. L., hence
they retain the Gerundive : * Vita data est utenda.' * Spes
potiundorum castrorum,' Caes. See M. Lucr, iii. 956.

Utor is foimd in the sense oi possessing :

* Valetudine utor non hooaii I have poor health, C. Fam.

xiv. 5.
Being intimate with: 'Utebatur intime Q. Hortensio,'

he was intimate with Hortensius, N. Att. v. 4.

Potior also takes a Genitive : sometimes an Accusative.

7) Transitive Verbs of endowing, enriching, filling, increasing,

loading, sating, &c., depriving, despouing, emptying, strip-
ping, releasing, &c :

Donare, munenure, dotare, ditare, locupletare, opulentare,
complere, explere, implere, opplere, replere, augere, cumu-
lare, onerare, farcire, confercire, refercire, satiare, exsa-
tiare, saturare, exsaturare, &c., destituere, fraudare, pri-
vare, orbare, viduare, spoliare, despoliare, vacuare, nudare,
levare, exonerare, laxare, liberare, solvere, exsolvere, expe-
<^e, exhaurire, emungere, exuere, &c. (re aliqua aliquem).

Intransitive Verbs of abounding, overflowing, &c, wanting,
being void being destitute, &c.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

398 Latin Syntax. § 149-50.

Abundare, fluere, affluere, circumfluere^ difiluere, exuberare,
exundare, redundare, manare, stiUare, pluere, scatere^ &c^
carere, egere, indigere, vacare (re aliqua).

Verbs of tbis class often take a Genitive in poetry ; egere,
indigere^ prefer a Genitive in prose alsa

Some are followed by the Preposition ab ; levare, libe-
rare, vacare (a re).

8) Adjectives of abundance and want :

Abundans, beatus, compos, dives, felix, ferax, fertilise fecun-
dus, fetus, frequens, gravis, gravidus, laetus, largus, lo-
cuples, nimius, onustus, opidenttis, plenus, refertu^ satur,
tnmidus, uber, &c., cassus, egenus, expers, immunis, ina-
nis, inops, liber, mancus, nudus, orbus, pauper, purus,
solutus, sterilis, truncus, vacuus, viduus, &c. (re aliqua).

Many of these may take a Genitive : compos, plenus, fe-
cundus; expers, inops, and some others; especially in
poetry.

Some may take the Preposition ab : immunis, liber, pums,
solutus, vacuas (a re); the case after such words being a
true Ablative of Separation.

iii. (II) Locative Ablative.

149 A) The Ablative of Respect answers the question In regard
o/wkatt

It is joined to any predication, especially to Substantives and
Adjectives, denoting that particular m respect of which the pre-
dication is made :

'Nomine grammaticus, re barbarus,' in name a greun-
marian, in fact a barbarian; < claudus altero pede,'
latne of one foot; « virtute et doctrina exccllere;'
'contremere tota mente et omnibus artubus:' 'hae
domo Carthaginienses sunt' So, natu maior, el{ier
(minor, maximus, minimus) ; granms natu, elderly, &c

sjD ^ ^he Ablative of Measure answers the question Bj what
nuasure t

i) It limits Measurement or Comparison :

'Sol multis partibus maior est quam terra,' the sun is
many times greater than the earth, C. N, D, iL 36.

2) It includes the Ablative of Space and Distance :

'Trium milium spatio (ortribus milibus passuum) dis-
tare,' &c., to be three miles off, &c Ab may be used with
this Ablative of Distance :

* Naves ab milibus passuum octo vento tenebantur,*
the ships were kept by a wind eight miles off, Caes. B, G^
iv. 22.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

S 151-53. Ablative Case. 399

3) The following Ablatives are used with Comparative and

other words implying Comparison :

Hoc, eo, quo, tanto, quanto, aliquanto, multo, paulo, dimidio,

nihilo, nimio, altero, &c * Eo gravior dolor quo culpa

maior/ the pain is heavier in proportion as the fault is

f'-eater, Multo optimus; multo praestare; multo malle,
c, multo ante (post); paulo ante (post); tanto ante
(post), &c. Multo aliter, secus, &c See p. 279.

€) The Ablative of Manner answers the question Howf »5t

1) It is eminentiy adverbial, appearing in many phrases a; a

single word :
Ordine, ratione, via et ratione (systematicdlly\ dolo, fraude,
vi, iure, iniuria, vitio {faultily)^ equo {pn horseback), pedi-
bus {pnfoot\ &C, (Per might be used with some of these
words in the same sense : per dolum, per vim.)

2) In some instances an unqualified Ablative may be used with

or without cum :
CI am ore, cum damore ; silentio, cum silentio.

But cum is generally used with an unqualified Ablative of
Manner:
Cum dolore ; cum gaudio ; cum fide ; cum cura.

3) Certain Ablatives, more, modo, ritu, take a Genitive if they

have no epithet
*More Sophoclis' or 'more Sophocleo,' in the manner of
Sophocles \ ' Herculis ritu,' in the fashion of Hercules^ Hor.

4) With an Epithet the Ablative of Manner often stands with-

out a Preposition, in some phrases always :
Hoc (eo) modo, nullo modo, nuUo pacto, nullo ordine, nuUo
negotio, &C.

The Preposition seems to be used or omitted at discretion

(on its frequency see M. Lucr. i. 755).
'Magno studio' or *cum magno studio;' 'magno gaudio'

or *cum magno gaudio;' *adesse omnibus copiis' or

'cum omnibus copiis,' &c

U) The Ablative of Condition answers the question On '^
^vhat terms f

It is one form of the Ablativus Modi :

Pace tua, by your leave^ bona tua venia, with your in-
dulgence, meo iure, by my own rights mea sententia, in
my opinion^ &c

E) The Ablative of Quality answers the question Of what
description t

It always has an Epithet and defines a Substantive, to which
it stands either as an Enthesis or as a Complement:

Murena, vir mediocri ingenio, &c. or 'Murena medi-
ocri ingenio fiiit' See Genitive of Quality.^

^ uiyiuzeu uy ■N^Jv-/v_-'>t Iv

XS3

40O Latin Syntax. § 154.

184 F) The Ablative of Time answers the questions When?
Within what time ? Hieme, vere, aestate, primo vere, diluculo
(at dawn), prima luce, hora quarta, tertia vigilia^^ Kalendis lanu-
ariis, anno septimo, &c., centum annis, biennio^ biduo, paucis
diebus, &c.

J ) Recurring solemnities may express Time when :
Ludis, at the games ; gladiatoribus, at the gladiator^ skew ;
comitus, at the comitia; Liberalibus, at the feast of
Liber, &c. *

Rarer idioms are, Sereno, in a calm\ austro^ in a south

wind, &c.
Interdiu, noctu, mane (mani), luci, vesperi, heri, pridie,
postridie, crastini die^ are expressions of Time represent-
ing old Locatives.

2) The Preposition used to define Titne when, is chiefly de

{beginmng from, ere the close of, during)-, de nocte, de

multa nocte (Jong before night ended) ; de media node, de

die, de mense Decembri.
In is used to express time within which \ and often when

the Ablative has another Numeral, Distributive or Quo-

tientive, connected with it :
^Sol binas in singulis annis reversiones facit/ the sun

makes two turns annually, C. N, D, ii. 40. ^Quidam

oves.in anno bis tondent/ some shear sheep twice a

year, Varro. See also intra, sub.

3) The Pronouns hie, ill e sometimes emphatically define the

Ablative of Time within which.
His annis quadringentis, within these last 400 years; hoc
triennio, within the next (or last) three years; hoc biduo,
within the next (or last) two <&j^J— the Tense determining
whether hie refers to Future or Past Time.

4) Post is also used in answering the question How soon T

paucis post diebus or paucos post dies, or post
paucos dies, within the next few days.

5) ^^^ze^/c7«^^(^ is expressed by ante: paucis ante diebus,

or paucos ante dies, or ante paucos dies. Als« by
abhinc with Accusative or Ablative of the Time: *Ab-
hinc triennium (or triennio) hue conmtiigravit,' she came
here three years ago. Ten An,i, i.

6) The occurrence of one of two facts before or after the other

is variously expressed.
Thus the English, /saw him three days before he died, may
be rendered by any of the following sentences :
Vidi eum tribus diebus {or triduo) antequam mortuus

est.
Vidi eum tertio die antequam mortuus est.
Vidi eum ante tres dies {or ante triduum) quam mor-
tuus est
Vidi eum ante tertium diem quam mortuus est.

' The Romans divided the day (from 6 A.M. to 6 p.m.) into za hours, of whicn 7 A.M.
was the first 0>rinia horaX Noon was called meridies or sexta bora. The nigltt (from
6 P.M. to 6 A.M.) they divided into fbur.watches (vigiliae) of three hours each.

,uiyiiizeu uy x_j v^v^ pt i-X^

§ 155. Ablative Case, 401

Pridie miam mortuus est, the day before he died ( - ante diem

quam).
Likewise, he died six years after I saw him^ may be rendered
by any of the following :
Mortuus est sex annis {pr sexennio) postquam eum

videranL
Mortuus est sexto anno postquam eum videram.
Mortuus est sexto anno quam eum videram.
Mortuus est post sex annos {pr post sexennium) quam

eum videram.
Mortuus est post sextum annum quam eum videram.
Postridie quam eum vidi, the day after I saw him («post

diem quam).
Cum, quo, quibus, are used for postquam :
^Biduo quo (or ciun) haec gesta sunt, two days after these
things were done, Caes.
On multo, paulo, &c., with ante, post, see § 15a

7) The Accusative of Duration shews the space of time through
which an action extends ; the Ablative, that within which
it is contained.

C) The Ablative of Place Where generally takes 'in :' 155

' In portu navigo,' / am sailing in harbour, Sen.

1) In is omitted in many instances : loco, multis locis, plu-

ribus locis, &c. ; hoc libro, alio libro, &c. ; terra, mari ;
tota Asia, throughout Asia ; dextra (parte), on the right
hand ; laeva, sinistra, on the left hand\ media urbe, in the
middle of the city ; medio aedium, in the middle of the
house ; eodem statu (or in eodem statu).
Also with *se tenere,' 'continere:' 'Pompeius se oppido
tenet/ Pompeius keeps in the town, C. ^//. ix. 11. 2.

2) Poets are more free in the omission : * Silvisque ag risque

viisque corpora foeda iacent,' in forests and fields and
toads lie revolting corpses, Ov. Met, vii. 647. But this
licence needs discrimination.

3) When a work is quoted, in is used: in Iliade Homeri ; in

Andria Terentii ; in Gorgia Platonis.
But when the author only is cited, apud : apud Homenun;
apud Terentium ; apud Platonem.

4) If the Place is a town or small island, the question. Where f

is answered by a C^e in -ae« -i* Singular, -to Plural,
when the Noun is of Decl. I. or 11. : Romae, at Rome,
Cypri, cU Cyprus, Athenis, at Athens, Delphis, at Delphi;
but by a Case in -• or -I, Singular, -ibns. Plural, when the
Noun is of DecL III. : Babylone, at Babylon, Neapoli, at
Naples, Gadibus, ai Cadiz,

5) The Case of Place in -«•, -i is taken by the words militia,

bellum, humus, domus, rus:
Militiae, belli, at the wars, humi, on the ground, domi, at
home, run (or rure), in the country, Terrae, on the earth,
is used by poets ; ' Procubuit terrae,' Ov.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

402 Latin Syntax. § 156.

6) That the Case in -ae, -1 is not really a Genitive, was known

even to the ancient grammarians, who call it an Adverb.
But as it ends in f (Romai = Romae, militiai=niilitiae,
domi, run, &c.), comparing the older forms of Place in
DecL III., Anxuri, Carthagini, Lacedaemoni, Tiburi, we
cannot doubt the original existence of a Locative Case
ending in i Sing, s Plur., in Latin as in Sanskrit.

Compare Die septirai, Plaut; die crastini, GelL (so die
pristini, proximi) ; heri vesperi, C.

Some refer here the Case of the Part Affected : animi
p e n d e o ; maturus ae vi, &c. Some that of Price.

7) A Gentile Adjective is sometimes found with the name of a

town locatively constructed :
*Teani Apuli,' at Teanum of Apulia^ C. 'Curjbus Sabinis,'
L. Other epithets are used in poetry : * Doctas iam nunc
eat, inauit, Athenas,' let him forthwith go {says om) to
learned Athens, Ov. Her. iL 83.

8) Apposition to a town without Attribute is generally with in:

* In urbe Antiochia.'

But when an Attribute is added, the name of the town usually
precedes : 'Antiochiae, celebri quondam et copiosa urbe,'
at Antiochy a once populous ana wealthy city, C Arch. 3.
^Neapoli in celeberrimo oppido,' at Naples^ a very
populous town. So, 'Syracusas in urbem florentissi-
mam,* to Syraci4se, a very flourishing city, C.

9) Domi, domum, admit the epithets meus, tuus, suus,

alienus, also a Genitive of the Possessor:

^ Nonne mavis sine periculo domi tuae esse quam cum
periculo alienae V would you not rcUher be at your OTvn
house without peril than with peril at another's t C. Foftt.
iv. 7. * Clodius deprehensus est domi Caesaris,' Clodtus
was caught at Caesar's house, C. Att. i. 12. ' Alius alium
domos suas invitant,* they invite each other to their
houses, SalL lug. 66.

10) Prepositions are much used with names of towns :

In Epheso est ; in Ephesum abii ; < has Utteras a Brun-
disio dedi,' C. So ad, apud.

And with humus^ domus,'rus: *Alcibiades educatus est
in domo Perichs,' Alcibiades was brought up in the house
of Pericles, Nep. Ale. 2.

Usque is joined to names of places with or without Prepo-
sitions: *Ab Aethiopiaest usque haec,*J^ is as far as
from Ethiopia, Ter. *Usque Ennam profecti sunt,'
they went as far as Enna, C.

»Jfi H) The Ablativeof Direction of Motion has no Preposition:
'Ire Via Sacra,* to walk on the Sacred Rocui, Hot.; 'ingredi
urbem porta Esquilina,* to enter the city by the Esquiline gate. L.

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^v^pt ix^

8 '57-59- Ablative Case, 403

iv. (Ill) Ablative Proper. w

^ ' *^ Ablative

A) The Ablative of Place Whence, if a town or small island, ^^'^^p^-
or domus, rus, humus, militia, is used without Preposition:
Redire Roma, Athenis, Epheso, Delphis, Tibure, Gadibus, militia,

domo, nire, &c., to return from Rome, Athens, &c.
But Prepositions (ab, de, ex) may be employed.

i) The Ablative of Place Whence is used in dating letters :
' Litteras dederam Epheso pridie,* / wrote yesterday from
Ephesus, C. ^£go unas Capua litteras dedi,' / have
written once from Capua, C.

2) Native place is sometimes expressed by this Ablative :

Cn. Magius Cremona, Gnaeus Magius of Cremona, Caes.
B, C. i. 24 ; but more usually by an Adjective (Cremon-
ensis) ; sometimes by ab : * Tumus Herdonius ab Aricia,'
Ln i. 5a * Pastor ab Amphryso,' V. G. m. 2.

3) The name of the tribe is thus appended in inscriptions to

that of a Roman citizen :
*Ser. Sulpicius Q. F. Lemonia Rufus,' Servius Sulpicius
Rufus, son of Quint us, of the Lemonian tribe.

E) The Ablative of that From which Separation occurs 15B
depends on many Words either without or with a Preposition.

i) The usage of such Words must be carefully distinguished.
Some either omit or take the Preposition in Prose:
Arcere, cedere, exsulare, movere, pellere, prohibere, sol-
vere, smnmovere, removere : procul, alienus, &c.
Others prefer a Preposition (chiefly ab) in prose, but may

omit It in poetry :
Alienare, discedere, disiungere, dispellere, distare, divellere,
repellere, secemere, segregare, separare, &c. Horace
writes 'alium sapiente bonoque,' Epist, i. 16. 2a On
discrepo, differo, &c,, see § 135.

2) Verbs compounded with ab, de, ex, can take an AbL by

means of the Preposition :

' Detrudit navis scopulo,' Verg.
But most of them, in prose, repeat their Preposition or add

another :
Excedere ex urbe ; a Roma abesse ; ex equo desilire ; a loco

deicere.

3) Abstinere, to abstain, varies its construction thus:
Abstinere vino, &c., abstinere se vino, &c, abstinere a vino,

&c

4) Observe the legal phrases : Abdicare se magistratu, to resign

office, movere senatu, tribu, &c., to expel from the senate,
the tribe, &c (an act of the Censor) ; ' interdicere aqua et
igni,' to banish by excluding from fire and water.
Supersedere, to dispense with, generally takes an Ablative.

C) The Ablative of Origin is only a special instance of the rs9
Ablative of Separation.

DD2 Digitized by CjOOQIC

404 Latin Syntax, % i6a

i) It is joined to Verbs and Participles expressing ot implying

descent^ origination^ &c. Such are
Nasci, oriri, gign^, with their compounds: and the Parti-

ciplesy editus, creatus, cretus, genitus, natus, prognatus,

onundus, ortus, satus {porn^ sprung^ descended);
Nasci familia nobili; Claris maioribus ortus; {KUre genitus

Ulustri ; sate sanguine diviim, &c

2) The usage of these words must be noted :

Most admit Prepositions (ab, de, ex), and some prefer this

construction even in poetry :
'Prisco natus ab Inacho/ Hor. C iL 3. 21. Hlia cum

Lauso de N umitore sati,' Ov. F, iv. 54. * Edita de magno

flumine nympha fui/ Ov. Her, v. 10.

,60 D) The Ablative of the Thing Compared may be referred

to the idea of Origin (or, as some think, to that of Respect).

i) It is attached to Comparative Adjectives or Adverbs in place
of quam {fhatC) with the Nominative or Accusative.

'Nihil est amabilius virtute,' nothing is more amiable
than virttUy C. 'Lacrima nihil citius arescit,' no-
thing dries sooner than a tear^ C. Inv, i. 55.

•Puto mortem dedecore leviorem,' I think death easier
than disgrace,

2) In comparing the other Cases quam must be used :

* NuUi flebilior quam tibi, Veigili,' to none more a cause
of weeing than to thee, Vergilius^ Hor. C L 24. la
'Flagiti magis nos pudet quam erroris,' we are more
ashcMied of the crime than of the blunder, C.

And often for perspicuity : 'Segnius homines bona quam
mala sentiunt,' men feel goods less keenly than evUs, L. xxx.
21. 'Bruttun non minus amo quam t IK paene dixi quam
te,' / love Brutus not less than thoUy J had almost saidy
than thee, C. Att, v. 20. But poets do not always attend to
this: *Cur olivum sanguine viperino cautius vitat?'
Why does he shun oil more cautiously than viper's blood f
Hor. C i. 8. 9. 'Ego possideo plus Pallante et Lici-
nis,' Imv. i. 108.

3) If the Comparative itself is in the Genitive or Dative, quam

with a clause generally follows :

*Haec sunt verba Varronis doctioris quam fuit Claudius,'
these are the words of Varro, a more learned man than
Claudius wcu, GelL x. i.

4) The Ablatives aequo, iusto, dicto, solito, spe, opinionc^

necessario, follow Comparatives:

'Flagrantior aequo non debet dolor esse viri,' aman^s
grief ought not to be more violent than is ri^, luv. xiii.
II. 'Caesar opinione omnium celerius ventunis est,'
Caesar will arrive sooner than is generally expected, C.
Fam, xiv. 23,

Digitized by VjOOQIC

§ i6i. Ablative Case. 405

This Ablative elegantly falls out :

* IJberius vivebat (i.e. iusto),' he lived too freely y Nep. T% 2.

* So, ' Res graviores ' (Le. solito), matters of unusual im^
portance.
On quam after Comparatives, see § 76.

5) Inferior takes Ablative, and, in the Silver age, Dative:
Sapientia omnia inferiora virtute AMcitf* wisdom deems

all things inferior to virtue, C. 71 D, iv. 26. * Padus est
nuUi amnium claritate inferi or,' the Pois inferior to no
river in clearness, PI. N. //". iiL 16.

6) The Prepositions ante, praeter, supra, prae, are used in

Comparison :

* Pygmalion scelere ante alios immanior omnis,' i^^-

malion more monstrous in wickedness than (lit before) all
others, Verg. Aen, i. 347. 'Crux praeter ceteras
altior,' a cross higher than (lit beyond) the rest. Suet
Galb,^
Obs, On several Ablatives with one Verb, see M. Lucr. L 183.

Madvig cites C. Brut, 91 : * Menippus meo iudicio tota Asia

iUis temporibus disertissimus erat'

Xtfl

V. Ablative Absolute. AWativ*

Abso*

1) The construction called Ablative Absolute (Ablativus *"**
Convenientiae) occurs when the Ablative of a Substantive or Pro-
noun takes for its adjunct another Ablative, which is either a Parti-
ciple or an Adjective or a Substantive or (rarely) a Pronoun. Such

an expression is equivalent to a Clause, often of Time :

Imperante Augusto, when Augustus was emperor \ Caesare
occiso, when Caesar had been slain ; vivo patre, while my
father is {was) alive ; Camillo duce, when Camillus is {was)
commander ; Caninio consule, in the consulship of Cani"
nius ; hac iuventute, when our young men are of this
character.
But the clause may express a condition, a concession, a cause,
&c, according to the context Thus te invito may mean,
in various places, if you are unwilling; though you are
unwilling; since you are unwilling ; without your consent.

2) The Absolute Participle is often equivalent to the Gerund or
Ablative of Manner :

*Tarquinius Tumum oblato falso crimine oppressit,' Tcuy
guinius clashed Turnus by imputing a false charge, L. i.
51. * Aruns Tarquinius et Tullia minor iunguntur nuptiis,
magis non prohibente Servio quam approbante,'
Aruns Tarquinius and Tullia the younger marry rather
without the opposition than with the approbation of Ser^
vius, L. L 56.

3) An Impersonal Participle is sometimes absolute:

Mihi, errato, nulla venia; recte facto, exigua laus proponi-
tur,' to me, if /blunder, no indulgence; if I succeed, small
credit is offered, Q d, L, Agr, ii. 2. Errato = si erratum
erit a me ; recte facto a si recte factum erit a me.

uized by Google

4o6 Latin Syntax. ! i6i.

Sometimes a Clause is absolute with a Participle:
'Except© quod non simul esses, cetera laetus, ctutrfiil
in all respects, save that you are not with me, Hor. ir^ptst.
L 10. 50.

See § 237-240.

I ilnstr Ahl) A) iCausal.) • LoUius, aetatcct morbo impcditus. ad tcsdmonium
dicindum ^irc non potuit.' C Verr. iiL 25. * Noli putare, pigrilia me facerc quad
non mea manu scribam/ C. AH, xvL 15. ' Consul dictalorem conuuorum causa T.
ManUum Toiquatum ex auctoritate senatus dixit,' L. tu. 96. * Has tunilias booc«i«t»
ampUtudinisquc gratia nomino/ C p, S. Rose. 6. * Demosthen« corona aima
donatus est virtutis ergo/ C. O. G. Or. 7. * Senatus supplicauones coosuhim
nomine decreet/ L. iil 63. * Vcstra magis hoc causa voletom q«am mea, U
d.Or.\. zs- * Ad eum ipsius rogatu accersituque rcneram, C Laei. 4.

B) O {InstTi Agent.) * Cornibus tauri, apri dentibus, morsu leono se tutantur/
C. N. D.n. so- * Etesiarum flatu nimii tcmpcrantur calores,' C N. D. iL 53. * lUud
tibiaiateno, fore ut ab»as a multis, cum redieris ab omnibus colIaudCTe," C J^-^awt
1.7. 'Nisi iam factum est aliquid per Flaccum, fiet a me, C. Fam. m. xi.
* Ingenium pladdamollimur ab arte,'Ov. A. A. iil 545.

Z>) (Price.) 'Plinius commcntarios suos vendere poterat quadringentis mil-
ibus nummum,' Plin. Ep. iii. 5- ' Darcus mille talentis percussorem Alexandri
emere voluit,* Curt. iv. 1. 'Aurca nunc vcre sunt saecula ; plurimus auro Tcnit
hooos,* Prop. iiL la. * Mercatur tris libros nihilo minore pretio quam quod erat
petitum pro omnibus.' GelL L 19. * Seius in caritate annonae asse modimn populo
dedit,' C. Of. iL 58. * Vix drachmis opsonatum est decern,' Ter. Atu n.€.
' Scxtante sal ct Romae et per totam Italiam erat,' L. xxix. 37. * Cum cssct fini-
mentum sestertiis binis aut trinis, quibusvis locts provindae duodenos se&tertio«
exegisti,' C yerr. il 3. 84. 'Aristidis, Thebani pictoris, unam ubulam centum
talentis rex Attalus licitatus est,' PL N. H. viL 37. ' Multo sanguine ac vulne-
ribus ea Poenis victoria stetit,* L. xxiiL 3a * Denis in diem assibus anima et corpu*
aestimantur,'Tac An. I 17. * Notavit aliquos, quod pecunias levioribus «»»»»'»»
mutuatas graviori fenore coUocassent,' Suet. Aug. 33. 'Triginta milibu»
Coelius habitat,' C p. Coel. 7. * Parvo fiunes constat, magno fastidium.' Sen- Ep.
17. * El mandasti negotium, cui expediret, illud venire quam plurimo/ C Fam.
viL a. * Ambulatiimctila dimidio pluris constabit,' C Att. xiil 39. ' Ego quaenv
cur civil optimi bona tantulo venierint,' C p. S. R. 45. * Quanti emi potest?
Minimo,'Plaut. * Istuc verbum vile est viginti minis,' Phut. Mast. L 3. i39-
•Clodii insula venalis est decem milibus,' C p. CoeL 7. * Quod non opus ca
asse carum est,' Sen. Ep. 94. ' Nefas duco victrice patria victam mutare,
L. V. 3a 'Tellus Chaoniam pingui glandem mutavit arista,' Verg. G. L iS.
•Tauro mutatus membra rebello/ Ov. M. ix. 81. * Fortima praesens superbo»
Yertere funeribus triumphos,* Hor. Od. L 35. 4.

E) (Matter.) 'Germani Mercurium colunt, cui certis diebus hum an is quoqoehosv
tiis litare fas habent,' Tac G. 9. ' Romulum lacte, non vino libasse, indido sont
sacra ab eo instituta,' PL N. H. xiv. X3. 'Hoc etiam ouuore es malo mactandu^
quod non solum facto tuo, sed etiam exemplo rempublicam vulnerasti,' C c. Vatm. 15.
'Admiratione afllciuntur ii, qui anteire ceteros virtute putantur,' C Off.n. iol
* Caesar Germanos, qui trans Rhenum incolunt, primus Romanorum nuudmu affecit
cladibus,' Suet. Ceut. as. ' Summa difficultate rei fhunentariae afficiebatur
Caesaris exercitus, tenuitate Boiorum, indiligentia Aeduorum, incendiis aedifictorom.
Cats. B. G. viL 17. 'Virgo inficitur teneras toU rubore genas,* TibuU. iiL 4. 31.
' Natura oculos tenuissimis membranis vestivit et saepsit,' Q. N. D. iL S7-
' Hippias gloriatus est pallium, quo amictus, soccos quibus indutus esset, se ataaB
sua confedsse,' C d. Or. iiL 3a. ' Bonis artibus aetas puerilis ad humanitatem io-
formari solet,* C p. Arch. 3. 'Caesar Corfinium oppidum vallo castellisqoe
circumvenire kistituit,' Caes. B. G. L 18. ' Indignum est in ea dvitate, quae legi-
bus tenetur, discedi a legibus,' C. p. Cin. 53. * Quid de Tulliola mea fietf * C
J^am. xtv. 4. 'Quid fecisti scipioneT' Plaut Cos. v. 4. 18. ' Quaero, si, qui
velint vendere, non iiierint, quid pecunia fiet?* C d. L. Agr. n. vj. 'Delicto
dolere, correctione gaudere oportet,' C. La^l. 34. ' Ut adulescentibns bona
indole praeditis sapientes senes delectantur. sic adulescentes senum praeceptis
gaudent, quibus ad virtutum studia ducuntur,* C Cat. M. 8. ' Duobus vitiis, av»-

uiyiuzeu uy x^j^^^^^ -x i-V^

1 162-63. Genitive Case. 407

F. The Genitive Case,

i The Genitive in Latin ha3 for its main function Ccni-
to define or qualify a Noun on which it depends : SL.

Pater pueri, tlu father of the boy\ amor virtutis,
love of virtiu ; pars m i 1 i t u m, part of t/ie troops.

ii The uses of the Genitive maybe considered *^
as twofold :

A) Subjective, when a predication is implied of which the
Genitive word is Subject : hominum timor, tnen^s fear (homines
timent aliquid).

rida et luxuria, Romana dvitas laborabat/ L. xxziv. 4. ' Nemo potest aut corporis
firmitateaut fortunae stabilitate confidere,' C T. D. v. 5. 14. ' Meis consiliis,
monitis, studiis, auctionibus nituntur,' C. Fam. v. 8. * Parvo est natura
contenta/ C /m. il a8. 'Varus est homo summa reltgione et summa auctori-
tate praeditus,' C p. Clu, 19. *Non segetibus solum ct pratis ct vineis et
arbustis res rusticae laetae sunt, sed etiam hortis et pomariis; turn pecudum
pastu, apium examinibus, florum omnium varietate/ C. Cat. M. 15. ' Cimon
Thasios, opulentia fretos, suo adventu fregit/ Nep. Cinu 2. ' I, decus Ausoniae,
quo &s est ire superbas virtute et factis animas,' Sil. x. 573. ' Exclusus ab
Antiochia Doiabella, nulla alia confisu^ urbe, Laodiceam se contulit/ C. Fam, xii.
15. * Curionis patrio ftiit institute puro sermoae assuefacta domus,' C. Brut. 59.
'Excellentium dvium virtus imitatione, non invidia, digna est/ C Phil. xiv. 6.
' Quam multi indigni luce sunt, et tamen dies oritur/ Sen. Ben. L i. ' Descendam
magnorum baud umquam indignus avorum/ Verg. Aen. xii. 649. * Haud equidem
taH me dignor honore/ Verg. Aen. L 535. * Hi apud maiores nostros tali honore
dignati sunt/C Inv. ii. 39. 'Nihil opus est simulatione et failaciis/C d.
Or. iL 47. 'Auctoritate tua nobis opus est et consilio et etiam gratia,' C
Fetm, ix. 35. 'Viginti iam usus est Alio argenti minis,' Pkiut. Asin. I x. 'An
cuiquam est homini usus se ut cruciet,' Ter. Hant. i. i. ' Ubi summus imperator
non adest, dtius quod non facto est usus fit quam quod facto est opus,' Plaut
Am. L 3. ' Si quid, quod opus fuerit, Appio fades, ponito me in gratia,' C. Fam.
YiiL 6. 'Verres multa sibi opus esse aiebat, multa canibus suis, quos drca se
haberet,* C Verr. L 48. ' Magna Helotarum multitudo agros Lacedaemoniorum colit,
servorumque munere fungitur/ Nep. Pans. 3. ' Crassus, cum cognomine dives
turn copiis, functus est aedilicio maximo munere/ C. Off. iL x6. 'Hannibal
Sosilo Lacedaemonio litterarum Graecarum usus est doctore,* N. xxuL 13. 'Cum
Phalerico portu neque magno neque bono Athenienses uterentur, Themistoclis
consilio trii^kx Piiaed portus constitutus est,' Nep. Them. 6. ' Id est cuiusque pro-
prium, quo quisque fruitur atque utitur,' C. Fam. vii. 3a 'Orgetorix Helvetiis
penuasit, periacile esse, cum virtute omnibus praestarent, totius Galliae imperio
potiri,' Caes. B. G. L 3. ' Numidae plerumque lacte et ferina carne vesce»
bantur/ SaL Ing. 89. ' Ad agrum fruendum etiam inviut senectus,' C Cat. M. x6.

* Openun abutitur,' Ter. An. Prol. 5.

'Deos bonis omnibus explevit mundum,' C Univ. 3. ' Crotoniatae quondam
temphim luncmis egregiis picturis locupletare voluerunt/ C Inv. ii. x. 'Satiate
sanguine quern sitiisti,' lust. L 8. ' Te autem quibus mendaciis homines levissimi
onerarunt,' C Fam. iii. xa ' Abundarunt semper auro regna Aaae/ L. xxxr. 46.

* Metallis phnnbi, ferri, aeris, argenti, auri tou ferme Hispania scatet,' PL N. H.
iii 3. ' Democritus dicitur oculis se privasse,' C Fin. v. 39. ' Gravius est spo-
liari fortunis quam ncm augeri dignitate/ C. /. Plane. 33. ' Mtmis defenso-
ribns nudatus est,* Caes. B. G. vl. t. ' Non ante abscesimm est quam castris
ezueront hostem,' L. xxix. a. * Omnium rerum natura cognita, levamur supersti-
ttone, liberamur mortis metu,' C. Fin. L X9. ' Cotidie nos ipsa natura admonet,
quam pauds, quam parvis rebus egeat, quam vilibus,' C. T. D. v. 35. ' Carere hoc
signtficat, egere eo quod habere velis. Regno carebat Tarquiniu^ cum regno
esMt expulsus,' C. T. ^. L 36. ' Animi, quo maior est in eis praestantia, eo maiore
indiffent dilige&tia,' C T. D. iv. 37. ' Virtus phirimae exercitationis indiget,'

uiyiuzeu uy x^j^^^ v^ p* i_n^

4o8 Latin Syntax. j 163.

B) Objective; when a predication is implied ot which the
Genitive word is Object : timor hominum, fear of nun (aliquis
timet homines).

d) One word may ha^e both Genitives dependent on it :

Hominum timor mortis, nun^s fear of death ; Ciceronis
defensio Gabinii, Cicero's defence ofGMmus,

Among words capable of taking this double Genitive are :
Amor, desiderium, iniuria, miseratio, obsequium, odium, stu-
dium, &c

b) One Genitive may depend on another :

Africani sororis filius, Africanus^s sister^s son,

C Fm. iiL 25. 'Gravitas morbi fisunt ut medicinae egeamus,' C Fam. ix. 3.
'Plinius plenus annis, plenus honoribus obiit/ Plin. JS>. il x. 'Habes epU-
tulam plenam festinationis et pulveris,' C Att v. 14. 'Amor et melle
«t felle est fecundissimus,' Plaut. Cist. x. x. 'Divei agris, dives posids in
fenore nummis,' Hor. m Pis^ 4a. ' Sum dives pecoris, nivei sum lactis abun-
dans,' Veig. ^. iL ao. ' Consules praeda ing»nti compotem exerdtum redocmit,*
L. iii. 7a 'Numquam animus cogitatione et motu vacuus esse potest,' C Dw,
iL X28. ' Mamertini soli vacui, expertes, soluti ac liberi fueront ab omnt
sumptu, molestia, munere/ C Vtrr. u. 4. xa * Plerique patria, aed comes
fama atque fortunis expertes sumus/ Sail Cat. 33. ' Caesari tradita uxbs est
nuda praesidio, referta copiis,'C Att. viL 13. 'Dedus, Macti virtnte, !»->
quit, n^tes Romani, este,' L. viL 36. ' Nunc cassum lumine lugent/ V. Atm, iL 85.

II. {Locative AM.) A) {Respect.) 'Agealaus nomine non potestate fuit rex,*
Nep. Ag, X. ' Cn. Pompeius fuit forma excellens, innocentia eximius, sancti-
tate praecipuus, eloquentia medius,' Veil, ii. 39. ' Uri sunt magnitudine paulo
in£ra elephantos, specie et colore et figura tauri/ Caes. B. C vt 28. * Q. Maxi-
mum Cato adulescens colere coeptt non admodum grandem natu, sed tamen iam aetate
provectum,' C Cat. M. 4. ' Persae mille numero navium classem ad Delum app«H
lerunt,' C. Verr. i. x8. ' Cum illius temporis mihi venit in mentem, quo die mihi dicen-
dum sit, non solum commoveor animo, sed etiam toto corpore perfaorresoo,' C m
CaeciL 13. ' Medius PoIIuce et Castore ponar,' Ov. Am. uL x6. 13. ' Vexres
pretio, n<m aequitate iura describebat/ C Verr, v. xx.

S) {Measure.) * Messalla consul est egr^us ; iUe alter uno vitio minus vitiocaSv*
C Att. i. X4. ' Aesculapi templum quinque milibus passuum ab Ei»dauro distal'
L. XXV. aS. ' Belgae ad castra Caesaris omnibus copiis contenderunt, et ab miUbns
passuum minus duobus castra posuerunt,' Caes. B. G. ii. 7. ' Surcnlos df«!*t<tit'>
itaut sex digitis de arbore exstent,' Columella, xxvL 4. ' Numa PompiUus annfls
permultis ante fuit quam Pjrthagoras,' C. d. Or. iL 37. 'Tribunus anno post fidt
Crassus,' C. Br. 6a 'Tanto Pompeius superiores duces vicerat gloria quanto
Caesar omnibus praestitit,' C. p. Deiot. 4. * Meo iudido multo stare malo qoaxn
omnium reliquorum,' C. Att. xiL a. ' Hibemia dimidio minor est quam Britannia,'
Caes. B. G.s. ly. ' N imio plus quam velim nostrorum ingenia sunt mobilia,* L. fi. 37.
'Quinquiens tanto amplius Verres quam quantum in cellam sumere Uatnm erai
dvitatibus imperavit,' C Verr. iiL 97. ' Aldbiades fuit omnitmi aetatis suae multo
formosissimus,' Nep. AU. x.

O {Manner.) ' Iniuria fit duobus modis, aut vi aut fraude,' C Off. L 13.
' Pace advenio, et pacem ad vos affero/ Plaut Am. ProL 3a. ' Quod exemplo fit,
id etiam iure fieri putant/ C Fatn. iv. 3. ' Aiminius equo conlustrans macta, vt
quosque advectus erat, redperatam libertatem ostentabat,' Tac yfio*. iL 45. *Gaffi
urbem cum clamore et impetu invadunt ; patends passim domos adetmt,' FL L 13.
' Cur Pythagoras tantas regiones barbarorum pedibus oUit ? ' Qc. Fin. v. 99^ * Qoaa-
topere movemur, cum pie, cum amice, cum magno animo aUquid factum cognos
dmus,' C. Fin, v. aa. ' Cultus deorum est optimus, ut eos semper pura integra
incorrupta et mente et voce veneremur,' C. N» D. iL a8. ' Parthi Euphratcai
transierunt cunctis fere copiis,' C. Att. r. x8. ' Sdpio profectus in SidfiaB cat
triginta navibus longis/ L. xxviii. 46. ' Mihi litterae redditae sunt, Facorumcam
permagno equitatu Parthico transisse Euphraten,* C Fam, xv. x. 'Magna

uiyiuzeu uy x_j^^^\^ -x i-X^

5164-

Genitive Case.

409

iii A) Subjective Genitive (Possessive; De-
scriptive ; Partitive).

I. Genitivus Auctoris et Possessoris.
11. Genitivus Descriptionis.

III. Genitivus Qualitatis.

IV. Genitivus Rei Distributae et Demensae; witii oUier

Partitive Constructions.

Note I. As Latin has an Ablative, its Genitive is more restricted
than the Greek ; but poets imitate the freedom of the Greek Gen.
In some instances the Abl. and Gen. concur (as in constructions
of Quality, Price, Matter); and Prepositional phrases are substituted

rf4
Snbfec-
tiveGe-

cam cura atque diliffentia scripsit/ C Inv. L 39^ ' Erit turn consul Hortensius
cam sammo imperio et potestate/ C. Verr. i. 13. ' In summo apud Graecos
honore geometria fuit/ C 71 /?. L 2. ' Plancus in cam urbem rediit armis, e qua
excesserat Iegibus,'C PhiL xiii. zx.

D) {.Condition,) O^ixmo iure sunt ea praedia, quae optima condicione sunt/
KL d. L. Agr. iiL 3. 'Auspida nunc a Romanis augunbus ignorantur ; bona hoc
tua venia dixerim; a Cilidbus tenentur/ C J^rv. L 15. ' Isocratis gloriam nemo,
meo quidem iudicio, est postea consecutus/ C. Br. 8. ' Meo iure te hoc beneficium
rogo: nihil enim non tua causa feci,' C. Att. xiv, 13. * lam mater nire rediit?
Req)onde mihL — Sua quidem salute ac femiliae maxuma/ PlauL Merc. iv. 5. 9.

E) {Quality.) * Fuit quidam summo ingenio vir, Zeno, cuius inventorum aemuH
Stoid nominantur/ C /. Afur. 99. ' Iphicrates fuit et animo magno et corpore,
imperatoriaque forma,' Nep. Ip/L 3. ' Erat apud Heium sacrarium, in quo signa
pukherrima quattuor, summo artificio, summa nobilitate/ C. l^err. iv. 2.
' Magno timore sum ; sed bene speramus/ C Att. v. 14.

JO (Time.) ' Nemo mortalium omnibus horis sapit/ PI. A''. If. vii. 4a * Excur-
tcmus mense Septembri, ut lanuario rcvertamur,' C Att. i. x. * Hannibal, im.
pcrator factus, proximo triennio omnis gentes Hispaniae subegit/ Nep. Han. 3.
' Abeunt hirundines hibernis mensibus/ PL //. N. 24. 'Septimo ferme anno
Caesar morabatur in Galliis, cum lulia, uxor Pompeii Magni, decesat/ VelL ii. 47.
' Erat consuetudo, ut quem ordinem interrogandi sententias consul Kalendis
lanaariis instituisset, eum toto anno conservaret. Suet. Caet. ax. 'Claudius
neminem ultra mensem, quo obiit, consulem designavit/ Suet. Claud. 46. ' Brutus
consul coUegam sibi comitiis centuriatis creavit P. Valerium/ L. ii. 3. ' Urbes
Africae post M. Atilium Regulum annis prope quinquaginta nullum Romanum
exerdttun viderant,' L. xxix. aS. ' Nuntius hic decem horis nocturnis sex et quin-
quaginta milia passuum dsiis pervolavit/ Q. p. S. Rose. 7. ' Ecce autem repente, his
diebus paucis, eadem ilia Vetera consilia pecunia maiore repetuntur/ C Verr. L 6.
'Epistulamde nocte daturus eram, sicut dedi; nam eam vesperi scripseram/ C
Att. viiL 6. ' Lysander Atheniensis in Peloponnesios sexto et vicesimo anno
bellom gerentis confedt,' N. Lys. x. ' Caesar compluris equitum turmas eo de media
nocte misit,' Caes. B. G. vii 45. * Fac ut naviges de mense Decembri {before the
end o/X C. Qn. Fr. iL x. * De tertia vigilia castra movit,' Caes. B. (7.163.
* Artes in omni aetate cultae mirificos efferunt fructus,' C Cat. M. 3. ' Nummos
tibi reponam in hoc triduo/ Plaut. Pen. L x. 33. ' Fere in diebus paucis quibus
haec acta sunt Chrysis vidna haec moritur/ Ter. An. 1. x. ' Ego si semper haberem cui
dai«m litteras, vel ternas in hora darem/ C Fam. xv. x6w ' Testamenttmi Augnsd
ante annum et quattuor mensis quam decesserat factum est/ Suet. Aug. xox.
' livius docuit anno ipso ante quam natus est Ennius/ C Brut. x8. ' Aristides
decessitfere post annum quartum quam Themistocles Athenis erat expulsus/ N.
Ar. 3. 'Aristides sexto fere anno postquam erat expulsus, in patriam restitutus
est,' N. Ar. x. 'Undecimo die postquam a te discesseram, hoc litterulanim
exaravi,' C Att. xlL x. 'Dictator die octavo quam creatus erat, magistratu ce
abdicavit,' L. iv. 47. 'Anno trecentesimo altero quam condita Roma erat,
iterum mutatur forma dvitatis,' L. til 33. 'Andricus postridie ad me venit quam
exspectaram,' C Fam. xvi X4. ' Collegam triduo cum has dabam litteras exspecu-

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^v^ pt i_v

4IO Latin Syntax, % 164.

for the Gen. : thus, una de multis, una e multis, una multa-
rum, are equivalent

Hence in French ^de* is used as a Gen. and Abl. Preposiuon;
in Italian, ^di* is the Gen., ^ da* the AbL Preposition.

Note 2. This Genitive is in the nature of an Attribute. Thus it
is the same thing to say, 'SuUanus exercitus' or 'Sullae ex-
ere it us,' 'fiamen Martialis' or 'fiamen Martis.'

(Even for the Objective Gen. Adjectives are used : * Timor ex-
temus' for 'timor exterorum.' And Possessive Pronouns: *Tua
fiducia,' in reliance on yoUy C. Verr. v. 58. * Habenda ratio non
sua solum, sed etiam alio rum,' a man should take account not of
himself alone but also of others, C. Off. i. 39.)

* Native of a place ' is usually expressed by an Adjective derived
from the place: as, 'Dionysius Halicamasseus,' for Dionysius
Halicamassi natus, Dionysius of Halicarnassus,

bam,' C Fam, x. 33. ' Ipse, ut spero, octo diebus qui bus has litteras dabam,
cum Lepidi copiis me coniungam,' C Fam. x. 18.

C) {Place Where.) ' Conon plurimum Cypri vixit, Iphicrates in Thracia, Timo-
theus Lesbi, Chares in Sigeo/ Nep. Chah. L 3. ' Castra Gallonim opportunis
locis erant posita,' Caes. .ff. CP. viL 69. 'Hi vagantur laeti atque erecti passim toto
foro,' C /. FcuL II. ' Ab Anco Mardo career ad terrorem increscends i"^*yr^
media urbe imminens foro aedificatur/ L. L 33. ' Ut Romae consules, sk Kartha-
gine quocannis annui bini reges creabantur/ Nep. Hann. 7. ' Per eosdem dies qui bus
haec illi consultabant, consilium de iis Carthagini erat,' L. xxviiL 26. ' Dionjrsius,
cum (anum Proserpinae Locris expilavisset, navigabat Sjrracusas,* C M X>. iiL 34.
' Fuit Arganthonius quidam Gadibus qui octoginta regnavit annos,' C Cat, M. 691
' Scipio, L. Marcio Tarracone, M. Silano Karthagine Nova ad praesidinm His>
paniae relictis, in Africam traiecit,' L. xxviiL 17. ' Neapoli in celeberrimo oppido
etiam senatores cum mitella saepe vidimus/ C >. Rob. la ' A Roraanis nihil belli
domique nisi auspicato gerebatur,' L. i 36. ' Maniius Titum filium ruri habttare
iussit/ L. viL 5. * Maniius rure iuventam egit/ PI. N, H. viiL 46. ' Nihil domi,
nihil militiae per magistratus geritur sine augurum auctoritate/ C Leg. vL is.
' Cadmus spargit humi iussos, mortalia semina, dentis* O. Met, iiL 105. 'Antonius
intimus erat Qodio, cuius etiam domi quiddam molitus est,' C PkiL iL 19.

JT) {Place by Which.) Demon&trabo iter; Aurelia via profectus est,' C Cat. iL 4.
' Ciu: non sancitis, ne vicinus patricio sit plebeius nee eodem it in ere eat, ne idem ooo-
vivium ineat, ne in foro eodem consiatatT' L. iv. 4. ' lam consul via Lavicana ad
fiuum Quietiserat,' L. iv. 41. 'LupusEsquilinaportaingressuscuminfioram decu-
currisset, Tusco vico atque inde Germalo per portam Cxpcoaati prope inwi<tuii evasit,'
L. xxxiiL a6. 'Legiones vicirices Penninis Cottianisque Alpibus, pan monte
Oraio, traducuntur/ Tac. //. iv. 68.

III. {Abl. Proper.) A) {Place Whence.) 'Roma accepenun litteras, Mikmeni
queri per litteras iniuriam meam,' C Att. v. 8. 'Auximo Caesar progressus omnem
agrum Picenum percurrit,' Caes. B. G. x. i$. ' Maiores nostri Capua magistiatus,
senatum, omnia denique insignia rei publicae sustulerunt, neque aliud quicquam ntsi
tnane nomen Capuae reliquerunt,' C. d. L. Agr. i. 6. ' Dionysius Platonem Atheois
arcessivit,' N. DL 3. ' Caesaris milites cogebantur Corcyra atque Acarnania
pabulum supportare/ Caes. i?. C in. 58. ' Princeps Academiae Philo cum Atheniensium
optimatibus Mithridatico bello domo profugit, Romamque venit,' C Brmt. 89.
'Video rure redeuntem senem,' Ter. En$t. v. 5. 'Vix oculos auollit hamo,' Ov.
Met. iiL 448.

E^ {Separatieu.) ' Censores omnl5, quos senatu moverunt quibusqoe cqnoa
ademerunt, aerarios fecerunt et tribu moverunt,' L. xliL la ' Hostis Antonius
iudicatus Italia cesserat,' N. Att. 9. ' Apud Germanos quemcunque mortaltum
arcere tecto nefas habetur,' Tac G. ai. ' Adolescentia a libidinibus arcenda
est,' C. OjS L 34. * Avocat a rebus gerendis senectus,' C Cat. M. $. ' Di, talem
terris avertite pestem,' Verg. Aen. iii. 6aa ' Nisi is Antonium ab urbe aver-
tisset, perissent omnia,' C a/l. Br. 3. 'Romano bello Fortuna Alexandrum
abstinuit,' Liv. viii. 34. 'Tiberius et Augustus publico abstinuere, infcrios

Digitized byCjOOQlC

sessons.

S 165. Genitive Case, 41 1

165
I. i) The Possessive Genitive expresses that which stands Gcne-
in the relation of Author, Origin, or Proprietor to the Noun aJJ^ohs
on which it depends : et Po».

Oratio Ciceronis, leges civitatis, fortitudo militum, rex Ponti,
domus Periclis, &c. It may be rendered in English by
the Possessive Case in 'j, or by the Preposition of:
Philippi filius, Philip's son, or son of Philip,

2) The Dativus Commodi is often substituted for it :

*In Palatio prima urbi fundamenta ieci/ I laid the first

foundations of {for) my city on the Palatine hilly L. L 12.

*Natura tu illi pater es, consiliis ^o, you are his sire by

nature^ I by counsels^ Ten Ad, i. 2. 46.
So advocatus, praefectus, legatus (properly Participles)

sometimes govern Gen., sometimes Dat. Likewise affinis,

maiestate sua rati/ Tac. Ann. iii. 3. ' Quale benefidum est, quod te abstinueris a
nefario scelere?' C Phil. u. 3. ' Alexander, cum interemisset Clitum, vix a se manus
abstinuit; tanta vis fuit poenitendi/ C. T. D. iv. 37. 'Abhorrent moribus
nostrisy' Curt. vii. 8. ' Nostra aetas abhorret a castris, praesertim dvilibus,' C
Ati. xiv. 19. ' Virtus numquam ulla vi labeiactari potest, numquam demoveri loco/
C Phil. iv. 5. ' Miserum est exturbari fortunis omnibus,* C. /. QutMci. 3s.
'Augur potest deceniere ut magistraiu se abdicent consules,' C. Ltf. n. xa.
' Hominis nacura a reliquis animantibus differt,' C. OJf. x. 27. 'Quindedm
milibus passuum Arabicus sinus d is tat ab Aegyptio mari,' PI. H. N. ii. 68. ' Exculta
hominum vita distat a cultu et victu bestiarum,' C. OJfi n. 4. 'Temeritasa
sapientia dissidet plurimum,' C Off* iL 9. *Alienum est magno viro, quod
sdteri praeceperit, id ipsum (acere non posse,' C. ad. Br. 9.

O {Origin.) * Nati sunt Carthagine, sed oriundi a Syractisis,' L. xxiv. 6. ' Ex
me is natus est,' Ter. Haut. v. 4. ' Aparentibus, id quod necesse eral, parvus
sum creatus: a vobis natus sum consularis,' C past Red. 2. 'Eprincipio
oriuntur omnia: ipsum autem nulla ex re alia nasci potest,' C T. Z>. L 23.
' Qualis ille tibi videtur Tantalo prognatus Pelope natus?' C T. D. iii. X2.
' Quidam parentibus nati sunt hiuniUbus,' C LtuL 19. ' Me equestti ortum
loco consulem videtis,' C Rep. ii. 7.

D) {Thing Compared.) * Deus maior est ac potentior cunctis,' Sen. Ep. 58.
'Lux sonitu velocior est,' PI. //. N. ii. 54. 'Vilius argentum est auro, virtu-
tibus aurum,' Hor. Epist. i. z. 52. 'Quid est melius aut quid praestantius
bonitate et beneficentia?' C. N. D. 12. 'Demosthene nee gravior exstitit
quisquam nee callidior nee temperatior,' C. d: Or. 48. ' Recte auguraris de me»
nihil a me abesse longius crudelitate,' C Alt. ix. 16. ' Herodotum cur vera-
ciorem ducam EnnioT' C Div. ii. 56. ' Neminem Lycurgo aut maiorem aut
utiliorem vinmi Lacedaemon genuit/ VaL Max. v. 23. ' Res aliquanto expecta-
tione omnium tranquillior fiiit,' L. iv. 24. 'Voluptas cum maior est atque
longior, omne animi lumen exstinguit,' C Cat. M. xa. 'Felix ante alias virgo,'
Verg. Ae. iii 321. ' Prae nobis beatus vidcris,' Sulp. ap. C. Fam. iv. 4. ' Minor
quam pro tumultu caedes,' Tac. H. v. 15. * Thais quam ego maiuscula est,' Ter.
Eun. iiL 3. 21.

E) {Ablative Abs.) ' Crastino die oriente sole redite in pugnam,' L. iii 3. ' Soloa
et Pisistratus Servio TuUio regnante viguerunt,' C Br. xo. ' Caesare venturo,
Pho^hore, redde diem,' Mart. viii. 21. * Caesar inita hieme in lUyricum profectus
est,' Caes. B. G. iii. 7. ' Romani, Hannibale vivo, numquam se sine insidiis futures
existimabant,' Nep. Mann, xx 'Caninio consule sdto neminem prandisse ; nihil
tamen eo consule mali factum est,' C. Fam. vii. 30. ' Nil desperandum est Teucro
duce et auspice Teucro,' Hor. C. x. 7. 97. ' Plebs Romana, Sicinio quodam
auctore, in Sacrum montem secessit,' L. iL 3X ' Romana respublica, Cannensi
calamitate accepta, maiore& animos habuit, quam umquam rebus secundiSy'C
Off. iiL XX. ' Germani pellibus utuntur, magna corporis parte nuda,' Caes. B. G.
vi. 2z. ' Alia causa est eius, qui calamitate premitur, et eius, qui res meliores quaerit
nuUis suis rebus adversis,' C. Off. ii. t8. ' Proxime, recenti adventu meo,
rem aliter institutam oflfendi ac mihi placuisset, si afiuissem,' C. Fam. v. X7. j

uiyiuzeu uy x^j ^^^ wVJ Iv

412 Latin Syntax. \i^S*

amicus, comes, censors, familiaris, hostis, inimicus, jmu-,
vicinus, &c, aequalis, communis, proprius, sacer, sixnilis,
dissimilis, &c.

3) This Genitive may depend on Neuter Adjectives and Pro-

nouns used Substantively :
Amicorum onmia, C; aliorum non me digna, C; prae-
clarum hoc Thrasybuli quod, &c, N. Xerxi maxime
est illustre quod, &c., the most famous feat of Xerxes is
that, &c., N.

4) The Noun is in some instances omitted :

* Huius video Burriam,' / see this mof^s {slave) Burria^ Ter.

An, iil 2. See p. 275. 2).

Cicero has an ellipse of fundus, estate :

'Tu nequeper Locustae nequeper Varronisviamducere
voluisti,' you would not cany a road through either
Locustks or Varr<^s property, Qu, F. iii. i.

5) Another Ellipse of the governing Noun before the Gen. is,

when that Noun occurs in a previous part of the sentence^
whether in the same or in a different case :

* Meo iudicio stare malo, quam omnium reliquorum,' /

would rather abide by my own judgment than by thai of all
beside, C. Att, xii. 21. * Quis est qui possit conferre vitam
Trebonii ctmi Dolabellae ?' who can compare the life oj
Trebonius with that of Dolabella f C. Phil, xL 4.

This takes place when two kinds of the same thing aie
spoken o^ or where the Noun is first used specifically , then
generally : but if first used generally, then specifically,
the Noim is repeated, or an emphatic Fronoun put for it :

'Nulla est celeritas quae possit cum animi celeritate con-
tendere,' there is no speed to vie with that of the mind, C
T, D, i. 9. ' Cum omnis arrogantia odiosa est, turn ilia
ingeni atque eloquentiae multo molestissima,' while
all assumption is odious, that (suggested) of genius and
eloquence is by far the most displeasing, C. in Caec, 1 1.

6) The Pronouns meus, tuus, suus, noster, &c must be

used Possessively instead of the Genitives, mei, &c ; but
with them may stand Pronominal or Participial Genitives
agreeing with the Gen. which the Possessives virtually
contain. Such are, ipsius, ipsorum, unius, solius. am-
borum, duorum, &c., besides Participles :
Respublica mea unius opera salva erat,' the common'
wealth was saved by my single exertion, C. in Pis. y»
* Aves fetus adultos suae ipsorum fiduciae permittunt,*
birds entrust their grown young ones to their own self-
reliance, Qu. ii.6. * Nostros vidisti fientis ocellos,'/^«r
saw the eyes of me weeping, Ov. Her. v. 45.

7) The Possessive Genitive, being of Attributive nature, may

be used in Copulative or Factitive construction :

* Omnia, quae mulieris fuerunt, viri fiunt dotis nomine^'

all things that were the woman^s become the husbanePt

uiyiuzeu uy ■n^JVJvJVJ Iv

1 166. Genitive Case. 413

under the title of dowry ^ C. Top, 4. * Is Hercules dicebatur
esse Myron is/ C. Verr, iv. 3. * lam me Pompeii totum
esse ^c\^^ you know I am now Pompeys thorough partisan^

C. Fatn, ii. 13. * PopiUius clavis portarum suae potest-
at is i^c'ity Popillius took possession of the keys of the

gatesy L. xliiL 22.

8) Especially when the Subject of the Sentence is an Infin. and

the Gen. may be supposed to depend on a suppressed
notion, such as indicium, token^ indoles, nature^ mimus,
ofEciumf functioHy duty, party &c., proprium, /r^^r(y :

* Cuiusvis hominis est errare/ C. Pki/, xii. 2. ' Honoris

amplissimi esse puto miseros defendere/ I deem it a
function of highest office to defend the unfortunate, C. in
Caec, 21. 'Adulescentis est maiores natu vereri/. C.
Off, L 34. *Tempori cedere semper sapientis est habi-
tum,' C Fam, iv. 9.

9) All these words are found before the Gen. :

' Id viri est officium/ C. T, D, ii. 21. ' Principum munus
est resistere levitati multitudinis/ C. /. Mil, 8. * Sapientis
est proprium, nihil quod paenitere possit facere/ C T.

D, V. 28.

Pars itself is so used: as, 'Plura de extremis loqui pars
ignaviae est,* to dwell at len^h on the closing scene of life
is a coward^ s part, Tac H, \\. 47.

10) For this Gen. are used Possessive Pronoims or other Adjec-

tives indicating personal character :
* Nostrum est ferre modice populi voluntates,' Cp, Plane,
4. *Et agere et pati fortia Romanum est,* L. il 12.
*Non est mentiri meum,' Ter. Haul, iii. 2. 38.

11) The Genitives moris, consuetudinis, arbitrii, iuris,

tutelae, when Complements, may be explained by reference
to proprium :
'Negavit moris esse Graecorum ut in convivio virorum
accumberent mulieres,' he said it was not a fashion of the
Greeks for women to sit ai table in a part^ of men, C. Verr.
L 26. 'Est hoc Gallicae consuetudinis,* Caes. B, G.

iv. 5. * Victos tutelae nostrae duximus,* L xxi. 41.

^ . ' x66

II. i) The Descriptive Genitive expresses the specific class to Gencti-

which its governing Noun belongs, being often nearly ^^''

equivalent to an Apposite, sometimes to an Epithet : """

* Nomen regis ; vox voluptatis ; virtus continentiae ; vitium

ignorantiae ; fios rosae ; arbor fici ; lauri nemus ; montes
auri ; poena legis ; oppidum Antiochiae ; promunturium
Miseni, &c. See Cic. Off, ii. 5. *• Ceteris causis enume-
ratis, eluvionis, pestilentiae,' &c

tf) This Gen. may be equivalent to a Preposition with Case :
Pyrrhi bellum = bellum cum Pyrrho or contra Pyrrhum;
odium inimicitiarum = odium ob inimicitias, &c

3) A Possessive and a Descriptive Gen. may depend on one
and the same word :

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scnpti-
onis.

414 Latin Syntax, § 167.

*Exhaurietur ex urbe tuorum comitum magna et pemi-
ciosa sentina reipublicae/ that great and misckuvous
sink of the commonwealth consisting of your companions
shall be drained from the city^ C. p, S» Rose, 5.

2) The Gen. with causa, gratia, ergo, nomine, more, mode
ritu, has been noticed. Observe that with instar.

Instar {image) is a Substantive used to express likeness,
equivalence, &c., either as Apposite, Complement, or after
habere, obtinere, &c. :

'Instar montis equum,' Verg. Ae. ii. 15. ' lUe dies mihi
immortalitatis instar fuit,' that day was to me c^ good
as immortality, C. in Pis, 22. * Unus is innumeri militis
instar habet,' he alone is worth countless troops, Ov.
Her, xvi. 368. Ad instar is found in later Latin.

G^ed- 3) Here may be classed the Genitive of the Fact after Verbs,

vus Fa- Participles and Adjectives expressing accusation ; convic-

cinoris- Hon; condemnation or acquittal; criminality or innocence;

since it may be regarded as dependent on a suppressed

Ablative such as crimine, nomine, causa, lege, iudi-

cio ; which often appear.

d) Such Verbs are : —
Accusoy ago, arguo, coarguo, appello^ anquiro, arcesso, capto,

cito, compello, defero, incuso, insimulo, interrogo, postulo,

reum ago, reum facio, &c.
Alligo, adstringo, convince, obligo, obstringo, prehendo,

deprehendo, teneo, &c
Damno, condemno, mfamo, noto, &c.
Absolvo, libero, purgo ; also iudico, plecto, &c.
. . . (aliquem rei ; crimine rei ; nomine rei alicuius, &c.)

b) The Adjectives are : —
Afiinis, reus, suspectus ; compertus, manifestus, noxius ; in-
nocens, innoxius, insons.

tf) The principal Genitives, expressing legal offences, which
accompany such Verbs and Adjectives, are :
Ambitus {bribery), caedis, homicidi {murder\ furti {thefl^,
latrocinii {robbery), iniuriarum {wrongs), maiestatis, prodi-
tionis {treason), parricidii {parricide), repetundanim {extor-
tion), sacrilegii {sacrilege), veneficii, veneni {poisoning)^
rei capitalis, rerum capitalium, &c

The following forms have a Preposition: de vi {%nolencij
assault, &c), inter sicarios {assassination),

d) Such cases may be used with the legal terms above : reum

esse, &c., ftirti, de vi, &c, furti nomine, crimine, &c.

e) Other phrases are : damnare capitis or capite, to condemn

capitally, i.e. to death or disfranchisement : capitis minor,
a disfranchised person,
Danmari voti, to be condemned to pay what was vowed, be-
cause the prayer has been granted.

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{ i68. Genitive Case. 415

Damnare quindecim millibus, to condemn to a fine of i^ffoo
sesterces ; damnare octupU, to condemn to a fine of eight
times the amount ^ &c Also with Dat, or with ad : damnare
morti ; damnare ad bestias.

f) Ancjuirere capitis, capite, pecunia, &c, implies prose-
cution by the Tribunes, who specified the penalty before-
hand.

^) Arguo, insimulo may be used in common parlance :
*Meque timoris argue tu, Drance,' and do you^ Drances^
undertake to convict me of cowardice^ Verg. Ae. xi. 383.

h) Damni infecti promittere, repromittere, stipulari, satisdare,
&c., are legal phrases : ' to give security against damage*

x68

III. A. i) The Genitive of Quality is also Descriptive ; but Gene-
it takes the place, not of an Apposite, but of a strengthened g^Ju.
Attribute. taSlr

Vir excellentis ingeni = vir peringeniosus ; Lucius est excel-
lentis ingeni » Lucius est peringeniosus.

2) The Gen., then, like the Abl., of Quality, is a construction

by which one Substantive Tin Latin always with Epithet)
is joined to another, for tlie purpose of describing it in
some particular :
Vir magni animi, corporis ingentis, spectatae virtutis, trium
litterarum (i.e. fur) ; adulescens bonae indolis, bonae spei,
simmiae audaciae; auctor sublestae fidei, an author of
slight credit ; codex optimae notae, a manuscript of the
best authority.

3) This form of description may extend to Number, Measure,

Weight, Age, Time, Value, &c. :
Classis septuaginta navium ; colossus triginta trium pedum ;
lapis decern librarum pondo ; puer quindecim annorum ;
tempus viginti sex horarum ; gemma maximi pretii.

4) In such examples the Noun which the Gen. qualifies is an

Appellative or Common Noun ; and such it wUl be when
the Gen. of Quality is used as an Epithet merely ; but if a
Finite Copulative Verb is joined (vir est, fuit, habetur,
habitus est, &c., magni animi, &c), the Subject of such
sentence may be a Propei»Name :
Lucius est (fuit, &c.) bonae indolis: Caudius erat somni
brevissimi ; Sicilia est magnae fertilitatis, &c.

5) Rare instances occur, in which the Gen. of Quality accom-

panies a Proper Name enthetically :
*Tum T. Manhus Torquatus, priscae ac nimis durae
sever it at is, ita locutus fertur,' then Titus Manlius
Torquatus^ a man of antique and over-rugged strictness y is
reported to have spoken thus^ L. xxii. 60.

6) A Possessive Gen. and a Gen. of Quality or Description may

depend on one Noun :
'Superiorum dierum Sabini cunctatio,' Sabinu^s de»
lay of the preceding days ^ Caes. B, G, iii. la

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169

4l6 Latin Syntax. S 169-70.

7) Modi, compounded with Pronouns, is a Gen. of Quality :
Huiusmodi, eiusmodi, istiusmodi, cuiusmodi, cuicuimodi, &c.y

of this, thaty whichy whatever kind, &c.
(It is hardly possible to discriminate nicely the uses of the
Gen. and AbL of Quality ; the usage of writers difTering,
and some phrases being by custom assigned to the one,
some to the other. Upon the whole it seems true that the
Gen. oftener describes essential and permanent, the AbL
accessory and occasional circumstances. But many ex-
ceptions occur.)

Genetf. B. i) The Genitive of Value and Price requires notice,

^ ^^ because, though this is a particular instance of the Gen.

"' of Quality, pretii is usually suppressed.

2) Price may be described after words which mean or imply

buying, selling, hiring, letting, costings &c, by the Geni-
tives tanti, quant i, and their compounds, and' by the
Comparative Genitives pluris, minoris (rarely maioris) ;
but other Positive and the Superlative Adjectives (mag no,
&c., plurimo, &c.) describe Price in the AbL :
'Quanti emptum? Parvo,' Hon S, ii. 3. 156. Tanti est,
// is worth while, Non tanti est, it is not worth thi trouble.

3) Valuation, after ducere, habere, facere, pend&e, putare,

taxare, esse, &c, is described by the Gen. of all the Adjec-
tives above named : aestimare takes Gen. or AbL
Parvi pendSre aliquid; magni (magno) aestimare. See
Madvig on C. Fin» iiL 3. 1 1.

4) Instead of nullius pretii, of no value, the Romans in com-

mon parlance (besides nihili) often, hke ourselves, used
such phrases with a Negative as, as sis (unius assis), a
penny {a single penny) ; teruncii, a farthing ; nauci, pili,
flocci, answering to the Enghsh phrases, not a fig, not a
rush, &c. The phrase huius seems to imply a gesture,
like snapping the fingers. Non huius facio, / do not care
THAT for it.

5) To the Genitive of Value belong the phrases :

Lucri facere, to make prize of\ aequi boni facere, to
take in good part", bom consulere, to make the best of
A Verre omnem iUam* pecuniam lucri factam videtis,^
you see that all that money has been embezzled by Verres,
C. Verr, iii. 75. 'Animus meus totum istuc aequi boni
f a ci t,' my temper takes all that in good fart, C Att, vii. 7.
*Hoc munus rogo, qualecumque est, boni consulas,' /
beg you will make the best of this present^ whatever its
value. Sen. Ben, i. 8.

iJ^J^ C, 1) The Constructions of the Impersonal Verbs,

interest, // imports, concerns^ refert, it concerns, are re-
markable.
Interest may take a Genitive of the Person or Thing con-
cerned : interest omnium, interest reipublicae, &c.
Refert does so less frequently; never in Cicero. * Refert
ipsorum,' L. xxxiv. 27.

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§ 171. Genitive Case. 417

The ground of concenunent is expressed, if at all, either by
an Infinitive, or by an Infinitive Clause or its equivalent,
or by an Oblique Interrogation :

'Interest omnium recte facere,' C. /^p>». ii. 22. *Sa-
lutis communis interest, duos consules in re-
publica esse,' C./. Mur. 2. *Plurimum refert com-
positionis, quae cjuibus anteponas,' it matters much
to periodic construction^ what words you place before what^
Qu. ix. 4.

2) But if what is concerned is in the First or Second Person,

or to be expressed reflexively or relatively, then the Pos-
sessive forms mea, tua, nostra, vestra, su§, cuia,are
used with these Verbs instead of a Genitive :

* Et mea et tua maxime interest te valere,' C Fam, xvi.

4. 'Quid nostra id refert victum esse Antonium?'
what matters it to us that Antonius is conquered f C. ad
Br, 17.

3) These Verbs may be qualified by the Genitives of Value,

magni, parvi, pluris, tanti, quanti :

* Utriusque nostrum magni interest utte videam,' C. Att.

xi. 22. * Hoc non pluris refert quam si imbrem in cri-
brum geras,' this matters no more than if you carry water
to a sieve, Plaut Pseud, \, i. no.
Also by nihil, multum, tantum, quantum, quid, parum,
&c, and by Adverbs: valde, magnopere, maxime,
minime, vementer, &c. The Verbs may be used perso-
nally, as in the last example, with a Pronoun.

4) Interest and refert are constructed sometimes with ad,

sometimes with a Dative: 'Magni ad honorem nos-
trum interest quam primum ad urbem me venire,' C.
Fam, xvi. i. ' Die quid referat intra Naturae finis
viventi iugera centum an mille aret,' Hon S. i. i. 14*
Refert is often without Case: as, * Necjue enim numero
comprendere refert,* nor indeed is it important to count

them, Verg. G, ii. 104.*

171

IV.A, i) The Plural Genitive of the Thing Distributed Gea^',
is a divisible Whole, and depends on Partitive Words SStti^
indicating that one or more Parts (or no Part) of such buue.
Whole are taken :

* Virtu tum in alia alius mavult excellere,' one prefers to

excel in one virtue, another in another, C. Off, i. 32.
'Neque stultorum quisquam beatus neque sapi-
entiiun non beatus,' C. Fin. i. 18. 'Nunc iuvenum
princeps deinde future senum,' Ov. 'Roma regionum
Italiae media est,' L. v. 54*

2) The Partitive Words are :
a) Substantives which express Partition: pars, portio, nu-

* Interest is perhaps originally corrupted from in re est ; and r€fert (not from r^fero)
is from res and fert ; with this Ablative re the Pronouns mea, &c., agree. Sknne sup-
pose interest to be for inter rem est, refert for rem fert, and mea, ftc., to be
cocmpdoiuofmeam, &c.

E £ uiyiuzeu uy

Google

4l8 Latin Syntax. 1 172.

xnerus, multitude, nemo, nihO, &a, and the Adverb
partim.

0) Pronominals: alius, alter, uter and its compounds,

u 1 1 u s, nullus, pleriijue, multi, pauci, reliqui, ceten, solus ;
qui, quis, and their compounds : tot, quot, and their
derivatives.

y) Numerals both Cardinal and Ordinal: also princeps,
medius.

1) Comparative and Superlative Adjectives ; the former dis-

tributing two things: 'Mai or Neronum;' or one dass
into two parts: 'Avium loquaciores,' the noisier sort
of birdsy PL N, H. Also Superlative Adverbs : ' Mi-
nime omnium.*

f) Any Noun which can imply distribution : ' Sancte de-
orum ;' ' lecti iuvenum ;' ' piscium feminae.'

3) A Partitive Adjective, agreeing with that which is Part of a

Whole, naturally follows the Gender of the Whole :

Beluarum nulla abeluarum nulla belua ;
yet it is sometimes attracted to the Gender of the Subject

'Indus est omnium fiuminum maximus,' C. N. D. Or
to that of the Person implied, by Synesis : ' Dulcissime
rerum,' my dearest friend^ Hon .S*. L 9. 4.

4) Partitives sometimes take the Gen. of a Collective Noun :
'Plato totius Graeciae doctissimus fuit,' C. j>. Rab. 23

(Graeciae ■» Graecorum).

5) This Genitive is found in the place of a Complement:
*Fies nobilium tu quoque fontium,* Hor. C. iii. 13. 13.
Obs. 'Neque iUe Sepositi ciceris nee longae invidit

avenae,' Hor. S, ii. 6. 84, is a Graecism [icivuv tov ocvov).

6) English idiom uses the Preposition Rafter Numeral words,

when no part is taken, but the wAole implied : as, ^tAerf
are two of us x^ but in Latin this would be, 'Nos duo
sumus.' So, ' three hundred of them conspired^ is, ' IIU
trecenti coniuraverunt ; ' * kinsmen of whom I have fewf
'Cognati quos paucos habeo.'

f) Distribution is also expressed by Prepositions :
' Nihil ex his, quae videmus, manet,' Sen. Ep. 58. ' Thaks
sapientissimus in septem fuit,'C. Leg, IL 12. ' Inter
Scythiae amnes amoenissimus Borysthenes,' Mela, 12.
* Ante omnis Tumus pulcherrimus,' Verg. Ae, viL 65.
'Unademultis,' Hor. C iii 11. 33.

Gengi- B, i) The Genitive of the Thing Measured depends on

D?. Quantitative Words, which imply that so much ola Whole

menne. is taken, not so many,

2) Such Quantitative Words are :
a) Substantives implying measurement of Quantity :

uiyiuzeu uy \^Jv-/v_-'>t Iv^

y 172. GenitiiH Case. 419

Amphora^ cask\ medimnus (um), busheti modiv&^ peck
(frumenti, of com) ; \xhi2i, pound (casei, of cheese)^ ac. ;
acervuSy copia, numerus, pondus (aiiri), vis, &c

/8) Quantitative Neuter Adjectives and Pronouns :

Multum, plus, plurimum, amplius, minus, minimunii
tantum, quantum, aliquantum, nimium, dimidium, nihil,
^ud, id, &&, quod, quid, &c

7) Quantitative Adverbs :

Abunde, affatim, nimis, parum, partim, satis.

i) The Adjectives and Adverbs are usually rendered in
English as in agreement with the thing measured :
* Tantum vini,' so much wine; 'minus splendoris.' less
brilliance; 'satis eloquentiae, sapientiae parum,^ elo-
quence enough, little wisdom, SalL ; * nimium pecimiae,'
too much money ; ' nihil mali/ no evil.

3) The Genitive may dmnd on a Demonstrative Pronoun

understood from a following Relative.
'Medico mercedis quantum poscet promitti iubeto/ you
must order that as high a fee as he shall ask be promised
to the physician, C. Fam. xvL 14. ' Vastatur agri quod
inter urbem ac Fidenasest,' all the land that is between the
city and Fidenae is laid wasU^ L. i. 14; M. Lucr. iv. 372.

4) Classes & and 7 may also be constructed with the Genitive

of a Neuter Adjective of the Second Declension ; but an
Adjective of the Third is commonly (but not always) put
in the same case with the word of Quantity :

' Prima est historiae lex ut ne quid falsi dicere audeat, ne
quid veri non audeat,' C. a. Or. ii. 62. ' Si quicquam
in vobis, non dico civilis, sed human! esset,' L. v. 3.
'Nee viget quicquam simile aut secundum,' and
nothing exists like or in second rank, Hon C. L 12. 18.

Note the Ciceronian phrase, 'Quod eius facere poteris,' as
far as you can (but quoad for quod in some MSS.).
'Nihil reliqui facere,' to leave nothing undone; 'nihil pensi
habere,' to have no regard.

5) The Genitive Pronouns nostrum, vest rum, are used with

Partitive words ; but, if an individual or human nature
itself is quantitatively divided, mei, tui, sui, nostri,
vestri may be used: 'Multa pars mei,' Hon C. ill 3a
6. 'Plus nostri superest rogo,' Sen. Tr.

6) The Genitives loci, locorum, gentium, terrarum^ are used

with Adverbs of Place, ubi, quo, unde,huc,eo,aliquo,
usquam, nusquam, &c :
' Ubi terrarum sumus,' where on earth are wet Cp, Rab.
37. ' An quisquam usquam gentium est aeque miser ?'
is there anywhere in the world one so miserable t Ter. Hec.
iii. I. ' Res eodem est loci ubi reliquisti,' the affair is in
the same position you left it in, C. Att, L 13.

** * Digitized by Google

420 Latin Syntax. % 173.

Genitives not local are found with them, but not in Cicero :

'£0 deliciarum pervenimus ut nisi gemmas calcare noli-
mus/ we have reached that pitch of luxury ^ that we vdll
not tread except on jewels, Sen. Ep, 88. Turn (tunc) tem-
poris occurs in Justin: interea loci {tn^anwhile) in the
Comic poets ; minime gentium {least in the wortdy by no
means), postea loci, in Livy ; inde loci, M. Lucr. v. 791.

'Pridie eius diei' {the day before), ^ ^sXxidxQ eius diei' {the
day after), &c. Pridie, postridie also take Accus.

7) The Verb satago {lam busy) (sat and ago) takes a Gen. :
*Clinia rerum suarum satagit,' Clinia has enough of his

own business, Ter. Haut, iii. 1. 13. 'Nunc agitas sat
tute tuarum rerum,' yw have now affairs enough ofyouf
own in hand, Plaut nac, iv. 3. 23.

8) Neuter Adjectives of either Number, put abstractly for Sub-

stantives, sometimes govern a Genitive :
*Adulescens in lubrico aetatis est^ a young man is at a
slippery time of life, Plin. Epist, iii. 6. So m e d i u m d i e i,
serum diei. (On id temporis, id loconun, hoc aetatis,
&c., see Accusative.)
Constructions like 'Incerta casuum,' 'occulta saltuum,'
' opaca locohim,' ' angusta viarum,' ' amara curarum,' are
not usual in Cicero ; but they occur in Livy, abound in
Tacitus, and in poetry they are frequent See p. 278.

Geoeti-. C, i) The Genitive of Abundance and Want is Parti-

™ j^ tive. See Ablative, p. 397.

ectoo- 2) Verbs: egeo, indigeo prefer the Genitive in prose: com-

P»«- pi e o, e X p le o, i m p 1 e o, take it occasionally : abundo, parti-

cipo, saturo, scateo : abstineo, careo, desino, desisto, levo,

libero, solvo, dissolvo, and others, chiefly in poetry.
'Indigerc medicinae;' *impleri veteris Bacchi :' 'abstinere

irarum ;' * desine querellarum,' &c.
Potior has a Genitive both in prose and poetry: apiscor,

adipiscor, in Tacitus ; regno once in Horace.

3) Adjectives: fertilis, ferax, largus, plenus, refertus: — in-
anis, indigus, inops, ieiunus : often have Gen. in prose and
poetry; compos, particeps, exheres, expers, exsors,
almost always : potens, impos, impotens, no other Case :
benignus, dives, fecundus, locuples, prosper: pauper,
solutus, truncus, exsul, vacuus, &c., dignus, indignus,
are found in poetry with Genitive.
'Vita plena metus et insidiarum;' 'terra frugum fertilis ;'
' compos mentis ;* ' voti compos ;' ' Musa potens lyrae ; *
' rationis expers ; ' ' dives opum ;' ' exsul patriae ; * * pauper
aquae Daunus,' &c.

D. Of a Partitive nature also are die Genitive of Respect
and that of the Part affected, which, in imitation of
Greek construction, is very freely used by poets and also
by prose writers of the silver age. Such phrases are :

y Google

§ 174. Genitive Case, 421

*Consili certusj' 'militiae impiger, strenuus;* 'vetus
sermonis;' all in Tac. : — 'integer vitae,' Hor.; 'integer
aevi,' Verg. ; ' sen studiorum,' Hor. &c Especially animi :
*Excruciari animi;' *angi animi;' 'pendere animi,' C :
'animi falli/ Lucr., Plaut. (desipere mentis, Plaut) : 'Animi
anxius, aeger, audax, caecus, ferox, ingens, immodicus,
infelix, laetus, promptus, turbidus, validus/ &c

iv. B) Objective Genitive. pi,]^.

This Genitive principally depends on Words which contain the ceni-
Transitive force of Verbs from which they are derived. Such are : — t»ve.
i) Substantives: amor patriae; cultus agronim; scientia
iuris ; ignorantia recti ; cura peculi ; studium lucri ;
victor hostium.

Note I. The Genitives nostrum, vestrum (in old Latin nos-
trorum, vestrorum) are used in Partitive Construction:
mei, tui, &c., nostri, vestri, Quantitatively or Objectively.
But the phrases 'omnium nostrum,' 'omnium vestrum'
are also used as Possessive Genitives : sometimes nos-
trum, vestrum alone. And mei, tui are sometimes
found where the Possessive might have been expected:
' Fruitur fama sui,' Tac. Ann. ii. 13. Also the Possessives
meus, tuus are sometimes used Objectively. See p. 410.

Note 2. An Objective Genitive (with Substantives derived from
Transitive Verbs) must often be rendered in English by
some other Preposition than of: 'Coelibis obsequ-
iu m,' attention to an unmarried man, Hor. ' P r aes tant i a
an i ma rum reUquarum,' superiority over other souts, Cic
'Remedium irae,' remedy against anger , Cic. 'Miseri-
cordia pauperum,'///^ for the poor, ' Quies laborum,' rest
from toils,

2) Adjectives:
a) Verbal Adjectives in az : capax, edax, ferax, fiigax,
pertinax, rapax, sagax, tenax, vorax, &c

/9) Present Participles used Adjectively: abundans,
amans, appetens, contenmens, colens, cupiens, despi-
ciens, diligens, efficiens, egens, experiens, fugiens, m-
tell^gens, metuens, neglegens, observans, patiens, im-
patiens, proferens, sciens, sitiens, timens, tolerans, bene-
gerens, servantissimus, &c.

7) hj^y^Q^w^s, oi knowledge and ignorance: assuetus, cal-
lidus, certus, certior, conscius, consultus, docilis, doctus,
expertus, gnarus, memor, peritus, praescius, praesagus,
providus, pnidens, scitus, soUers; alienus, ambiguus,
dubius, inscius, incertus, inexpertus, ignarus, immemor,
imperitus, improvidus, imprudens, indoctus, insolens,
insuetus, nescius, oblitus, rudis.

Here remark the phrase, 'Certioremfacere'^/^ inform) :
'Pompeius me certiorem sui consili fecit, Pompeius
infomud me of his plan. Cic. Att, ix. 2. r^ \

uiyiiized by CjOOQ IC

422 Latin Syntax. S i75«

i) Care and carelessness : aemulus^ anxius, curiosaSy ceitus^
formidulosus, parcus, pavidus, soUicitus, timidus, tre-
piduSy impavidus, incuriosus, incautus, intrepidus, inter-
ritus \ profusus, prodigus, securus, socors.

<) Desire and dislike : avanis, avidus, cupidus, studiosus^
fastidiosus.

Q Add superstes, supplex.

Obs, I. Most of these are rendered with the sign of", except as-
suetus (accustomed to) ; insuetus, insolens {unaccustomed to) ; cal-
liduS; consultus, doctus, peritus, &c. {skilled m) ; indoctus, imperituSy
&c. {unskilled in) ; scitus, pnidens, expertus, &c {acquainted with) ;
imprudens, rudis^ &c. {unacquainted with), and others.

Obs, 2. Many such Adjectives also take Prepositions : ' Callidu&
ad fraudem/ C. * Prudens in iure/ C. * Securus de bello Romano/
L. ' Certiorem fieri de re aliqua.' Some take other Cases : * Peritus
bello/ VelL ' Dulcis docta modos/ Hon

Obs, 3. A list of other Adjectives found with a Genitive is giv«n
in Stallbaum's Ruddiman, Pars II. p. 73. None are from Cicero
but *invidus laudis;' a few from Livy ; many from Tacitus.
Virgil has ' fessus rerum ; ' * fidissima tui regina ;' * vanus veri,' &c
Lucr. has 'aversa viai/ i. 1081, see M. ; Horace: *lassus maris ;
divina avis imbrium ; exsul patriae/ &c. ; but most examples are
from later poets, Statius, Silius, Claudian, &c. The student must
distinguish prosaic from poetic usage, which admits Gen. freely.

3) A Genitive of the Matter, sometimes an Accusative^
depends on Verbs of remembering, forgetiingy reminding; memim
(Gen. or Accus.), reminiscor (Gen. or Accus.), recordor (Accus.,
rarely Gen.), obliviscor (Gen. or Accus.) ; moneo, admoneo, com-
moneo, commonefacio (Accus. of person, Gen. of thing); men-
tionem facio (Gen.). (See memor, inmiemor, &c. above.)

'Vivorum memini, nee tamen Epicuri licet oblivisci/ /
remember the living, nor yet may I forget Epicurus, C. Fin. v. i.
*Res adversae admonent nos religionum/ adversity reminds
us 0/ religious duties, h,y, SI. 'Dulcis moriens reminiscitur
Argos/ Verg. Ae, x. 782.

a) Verbs of Remembering sometimes take de: 'De Clodio

ne meminisse quidem volo/ C. Fam, v. 3.

b) The phrase *venit in mentem' is used impersonally,

either with Genitive, or with Preposition: 'Venit mihi
in mentem temporis illius, quo fuimus una,' C. Fam.
vii. 3. 'Astute venit ei in mentem de speculo,' ke
craftily remembered the mirror, Plaut Most, L 3. Or per-
sonally: 'Non venit in mentem puena apud Re^um
lacum V do you not remember the battU at lake Re^usf
L. viii. 5.

4) A Genitive depends on the Verbs misereor 2. miseresco 3.
\feel pity) ; but an Accusative in the best authors on miseror i.
conmiiseror i. {express pity, bewail).

Digitized byCjOOQlC

§176. Genitive Case, 423.

* Nil nos tri miserere/ Verg. B, ii. 7. * Arcadii miserescite regis,'
Vet%. Ae, viiL 573. 'Sort em miseratus iniquam/ Verg. Ae.
vL 332.

5) The Impersonal Verbs miseret (miserescit, miseretur),
piget, pudet (veretur), paenitet, taedet, take an Accusative
of the Nearer, with a Genitive of the Remoter, Object :

*Me tuarum miseritum est fortunarum,* I pitied your for-
tunesy Ten Haut iii. i. < Me civitatis mo rum pi get taedetque,'
/ am weary and sick of the manners of the state. SalL lug. 4.

* Pudet me stultitiae,Vfl/« ashamed of my folly ^Q. 'Me tui,mi
paten pudet/ /flw ashamed to face you^ father^ Ten Ad iv. 5. 49.
See (J. Att. vii. 4 (veritus); Fin. ii. 13.

6) The Genitive of Cause in poetry is a Greek idiom: r-fi
'lustitiaene prius mirer belline laborum?' Verg. ^^. xL 126.

'Notus in fratres animi patemi/ Hon C. \\ 2. 6. ' Felix. Bolane,
cerebri/ Hon S. i. 9. 11. ' Laudabat leti iuvenem/ Sit iv. 160.

* O mihi nuntii beati/ Catull. ix. 5. ' Foederis heu taciti/ Prop,
iv. 7. 13.

Examples of the Genitive Case.

A) (Subjtctivt.) I. (PMtessive.) 'Amore patriae nostrorum maiorum inventa
nosse debemos, C d. Or. L 58. 'Sullae et Caesaris pecuniarum translatio a
iostas dominis ad alienos non debet liberalis videri/ C. Ojf. L 14. ' Nihil est quod
multorum naufragia fortunae coUigas,' C. Verr. v. 4a ' Consul es dedgnatus,
opdmaaetate, summa eloquentia, maxima orbitate reipublicae virorum talium,'
C Fam, X. 3. ' Egerius fratris filius erat regis,' L. L 38. 'Polycleti signa
plane perfecta sunt,' C Br. xS. 'Singulorum facultates et copiae divitiae
sunt civitatis/ C Q^ iiL 15. 'Pacis est comes otique socia,etiam benecon-
stitutae civitatis quasi alumna quaedam, eloquentia,' C. Br. la. 'Omnium est
communis inimicus, qui fuit hostis suorum,' C yerr. L 15. 'In primis hominis
est propria veri inquisitio,' C. Ojf. L xz. ' lUa insula eorum deorum sacra
putatur/ C. yerr. iL x8. * Phoebi Triviaeque sacerdos Deiphobe Glauci/ Verg.
Ae. vL 35. 'Dinomaches ^o sum,' Pers. iv. 3a 'Paterae aurea&ad Cereris
positae,' L. x. 33. 'Quae in nostris rebus non satis honeste, in amicorum fiunt
honestissime,' (X Lael. x6. 'Petulantia magis est adulescentium, quam senum;
nee tamen omnium adulescentium, sed non proborum/ C Cat 3f. zz. 'Id
maxime quemque decet, quod est cuiusque maxime suum/ C. Ojf. I 3z. ' Nolae
senatus Romanorum, plebs Hannibalis erat,' L. xxiii. 39. 'Solon capite sanxit,
a qui in sedttione non alterius utrius partis fuisset,' C. Aii. x. x. 'Hannibal
quod inter A^ Apenninumque agri est suae dicionis fecit/ L. xxl 53. 'Tardi
ingeni est rivulos consectari, fontis rerum non videre/ C d. Or. iL 37. 'Qualis
oratoris et quanti hominis in dicendo putas esse historiam scribereT* C. d. Or.
U. Z3. 'Est proprium munus magistratus, intellegere, se gerere personam
civitatis,* C OJf. i. 34. ' Quae est animo natura? propria, puto, et sua,' C. T. D.
L 09. ' Nulla mora est operae; vestrum dare, vincere nostrum est,' Ov. F. iv.
889. 'Tuum hominis simplicis pectus vidimus,' C. PhiL iL 43. 'Noster duorum
eventus ostendet utra gens bellosit melior, L. L 7. ' Solius meum peccatum corrigi non
potest,' C A tt. 3d. 15. 'Die mihi, Damoeta, cuium pecus, an MeliboeiT' Verg. B.
uL X.

II. {Dtscr^Hve.) x) 'Stella Veneris Lucifer didtur, cum antegreditur solem,
cum subsequitur antem, Hesperus,' C A^. Z>. iL aa ' Non Cuiendo id, quod non
decet, impudentiae nomen effugere debemus,' C d. Or. L a6. ' Duae sunt huius
obscufitatis causae, una pudoris, altera sceleris'C. d L. Agr. ii. 94. ' Ea bona
sunt generis, pecuniae, propinquorum, amicorum, opum, valetudinis,
formae. ingeni,' C d Or. iL xx.

2> ' Pfcfwiadent mathematici, terram ad universi caeli complexum quaa punctiinstar
obtinere,' C T. D.x. ^ ' Quidam Romani habebant domos instar urbium,' Sen.
J?>.9» r^ \

uyuizedbyCjOOgle

424 Latin Syntax. \ 177.

Section III.

VERB-CONSTRUCTION.

- (On Moods and Tenses see §S 91-99- On Verb Infinite, $ 40-)
iJJi. i. I) The Infinitive.

uve.

The Infinitive is at once a Verb and a Neuter Substantive.
As a Verb, it governs Cases. As a Substantive it has Cases ; on
which see § 181 : and on its Tense-forms, § 4a

3) 'Labeo argucbatur male administTatac provinciac aliorumquc cri*
miaum,' Tac Ann. vL 27. 'Cum capitis anquisiyissent, duo milia aos
damnato multam cdixerunt/ L. ii. 52. * Caesar Dolabellam repctundarum postu-
lavit/ Suet Caes. 4- 'Dcfcrtur impictatis in Principem,' Tac Atm, vL 19.
• Legibus ambitus interrogati dedenint poenas/ SalL Cat. x8. * Alcibiadcs, post-
quam se capitis damnatum audivit, Laccdacmonem demigravit/ N. Ale. 4.
'Miltiades, capitis absolutus, pecunia multatus est,* N. Mili, "j. ' Recte con-
demnamus haruspices aut stultitiae aut vanitatis,' C Div. L 36. * Co^us
iudex absolvit iniuriarum eum, qui Lucilium poetam nominatim laesent,' Anct. ad
Her. it 19. 'Nomine sceleris coniurationisque damnati sunt multi,' C. Krrr. t.
II. 'Miltiades crimine Pario est accusatus,' Nep. Milt. ' Silanus saevitiae
captarumque pccuhiarum tenebatur reus,* Tac Ann. iiL 27. * De mani-
festis rerum capitalium more maiorum supplicium sumendum est,' SaU. Cat. 5a.
Q. Sergius senator inter sicarios damnatus est,' C >. CIm, 7. ' Furius damnatus
voti quum victor Romam revertisset, dictatura se abdicavit,* L. ^ 28.

III. (Quality.) a. 'Tunc trium litterarum homo me vituperas?' Flaat AnL
ii. 4. 46U ' Sp. Servilius, fervid i animi vir, pericuhim audacia discuasit,' L. iL 5a.
' Themistocles persuasit populo ut classis centum navium aedificaretur,' N. Tk. a.
' Latini coronam auream in CapitoHum tulere parvi ponderis,* L. iiL 57. ' %»es
unica imperi populi Romani L. Quinctius trans Tiberim quattuor iugerum colebat
agrum,' L. iil 26. 'Caesar a fronte castrorum pedum quindecim fossam fieri
iussit/ Ca^. B. C. i. 41. ' Hamilcar in Hi^>aniam secum duxit filium Hannibalem
annorum novem,* N. Hann. 8. ' C. lulius Caesar annum ad solis cursum accommo-
davit ut trecentorum sexaginta quinque dierum esset,* Suet Cats. 4a ' Ser-
vius Tullius iuvenis evasit vere indolis regiae,' L. L 39. ' Magni iudici^
summae etiam facultatis esse debet orator,' C. Or. 21. ' Nos in castra propera-
bamus, quae aberant bidui,* C. Att. v. 16. 'Agesilaus octoginta annorum in
Atgyptum profectus est,* N. Ag. 8. ' Admittenda est hominum cuiusqnemodi
multitudo,' C OjB^. i. 39. 'Eorum dierum consuetudo itineris nostii cxer-
citus perspecto est,' Caes. B. G. ii. 17.

b. 'Ego a meis magni pendi postulo,' Ter. Ad. v. 4. 'Est hominis VKpiK,
mazimi aestimare consdentiam mentis suae,* C p. Clu. 58. ' Patrem tuum plurimi
feci, mcque ille mirifice coluit,' C Att. xvL 19. 'Vendo meum frumentnm bob
pluris quam ceteri, fortasse etiam minoris, cum maior est copia,' C Ofi iiL za.
' Nulla pestis humano generi pluris stetit quam ira,' Sen. /r. L s. ' Mercatores noa
tantidem vendunt quanti emerunt,* C Vtrr. iiL 192. ' Noli spectare qaanti
homo sit ; parvi enim pretii est qui iam nihili sit,' C Qu. Fr.i.9. ' Non quanCxua
quisque prosit, sed quanti quisque sit, pondeni,' C Br. 257.^ 'Quanti qoisque
anucos facit, tanti fit ab amids,* C LaeL x6. 'Qui homo timidus erit in rebas
dubiis, nauci non erit' Plant Most. v. i. i. 'Sapiens dolorem nihili facit,' C
Fin, iL 13. ' Ego, quae tu loquere, flocci non facio,' Plaut Rnd iiL 5. 'Neque
fiais neque fidem pensi habet.' Tac. Ann. xiiL 25. 'Te huius non faciam,' Ter.
Ad. iL z. ' Video quanta tempestas invidiae mihi immineat ; sed est mihi tanti,' C
Cat. L 9. 'Si vos non movet periculum ne serpat latius contagio etua 1

lOOgle

i 177, The Infinitive, '42^

Ijvy (not C. or Caes.) uses a Past for a Present Infin. with such
predications assatis est, melius est, satis habeo, contentus sum:
a>so with possum, volo and some Impers. Verbs. ^Quiesse
melius crit,' L. i* Poets take this license freely: * Magnum si
pectore possit excussisse deiun/ Vei^g. Ae.wL 78. 'Effugisse
volunt longe longeque remosse,' Lucr. iiL 69. See M.

aequi bonique facimus/ L. xxxiv. aa. ' Haec, quaeso, consule missa boni,*OT.
£^ €x PoHi. iiL 8.

c. ' Caesar dicere solebat, non tain sua quam reipublicae interesse, uti salves
esset,' Suet Caes. 86. * Epistulis certiores fadrous absends, si quid est quod eos
scire aut nostra aut ipsorum intersit/ C. Fam. ii.4. *Quid refcrt mea, cut
serTiam?' Phaedr. i. 35. ' Civitatum hoc multarum interfuit, antiquum vocum
servare modum/ C Leg. iL 38. ' Semper Milo, quantum interesset Clodii, se
perire, cogitabat/ C >. Mil. 56. ' Quid, Chreme, tua, malum, id rcfcrtT— Magni,
Demipho/ Tcr. Ph, iv. 4. ' Quid id nostra?— Nihil (i.e. refert),' Ter. Ph, v. 7.

IV. {Partitive.) a. {Tkittg DistrihttetL) * Nihil tam absurdedid potest quod non dicatur
ab aliquo philosophorum/ C. Div. iL 119. 'Incertum est, quam longa nostrum
cuiusque vitafutura sit,'C. Vemx. 153. ' Equitum centum quinquaginta in-
terfecti,' Curt. iii. xx. ' Erant Phocionis tempore duae factiones, quarum una popuU
causam agebat, altera optimatum/ N. Pkoc. 19. ' Tarquinius Superbus Septi-
mus atque ultimus regum Romanorum fuit,' Eutr. L 8. ' Rationem defectus
solis apud Graecos investigavit primus omnium Thales Milesius,' PL N. H. iL is.
'Alexander seniores militum in patriam remisit,' Curt. x. 3. 'Quadrupedum
talpis visus non est,' PL A^ H. xL 37. 'Canum degeneres caudam sub alviun
reflectunt,' do. xi. 50. 'Lanarum nigrae nullum colorem bibunt,' do. viiL
48. ' Mvdonius erat in primis omnium Persarum manu foitis,' N. Ar. z.
' Solpidus Callus maxime omnium nobilium Graeds litteris studuit,' C Br. aa
* Trcvirorum dvitas longe plurimum totius Galliae equitatu valet,' Caes. B, 0. ii. 3.
'Aliqui e nostris aliter existimant, quos quidem video esse multos sed imperitos,*
C Fiti. L 55. 'Quaeritur, quot sint species rerum publi(»rum, quas tris accepimus,
quaepopuli, quae paucorum, quae unius potestate regerentur,' Qu. v. xa ' De vera et per-
fecta amicitia loquor, qualis eonun, q u i p a u c i nominantur, fuit,' C LeuL aa. ' Numerate
quot ipsi sitis,' L. vi. 18. 'Trecenti coniuravimus prindpesiuventutisRomanae,*
I* ii. 13. ' Ex quinquaginta milibus Graecorum supersumuspauci,'Curt. v.

fL {Tkittg Measured.) 'Voluisti magnum agri modum censeri,* C /. FL 3a.
'In iugere Leontini agri medimnum fere tritici seritur,' C. Verr. iiL 47. 'Maxi-
mus vini numerus fuit, permagnum optimi pondus argenti,' C. Phil. iL 37.
''Tantum quisque se in republica pos&e postulat, quantum habet virium,' C adBruL
i xa ' Rogo, ut de his rebus, quas tecum colloqui volo, annum mihi temporis des,*
N. Them. 9. ' Romani castrorum oppugnatione, quia serum erat diei, abstinuere,'
Ik viL 8. 'A te nihildum certiexquiro, sed quid videatur,' C Att. viL xa. 'Prae-
missus Caedna, ut occulta saltuum scnitaretur pontisque et aggeres humido
paludum et ialladbus campis imponeret,' Tac Ann. L 6x. 'Quid mulieris uxorem
habes?' Ter. Hec. iv. 4. ' Velim, ut, quod eius fieri possit, praesentiae tuae desi-
derium meo labore minuatur,' C. Fam. v. 8. ' Ut adulescentem, in quo senile aliquid,
sic senem, in quo est adulescentis aliquid, probamus,' C. Cat. M. xx. 'Ambula-
donem postmeiidianam confedmus in Academia, maxime quod is locus ab omni turba id
temporis vacuus esset,' C Fin. v. x. 'Dedi satis superque poenarum tibi,' Hor.
Epod. 17. 'Arraorum aflfatim erat Carthagine captorum/ L. xxviL X7. 'Pa-
xentes abunde habemus, amicorum numquam satis,' SalL /tt^. xoa. 'Multis in
•lods parum firmamenti et parum virium Veritas habet,' C. >. Ciu. 3. 'Ubi
terrarum esses ne suspicabar quidem,' C. Ait. v. xo. 'Qui virtutem adeptus exit,
nbicumque erit gentium, a nobis dilij^tur,' C N'. D. I. xax. ' Rhodum aut aliquo
terrarum migrandum est,' C /Vxm. xL x. 'Mulier quaedam commigravit hue vici-
niae,' Ter. ^«. L i. * Populus Romanus eo magnitudinis crevit, ut viribus suis
-cooficeretur,' Flor. iiL xa. 'Postridie eius diei Ariovistus praeter castra Caesaris
«uas copias transduxit et milibus passuum duobus ultra eum castra fedt,' Caes.
B. G.l 48.

y. (Plenty and IVant, 6fc.) * Celeriter adulescentem suae temeritatis implet,' L. L
4, 'MeomDiumlaborumleva8,'Plaut. 5*/. L 4. 'Helvetii totius Galliae sepotiri

uiyiuzeu uy x^jv^wVt Iv

426 Latin Syntax. § 178L

176 ii The Infinitive Present and Past as Subject:

Mnviderenon cadit in sapientem,' C 71 D, iil la 'Inge-
nuas didicisse fideliter artes emollit mores/ Ov. Ep.exP^
il 9.

Especially

1 ) Of an Impersonal Verb:

< Libet semper discere,' C. d. Or. ill 23

2) Of a. Copulative Verb with Adj. or Adv. Complement :
*Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori/ Hor. C, iii. 2. 13.

3) Of a CopuL Verb, when the Complement is a Subst (either
Nom., or Possessive Gen., or Dat. of Purpose) :

*Tempus est maiora conari,' L. vi. 18. ' Tempori cedere
semper sapient is est habitum,' C. Div. ii. 60. * Laudi
erit certasse.'
Obs, I. If the Infin. is Copulative, and the principal Verb has an
Accus. Object, the Complement will be Accus. :

*Dedecet hominem esse mendacem.'
If the Object is Dative, the CompL may be Dat or Accus. :
*Licuitesseotioso Themistocli, licuit Epaminondae,' C 71
D, i. 15. * Civi Romano licet esse Gaditanum,' C. p. Bold, 12^

Obs, 2. An Infin. is rarely found as Complement :
*Docto homini et erudito vivere est cogitare,' C, Fam. vL i.

posse sperabant,' Caes. B. C. i. y. 'Regio aeris ac plumb i uberrima/ lutL xfir.
3. 'Plena errorum sunt omnia,' C T. D. i. 5. 'Gallia adeo frugum komi>
numque fertilis fuit, ut abundans multitudo vix regi posse videretur/ L. v. 34.
'Roma externae opis indiga fiiit/ Tac H. ii. 48. 'Vis consili expers mole
ruit sua,' Hor. C. iii. 9. 'Certe omnes virtutis compotes beati sunt,* C. T. D, ▼.
39. ' Postquam Pompeius et consules ex Italia exierunc, non sum, mibi crede, mentis-
compos,' C. Att, ix. 6. 'Eripite isti gladium, qui sui est impos animi,' Plant.
Cos. iiL 5. 'Ira, ut insania, impotens sui est,' Sen. Ir. L x. 'Descendam magnonifla
baud umqiiam indignus avorum,' Verg. Ae. xiL 649. 'Pacis eras mediusque
belli,' Hor. C. il 19. 28. 'Aevi maturus Acestes,' Verg. ^/m. v. 73. 'Damnatus-
longi Sisyphus Aeolides laboris,' Hor. C. il 14. 19. 'Fortunate animi,' St Tk. L
638. 'Antiphome excruciat animi,' Ter. Ph, il a. xo.

E^ {Objective.) ' Iram bene Ennius inltium dixit insaniae,' C. T. D. \y. 33. 'Me
tuae dignitatis non modo fautorem, sed etiam amplificatorem cognosces,* C
Fam. X. 13. 'Epaminondas philosophiae praeceptorem habuit LysimTarenti-
num, Pjrthagoreum,' N. E^. a. 'Adhibenda est quaedam reverentia adversas
homines, et optimi cuiusque et reliquorum,' C OJ^. L 38. 'Patria est com-
munis omnium nostrum parens,' C in Cat. i. 7. 'Ais, Habe mei rationem : habe
tu nostrum 0*e* Romanorum : nostri would— meiV C Att. vii. 9. ' Habetis duceoi
memorem vestri, oblitum sui,' C in Cat. vr. 9. ' Nostri nosmet paenitet,*
Ter. Ph. L 3. ' Nihil malo quam et me mei similem esse, et illos sui,' C Att, ix. x6b
' Magna mei sub terras ibit imago,' Verg. Ae. iv. 654. ' Divi quorum est potestas
nostrorum hostiumque,' L. viiL 9. 'Cogor restram omnium vicem nnos co»--
sulere,' L. xxv. 38. 'Neque neglegentia tua neque odio id fecit tuo,' Ter. PJL,
V. 8. 'Galba omnium consensu visus est capax imperi, nin imperasset,' Tac. H. L
49. 'Natura tenacissimi sumus eorum quae rudibus annis percepimus,' Qo. L 1.
'Tu me sitientem virtutis tuae deseruisti,' C. >. PUmc. 5. 'Epaminondas adeo
liiit veritatis diligens ut ne ioco quidem mentiretur,' Nep. E^. 3. 'Dim caaB->
mode navigare poteris, ad nos amantissLmos tui veni,'C Fa$n. xvL 7. 'Roaaai
semper appetentes gloriae praeter ceteras gentis atque avidi laudis foemn^*
C ^. L, Man, 1, ' Catilinae corpus erat patiens inediae, vigiliae, algoris,' SaB.
Cat,^ ' Themistodes peritissimos belli navalis fecit Atheniensis,' N. Tkem, n^

lOogle

S 179-80. The Infinitive. 4^7

iiL Infinitive as Object. »79

'Adimam cant are sevens,' Hor. E^t L 19. 9. 'Mori nemo
sapiens miserum duxiV C Fam, vl 3.

Infin. with Attribute :

' H oc ridere meum, tarn nil, nulla tibi vendo Iliade/ Pers. L 122.

With Preposition :
*Multum interest inter dare et accipere/ Sen. Ben. v. 2.

On the Historic Infinitive see p. 332 ; Infin. Clause, § 194*

iv. Prolative Infinitive. (See § 102, § 103.) xso

(i) The * Extensible' Verbs which take this Infinitive imply:
abiUty^ learning^ knowledge; duty; desire^ dislike; darings dread,
hesitation; custom; endeavour^ purpose , resolve; omission, n^lect;
beginnings continuing, ceasing; hastening, delaying; deserving.

Also Passive Verbs of seeming, being deemed, said, found, &c . :
with doceor, moneor, cogor, iubeor, vetor, prohibeor, impedior :

Possum (queo, debeo, volo, nolo, audeo, soleo, meditor, certo,
coepi, desino, cogito, propero, moror, animum induco, videor,
putor, dicor, reperior, doceor, iubeor, &c) currere, legere, &c.

If the Infinitive depending on any such Verb is Copulative, the
Complement will agree with the Subject :

Possum (debeo, volo, &c. ; videor, putor, &c.; cogor, iubeor,
vetor, &c) esse tranquillus, esse doctus, esse philosophus, &c

Ohs. I. Verbs ^i Desire, and oportet, take a Perf. Participle as
Passive Infin. : * Patriae consultum volo,' / wish my country s
good to be regarded * Mansum oportuit,' we ought to have re-
mained. See § 203.

' In omnibus rebus est aliquid optimum, etiamsi latet, idque ab eo potest, qui e ius rei
irnarusest, iudicari/C d. Or, iL 2. 'Ontornephysicorumquidem sit ignarus,'
C Or, 34. 'Evander vir erat renerabilis miraculo litteranim, rei novae inter rudis
artium hixnines,' L. L 7. 'Pecoris cupidissimi sunt barbari/Caes. .^. C vL 34.
'Urbanae militiae Proculus impiger fuit, bellotum insolens,' Tac H. L 87.
' GalU homines insueti laboris/ Caes. ^. (7. vil 30. 'Utiiam te, fiater, non solum
vitae sedetiam dignitatis meae sup erstitem reliquissem,* C Qu. ^. L 3. 'Mihi
quidem stultius nihil videtur, quam existimare eum studiosum tui, quern non noris,'
C. d, Pr, C, 7. 'Caveant intemperantiam, meminerint verecundiae/ C OJf. L 34.
' Plandi mer iti in me recordor/ C/. Plane. 38. ' Proprium est stultitiae, aliorum vitia
cemere, suorumoblivisci^'C. T. Z>. iil 73. 'Neque omninohuius rei meminit
nsquam poeta,' Qu. xi. 9. 'Admonitussumhuiusaerisalieni/C TV. 1.5. 'Gram-
maticos officii 8uicommonemus/Qu.i. 5. 'VenitmihiPlatonisin mentem,'C
^M. y. X. 'Beneficia debet meminisse is^inquemcoUatasunt, non commemorare,
qui contulit,' C Zaril aa 'Estoperaepretiumdiligentiammaionunrecordari/C
d,L,Agr. iL 73. 'Obliviscor iniurias^deponomemoriam dolorismei.' C/. CoeLy>.
'Ea potius reminiscere, quae digna tua peMona sunt/ C Fam, iv. 5. 'Vive me-
morleti/ Pers. V. X53. 'Omnes immemorem beneficii oderunt.' C C^ iL 63.
'Qui misereri mei debent, non desinunt invidere/ C Att, iv. 5. 'Tui me miseret»
mei piget,' C Z>m L 66. 'Numquam in re bonamali pudebit auctoris,' Sen.
Tranq, 11. 'Numquam primi consiii Deum paenitet/ Sen. Btn, 23. 'Me non
aoltmi piget stultitiae meae, sed etiam pudet/ C p. Dom, 29. * Prorsus vitae
taedet; ita sunt omnia miseriarum plenissima/ C Att, iL 84. 'Postquam Alexander
Cfitumtrucidaverat, pigereeum facti coepit/ lust. adL 6. 'Decemvirorum Ro-
»pertaesum cst»'L. iiL 67.

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428 Latin Syntax. % iSu

Obs.2. Habeo, do, idiomatically take Infin. : 'Tantum habeo
polliceri,' C.Fam.\. *Dare bibere/ L. Similarly, 'Dederat
comam diflfundere ventis, V. (for ad diffundendum).

Obs, 3. Coepit, incipit, desinit, debet, potest, solet, are
impersonal with impers. Infinitives: 'Paenitereeum Bated coepit,'
' Perveniri ad summa nisi ex principiis non potest/ Qu. x. i.

'Coeptumest,' desitum est are so used with Pass. In fin.

(Coeptus sum, desitus sum are used personally with Pass. Infin.)*

Obs, 4. The construction of In fin. with Verbs of tnotion is found
in poets: * Ego hue missa sum ludere,' Plaut

(2) The Infinitive extends also the construction of Adjectives in
poetoy, and in the prose of the Silver Age, especially in Tacitiis.
A few Adjectives are thus used by Cicero, Livy, &c, but the
greatest number appear in poetry, especially in Horace :
'Audax omnia perpeti ;' *impiger hostium vexareturmas.'
Other Adjectives so used are : aptus,blandus, bonus, callidus,catusy
cautus, celer, doctus, durus, efficax, faciUs, fortis, idoneus, impotens,
largus, lenis, natus, neglegens, par, pemix, pertinax, potens, piger,
praesens, prudens, segnis, sollers, timidus, &c.

181

Coo- II) Cases of the Infinitive (Gerunds and Supines).

«». ▼. Gerundial Construction.

The base of the Latin Gerundial Construction (as of the partially
corresponding Greek) is a Participial Adjective — the Gerundive in
dus^ which, as Pott says, is neither Active nor Passive exclusively :
\i^XiAM%y proper for drinking. This serves three uses :

(i) By its Oblique Cases (called Gerunds) it completes (with the
Supines) the Active Infinitive Verb-noun :

Sing. N. bibere. Ace bibere (ad bibendum, bibitum). Gen. bi-
bendi, Dat bibendo, AbL bibendo (in &c bibendo), bibitiL

* Copulative Verbs Passive are oftener used personally with an Infinitive than with
the Infin. Clause. Videtur errasse Cicero, not, videtur errasse Qceronem. But nuntior,
dicor, trador, credor can take the Clause. ' Nuntiatum est adesse Scipnoocm/ 0«s.
And Cic. once uses * videtur mihi ' with Clause : T. D, v. 5.

A Periphrastic or Combinate Infin. (-us esse, -urus esse, -ndus esse) frequently follows
such Verbs: and esse as often as not is suppressed. 'Titus Manlius locutus
fertur/ L. ^AflTatus dicitur undas,' Mart. 'Creditur olim velificatus
Athos/ luv. 'Secuturi vindicem libertatis videbantur/ L. 'Delectus haben-
dus putatur.' This idiom has not been adequately noticed by grammariaBS and
commentators : and hence words have been taken as Participles whidi are true Infini-
tives. Such in Horace are 'soUtus,' S. x. i. 66; 'collisa/ £>. i. a. 7. and perhaps
*adiatus,' C. L 7. 94: especially *coactus,' C. i. 16. 14, where the construction (undia^
cemed tilllately) is, ' Prometheus fertur coactus . . . etapposuisse . . . .* Prm^
metfuus is reportrd to kav* been compelled^ &c., and to have tUtacfud, &c This ex-
planation having been questioned by some on account of the coupling of Act. and Psas.
Infin., the following instances (supplied by Mr. Munro) remove that objection. ' Aut
tenui percussum verbere Circes *t cum remigibus grunnisse Elpenora porcU,'
luv. XV. ai. 'Bustis exisse feruntur r/tacitae que stt tempore noctis avi,' Ov. F,
11551. 'Emersisse iam e vadis^/scopulos praetervecta videtur oratio mea,
C. >. Catl 31. 'Ne aut velificatus alicui dicaris, amt aliquid, quod referret
■cire, reticuisse,' Cael. ap. C. Fam, viiL la Also L. I zx : Tac Ann. I 65 : Sen.
0*d 768 ; Caes. ap. C. Att. x. 3 ; Cic Att. ix. ti. So the omission of the finite est
from Perfects Pass, and Dep.^ frequent as it is, has sometimes caused these to be mis-
taken for mere Participles: 'nurata*' Hor. C. iv. 9. 15 ; *ausa,' Hor. C L 37. 25. See f 99^

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§ i82. Gerunds, 429

(Its Adjectival origin appears in Genindial Attraction.)
(2} Its Neuter Nom. with est becomes a Verb Impersonal, signify-
ing necessity y duty, meetness : * Nunc est bibendum.'

(3) As a Participle, it still signifies necessity, duty, meetness, but
has the Adjectival Construction of Attribute or Complement :
Aqua bibenda : aqua est bibenda.

vi The Gerunds. »8«

(i) In the Gerunds, two things are to be considered :

A) The cases which depend on them as Verbs.

B) Their own dependence as Oblique Cases of Noims.

A) A Gerund may govern the same Case as its Verb :

Spes satisfaciendi reipublicae.
A Transitive Gerund, in classic authors, does not generally take
an Accus., except of Pronouns or Neuter Plural Adjectives : aliquid,
multa, omnia, ac. But it may do so when rhythm or perspicuity
recommends :

' Salutem hominibus dando.'
The usual construction of a Transitive Gerund is that called
Gerundial Attraction, by which the Gerund assumes the Gen-
der and Ntmiber of its Object, and the Object assumes the Case
of the Gerund :

For * tuendi urbem' is written * tuendae urbis.'
„ ' liberandi cives' „ * liberandorum civium.'

B) Dependence of the four Gerunds :

o) The Accus. Gerund depends on Prepositions: ad, inter,
ob; rarely ante, circa, post. Ad discendum; ad
agros colendos ; inter ludendum ; ob rem iudicandam.

^ The Gen. Gerund depends, as Subjective, Descriptive, or

Objective, on numerous Substantives: amor, ars, causa

(also causa, y2?r the sake), &c
As Objective, it depends on many Adjectives which govern

a Genitive: capax, cupidus, ignarus, peritus, &c
Ars canendi ; studium dicendi ; scientia civitatis regendae ;

cupidus audiendi; conscius delendae tyrannidis; dux

bene vivendi, &c.

7) The Dat Gerund as Dativus Commodi depends on
Verbs and Adjectives of ability, attention,' and adaptation :

praeesse, operam dare, sufficere, esse, &c.; aptus, utilis, &c.
Substantives : locus, materia, sedes, &c.
(Generally) on any predication implying purpose :
'Operam dedi pingendo;' 'Aqua utilis (inutilis) bibendo,'

* Studium aptum ingeniis acuendis,' &c. : solvendonon

esse {to be insolvent).
The purpose of an office is stated in this form :
'Tiberius Gracchus triumvir dividendis agris creatus

est,' Tiberius Gracchus was elected one of three commis^

sioners to divide the lands, Flor.

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430 Latin Syntax, § 183-85.

^ The AbL Gerund is of cause^ instrument, or manner ; and
with the Prepositions de, ex, in ; rarely pro.
Mens alitur discendo^ audiendis philosophis : in iubendo ; a
scribendo ; de captivis commutandis, &c.

^ vii Impersonal Gerundive Construction.

(2) This is not used transitively, but may be without Case :

' Bibendum est,' we must drinky Ace bibendum esse :

or it may govern any Case but the Accusative :

*Serviendum estlegibus:' *utendum est aetate.'
In old Latin the Accus. was used :
' Aetemas quoniam poenas in morte timendnm,' Lucr.

X84 viii. Attributive Gerundive Construction.

(3) This is used by Transitive Verbs only :

'Aqua bibenda est,' water should be drunk.

Obs, The Gerundive may be an Epithet :

'Ridenda poemata,' ridiculous poems, luv. x.
but oftener takes a Dative Case (see p. 390) :
' Proelia coniugibus loquenda,' battles for wives to talk of, Hor.

For this Dative an Ablative of the Agent with ab may be used
if required for perspicuity.

X85 ixTNotes on Gerund and Gerundive.

i) The Verbs fungor, fruor, utor, vescor, potior, may
be used in Gerundive Construction, both attractional and attri-
butive, because they were anciently Transitive :

' Officii fungendi causa.' ' Vita non fruenda sed utenda est'

2) The Genitive Gerund is found with dependent Gen. :*
'Nobis fuit exemplorum eligendi potestas,' we had the

power of choosing examples, C. d. Inv, it 2.

3) It appears in historians as causal:

*Regium imperium conservandae libertatis fiierat,* the

royal power had existed for the preservation of freedom, Safl.

Cat 6.

A strange idiom is used by Tacitus : * Vologesi vetus et penitus

infixum erat arma Romana vitandi,' Vologeses had an old and

deeply rooted practice of shunning the Roman arms, xv. 5,

4) The Attracted Abl. is found after a Comparative :

' Nullum officium referenda gratia magis necessarium est,'
no duty is mx>re necessary than gratitude, C. Off, L 15.

* Madvig (on Gc. Fin. pu iza) sa>rs that this Gen. is always Plural. But this is
disproved by Munro (on Lucr. v. 1235), and Warner (on Tcr. Haut^ Note *g]^

,, zed by Google

x86

f 186-87. Supines. 43 1

5) The Gerundive is used as Oblique Complement with do, trado,
conduco, loco, propono, euro, &c., to express purpose :

'Scriba quidam Cn. Flavius ediscendos fastos populo pro-
posuit/ one Flavius, a clerk, published the calendar for the
people to learn by heart, C. p, Mur, 11. *Conon muros
Atnenarum reficiendos curat/ N. Con, 5. See § 131.

^o Pass. : 'Vita data est utenda,' life was given to be used,)
Poets use an Infin. for this Gerundive :
*Tristitiam et metus tradam protervis in mare Creticum
port are ventis,' sadness and terror I will deliver to the
boisterous winds to carry into the Cretan Sea, Hor. C i. 26. i.

X The Two Supines.

These are Cases of Verb-nouns of the U-dedension.

(i) The First or Accus. Supine (-urn) implies Purpose after a Verb
of actual or implied motion :

'Lusum it Maecenas, dorm it um ego/ Hor. S, L 5. 48.

d) It may take a Case :
'Hannibal defensum patriam revocatus est/ N. Han, 6,

^ Sometimes motion is rather implied than expressed :
*Coctum ego, non vapulatum conductus sum/ / was
hired to cook, not to be beaten, Plaut Aul, iil 3. 3. 'Augus-
tus filiam luliam primum Marcello, mox Agrippae nuptum
dedit/ Suet Aug. 63.

^) * Ire' with this Supine means to set about doing a thing'.

Perdltum ire, raptimi ire, ultum ire, &c.
Hence the use of the Impers. Infin. iri with the Supine to supply
a Passive form for Infin. Put

* Audierat non datum iri filio uxorem suo/ Ter. An, i. 2. 6.

d) Other constructions oftener express the purpose of motion :
* Etmt consultum ApoUinem.' For *consultum' might be used,
*ut consulerent/ *qui consulerent' *ad consulen-
dum/ * consulendi causa :' less usually, * consulturL'

Livy uses this Supine most largely.

(2) The Second or AbL Supine (-«) limits the undeclined Substan- 187
tives fas, nefas, opus, and Adjectives which signify good or evil^
pleasantness or unpleasantness, fitness or unfitness, &c.

' Nefas visu/ horrible to behold. ' Turpe dictu/ shameful to so^.

d) After some words, ad with the Gerund is more elegant :
* Cibus facillimus ad concoquendum,' C. Fin, ii. 2a

i) In poetry the Infinitive may be used :

' Cereus in vitium fleet i,' waxlike in being moulded to viUj
Hor. Pis. 161. ^ ,

uiyiuzeu uy K^JVjvJVt Iv^

432 Latin Syntax. % 188.:

c) The Supine in -« is rare after Verbs : * Pudet dictu,' Tac

d) Anciently it appears as an Ablative of Origin :

* Primus cubitu surgat vilicus, postremus cubitum eat,' the
bailiff' should be the first to get up^ the last to go to bed, Cata

Note on the Annexive Relation.

A Word is said to be in Annexive Relation to another, when it is
so joined to it by a Conjunction (expressed or understood) as to
take the same construction on the same grounds: 'Dis homini-
b usque visum est ;' *non mihi loquitur sed tibi;' *Brutumnon
minus amo quam tu, paene dixi, quam te :' where tu, by being
Nominative, shows that it is annexed to ego understood : te, 1^
being Accusative, shows that it is annexed to Brutum.

Examples of Infinitive.

'Non attinet qiiicquam sequi quod assequi non queas,' C. Offi L 31. 'Quo
mihi fortunam. a non conceditur utiT' Hor. Epist. ii. 5. 12. ' Flaccum numquampto-
qwxisse vestrae saluti paenitebit,' C/. FL 41. ' Bene sentire recteque facere tads
e s t ad bene beateque vivendum/ C Fam. vi. x. ' D e c e t verecundum esse adulescentem**
Plant. As. V. z. 'Consulem fieri valde utile Mario videbatur/ C Off, m. ao. * lovis
essenepoticontigit baud uni/Ov. Met xL 2x9. *Mihi iurato dicere fas fiiit*'
C>. Mur. 37. ' Vivere ipsum tnrpe e^ nobis,' C Ait* xjiL a8. ' Id primum videannts»
beate vivere vestrum quale sit/ C. Fin. ii. 97. 'Neque mihi praestabilius quioquam
videtur quam posse dicendo hominum voluntates impellere quo veHt, ande
autem velic deduce re/ C d. Or, i. 8. ' Honeste atque inhoneste ve n de re mos erat,
SalL Cat, jo. * Fas est et ab hoste doceri/ Ov. Af. iv. 428.

'Aristo et Pyrrho inter q;>time valere et gravissime aegrotare nihU prorsu»
dicebant interesse/ C. Fin. iL 13.

* Nondum iuga certa, nondum victoria erat; tegi magis Romanus, quam pugnare ;
Volscus inferre signa, urgere aciem, plus caedis hostium videre quam ftigae,' L.
w. 37. See SalL B. I-ug. 50. 51. 75.

'Certos mihi finis terminosque constituam, extra quos egredi non possim, sinaxiaie
Telim/ C. >. Qmtut, la 'Perge reliqua ; gestio enim scire omnia,' C Ait. iv. 11.
'Aelius Stoicusesse voluit, orator autem nee studuit umquam necfuit,' C Br. 56L
'Cato esse quam videri bonus malebat,' Sail. Cat. 54. 'Tu animum poteris in-
ducers contra haec dicere? ' C Div. L 13. ' Thraces, navlbuscommittere aenon
ausi, domos dilapsi sunt,' L. xliv. 45. ' Miltiades Chersonesl manere decre vit,' Ncp.
Miit.2. ' Desiderio Romuli populus Romanus regem flagitare non destitit,' C. B^
ii. X2. 'Spartaepueri rapere discunt/ C. Bep. iv. 5. 'Vossociisprospicere labo-
ratis/ C. Ferr.m. 55. ' Sestii mortem uldsceremini, si liberi esse cogitaretis,'
C /. Sest. 38. 'Datames Aegyptum proficisci parabat/ N. Dat. 4. 'Fortes et
sapientes viri non tarn praemia sequi solent recte iactorum quam ipsa recte fiu»^*
C >. Mil. 35. 'Verus patriae diceris esse pater/ Mart. Sp. iiL xi. 'Amens
mihi fuisse videor a principio/ C Att. ix. xa 'Barbara narratur venisse vene-
fica tecum/ Ov. /T. vL X9. ' In Graeda primum htmunitas, litteiae, etiam Ihiges ii»-
ventae esse creduntur/ Rin. Ep. viiL 84. 'Existimatnr Caelius CariKnarft
nimium familiaris fuisse/ C /. CagL 4. ' Prtmiethetis affixus Cancaso trade*
batur/C T. D. v. 3. 'Commisisse cavet quae mox mutare laboret,' Hor. na
Pis. i6i. 'Romani pepercisse volunt,' L. xxxil ax. 'Content! snmus VltaA
unum dixisse, quanti ille fuerit/Vell. iL xo8. 'Si potuit meruisse necen, me-
ruisse putetur/ Ov. //. xL X09. 'Haec fere dicere habni de natura deonim,* C
N'.D. iiL 39. 'Gallinis meridie bibere dato,' Cat. 89. 'Legati Cehiberorum mbSL
prius petierunt apraetore quam ut bibere sifai iuberet dari,' L. xL 47. 'Loeere
coepit/C I>iv. i. 93. 'Non desiit paenitere me nisoepti adversus RomanosbdB«*
L. xxiiL 13. 'Solet eum, ami aliquid furiose fecit, paenitere/ C Att. ymi. 5.
' Armis disceptari coeptum est de iure publico,' C Fam. iv. 4. 'lampridem cootrm
eosdesitumestdisputari/C. ^M«. ii. X3. ' Cbmitia nostra haberi coepta sont,*
C ysrr. L 9. 'Papirius Crassus primus Pa4>isius est vocari desitus,' C Fatm. ix. iiz.

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S 188. Gerunds and Supines. 43 j

'Gkbae coeperemoveri,* Ov. M. uL 106. ' Is est maxime docQis qui attentisame est>
paratus audire,' C Inv. i. x6. ' Reficit rates quassas, indocilis pauperiem pati,'
Hot. C. L X. ' Maesta dvitas iuit, vinci insueta,' L. iy. 31.

Examples of Gerunds and Gerundive.

L (Gerunds and Gerundial AtiracHon,') 'Fueruntapud Romanos qui assentando
multitudini grassarentur/ L. xlv. 33. ' Diogenes dicebat, artem se tradere bene dis>
serendi et vera ac falsa diiudicandi/ C d. Or. n, 2^ 'Ita nati (actiqae
sumus, ut et agendi aliquid et diligendi aliquos, et libertatis, et referendae
gratiae principia in nolns contineremus,' C Fin. v. 15. ' Nulla causa iusu cuiquam
esse potest contra patriam arma capiendi/C PkxL u. 33. 'Legem doctissimi viri
Giaeco putant nomine a su urn culque tribuendo appellatam,' C Leg. L x6. 'Cemitur
in delectu bonoram et malorum iustitia, et in suo cuique tribuendo/ C Fm. v. 23.
'N<m solum ad discendum propensi sumus, verum etiam ad docendum/ C Fin.
m. aa 'Oculus conturbatus non est probe affectus ad suum munus fungendum,'
C. T. D^OLj. ' Mores puerorum se inter ludendum.simpliciusdetc|(unt,' Qu. L 3.
xa. 'Plagitiosum est, eum, a quo pecuniam ob absolvenuum acceperis, condem*
nare,' C Verr, \L 3a. 'Homo magna habat instrumenta ad obtinendam adipi-
seendamque sapientiam/ C Leg. L aa. 'Eadem precor a dis immortalibus ob
L. Murenae consu latum una cum salute obtinendum,' C. >. Mur. x. * Nihil Xeno-
pbonti tam r^ale videtur quam studium agri colendi/ C. Cat. N. ly. 'Veni
consulis Antoni domum saepe salutandi causa,' C. Fam. xL a8. ' Reliqua, ita mihi
sahis aliqua detur potestasque inpatria moriendi, ut me lacrimae non sinunt scri-
bere,'C Q. Fr. L 3. 'lustitiae fruendae causa videntur olimbene morati reges
coostituti,' C OJ^. iL xa. ' Pythagoreonun more exercendae memoriae gratia
quid quoque die dixerim, audierim, egerim, commemoro vesperi,' C Cat. M. xi.
'EpamittondaSt studiosus erat audiendi/ Nep. J?/. 3. 'Demosthenes Platonis
studiosus audiendi fuit/ C d. Or. x. aa 'Homines be Han di cupidi magno
dolore affidebantur,' Caes. B, G. L a. 'Multi propter gloriae cupiditatem cupidi
sunt bellorum gerendorum,' C. OJ^. i. aa. 'Multae res oratorem ab imperito
dicendi ignaroque distinguunt,' C d Or. m. 44. 'Mons pecori bonus alendo
erat,' L. xzix. 31. ' Ver tamquam adulescentiam significat ostenditque fructus futuros ;
rdiquatemporademetendisfructibus et percipiendis accommodata sunt/C
Cat. M. 19. 'Tu, Erud, praeesse agro colendo flagitium putas?' C /. 5". Rose. x8.
'Consul placandis dis dat operam,' L. zxii a. 'Galli Transalpini haud procul
inde, ubi nunc Aquileia est, locum oppido condendo ceperunt,' L. xxxix. aa.
'Midtarum ciidtatum prindpes ad me detulerunt, sumptus decemi l^;atis nimis magnos,
cum soWendo'dvitates non essent,' C. Font. vL 8. 'Tributo plebes liberataest,
ut dhritesconferrent,qnioneri ferendo essent,' L. iL 9. ' Decern viros legibus
scribendis intra hos decem annos et creavimus et e republica sustulimus,' L. iv. 4.
'Valerius consul comitia coUegae subrogando habuit,' L. iL 8. 'Hominis mens
disceado alitur et cogitando^' C. Off. L 3a 'Omnis loquendi elegantia augetur
legendis oratoribus et poetis,' C d. Or. iiL xa 'Aristotdem non deterruit a
scribendo Platoois amplitudo,' C. d. Or. x. 'Malta de beite beateque vivendo a
Platoae diqmtata sunt,' C Fin. L x ' Ex providendo appellata est prudentia,' C Leg.
L 33. 'Saq>e plus in metuendo mali est, quam in illo qwo, quod timetur/ C Fam.
vi. 4. 'In voluptate spernenda virtus vel maTJmft cemitur,' C Leg. L 19.
' Reliquorum siderum quae causa coUocandi fuerit, quaeque eorum sit coUocatio,
inaHum sermonem differendum est,' C. Tim. 9. 'Agitnr, utrum M. Antonio facultas
detar opprimendae rvi. publicae, caedis faciendae bonorum, diripiendae
urbis, agrorum suis condonandi,' C Phil. v. 3. 'Aedui legatos ad Caesarem
SOI pargandi gratia mittunt,' Caes. B. G, viL 43. 'Haec prodendi imperi
RomAni, tradendae Hannibali victoriae sunt,* L. xxvii 9.

II. i^mpers* andAttrib. Genrndioe.) 'Hie vobis vincendum ant moriendam
«ac, milites,' L. xxi. 43. ' Orandum est ut sit mens sana in corpore sano,' luv. lu
356. 'Noncorpori soli subveniendum est, sedmenti atqueanimo multo magis,
C Cat. M. XI. 'Suum cuique incommodmn ferendum est podus, quam de alterius
commodis detrahendum,' C OJ^. iiL 6. 'Apud Pythagoramdiscipulis quinque
axmistacendum e rat,' Sen. E^ 5a. 'Tria videnda sunt oratori : quid dicat, et
quoquicque loco, et quomodo,'C Or. 14. 'Semper ita vivamus ut rationem red den-
da^ nobis arbitremur,* C Verr. iL xx. 'Pietati summa tribueada laus est,' C
d Or. iL 4a 'Quaeritur, praeponendane sit divitiis gloria,' C Top. aa. 'Sno
cuique iudicio est utendum,' C N. D.m. x. 'Sentio moderandum mihi esse

F F

■ • uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^ v^pt i-V.

434 Latin Syntax. § ig^

CHAPTER IV.
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE.

Section L

SUBORDINATION OF GLAUSES.
(See Chapter L § locx)

Sqiwr- Subordinate Clauses are of three kinds :

Clauses. .-f) Substantival ; i?) Adverbial ; C) Adjectival or Relative.

A) On Substantival Clauses see § roo, p. 349.

B) An Adverbial Clause cjualifies the Principal S«itence

like an Adverb, answenng the questions k<ne^ wA^,

Such Clauses are of seven kinds :

Consecutive (so that) Conditional {tf, unless^ &ic)

Final {in onicr thai) Concessi%'e {alth&Mgh^ &c)

Causal (Ifcaime, since^ Sic.) Comparative {as t^&c^)

Temporal {when^ luhilsi^ Sec.)

C) An A d j e c t i v a 1 or Relative Ckiuse is formed by the Rdarivc

qui or one of its Particles. When this contains si^me
Ad\'crbial sense {so ihat^ in order that^ since^ tf^ altkaugk\
it generally exhibits the Subjunctive Mood.

inmoiationi meae/C Verr. m. 43. ' Ioti?liegut quibm credendom «t « qailiti*
CAvehflum 5it,' h. lauaw 39, ^Aguntur bona omltorttm dviuni, quiltai est a Wbit
etipsorum ct reipnUioic causa con su lend utn/ C ^. L. Mam, 0. ^Spectjitidui eq
certaniine Marib/ Hor C iv, 14, * Thiasybtilcs kgtui obltvionis ^00 aaiiMi
f^rendani curavit, scd eliani ut vileret etfcdt,' Ntp. TAmt^ 3. ^ Pijem «8'
tenciasi edisceadas damu^' Sen. £y, ^ '^ Redemptfa' oeJiinuijUii tofifi coa-
d Li xera t f ac leii da m./ C Dw. u. u.

Examples of Supme«v.

{Fmi St^mt.} 'ConDlaatift m Yoltoos exsuHtiim abiit^'L, ii 35, ' Le^wti ab
Honu veoetuiit qucstum iaiui-tas et ei foedert res rtpetitum," L uL li^
*Quidest» rra5$e, inqiiit tiiliu$, LmiiAne ^cfiumf Etid ftdoiQDituai v-coilttttl^
iK»i flagitatuni/ C *£ Or. Hi. 5, *Cur te is pcrdituoiT' Ter, >fit, t t^ xof. "*l7!bi*»
flagitib dedccoravere curpi^slmi viri^ bononim praemia cr«ptum gutif,* Sail /i^^lj^
'In ciUi spem ^recta civUa* erat* in Airier eo atma debel latum iri/ L. xxil 14,
* Dumuorix pr0pinqi,t?s stm* nuptnm in hIiia dvitaiet collocavit/ Caev i?. C. L i^

(J?f(?»<f Supime.) ' Nairatio brevts cKe, *i noa tos^us, qiiam quod scitfl opoi
«i^ in nairando protcdctur,' C /kp. i. a& * Humanus aaynii.^ cum aljo dxUId^ oatcu*
ipso dec, la bDC fas est dictu. coajpararl potwt,' C. T D.y.j^ ■ Quid st 1i0
iucuudum coijiiiiu atque audilu quam sapieptibvis Mmcntiia c^vibvsiQe veibii
oTiiflta mutio?" Ci/. Cr. i. S. 'Quod optiinuiJi faciu videUtur^ fjicieib* C ^M- ^
73. ' Ad itniEandum tarn m^ praposatiua exonplar iUudje« iiuan tN,' C JiJlto^ ^'

Digitized by VjOOQIC

5 I90-9I- Suboblique Construction. 435

Section 1 1.

SUBOBLIQUE CONSTRUCTION.

i Oratio Obliqua. OrX

i) Oratio Obliqua (in distinction from Oratio Recta, direct "^
eration) is a term especially applied to Substantival Clauses, and,
above all, to the Infinitive Clause and its substitutes.

2) A subordinate or dependent Clause may have another depend-
ing on it ; and in a long Compound Sentence, or Period, there may
thus bfe 2i primary y secondary ^ &c., dependence of clauses.

If the Verb (whether Infin. or Finite) of a primary dependence
forms Oratio Obliqua, the Verb oi a following dependence is 'Sub-
ordinate to Oratio Obliqua,' or (in one word) Suboblique.

It. The first important Rule of dependent Construction is this :

I) A Suboblique Finite Verb is in the Subjunctive
Mood.

This is seen by comparison of the two following passages :
Oratio Recta : *Ars earum rerum est quae sciuntur ; oratoris
autem omnis actio opinionibus, non scientia, continetur :
nam et apud eos dicimus, qui nesciunt, et ea dici-
mus, qiiae nescimus ipsi,' C. d. Or. ii. 7.
Oratio Obliqua: (Antonius apud Ciceronem docet:) Art em
earum rerum esse, quae sciantur : oratoris autem omnem
actionem opinione, non scientia, contineri; quia et
apud eos dicat^ qui nescianty et ipse diccU quod nesciat.

Here *artem esse,* 'actionem contineri/ form Oratio Obliqua,
and the Finite Verbs in subsequent dependence (sciantur, dicat,
nesciant, nesciat) are therefore Subjunctive.

lU. But, secondly, a principal Verb often contains more than is virtual
expressed by the mere form ; not merely the writer's or speaker's Oratio
declaration, but an implied opinion or assertion of some other ; Obliqua.
upon which the Verb of the primary clause may depend. Such a
principal predication has been called by some writers * Cogitatio
Obliqua;' but a more convenient term is 'Virtual Oratio
Obliqua:' from which it follows that the dependent Verb is
Virtually Suboblique.

Hence results the second Rule of dependent Construction:
namely,

II) A Finite Verb virtually Suboblique is in the Sub-
juhctive Mood.

Laudat Africanum Panaetius quod fuerit abstinens.
(' Laudat' implies 'ait esse laudandum.')

Caesar Aeduos frumentum, quod polliciti essent, fiagitabat
(Flagitabat implies that Caesar reminded the Aedui of their
promise. Hence the Mood of pollic\ti essent) ^r\r\n\f>

^

436 Latin Syntax, § 192-93.

A mere change in the Mood of the dependent Verb may cause
a change of reference to, or from, the writer or speaker :
'Themistocles noctu ambulabat in publico, quod somnmn
capere non p o s s e t.'

Here the mood of posset (and this alone) refers the clause to
the mind of Themistocles, who alleged inability to sleep as the
reason why he was in the luibit of wafidng by night Had poterat
been written, the sentence would still be good Latin, but the cause
would then rest on the assertion of the writer (Cicero).

It. The principle of Rules II. and III. is, that dependence on a
conception must itself be conceptive ; and, as the Conjunctive is the
Mood of Conception, this leads to the third important rule :
19a
Depen- III) A Verb really dependent on a Conjunctive Verb
dOTocon is generally Subjunctive:

jum:- 'Equidem illud molior, ut mihi Caesar concedat ut absim, cum

*^* aliquid in senatu contra Gnaeum a g a t u r,' C. -^ //. ix. 6. * Quaerimus
qualis in bello praedonum praedo ipse fuerit Verres, qui in foro
populi Romani pirata nefarius reperiaturP'C Verr, L 59. * Erat
m Hortensio memoria tanta ut, quae secum commentatus
esset, ea sine scripto verbis eisdem redderet, quibus cogita-
visset,' C. Br. 88.

Agatur is Subjunctive, being dependent on absim; reperi-
atur, on qualis fuerit ; commentatus esset and cogitavisset,
on redderet

193
Exccp- T. Exceptions to the Law of Mood in Dependence.

i) A Clause which seems, by its position, to depend on Oratio
Obuqua, may be independent ; that is, it may contain a hxX in-
troduced by the author : in which case the Mood will be Indie :

'Caesari nuntiatum est, Sulmonensis, quod oppidum a Cor-
finio septem miHum intervallo abest, cupere ea facerc, quae
vellet, sed a Q. Lucretio senatore et Attio Paeligno profaibeijL
qui id oppidum septem cohortium praesidio tenebant,' Caes. B. ci
i. 18.

The Clauses quod . . . abest and qui . . . tenebant con-
tain facts stated by the historian, and are not part of the message
received by Caesar. But quae vellet is dependent

2) A short Relative Clause, especially when it inmiediately fol-
lows a Demonstrative, is often constructed independently of Oratio
Obliqua, being regarded as a mere epithet :

'Eloquendi vis efficit ut ea quae ignoramus discere, et ea
quae scimus alios docere possunus,' C. N, D. il 59.

3) Dum (whilst) is sometimes constructed with Present Indie,
even when subordinate to Oratio Obhqua :

'Quanto laudabilius periturum Pisonem, dum amplecti-
tur rempublicam, dum auxilia libertati invocat!' Tac A$m^
XV. 59.

(Other reasons may occur, inducing an author to exempt a
Clause from the general law and to keep the 'Indie Moo<^'^

tions.

§ 194* Substantival Clauses. 437

Section III.

SUBSTANTIVAL CLAUSES.

1) Indirect Statement (Enuntiatio Obliqua). ,^

This has three forms : (i) first and principally the Infinitive tive
Clause : (2) the Ut-clause : (3) the Quod-clause. Clause.

A. The Infinitive Clause, or Accusative with
Infinitive.

i) This is introduced

As Object, by ' Verba Declarandi et Sentiendi/ Verbs which
state or imply ^fact^feelingy or opinion.

Such are: d) aio, dico, fateor, nego, scribo, &c., auctor sum;
certiorem fedo: b) audio, credo, disco, puto, scio, spero, &c.,
gaudeo, gratulor, &c.

As Subject, by the Passives of such Verbs; by Impersonal
Verbs of those meanings: apparet, constat, interest, patet,
placet, &c. ; by est with many Adjectives^ certum est, credibile
(perspicuum, £Edsum, probabile, verum* verisunile, utile, &c) est

As Apposite, by Substantives and Pronouns : fama (mos, rumor,
spes, fas, &c) est ; illud certum est, illud nego, and the like.

2) The Tense of the Infinitive Verb will be such as sense and
consecution require.

Dico (dicam, dixero)
eum venire, thai he is coming ; eum venisse, thcU he has come ;
eum venturum esse, that he will come.

Examples of Suboblique Construction.

I) *Cato mirari se aiebat quod non rideret haruq>exy haru9pice«P cum vi-
disset/ C Div, iL 34. 'Scito me, postquam in urbem venerim, redisse cub
fibris in gratiam,' C ^oim. iz. z. ' Fateor me oiatorem, ti modo aim, ex Academiae
qiatiiA exstitisse/ C ^m. v. 5. z. ' Sapientissimum esse dicunteum, cui, quod
opus sit, ipsa veniat in mentem ; propius accedere ilium, qui alterius bene in-
ventis obtemperet,'C>. C/». 31.

II) 'Quereris quod non, Cinna, bibamus idem/ Mart. xiL 38. 'Alium rogantes
regem misere ad lovem, inutilis quoniam esset qui fuerat datus,* Phaed. i. 3.
'Darius eius pontis, dum ipse abesset, cnstodes reliquit,' N. Milt. 3. ' In Hispania
prorogatum veteribns iraperatoribus est imperium cum exerdtibus quos baberent,' L.
xL z8. 'Cum abessem,quotienscunque patria in mentem veniret, haec omnia
occurrebant, colles campique et.Tiberis et hoc caelum sub quo natus educatusque
essem,' L. v. 54.

III) 'Dici non potest quin n, qui nihil metuant, nihil angantur, nihQ con-
cnpiscant, beati sint,' C 71 D. v. ^^. 'Hirri necessarii fidem implorarunt Pompeii \
praestaret quod profidscenti recepisset,' Caes. A C. iiL 8. 'Miraretur qui
cerneret,' h, zzxiv. 9. 'Isto bono utare dum adsit, cum absit ne requiras,'
C Cat. M. zo.

(JExce^tums.) 'Themistodet Xerxem certiorem fedt id agi ut pons, quem in Helles-
ponto fecerat, dissoiveretur/ N. Th, 9. 'Placet Stoids eos anhelitus tcrrae, qui
frigidi sunt, cum fluere coeperint, Yentos esse,' C. Div. iL Z9. 'Die, hospes, Spartae
nos te hie Tidiase iaoentia, dum Sanctis patriae le^bus obsequimur/ 1^. Qc
r. D. L 42.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

43^ Latin Syntax, % 194.

Copias mitti, thai forces axe being sent ; copias missas esse, that
forces have been sent ; copias missum iri, that forces will be sent,

Dicebam (dixi^ dixeram)
eum venire^ that he was coming; eum venisse, thcU he had
come ; eum venturum (esse), that he would come,

Copias mitti, that forces were being sent ; copias missas esstythat
forces had been sent ; copias missimi iri (or missas fore), that forces
would be sent.

For copias missum iri may also be used :

* Futurum (or fore) ut copiae mittantur {will) . . . mitterentur
i^ould),*

If the Clause is to express that something would have happened
or not, this is done by using,

For Active sense, the Future Participle with fuisse :
Dico (dixi) . . . eum venturum fuisse, I say {said) that hs would
have come (lit was about to come).

For Passive sense, futurum fuisse ut with Passive Subjunctive:
Dico (dixi) futurum fuisse ut copiae mitterentur, / say {said)

that forces would have been sent (lit it was about to happen that

forces would be sent).

3) Verbs, which by their meaning imply that the dependent
action is Future, usually take a Future Infinitive Clause.

Such are Verbs of promising^ vowing y threatening^ hoping :
PoUiceor, promitto, recipio, spondeo, voveo; minor, minitor;
spero, despero, spes est :
Pollicentur, minantur se ita facturos.
Speramus, spes est eum venturum esse.

a) Such Verbs are also found with a Present Clause :

*Modo siun pollicitus ducere,' /just now promised to marry
her, Ter. An, iii 5. 7. * Haec scripsi ut sperares te assequi
id quod optasses,' C. Fam. ii. 10. See M. Lucr, i. 722,

And when spero implies belief-.

* Spero nostram amicitiam non egere testibus,' C. Fam. iL 2.

b) Posse after a Verb oi hoping gives a Future character to the
Clause :

*Velme licet existimes desperare ista posse perdiscere//^
may deem that even I have no hope that I can learn those
things thoroughly^ C. d Or. i. 36.

4) An Infinitive Clause, used Interrogatively without a principal
Verb, expresses Indignation :

* Mene incepto desist ere victam V whaty I be vanquished^ and
abandon my design t Verg. Ae. i. 37. * O praeclarum imperatorem !
tantumne vidisse in metu periculoque provinciaer' C Verr,
V. 5. ' Ita comparatam essehominum naturam !' Ter. H, iii. i.

Ut with a Subjunctive may be used for the same purpose :
'Te ut uUa res frangat?' the idea that anything will humble
you, C. Cat, i, I. 'Tibi ego ut credam, furcifer?' Ter. An. iii 5-

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

{ 194. Substantival Clauses. 439

5) In the Infin. Clause the following ellipses occur :

a) An Indefinite Subject imderstood in the Subjective Con-

struction :
^Conveniet in dando^munificum esse (aliquem)/ C. Off.
ii 18.

b) A Reflexive Pronoun omitted :

'Ferre non posse clamabit/ C. T. D. ii. 17. * Id nescire
Mago dixit,' L. xxiii. 63.

Most frequently with the Fut. Infin. :

*L. CaeciUus agrariae legi intercessorem fore professus
est,* CaecUius declared mat he would interpose to forbid
the agrarian law, Q.p. Sull. 13.

Esse is at the same time often omitted :

* Brutus populum iureiurando adegit, neminem Romae pas-

suros regnare,' Brutus made the people swear they would
allow no one to be king at Rome, L. ii. i.

(Poets sometimes use the Greek idiom, by which the Nom,
of the principal Verb becomes also the Subject of the
Infin.

'Phaselus iUe . . . aitfuisse navium celerrimus,' Ca-
tulL iv. I. 'Sensit medios delapsus in hostis/ Verg.
Ae. ii. 377. *Vir bonus et sapiens dignis ait esse pa-
ratus,' Hon Epist. i. 7. 23.. 'Rettulit Aiax esse lovis
pronepos/ Ov. M. xiii. 141.

A £cur bolder instance is :

* Acceptum refero versibus, essenocens/ Ov. TV. ii. 10.
Compare Hor. C. i 37. 31. iii. 16. 32.)

c) A Demonstr. Pronoun omitted if there is no ambiguity :

' Valerius dictatura se abdicavit. Apparuit causa plebi, suam
vicem indignantem magistratu abisse,' Valerius resigned
the dictatorship : the motive was clear to the plebeians,
that he quitted office from indignation on their account,
L. ii. 31.

d) A Verb omitted in a Correlative Clause, subordinate to In-

finitive, its Noun being attracted to the Accusative :
*Te suspicor eisdem rebus, quibus me ipsum, interdum
grav^us commoveri,' / suspect you are sometimes stirred
too deeply by the same things which stir me, C. CM. i.
Quibus me ipsum is for quibus ipse commoveor.

6) The ambiguous construction of two Accusatives, Subject and
Object (as in me famous oracle, *Aio te, Aeacida, Romanos vin-
cere posse *), may be evaded by using the Passive Construction.
Thus render, * / believe that Marcus loves you^ (not, * Credo
Marcum te amare,' but) * Credo te a Marco amari.'

7) The English, '1/ is said of Homer that he was blind,* or * they
say of Homer that he was blind,* or * Homer, they tell us (it is said),
was blind,* is rendered by one of the constructions, * tradunt (tra-

uiyiuzeu uy x^j^^^x^ p* i_v^

440 Latin Syntax, j 195.

ditur) Homerum caecum fiiisse,' or 'traditur Homerus caecus
fuisse.' But the use of de is not inadmissible :

' De Tirone, video tibi curae esse/ C

8) On the Personal Construction of Passive Copulative Verbs,
see Note, p. 427.

9) 'Memini me videre' or 'memini videre,' / remember seeing.

* Memini me vidisse,' / remember that I saw (at a specific time).

* Memineram me vidisse/ / remembered that I had seen,

'95

ut- B. Ut-clause for Infinitive Clause.

U t {that\ with Subjunctive, for the Infin. Clause, is used as Sub-
ject, to express consecutiveness. It depends on

i) Impersonal Verbs : est, esto, abest, accedit, accidit, con-
tingit, evenit, fit, interest, refert, reiinquitur, restat, sequi-
tur, superest, usu venit, &c See M. Lucr, L 442.

2) Est, with an Adj. or Adv. complement: aec^uum, consen-

taneum, consequens, extremum, iniquum, msitum, inte-
grum, par, ranim, rectiun, reliquum, tritum, usitatum,
utile, verisimile, verum, &c. : prope, satis est, &c.

3) Est, with a Subst: consuetudo, mos, vitium, and others.
This Ut-clause is often in apposition to a Noun or Pronoun.

Examples: 'Est ut viro vir latius ordinet arbusta sulcis,'
Hor. C. ii. i. 'Ad Appii Claudii senectutem accedebat etiam
ut caecus esset,'C. Co/. J/. 6. 'Est hoc commune vitium . . .
ut invidia gloriae comes sit,' C. Verr. ii. 65.

Obs, I. Owing to the nature of this clause, it seldom contains a
negative ; but if it does, the negatives are non, nihil, nullus, &c.

'Fuit hoc in Crasso, ut non tarn existimari vellet non didi-
cisse^ quam . . . nostrorum hominum prudentiam Graecis ante-
ferre,' C,d,OrA\,i. 'Soli hoc contingit sapienti ut nihil £&ciat
invitus, nihil dolens, nihil coactus,' C. Par. v. i. 'Est ut ple-
rique philosophi nulla tradaat praecepta dicendi, et habeant
paratum tamen, quid de quaque re dicant,' C. d. Or. iL 36.

Obs. 2. On the other hand, ut, implying purpose (as in Petitio
Obliqua)^ takes n.e^ nequis, &c, in negation. See Examples, p. 446*

Certain predications may sometimes imply consequence only (in-
troducing an Oblique Enunciation), sometimes purpose (intro-
ducing Oblique Petition). Such are facere, fieri, efficere^ &c.;
expedit, interest, refert, placet, prodest, utile est, &c ; condicio
(consilium, ius, munus) est ; and others.

The following passage shews ObL Petition and ObL Enuntiation
dependent on the same word : ' Ex hoc efficitur non ut voluptas
ne sit voluptas, sed ut voluptas non sit summum bonum,* the
result of this is not that pleasure will cease to be pleasure^ but that
pleasure is not the chief goody C. Fin, ii. 8. The first resiilt \s pur-
posed (ut ne sit), the second consecutive (ut non sit).

See the use of ' ita ne ' in Consecutive Clauses.

Obs, 3. Ut Consecutive with predications oi affirming^ tkinkimg^
ot perceruinig, is confined to one or two expressions : ^

uiyiuzeu uy ■n^JVJvJVJ Iv

§ 196. Substantival Quod-clause. 441

'Qui probari potest ut sibi animus mederi non possit?' how
can we oe satisfied that the mind is unable to heal itself f C. T, D.
iiL 3. Hence it rarely forms Objective Clauses. See V. Aetu
xL 153.

Care must therefore be taken not to confound it with the Interrog.
Particle ut {Jiow\ which often forms such clauses: 'V idem us
ut luna solis limien accipiat,' C d. Or, iii. 5. See § 202.

OAr. 4. Licet, oportet, necesse est, when they take the Sub-
junctive, usually omit ut : ' Licet pauca degustes,' you may taste
a few samples^ C. Att, xvL 8. ' Me ipsum ames oportet,' C.
Ftn il 28. 'Oratio, si res non subest, aut nulla sit necesse est
aut omnium irrisione ludatun' a speech without matter must be
either not delivered or laughed at by everybody ^ C. d. Or. L 12.

Z96

C. Quod-clause for Infin. Clause« ^«i-

Quod, that^ with Indie (but, if Suboblique, with Subjunctive)
stands for the Infin. Clause, eitiiier to mark distinctly that a fact
is expressed, or to shew that the Oratio Recta finds its Cause in a
fact

i) For the former purpose it appears

As Subject, with accedit, accidit, apparet, evenit, fit, interest,
nocet, obest, occurrit, parum est, prodest, &c ; or widi est and a
Substantive : causaest, consolatio est, vitium est, &c

As Object, with ad do, adicio, animadverto, excuso, fado, mitto,
nihil moror, non dico, omitto, praetereo, praetermitto, &c.

And in Apposition to Pronouns.

2) For the latter purpose it is joined to Verbs of Emotion, ex-
pressingy<^, sorrow^ surprise ^ praise^ blame, indignation^ &a

As Subject, to do let, iuvat, gratum (indignum, mirum, per-
gratum) est, &c

As Object, to accuso^ admiror, a^;re (graviter, indigne, mo-
leste) fero, angor, bene facio, delector, doleo, gaudeo, glorior, gra-
tulor, ignosco, indignor, laetor, laudo, miror, obicio, queror, repre-
hendo, &c

Examples: * Accedit hue quod postridie ille venit,' C. Fam,
viii. 2. ' Adde quod pubes tibi crescit omnis,* Hor. C. ii. 8. * Mag-
num beneficium est naturae quod necesse est mori,' Sen. J^.
103. ' Inter causas malorum nostrorum est, quod vivimus ad
exempla,' C. N. D. ii. 53. * Habet hoc optimum in se generosus
animus, quod concitatur ad honesta,' a noble mind has this chief
merit, that its impulse is to virtue, Sen. Ep. 39. 'Benefacis
q^uod me adiuvas,' C. Fin. iii. 15. * Gratum est quod patriae
avem populoque dedisti,' luv. xiv. 70. * Dolebam quod socium
et consortem gloriosi laboris amiseram,' C. Br. i. * Quod spi-
ratis, ^uod vocem mittitis, indignantur,' L. iv. 3. * Caesar ad
me scnpsit gratissimum sibi esse quod quieverim/ C Fam.
viii. II.

'Obs. I. After predications of Emotion in the ist Pers., the Clause
is often Indie, because the speaker states the groimd of his own
feeling. But after 2nd or 3rd Pers., often Subjunctive, when the
writer or speaker ascribes the ground to the mind of another:

uiyiuzeu uy x_j ^^^ wVJ Iv^

OWqua.

442 Latin Syntax. j 197.

* Quereris quod non, Cinna, bibamus idem,' Mart xiL 28. * Nemo
umquam est oratorem, quod Latine loqueretur, admiratus/ C
H, Or, iii. 14.

Obs. 2. Predications of Emotion are connected with the Infinidve
Clause, or with quod, for which cum sometimes occurs :

dolet mihi ( ^^ ^egrotare \

angoranin>o j?-<l-J^^|/— '^^— ^'- ^

J (teconvaluisse \
fra^or J ^"0^ convaluisti \l am glad ycfu are recovered,
granuor y^^^y^j^ convaluisti J

Obs, 3. On the use of quod in connectin^^ sentences, see § 82.
'Quod scire vis qua quisque in te fide sit et voluntate, difficile
dictu est de singuhs,' C. Pam, i. 7.

Obs. 4. Quod, that, after a Verb of thinking or declaring (except
in Apposition to a Pronoun) is hardly classical ; but, in later Latin,
it became a common barbarism.^

Pedtio M) Indirect Will-speech (Petitio Obliqua).
i) This Clause is the Oblique form of an Imperative Sentence.

It may be introduced by ut final, ut ne, ne (ne quis, &c.) with
Subjunctive ; depending (as Subject, Object, or Apposite) on pre-
dications expressing :

Concession^ permission, demand, entreaty, exhortation; advice,
persuasion, impulsion, compact (paciscor, rarely spondeo,
debeo) ; command, direction, will, or any forms which may imply
these (dico, mitto, monstro, nuntio, respondeo, scribo) ; also, care,
provision, endeavour ; achieving, ejecting, conducing, &c. These
include such phrases as condicio (ius, lex, munus, r^ula, &c)
est.«

2) Most of these predications can omit ut before the Subjunc*
tive ; but some always keep it :

Cogis (mones, scribis, auctor es, id agis, impetras, &c.) ut earn.
Oravi (suasi,hortatus sum, mandavi, &c.) ut adesses ; adesses.

3) Such predications point to the attainment of an end. When
they take n^, prevention is implied ; and most can take ne, except
iubeo, nolo, and a few more.

Rogas (imperas, operam das, efficis, &c.) ut ne {xi€\ quis eat.
Suasisti (pactus es, misisti, voluisd, &c.) ut ne (ne)abessem.

* A few words (acddit, evenit, interest, &c.) admit all three EnuntiatiTe Clatises, while
many are used with two of them. Care must be taken to note these uses, and to dia-
crinunate them where this is possible. But between some there seems little ot zm> difier^
ence. We may write. * Rectum est maiori parere minorem,' or * Rectum est ut maiori
minor pareat : ' ' Gaudeo te salvum redisse/ or ' Gaudeo quod (cum) salvus redisti.'

" {yerbs on which Petitio Obliqua depends^ : concedo, do, patior, permittoj, sine : oro.

rogo, peto, poetulo, contendo, precor, obsecro ; hortor ; cogo, impello, bictto, indaco,
moneo, moveo, persuadeo, suadeo, auctor sum ; censeo, decemo, edico^ iubeo, impero»

— — "- =-— - -' '--- -^ — _;— -initor, operam do, prop--^"

mmitto» effido, perack
or in L. and Lucr. ii. x;

uized by Google

mando, praedpio ; placet ; caveo, euro, Cacio, id ago, nitor, enitor, operam do, prospicio,
studeo, xideo, provideo ; adipiscor, assequor, consequor, committo» effido, peracio, in-
petrok evinco^ pervinco ; opto, volo, nolo« malo« &c Blandior in L. and Lucr. ii. 173*

§ I9S-20I. Petitio ObHqucL 443

4) Another Class of Verbs points to the prevention of an end.
Of these caveo, when it means beware^ takes or omits ne:

* Cave ne titubes 'or * cave titubes.'

WtXo^ forbid, takes ne, and very rarely omits it (in poetry).

Prohibeo, forbid, takes ne and quominus ; also deprecoc,
deterreo, dissiiadeo, impedio, intercedo, interdico, invideo, obsto,
officio^ pugno, repugno, recuso, resisto, tempero, teneo, contineo,
terreo, veto, and others of like import Some of these admit quin.

5) Quominus. Quo.

Quominus (»uteo minus) with Subjunctive depends on predi-
cations implying hindrance. Such predication is often negative or
interrogative ; but it may be positive.

To the Verbs above cited which take quominus, may be added
abstineo, arceo, cohibeo, defendo, moror, mora est, religio est,
impedimentum est, &c. ; fieri, stare per aliquem.

Nulla religio est quominus adsim, I have no scruple about
coming.

Per te stetit quominus s^^^ssem, you stood in the way of my
coming. ^^

6) Quin : see M. Lucr. L 58^ Quia.

The Consecutive Conjunction quin, but that (quf-ne = ut non, cur
non), with Subjunctive depends on predications which deny (or go
near to deny) a preventing cause. Such predications are always
either n^ative (non, haud, nihil, &c), quasi-negative (vix, aegre,
minimum, paulum), or interrogative (quid? num? &c.).

Verbs and Phrases so constructed are numerous : a) (Non)
dubito, dubiiun est, &c. fi) (Non) contineor ; retineor ; resisto ;
tempero ; possum ; facere possum ; fieri potest ; abest ; procul
est, &c. : (nuUa) causa (controversia) est, &c. y) Numquam,
with almost any Verb.

a) < Non dubito . . . haud dubium est . . . nuUus dubito . . .
quis dubitet? quinfuerint ante Homerum poetae,' no doubt there
were poets before Homer, C.

/8) A^e retentus sum . . . paulum afuit . . . temperare mihi
vix potui quinflerem, I could hardly refrain from weeping,

7) Numquamdiscedis aliquo quin te omnes desiderent^^^^Ti/
never go away but that all regret you,

7) Predications of Fear, Fear.
Metuo, timeo, vereor, pavidus sum, timor est, periculum est, &c.,

take ne with Subjunctive of that which it is feared will happen;

ut, ne non, of that which it is feared will not happen.

Metuo (timeo, vereor, &c) nepereas, I fear you will perish,
Metui ut (ne non) effugeres, I feared you would not escape.
This ut is the Oblique Interrog. how, used idiomatically to avoid

the harshness of a negative form. ^^

8) Predications of Caution, caveo, video, cogito, considero, Caution
have some resemblance to those of Fear, so far as they introduce

ne (which caveo can omit); but when ut follows them, they have
the sense of euro, take care, provide thai. See Examples.

9) Periphtastic phrases : non committere ut (/t? or/ ^(7 that), id
agere, animum inducere, facere, efficere, fieri, fore, &c. ut (ut ne),
ne. See M. Lucr, vi. 412-415. ^ .

Digitized by VjOOQ IC

atto

444 Latin Syntax. % aoa.

in^ III) Indirect Question (Interrogatio Obli-
qua).

1) If a Question, formed by an Interrogative Pronoun or Particle
(quis cs ?), becomes dependent upon another predication, its Verb
becomes Subjunctive (quis sis). Such Interrogatives are: quis,
qualis, quantus, quot, uter, quotus, unde, ubi, quando, quomodo^
cur, quare, quamobrem, quam, num, ne, ut, an, utrum.

2) Predications on which such a Clause may depend are those
of inquiring y stating ^ hearings knowings perceivin^^ renumbering^
doubting^ caring^ considering^ determiningy concermngy &c.

Quaero, die, scio, &c., quid facias, feceris, facturus sis :
Quaesivi, &c., quid faceres, fecisses, facturus esses.

Examples of Substantival Clauses.

(Verbs which illustrate the rules of Oratio Obliqua are printed in Italka.)

I) Enuntiatio Obliqua.
(x) Infinitive Clause.

'Fac(/«/^0«r)aniniosnonremanere pott mortem; vides nos, si ita is/, privari
q>e beatioris vitae,' C T. D. i. 33. ' Sic decet, te mea curare, tua me,' C Att, zv.
a. 'Aequum estcivit cnribus parcere,' N. 7*4. 3. 'Meum gnatum rumor est
am are,' Ter. An. L a.

'Solon furere te simulavit,' C Off. L yx 'Metellum memini puer bonis
esse viribus eztremo tempore aetatis,' C CaL M. 9.

' Meministis, me ita initio distribuis>e ranwm,* C/. S. Rou. 4a. 'Thocfdides
non negat fuisse famam Themistoclem Tenenum suasponte sumpsisse,' N.
Tk. TO. 'Hunc censes primis, ut dicitur, labrisgustas»e physiologiam, qui qni».
quam, quod ortum ntt ^ttiet aetemum ease posse r C JV: X>. L 8.

(See C Q$t. ^.18. 'Ac mihi quidem videtur . . . humanitatis.')

'Memineram, C Marium, cum vim araorum/rie^tfiKDr/, senile oocpos pahidibHS
occultas8e/C.>. Sest aa.

'Plato turn demum beatum terrarum orbem futurum praedicarit, cum ant
sapientes regnare aut reges sapere coepissentt VaL Max. viL a. ' Exaudita vox est,
futurum esse ut Roma caperetur,' C Dw. L 45. 'Nisi nuntii de Caeaaris victoria
€ss*Hi allati, existimabant plerique futurom fuisse ut oppidum amitteremr,*
Cacs. B. C. iil xoi.

'Lentulus consul senatui reique publicae se non defuturum pollicctur,' Cms.
B. C. L X. 'Si quando parvis ludentes minamur praecipitaturos alicunde, exti>
mescunt,' C Fin, v. xx. 'Ad matrem vixginis venit, iurans se illam ductnrum
domum.' Ter. Ad. iiL 4- 'Magna in spe sum nihil pdhi temporis prorogatum iri,'
C Ait. vi a. 'Spes dabatur, pueros mergi posse,' T.. L 4. 'Iniecta mihi spcs
est velle mecum Snlpicium coUoqni. C Att, x. 7. 'Video te velle in cadum
nkigrare, et spero fore ut contingat id nobis,' C 7*. 27. L 8a.

'Verminae responsum a legatis est : Si quid ad pads leges ad di, demi, mata-
rive sw/2r/, nuvusasenatueipostulandum fore,'Li. xxxL iL 'Seiiq>er itavivaaua
utrationem reddendam nobis arbitremur,'C Vgrr. n. xx.

'Me non cum bonis esse?' C Att. ix. d 'Hasne tifai gratis, haec praemia
digna rependit' Stat Tk. viiL sa 'Egone at te intcrpellemT* C 7*. i>. n. xS.
'Utne tegam spurco Damae latus t ' Hor. .S". iL 5. x8.

'Confitere huceaspe venis8e,'C>. S. Rose aa. * Diisimulsre etiaa aperasCi,
perfide, tantum posse nefiut' Verg. Atn. iv. 305.

' Par est, primum ipsum esse virum booum, turn alteram sinulem sui quaerere,' C
LmL aa. 'Prima sequentem honettum est in iftcwndis tertiiaqne coasittore^'
COr.t.

'Tu fiftc, quod &cis, ut me ames teque amari a me scias,' C Fium. JoSL 47.

'De Antonio tibi scripst, non esse eum a me conventum,' C AtL xw. x.

' Platonem ferunt idem sensitse quod Py thagoram,' C T. D. i. S7.

'Pons in Ibero prope effectus nuntiabatur,* Caes. A C i 6a. 'Nuatiattir
Afranio, magnos comitatusad flumen constitisse,' Caea. B. C. L 51. 'Si VesoanM-
grabimus, non reliquisse victores, aed amisisse victi patriam vidcbimnr,' L. if;
53- 'Non mihi videtur ad beatevivendum satis posse virtutem,' C 7*. D. t« 5.

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^ v^ pt ix^

] 202. Interrogatio Obliqua. 445

3) An Oblique Interrogation must be carefully distinguished
from an Adjectival (Relative) Clause.

The former depends on the principal Verb, and requires the
Subjunctive: InteUego quae mihi narres, / understand what
things you are telling me ; where quae is from the Interrog. qui.

The latter is referred to a Demonstrative, expressed or under-
stood, and does not require a Subjunctive: Intellego (ea) quae
mihi narras, / understand those things which you tell me, where
quae is from the Relative quL

(Cpb ^ O. fi. 74. 399 ; T. D, V. 8, in whkh there is an iiregular transition from the
Peraoaal ooaatroction to the Qauae.)

(3) The Ennntifttive Ut-dause.

'Quando fuit ut, quod lictt^ non licerett' C >. Cael, 2a 'Absit a nobis ut
ex incommodo alieno noetram occaiaonem petamus,' L. iv. 58. 'Reliquum est ut
certemus offidis inter nos,' C Fam, viL ax. 'Rarum est ut satis se quisquevere-
atur/C/. FL 37. 'Fit fere ut cogitadones scrmonesque nostri pariant aliquidCin
soinno»' C Somn, x. 'Fieri potest ut recte quia sentiat et id» quod sentitt polite
eloqoi non possit,' C T. D.i. ^ 'Valde optanti utrique nostrum cecidit ut in
istum sermonem delaberemini,' C d. Or. i. 3X. 'Mos est hominum ut nolint
eundem pluribus rebus ezcellere,' C Br. 21. 'Quam habet aequitatem, ut agrum
multis annis aut edam saeculis ante possessum qui nullum habuithabeat, quiautem
latbuit amittat?' C Off. ii sa. 'Ut colloquicum Orpheo, Musaeo, Homero^ Hesiodo
liceat» quanti tandem aestimattst' C 7*. 27. L 41.

ijMf. CloMte ^r ut.) 'Si haec ennntiatio vera non est, sequitur ut fidsa sit,' C
Fai. 19. 'Si, quod honestum est, id soliun eat bonum, sequitur vitam beatam
virtute confici,* C T. D. v. 8. 'Restat ut doceam, omnia, quae tint in hoc
mundo, hominum causa facta esse,' C //. D.iL 6x. 'Restat Bactra novis, restat
Babylona tributis /renari,' Stat 5*. L 40. 'Omnibus bonis expedit, salvam
esse rempublicam,' C Phil xiiL 8. 'Expedit omnibus ut singulae dvitates sua
iura et suas leges habeant,' L. xxxiy. x. 'Puero opus est dbum ut habeat,*
Plaut. Tmc. r. x. 'Nunc opus est tc animo valere, ut corpore poasis,' C. Fam.
xvL X4. 'Tris conrenit res habere narrationem, ut brevis, ut diludda, ut
Terisiix&ilissit,'a^/r/r. L 9^ 'Verisimile est, cum optimus quisque maxime po8te>
ruati seroiat, esse aliquid, cuius is post nuntem sensnm tit habitunis,' C T. D. i.
15. 'An rerisimile est ut dvis Romaaus aut homo liber cum gladio in forum
descenderit antelucem?' C p. Stst. ^ 'Potest illud esse falsum, ut circum-
ligatus fuerit angm,' C Div. ii. 31. 'Haud falsa sum noa odiosas haberi,*
Ten Em$i. iL a.

(So credibile, aequum, rectum, Terum est, and other adjective predications, can take
either Clause.)

(3^'The Enuntiatxve Quod-clause.

'Eumenx multum detraxit inter Macedones viventi quod alienae erat dvitatis,*
N. EuH. x. 'Aristoteles laudandusest in eo quod omnia quae moventur aut natura
moven censuit aut vi aut voltmtate,' C N. D. iL x6. 'Ex tota laude Reguli unum
illud est admiratione <fignum, quod captivos retinendos censuit,' C Oj^. iiL 3X.
'Quanta ilia benign itas naturae, quod tam multa ad vescendum tarn varia tamque
iucunda gignit,' C AT. 27. iL 53. 'Mitto quod invidiam, quod omnis meas tem-
pestates sMbieri*,' C (mitto=dicendum non putoX

(Quod, cum, with Verbs of EmotioK.) 'Sane gaudeo quod te interpellavi,' C
Leg. iiL x. 'Dolet mihi quod tu ntmc stomacharis,' C ad Br. 17. 'Gratulor
tibi quod sahrum te ad tuos recepisti,' C Fam. xiiL 73. 'Laudo te cum isto
animo es,' C A MU. 36. 'Haec urbs laetari videtur quod tantam pestem evo-
mturit* C Cat. iL x. 'Memini gloriari solitum esse Q. Hortensium quod
iiuxu]uam bello dvili itCUrfuUset^ C. Fam, iL x6.

(/if/: Ciauu with Verbs 0/ Em^tum.) 'Gaudeo, id te mihi suadere, quod ego
mea sponte.^ne;rr4nff ,' C Att. xv. 37. 'Utrumque laetor, et sine dolore corporis te
fuisse et aaimo valuisse,' C. Fam. vii x. 'Lentulus se alterum fore! Sullam
inter suos gloriatpr/ Caes. B. C. L 4. 'Gratulor Oechaliam titulis accedere
noatris,' Ov. Her. ix. x. 'Inferiores non dolere debent, se a suis superari/ C.
LaeL aa

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

44^ Latin Syntax. § 202,

4) Some examples, which at first sight seem to shew Indie in
Obuque Interr., really belong either to Interr. Recta :

*Quin tu uno verbo die, quid est quod me velis?' now tell
me in one word^ what do you want with nu f Ter. An. L 1. 18.

Or to Adjectival (Relative) construction :

'Nihil est admirabilius quam auomodo ille fill mortem tulit,*
nothing is more admirable than tke manner in which he bore his
son's death, C. Cat. M. 4.

But the Comic poets use the Indie in Oblique Interr. as an idiom
of parlance ; and some examples occur in later poets, but not in
good Latin prose ; for examples cited from Cicero are either corrupt
readings or direct Intenogations.

(Cur^^quod.) 'Primum illud reprehendo et accuso cur in re tamveteri tarn
uatata quicquam novi feceris,' C Verr. uL 7. ' Repeto me correptum ab avunculo
cur ambularem : Poteras, inquit, has horas non perdere,' Plin. Ep. m. 5. 'Miror
cur philosophiae prope bellum indizeris,' C <^ Or. iL 37.

(Utoiu/quod.) 'Accedit ut eo &cilius animus evadat ex hoc acre, quod nihil est
animo velodus,' C 71 D. i. 19. 'Accedit quod Caesar ingeniis excellentibus delec>
tatur/ C Fam. tL 6. 'Accidit ut Athenienses CSiersonesum cokmosvellent imttcre»'
N. Milt. L 'Accidit perincommode quod eum nusquam vidisd/ C Att, L xy.
'Evenit inquirant vitia ut tua rursus et illi/ Hor. .S". L 3. aS. 'Magna me ^>ea
tenet, bene mihi e venire quod mittar ad mortem,' C 7. 27. L 41. 'Invitus facio
ut recorder minas reipublicae/ C in Vatitt, 8. 'Noli putare pigtitia me facer«
quod non mea manu scribtum,* C. Ait. xvi. 15.

(Interest, refert take all three clauses, besides other constructions. See \ 903.)

II) Petitio Obliqua.

'Petes a Crasso ut earn copiam in lucem proferat,' C d. Or. x. 35. 'Ate id*
quod suesti, peto, me absentem diligas et defendas,'C Ftum. zv. 8. *Nooj>cto
ut decernatur aliquid novi, sed ut ne quid novi decernatur,' C Font. u. 7.
' Magnum documentum ne patriam rem perdere quis velit,* Hor. 5*. L 4. xxi. 'Ex-
ercitus Alexandrum lacrimis deprecatur, finem tandem belli faceret,' lust. xiL 8.
'Alcibiades lacrimans supplex erat Socrati, ut sibi virtutem traderet turpittidi-
nemque depelleret,'C. T. D. iiL 33. 'Id te rogo, ut valetudini tuae diHgentissime
servias/ C Qn. Fr. i. z. 'Cum magnum aliquod munus stitceperis, hoc te rogo, ne
demittas animum, neve te obrui tamquam fluctu, sic magnitudine n^oti sinas.* C
Qu, Fr. i. X. 'Decrevit quondam senatus, utL. Ofumius consul videret neqaid
res pubUca detriment! caperet/ C Cat. L a. 'Gabinius egerat alhid nihil nisi nt
urbes depopularetur,' C in Pis. 17. 'Qui stadium curtit, eniti et contendere
debet ut vincat^'C. O/^. iii. xo. 'Coepenmt ponere leges ne quis tar esset neu
latro/ Hor. .S". L 3. X05. ' Vetus est lex ilia iustae veraeque amidtiae, ut idem anki
semper velint,' C >. Plane, x. '^ovistus respondit ius esse belli ut qai
vicissent lis quos vicistent, quemadmodum vtUent^ inyerarent. Factum est
senatus-consultum, ut duo viros aedilis ex Patribus dictator populum rogaret,*
L. vi. 4a. 'Bene maiores no^ri hoc comparaverunt, ut neminem regem, qoera
armis ce/fMrM/, vita privarent^'o^lTirr. iv. x6.

'Nuntia Patribus, urbemmuniant, et Fabio, AemiKum et vixisse et adhnc mort,*
L. xxiL 49. 'Dicam tuis ut librum tuum describant ad teque mittant,' C Font.
xiii. X7. 'Die ad cenam veniat,' Hor. 'Dicebam tibi nematri consuleres male,
Plaut As. V. a. 'Rogo ergo scribas tuis, ut liberto villa, ut domus pateat,
Plin. Ep. V. X9. 'Caesar ad Lamiam scripsft, ut ad ludos omnia pararet,' C Att,
xiu. 45.

(Auctor sum, I advise, takes ut, ne ; auctor sum, I assure, takes Infin. Clanse.)

(Quominus.) 'Quid obstat quominus Deus sit beatust' C N. D. i. y^
'Isocrati, quominus haberetur summus orator, non offecit quod infirmitata
vocis ne in publico diceret impediebatur,' Plin. Ep, vi. 09. 'Nihil ne ego
quidem moror quominus decemviratu abeam,' L. iiL 54. 'Praetor Samnitibaa
respondit: Nee quominus perpetua cum eisamicitia esset, per populum Roma-
aum stetisse; nee contradici, quin amidtia de int^ro reconciiietar; ^ood

lOOgle

1 202. InterrogoHo Obligua. 447

5) Nescio quis (qui), &c, followed by Indicative, is a special
exception, being regarded as Pronominal- a li quis, aliquL So
mirum quantum, immane quantum, &c.

See S 86-97.

6) By Greek attraction the Subject of the Clause sometimes be-
comes Object of the Principal Verb : (See § 128, 3.)

'Sanguinem, bilem, pituitam, ossa videor posse dicere
unde concreta ^mX^ I think I can state what bloody bile^ phlegm^
and bones are formed fromy C. T'. /?. i. 24. 'Rem f rume n tar iam
ut satis conunode supportari posset timere se dicebant,' they said
they were afraid the supply of com could not be furnished easily^
Caes. B. G. L 39.

«d Sididnos atiiiuatt nihil intercedi, quominus Samnid populo pads bdUquo
fibemm arbitrium sit/ L. Tiii a. 'Qui domum meam, quominus ruat^ fiildt,
praestat nuhi benefidum ; ipsa enim domus sine sensu est,' Sen. JSm. v. 19. ' Saepe
acddh in man, ut naves teneantur quominus in portum perventre possint,* Caes.

B. G. TV. as.

(Quominus, being a Final Partide, may also be represented by ne, with prohlbao^ im*
pedio, deterreo, deprecor, and many other Vert«.)

(Quin.) .'N^est dubium quin benefidum sit etiam invito ptodesse/ Sta.'.Bm, v,
19^ 'Numquam mihi dubium fuit quin ate diligerer/ C Ati. xn. i> 'Non
dubittf'quln'probaturus sim vobis defensionem meam,'C/. Mil a. 'Quis du-
bitet quin in virtute divitiae positae sintt' C Par. 6. 'Nolite dubitare
quin ida not httitaU U) Pompeio uni credatis omnia,' C >. L. M. aa 'Tempe-
rare non potuit quin lacti reminisceretur/ Suet. Claud, 4. 'Nihil abest
quin sim miserrimus,'C Ati. iL 15. 'Haud procul erat quin castra turbaxentur/
L.T. xa. ' 'Vergilii et Livii saripta paulum afuit quin ez omnibus bibliotheds amo>
▼eret Caligula/ SueL CaL 34. 'Nihil praetermisi, quantum fiu:ere potni, quin
Fompeium a Caesaris coniunctione avocarem,' C Pkii, iL a. 'Equidem numquam
Jinmnwn mm ittiam gwcHiltttir^ quin esset ad te altera,' C ^oiw. iL xoc

(On 'non quin/ see Causal Clauses.)

(Dubito alto takes a ProL Iitf. or Inf. Clauso, or Interr. ObV) 'Non dubitavi id a
ce per Utteias petere/ C Fam, iL d 'Pompeius non dubitat, ea, quae de re-
publica nunc sentiat, mflii valde probari/ C Ait, viL x. (See Interr. Obi.)

(^«ar.) 'Metuo neid consiUceperimus, qnod non satis expHcare^xrimu'/C Fam,
3DT. xa. 'Timor Romae grandis fiilt, ne iterum Cyalli Romam vedirent/ Eutr. v. x.
'Paror oeperat milites, ne mortifenim esset vulnus Sdpionis,' L. zxiv. 4a. 'Non
vereor ne mea vitae modestia parum valitura sit contra Cadsos rumores,' C Fatn,
XL aS. 'Omnis labores te exdpere video; timeo ut sustineas,' C Fam. xiv. a
' Hoc quia vos foedus non iusteritit, ver etur Hiempsal ut satis firmum sit et xatum,'
Cd. £,. Agr. iL ax. ' Veremur ne forte non aliorum utilitatibus, sed propriae laudi
aervisse videamur/ Plin. E^ L 8. 'Nese penuria victus opprimeret metuebat,'
Hor. .9. L x. 98. ' Extimui [ne vos ageret vesania discors,' Hor. *?. iL 3. X74.

iJCaMHoH.) 'Si vita in exsilio tibi commodior esse videeUur^ cogitandum tamen est
ne tutior non sit/ C Fam. in. 9. ' Videamus ne beata vita ez sui similibus partibus
effid debeat,* C T. D. v. X5. 'Credere omnia vide ne non sit necesse/ C Dio.
n. 13. 'Ad rempublicamgerendam qui accedit, caveat neid modo consideret, quam
ilia res honesU sit, sed etiam, ut (ane non) habeat effidendi iacultatem,' C Off. L ai.
(where considero ts constructed like vereorX ' Haec mea cura est, ne quid tu perdas
neu sis iocus,' Hor. 5*. iL 4. 36. (See Hor. Epist. L 5. ax-aS.)

(Caveo, taht care, is need with ut : caveo, beware, with ne, or suppressing ne.)
'Caveamus ut ea, <^%x9!t pertinent ad liberalem spedem et digniutem, moderata sint,'

C. Cff. L 39. ' Lege (^da cavetur ne quis ob causam orandam pecxmiam dooumve
accipiat/ Tac An$t. xL 5. 'Cave festincs aut committas ut aut aeger aut
hiciDe naviges,' C Fa$n. xvL xa.

{Verbs which form Periphrases.^ 'Non committam ut in scribendo iiq;l^ens
liiisse videar/ C Fam. v. 9. 'Numquam omnino periculi fuga committendum est
ut imbeUes timkiique videamur/ C Off. L a4. 'Omne animal id agit ut se coi^

uiyiuzeu uy x^jv^wVt Iv

448 Latin Syntax, % 203.

TerU Note, Many of the Verbs included in II. III. of this Section ad-

^" mit a variety of dependent constructions.

^c The range of such variety is :

ted I. Ut 2. Omission of ut 3. Ne. 4. Infin. Clause. 4^ That

form of Clause in which the Infin. is Perf. Pass., suppressing esse

gioUern datum). 5. Object-case and Infin.; or Infin., suppressii^
bject-case (hortamur fari). 6. Prolative Infin., the Finite Verb
being Active (vult ire). 7. Prolative Infin., the Fin. Verb being
Passive. 8. Oblique Interrogation. 9. Quominus. 90. Quin.

•ervetj'C Fin, v. 9. 'Pottdt anlmum inducere ut se potrem esie oblhriaoeretiii;'
Cp, S. Rase. 19. ' Factam {will cause) ex tragoedia comoedia ut sit,* Pbuit. yfa*.
ProL 54. 'Invitus feci ut Flaminium e senatu eicerem(=invitus eiedX' C Cat. M. xa.
'Omnes concedant opoitet, numquam facturum {allow himtstff) vinun bonum ut bms*
dadum dicat,' Qu, xn. 15. Fac {smpposeU quaeso, qui ego sim, esse te/ C Fam, yjL a}.
'Facutvaleas^'C 'Fac intellegam, tuquidseiitia8,'C JVl/?. 'Quidamefieripocuit
aut elegantius aut iustius, quam ut sumptus egentisumarum dvitatum minueremt* C.
Fam. iii. S. ' Faciendum mihi putavi ut litteris tins breviter respondcrem,' do. ' M.
Crassi consilio factum est ne Aigitivi ad Messanam txansire possent,' C Verr. v. s.
'Qamabant fore ut ipsi sese di uldscerentur/ C Verr. iv. 40. ' Quibus oculis aniiai
intueri potuit Tester Plato fabricam illam tanti opexis, qua construi a deo atque aedi-
ficari mundum facit OMrancr)?' C N. D.\. 8. 'Pdjpbemum Homenis cum immsnrm
lerumque finxisset, cum ariete etiam colloquentem facit {makts\ eiusque laudare
fortunas, quod qua velUt vagn^ posset et quae tv/2r^ attingere/ C 7*. Z7. t. 39. ' Nati
me coram cernere letum fecisti {earned),' Verg. Ae. iL 538. 'Quae est Socratis
oraitio, qua facit {makes) eum Plato usum apud indices iam morte muhatum?' C
T. D.x. ^ ' Dolabdla plus fecit {made out) Verrem accepisse, qnam iste in snis
tabulis habuit/ C Verr. L 39. 'EfficiturCt/fvntAf) igiturfato fieri quaecnmqae
JUmt, C F«U. la ' Fides ut habeatur duabus rebus effici {be achieved) ^/c^xa, si
existimabtmur adepti comunctam cum iostitia prudentiam,' C Off. ii. 9. ' Sol efficit
{cansei) ut omnia floreant et in suo quaeqoe genere pubescant/ C N. D.'^ is-
'Vos effici {Jk brought abott/) negatis sine diviua posse soUertia ut innumerabais
natura mundoseffectiuusit, efficiat, effecerit,'C N. D. L to. 'PoCestia efficere
ut male moriar ; ne moriar, non potestit,* Plin. £>. iii. x6.

Ill) IntetTOgatio Obliqua.

' Istud non est benefidum, sed fenus, circumspicere, non ubi optime ponas, sed
ubi quaestuosissime habeas, unde faciUime tollas^'Sen. Bern. ir. 3. 'Soloa Pisa»-
trato tyranno, quaerenti, qua tandem spe fretus silk tarn audadter obsisteret^ re-
spondisse didtur: Senectute»' C Cat. M. aa 'Sapiens videbit, ubi victurus sit^
cum quibus, quomodo, quid acturus : cogitat senqper, qualis Tita, non quaatm
Ait/ Sen. Ep. 70. 'Si vis gratus esse adversus Deum, recordare, quam nuiha sis
consecutus; cum adspexeris, quot te antecedant, cogita, quot sequantub
cogita, quam multos antecesseris,' Sen. Ep. 15. ' Vides ut alta stet nive caa-
•didum Soracte/ Hor. C.v. 9. x. 'Matri denarrat ut ingens bdua cognatoseliserit,'
Hon 5*. il 3. 315 (see Hor. EpUt, L 8> 'A me consilium petis, quid tibt sia
auctor, in Sidliane subsidas an ad reliquias Asiaticae negoiiatioius proficia-
care ?' C Fam. vi 8. 'Apud Germanos ea consuetudo erat ut matres femlUa^ eoras
sortibus et vatidnationibus declararent, utrum proelium oommitti ex usn esset
necne/Caes. B. G. L 5a 'Non id quaeritur, sintne aliqui, qui deos esse patent z
di utrum sint, necne sint, quaeritur/ C N. D. m. 7. 'Antigonus noodum sta>
tuerat, conservaret Eumenem necne/ N. Enm, xz. 'Di immortales, sit T^ti^M^
deinde annon, in vestra manu posuenmt,' L. viii. 13. 'Metellus tiansfugas et afioa
opportunos, lugurtha ubi gentium, aut quid ageret, cum paucisne esset an ex-
ercitum haberet, exploratum misit,' SalL Jag:. 54. 'Quae paxaxe et quaercra
arduum fuit, nescio an tueri diffidlius sit/ L. xxxviL 54. 'Hand scio an quae
dixit sint vera omnia,' Ter. Ah. iiL a. 45. 'Si per se virtus sine fortuna poodeianda
xtV, dubito an Thrasybulum primumonmium ponam,' N. Thr. x. (See Hoc. Epist.
I X2, x6-9o: i. x8. 96-X03 ; ad Pis. xx4-xx8. 307-315.)

{Tmpereomal Verbs'. Interest, refert.) 'lUud mea magnl interest, te ut videam,*
C. AU. xL aa. ' lUud permagni referre arbitror, ut ne sdentem sentiat te id aba
dare/ Ter. Hamt. iii. z. 58. ' Epistulae inventae sunt, ut certioies Cicaremus •>«mmiI|,^ ^

lOOgle

§ 203. Various Constructions of Verbs. 449

Constructions within this range taken by certain Verbs.
d) Impersonal Verbs b

Interest and refert: i. 2. 3. 4. 5, 8. Licet and nccesse
est: (i) 2. 4. 5. 6. Oportet: 2. 4. 4^ 5.

b) Verbs of Desire :

Volo : I. 2. 3. 4. \a, 5. 6. Malo : i. 2. 4. 5. 6. Nolo : i. 2.
4. 4/z. 6. Opto : I. 2. 3. 4, 6. 7. Studeo : I. 3. 4. 4a. 6.
Cupio : 4, 4a. 6.

c) Various :

lubeo: 1.2.4.5.7. Cogo : 1.4.5-7. Patior: 1.4.6.
Sino : i. 2. 4. 5. 7. Concedo : i. 2. 3. 4. 5. Permitto :
I. 2. 4. $. a Impero : i. 2. 3. 4. 5. 7. 8. Mando : i. 2.
p. 4. Praccipio : i. 2. 3. 5. 8. Veto : 3. 5. 7. 9. Pro-
nibeo : i. 3. 4. 5. 7. 9. 9^. Impedio : 3. 5. 9. Hortor
and oro : i. 2. 3. 5. Postulo : i. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Suadeo
and persuadeo : i. 2. 3. 4. 5. Doceo4 i. 4. 5. 7. 8. Mo-
neo : i. 2. 3. 4. 5. 7. 8. Censeo : i. 2. 3. 4. 5. Video : i.
3. 4. 7. 8. Curo : i. 2. 3. 4. (espec. Gerundive) 5. 8.
Statuo : I. 3. 4. 6. 8, Dico : i. 2. 3. 4. 7. 8.

qiud estet, quod cot scire aut nostra aut iptorum inUrtutt,* C Fam. u. 4. *Parvi
refert, vo« publicanb amissis Tectigalia postea victoria recuperare/ C. p. L, Matt, 7.
'Hieodori nihil interest humine an sublime putrescat/ C T, D. i. 43. 'Avet
patcantur necne quid refert? ' C Div. il 35.

(Necesae est, oportet, ficet) ' Qui 8« metui Tolent, a quibus mHiuniur, eosdem
metaant tpsi necesse est,' C. Off. ii. 7. 'Aninnis oportet tuus te iudicet divitera,
non hominum sermo, neque posscsiiones tuae,' C. Par. vl 1. * ToUas licet,' Hor. Ep,
L x6. 76. *A Deo mundum necesse est regi,' Q. N. D. u. y>* 'Narrationem
oportet trif habere res, utbreris, utaperta,ut probabilis sit,' C /«v. I aa 'Neque
DOS lepore tuo, neque te, n qub est in me, meofrui licet propter molestissimas 00-
oqntiones meas,' C. Fam. vfi. z. ' Non duUtabit, quid me sentire conveniat, cum,
quid mihi sentire necesse sit, cetgitarii,' C d. Pr. C. 1. 'Impetrabis a Caesare^
ut tibi abesse liceat et esse otioso,' C Att. ix. a. ' Is erat annus, quo per leges
ei consulem fieri liceret,' Caes. B. C. iil z. ' Adulescenti morem gestumopor-
tuit,'Ter. ^</. ii. a. 6.

{yerbs qf Desire.) 'Maiores Toluerunt, qui testimonium dictnt, ut arbitrari se
diceret, etiam quod ipse vidistei ; quaeque iurati iudioes cognovUsenit ea mm ut esse
fiw:ta. sed ut videri pronuntiarent,' C Ac, ii 47. 'Nolomentiare,'Ter. Ewi. v.
a. *Tu ad me de rebus omnibus scribas velim,' C Fam, viii. 13. ' Vellem equidem
ant ipse Epicurus doctrinis fuisset instructior aut ne deterruisset alios astudiis^'
C FtM, L 7. 'Malo te sapiens hostis metuat quam stulti cives laudent,' L. xjdl
39^ 'Caesar studebat maxime ut partem oppidi a reliqua parte urbis ezcluderet,'
Hilt B. A, z. 'Optandum est ut ii, <^\ prof sunt reipublicae, legum smiles sint,
qnae ad puniendum non iracundia sed aequitate dticimiur,* C. Off. L 35. 'Optavi
pete res cadestta sidera tarde,' Ov. Trist. ii. 57. ' Videmini intenta mala, quasi fulmen,
optare, se quisque ne attingant,' Sail. Fr.

'Ego me Phidiam esse mallem quam vel optimum fiibrum tignarium,'C Br, 73.
'Cupio, me esse clementem; cupio, in lands reipublicae periculis me non d is so -
lutum videri,' C Cat. i. a. 'Quam midta passus est Ulixes in illo errore diutumo,
cum et mulieribus inserviret et in omni sermone omnibus affabilem et iucundum
esse se vellet,' C. Off. i. 31. * Homo tenuis gratum se videri studet,' C 0/f. ii. aa
'Te mihiipsum iamdudum optaram dari,'Ter. H. iv. 5.

'Domesdca cura te levatum volo,' C Qu. F. iil 9. ' Patres ordinem publicanorum
In taH tempore offensum nolebant,'L. xxv. 3. ' Nolle m factum, Fm sffny/fr it,
C Off. L zi. 'Duabus de causis a te potissimum petere constitui quod impetratum
: cupio,' Plin. Ep. iL 13.

'Vdois esse quem tu me esse voluisti/ C Fam, L 7. 'Nolo esse huidatoi

p ^ uiymzeu uy

5Sle

450 Latin Syntax, § 203.

videar adulator/ ai. Her, iv. ax. * Cato esse quam yideri bonus malebat,' SalL Cat,
54. 'Hunc videre optabamus diem/ Ten Hec. iv. 4. 26. 'Scire studcoquid cgeri^
C Att, xiii 2a ' Cupio te consulem videre,' C. Fam. xv. 13.-

(lubeo.) ' L. Quinctius iussit ut, quae ex sua dasse venisseni naves, Euboeam pete-
rent/L. xxxiL xx. 'Velitis iubcati's Quirites, uti L Valerius L. Titio iurelegeque
fiUus siet/ GelL V. xg. 'lube mihidenuo respondeat,* Ter. ^««. iv, 4- 24. 'Dio-
genes proici se iussit inhumatum,' CT. D.l 43. 'lubeo gaudere te.* C Fam.^
vii a. 'lussi ddaribibere/Ter. ^«. iil a. 4. 'TransireinEpirumestiassus,'
Im XXXV. 24.

(Coj^.) 'Quid Paris? ut salvus regnet vivatque beatus cogi posse negat,' Hor.
£^isL L 2. xa 'Nonne di ipsa, cogent ab his virtutibus tanta vitia superari,' C m
Cat. iL XX. 'Innumerabilia sunt ex quibus cogi (Be necessarily ittferred) possit nihil
esse, quod sensum habeat^ quin id intereat,' C N. D. vL 13. 'Num te emere
coegit, qui ne hortatus qui4em est/ C. Off. iil 13. 'Neque cogi pugnare potent
rex,* 1- adv. 41.

(Patior.) 'Ne in turpi quidem reo patiendum est ut quicquam advenarii se minis
proficere arbitrentur/ C. p. Font. xa. 'Consilium meiun a te probari fiKile
patior/ C Att. xv. 2. 'Patior vel inconsultus haberi,* Hor. Eput. iL v. 15.

(Sina) 'Sivi animum ut expleret suum,' Ter. An. i. 2. 27. 'Sine tehocexo*
rem,' Ter. An. v. 3. 3a 'Gennani vinum ad se importari non sinunt,' Caes.
B. G. iv. 2. 'Sineres tu ilium tecum facere haec?' Ter. Ad. in. 3. 42.
* Accusare eum moderate a quo nefarie accusatur, non est situs,' C. /. SesL 44.

(Concedo.) 'Concedo sit dives/ Catull. cxil 5. 'Non concedam ut Attko
nostro iucundiores tuae litterae fuerint quam mihi,' C Fam. xiii. x8. 'Concede,
nihil esse bonum, nisi quod honestum /// : concedendum est, in virtute sola posi-
tam esse beatam vitam,' C Fin. v. 28. 'Concedunt plangere matri,' Stat. Tk.
v. X34. 'Quo mihi fortimam, si non conceditur uti,' Hor. Epist. iL 5. xa.

(Permitto.) 'Qub Antonio permisit ut partis faceret?' C d. Or. u. 90.
'Permissum ipd erat faceret quod e republica duceret esse/ L. xxxiiL 45. ' Ue
meas errare boves, ut cemis, et ipsum ludere quae vellem calamo permisit
agrestiy* Verg. A t 9. 'Rex Cononi permisit quem vellet eligere,' N. C^n. 4.
'Tilu permitto, responderene mihi malis, an universam orationem audiie meam/ C
N. D. iii. X.

(Impero.) 'Senatus imperavit decemviris ut libros Sibyllinos inspicerent,' L.
vii. 27. ' Leto det imperat Aig\im/ Ov. M. L 67a * Mihi ne abscedam imperat,
Ter. Enn. iiL 5. 30. 'Pro serapionis libro tlbi praesentem pecuniam solvi impe-
ravi,'C. Att. iL 4. 'Imperavi egomet mihi omnia assentari,' Ter. Eun, iL a. ai.
'Animontmciamotioso esse impero/ Ter. An. v. 2. x. 'Haec ego procurare et
idoneusimperor et non invitus,' Hor. Epist. L 5. 2x. ' In lautumias Syracusanas de-
duci imperantur,' C. Verr. v. 27. 'Imperabat coram qiiid opus fiicto esset,' Ter
Ph. L 4.

(Praecipio.) ' Atheniensibus praecepit, ut Miltiadem sibi imperatorem sumerent:
id si fedssent, incepta prospera futura,' Nep. Milt. x. 'His praecipit omnis
mortalis pecimia aggrediantur,' SalL lug. 3a 'Haec praecipienda videntur
historiarum lectoribus, ne alienos mores ad suos referant, neve ea, quae ipsb levkmi
suntt pari modo apud ceteros fiiisse arbitrentur/ Nep. JE>. x. 'Sunt qui pra e ci-
piant faerbassatureianocentis sumere/ Ov. w4. ^. iL 4x5. 'Huicindid quid fieri
vellent praeceperunt/ N. Pans. 4.

(Veto.) 'Pontus erat vetitus ne mergeret aequore terram,' Man. iv. 645.
' Vetabo qui Cereris sacrum vulgarit arcanae sub isdem sit trabibus,' Hor. C tiL a.
'Non ego, avarumcum veto te fieri, vappam iubeo aut nebulonem,' Hor. Se^t. L x.
108. 'Desperatis etiam Hippocrates vetat adhibere medicinam/ C Att. xvL xs*
'Nolanimurosportasqueadire vetiti sunt,' L. xxxiiL x6. ' Sapientia nulla re quo-
minus se exerceat vetari potest,' Sen. Ep. 9.

(Prohibeo.) 'Id potuisti prohibere ne fieret/ C. in Caee. xa (One exanqde of
prohibere ut: 'Di prohibeant ut hoc . . . praeadium sectorum existimetur/C
p. S. Rose. 53.) 'Ignis fieri in castris prohibet,' Caes. B. G. v. ag. 'PerexriofM
urbibus uti prohibent/ C Off.'xu. xx. 'Alii diumum victum prohibit! quae-
rere/ Suet Ner. 36. 'Hiemem credo adhuc prohibuisse quominus de te ccttoa
haberemus/ C Fam. xiL 5. 'Neque me luppiter neque di omnes id prohibebnat
quin sic faciam uti constitui/ PlauL An. v. 3. X7.

(Impedio.) • Isocrates infixmiute vocia ne in publico diceret impediebatnr/ Ffio.

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^\^ -x i-X^

5 203. Various Constructions of Verbs, 45 1

Ep. V. ag. 'Cur iudices reipublicae munere impediantur qud setiussuis rebus et
cominodis servire possint?' C. Inv. u. 45. 'Aetas non impedit quominus
litterarum studia teneamus usque ad ultimum tempus senectutis,' C Cat. M. 17.
<Impedire quin is rare and not goodX ' Quid est quod me impediat ea quae mihi pro-
babilia videantur sequi?' C Off. ii 9.

(Postula) 'Tribuni plebis postulant ut sacrosancti habeantur/ L. iiL 19.
' Postulo, Appi, etiam atque etiam consideres quo progrediare/ L. iu. 45. ' Legatos
ad Bocchiun mittit postulatum ne sine causa hostis populo Romano fieret/ Sail. lug.
83. 'Postulant non ut ne cogantur statuere. Quid igitur? ut ipsis ne liceat«'
C. y«rr. ii. 60. 'Hie postulat se Romae absolvi,' C. Verr. iv. 60. *Incertahaec
si tu postules ratione certa facere, nihilo plus agas quam si des operam ut aun
ratione insanias,' Ter. Eun. L i. x6. 'Postulat deus credi/ CurL vL 43. (Flagito
lias the same construction.)

(Suadea Persuadea) ' Caesar mihi ut sibi essem legatus non solum suasit, verum
«tiam rogavit,' C d. Pr. C. 17. 'Dolabellae quod scripsi suadco videas/ C. Fam.
iL 15. 'Pelopidas persuasit Thebanis, ut subsidio Thessaliae proficiscerentur,
xyrannosque eius expellerent,' N. PeL 5. ' Huic Albinus persuadet regntun Numi-
diaeabsenatupetat/ Sail. lug^. 391 'Duo tempora indderunt qutbus aliquid contra
Caesarem Pompeio suaserim ; unum ne quinqvennii imperium Caesari prorogaret ;
^terum ne pateretur feni ut absentis eius ratio haberetiur: quorum si utrumvis per-
suasissem, in has miserias nunquam mcidissemus,' C PhiL u. 19. 'Mihi ab adoles-
centia suasi nihil esse in vita magnopere expetendum nisi laudem atque hones-
4atem,' C /. Arch. 6. ' Mihi numquam persuader! potuit animos, dum in corporibus
essent mortalibus, vivere, cum exissent ex iis, emori/ C. Cat. M. 22. * Nobis per-
suasum est, fore aliquando, ut omnis hie mundus ardore deflagret,' C Ac. iv. 37.
^Saepes . . . somnum suadebit inire/ Verg. B. L 56. 'Persuasum est facere
coios nunc me fiicti pudet/ Plant. Baec, iv. 9. 93. ' Dionysio persuasit Plato tyrannidis
facere finem/ N. Dion, 3 {rare). See Verg. Ae*. xii 814.

(Doceo.) ' Philosophia nos cum cetenis res, tum quod est difficillimum, docuit, ut
nosmet ipsos nosceremus,' C Leg. L 58. 'Orpheum poetam docet Aristoteles nun-
quam fuisse,'C N. D. i. 28, 'Declamare doces,'Iuv. viL 150. 'Graece loqui
docendus sum,' C Fin. iL 3. 'Invideo magistro tuo, qui te tanta mercede nihil
sapere docuit,' C Phil. ii. 4. 'Ne litteras quidem ullas accepi, quae me docerent
quid ageres,' C Fam. iii. 6.

(Moneo.) ' Hanc habet vim praeceptum ApoUinis, quo monet, ut se quisque noBcat ;
non enim, credo, id praecipit, ut membra nostra, aut staturam figuramve noscamus,'
C T. D. L 22. ' Caesar legatos monuit ad nutum et ad tempus omnes res ab iis ad-
mi nistrarentur,' Caes. B. G. iv. 28. 'Caesar cum a summo haruspice moneretur
ne in Airicam transmitteret, nihilominus transmisit,* C Div. iL 24. 'Caecos in-
stare tumultus sol monet,' Verg. G. L 464. 'Ratio ipsa monet amicitias com-
parare,'C Fiti. L 2a 'Soror alma monet succedere ikusoTu mum,' Verg. Aen*
X. 439. 'Moneo quid iacto opus sit,' Ter. Ad. iii. 5. 65.

(Censeo,yiM^r, vote.) 'Plerique censebant ut noctu iter faceret,* Caes. B. G. L
57. 'Arcessas censeo omnis navalis terrestrisque copias,' L. xxxvL 7. 'Stolida
impudensque postulatio visa est, cense re ne in Italiam transmittant Galli bellum,'
L. xxL aa 'Aristoteles omnia aut natura moveri censet (Judges) aut vi aut volun-
tate,' C N. D. iL x6t (The two next examples are idiomatic 'Quid censes hunc
ipsum Roscium, quo studio esse in rustids rebus ? ' C/. .y. Rose. 17. 'Quid cen-
semus superiorem ilium Dionysium, quo cruciatu timoris angi solitum?' C.
Off. iL 7.) * Bona regis rcddi censuerunt,' L. iL 5. ' R^^lus captivos in senatu
Teddendos non censuit,' C Off, L 13. ' Antenor censet belli praecidere causas,'
Hor. Epist. L 2. 9.

(Video.) ' Nos id videamus ut, qutdquid accidtrit^ fortiter et sapienter feranws,*
CAtt. xiv. 13. 'Videne,* &c; see Caution, 'Volucris videmus fingere et con-
struere nidos,' C d. Or. ii. 6. 'Cameadem videre videor,' C Fin. v. 2. ' Amens
mihi fuisse videor a prindpio,' C Att. ix. xo. 'Videamus primum deorumne
providentia mtmdus regatur, deinde consulantne rebus humanis,' C N. D. iiL 25.

(Curo, X. X 3. 4. 5.) 'Cura ut valeas,* C Fcun. xiv. 5. 'Ante senectutem curavi
ut bene vi verem ; in senectute ut bene moriar,' Sen. Ep. 6x. ' lam curabo sentiat
<luos attentarit,' Phaed v. x 6. 'Cura ne quid snihi ad hoc negoti aut oneris accedat
aut temporis,' C. Fam. iiL 8. ' Non verbum verbo curabis reddere,' Hor. in Pis. X33.
' Tu recte vivis, si curas esse quod audis,' Hor. Epist. L x6. X7. ' Ex eo auro buculani
curavit faciendam,' C. Div.L 24. 'Nee herdemagnooperemmc curo quid Aetoli
censeant,' L. zxxvL 28.

^ p 2 uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^ v^pt iv-

452

Latin Syntax,

§204-5.

Section IV.

3<H

Relative
Clauses.

*>5
Con-
secutive
Clauses.

ADVERBIAL AND ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES.

(These are properly considered in connexion, on account of the
Adverbial character often taken by Adjectival Clauses.)

i. Relative or Adjectival Clauses.

i) A Relative Clause is called Adjectival, because it qualifies^
like an Attribute, the Sentence on which it depends :

Deus est, qui regit mundum, qui creavit omnia, quern
veneramur, = Deus est, mundum regens, creator omnium,
veneratus a nobis.

2) A Clause may be introduced by a Relative Particle, equiva-
lent to Pronoun with Preposition :

Roma est, ubi habito, quo proficiscor, unde venio, &c»ia
qua habito, ad quam pronciscor, ex qua venio, &c.

3) The Mood in a Relative Clause will be Indie, when no reason
exists for another Mood. But the Subjunctive will be required,
(i) if the Cause is actually or virtually Suboblique ; (2) if it is
Gnomic, or, sometimes, Iterative ; (3} if the Clause contains a Con-
sequence {such thaty so thcU)^ a Purpose (w order thai) ; often
when it contains a conceived Cause (since), a Condition (tf), or a
Concession {although).

4) In the latter cases (3^, as an Adjective may have Adverbial
force (serus venit « sero venit), so an Adjectival Clause imay become
Adverbial : as when qui » ut ego, ut tu, ut is, &c : quo « ut eo or
eo quod: ubi»ut ibi, &c.

Hence, in considering Adverbial Clauses, it is proper, in each
kind, to include those Relative (Adjectival) Causes which contain
Adverbial force, and always or usually require a Subjunctive.

ii Consecutive Clauses.

Consecutive Clauses are so called because they express conse-
quence or result,

A) An Adverbial Consecutive Clause is formed by the Conjunc-
tion ut, thaty with Subjunctive ; often following some Demonstrative
word, but sometimes without Demonstr. {^so thai),

i) Such Demonstratives are :

Adverbs : ita, tam, adeo, sic ; tantum, tantopere, totiens; eo^
hue, illuc.

Pronouns and Pronominals: is, hie, talis, tantus ; tot, toti-
dem ; eiusmodi ; huiusmodi.

Ut also follows the Adjectives dignus, indignus, idoneus,
aptus.

Ut may follow a Comparative with quam {than) : and some-
times ut falls out after quam, the Verb being stiD Sub-

JUnCllvC* uiyiuzeu uy x^j^^^ v^ -x i-V^

S 205. Consecutive Clauses, 453

2) If N^jation is recjuired, the Negative words used are :

Non, nee, nihil, nemo, nullus, numquam, nusquam.

3) Ita miseri sunt ut fleant, fleverint {Jiave wepf)^ fleturi sint
Ita miseri erant ut flerent, flettui essent

Ita miseri fuere ut fleverint {they wept),

Quis tamdurus est ut numquam fleat, fleverit, fleturussit?

Quis tarn durus erat ut non fleret, fleturus esset?

Quis tarn durus fuit ut non fleverit?

[In Historic Consecution, if the fact is to be brought out, S,
^(fleverint) is used instead of S. (flerent). The following examples
unite both constructions : — * Sicilia et classis Marcello evenit
Quae sors, velut iterum captis Syracusis, ita exanimavit Siculos, ut
comploratio eorum flebilesaue voces et extemplo oculos hominum
converter ent et postmodo sermones praebuerint/ L. xxvL 29.
* Usque eo ut compluris dies milites fhimento caruerint, et . . .
•extremam famem sustinerent,' Caes. B. G. viL 17. S, will be
necessary y when the consequence can only be referred to the time of
the writer or speaker : * Hortensius ardebat cupiditate dicendi sic
ut in nuUo unquam flagrantius studium viderim {have seen) ^ Q.
Br, 88.]

4) Idioms of Adverbial Consecution :

xC) The phrase 'tantum ab esse,' with an Enuntiative Ut-
clause, may take also a Consecutive Clause, the meaning
\i€xa% so far from , , , that:
•'Tantum abest ut enervetur oratio compositione ver-
borum ut aliter in ea nee impetus ullus nee vis esse
p o s s i t,' J<7 far is a speech from being weakened by periodic
arrangement^ that otherwise there can be no movement or
force in it, C. Or, 68.

The Adverbial Clause after tantum abest is sometimes

changed for a Principal Sentence :
'Tantum afuit ut inflammares nostros animos, somnum

isto loco vix tenebamus.'

i The phrase * in eo esse ut ' means to be on the point of:
*Iam in eo erat ut in muros evaderet miles,' L. ii. 17.

5) Ita ut is used with various shades of meaning: {in such

circumstances; on condition; with the understanding;
with the feeling ; with the exception) thai; &c: 'Clodius
Koma ita profectus est ut contionem turbulentam
relinqueret,' C.p, Mil, 10. * Huius ingenium ita laudo
ut non pertimescam,' C. in Caec, 13. 'Caligula in
adulescentia ita patiens laborum erat ut tamen non>
numquam subita defectione ingredi vix posset,' Suet.
Cal, 48.

6) When ita or sic implies design, the Clause is rather Final

than Consecutive, and, if Negative, takes ne: 'Hoc est
ita utile ut ne plane illudamur,' this is useful with a
view to our being not altogether made a mock of C. p, S»
Rose, 10. Here ita is equivalent to idcirco. ^ j

uiyiuzeu uy ■n^JVJvJVJ Iv^

454 Latin Syntax. § 206.

7) Is . . . ut (<?/• /^ kind thai) is often used, though not
so often as IS . . . qui in the same sense: * Non is sum
ut mea me maxime delectent/ C ad. Brut, 15.

B) An Adjectival Consecutive Clause with a Subjunctive occurs
when qui or its Particle expresses (not the individual which, but)
the kind which ( » talis ut, ita ut, &c.).

Examples of Consecutive Clauses.

A) {Adverbial.) 'Galli dies natalis et mensium et annorum initia sic obsenramt, ut
noctemdies subscquatur(j«cc^^d!r to\* Caes. B. G. vL i8. 'Socratis responso sic
iudices exarserunt ut capitis hominem innocentissimum condcmnarcnt/ C. d.Or.
I 54. 'Talis est ordo actionum adhibendus ut in vita omnia sint {may be) apUt inter
sc ct convenientia/ C Qffi I 4a *Quis est tam demens ut sua volunute maereat
{as to moMrH)V C. T. D iii. 29. *Decori vis ea est ut ab honesto non queat
{cannoi) separari,* C. Off- i. 27. *Non ita adulatus sum fortunam alterius ut me
meae pacniteret(<M ^^ rr^p^r/VC. Div. ii. 2. 'Dolores, si qui inciurunt, numquam.
vim tantam habent, ut non plus habeat (fw7/*w^ have) sapiens, quod gaudeat, quam
quodangatur/ C. Fin, i. 19. 'Hannibal petens Etnxham adeo gravi morbo ad fie i-
tur oculorum, ut postea numquam dextro aeque bene usus sit,* Nep. Harm, 4.
' Iphicrates Atheniensis fuit talis dux, ut non solum aetatis suae cum prinus com-
pararetur sed ne de maioribus natu quidem quisquam anteponeretur. Moltum
vero in bello est versatus, saepe exerdtibus praefuit, nusquam culpa sua male rem gessit:
semper consilio vicit, tantumque eo valuit, ut multain re militari portim nova attu-
lerit, partim meliora fecerit,' Nep. l^h. x. 'Quanta ilia Sdpionis fuit gravicas*
quanta in oratione maiestas, ut {so that) facile ducem Roman! populi d ice res,' C LaeL
35. 'Arboribus consita Italia est, ut tota pomarium videatur {seems\' Varro, i.
'Cuius aures clausae veritati sunt, ut ab amico verum audire nequeat, huius saltis
de^>eranda est,' C LaeL 24. 'In virtute multi sunt ascensus, ut is maxime glosia.
excel la t {excels) qui virtute plurimum praestet,* C. /. Platte, 25. 'Data merces est
erroris mei magna, ut me non solum pigeat stultitiae meae, sedetiam pudeat, qui
non f«////^jrmiM, quibus, ut amicis, crederem,' C /. Donu ix. 'Maior sum quam
ut mancipium sim {too great to be) mei corporis,' Sen. Ep. 65. 'Hocvidetur esse
altius quam ut nos humi strati suspicere possimus {too high /or us to be able),* C
d. Or. iiL 6. 'Galba parcior fuit quam conveniret principt,' SucC GaJb.
'Dignus es ut possis {to be able) totmn servare clientem,' Mart. x. 34. 'In«
digni ut avobis redimeremur (/^ Je ransomed) visi sumus,* L. xxiL 59. 'Tan-
tum afuit ut Rhodiorum praesidio nostram firmaremus classem ut etiam a Rhodus
commeatu prohiberentur milites nostri,' C Fam. xiL 15. 'Tantum abest ut
nostra miremur ut usque eo difficiles ac morosi simus ut nobis non satisfaciat
ipse Demosthenes,' C. Or. 29. 'Tantum abes a perfectione maximorum operum nt
liuidamenta nondum ieceris,' C. /. Marc. 8. 'Is, qui occultus et tectus didtur, tan^
tum abest ut se indicet, perficiet etiam ut dolere alterius improbe facto videatur,'
C Fin* ii. 17. 'Ita {with this exception) probanda est mansuetudo atque dementia nt
adhibeatur reipublicae causa severitas,' C Off.x. 35. 'Pythagoras et Plato mortem
ita {with thisproviso) laudant ut fiigere vitam vetent,' C /. Scaur. 2. ' Aristotdes
ita non sola virtute finem bonorum condneri putat ut rebus tamen omnibus virtutem
anteponat,' C. Fin. iv. z8. 'Ego tibi onus imponam, ita {pnth the understanding
tamen ut tibi nolim molestus esse,' C Fam. xiiL 56. 'Ego a patre ita eram
deductus ad Scaevolam ut a senis latere numquam discedercm,' C. LaeL i. ' Potest
esse bellum, ut tumultus non sit {Tvithout insurrection), tumultus esse sine bello non
potest,' C Phil. viii. x. 'Ita vobiscum amiddam institui par est ne qua {provided
that no) vetustior amidtia ac societas violetur,' L. vii. 31. 'Minudus sdebat ita se
in provincia rem augere oportere ut ne quid de libertate deperderet,' C Verr. iL 3a
'Ea {such) invasit homines habendi cupido ut possideri magis'quam possidere vi-
deantur,' Plin. Ep. ix. 30. ' Ea natura rerum est ut, qui sensum verae gloriae ceperit,
nihil cum hac gloria comparandum putet,' C. PhiL v. z8. ' Non is {the kind <^ ntati^
es, Catilina, ut te aut pudor a turpitudine aut metus a periculo aut ratio a fiuore revo-
carit,' C. Cat. i. 9.

B) {Adjectival.) 'Ea est Romana gens quae victa quiescere nesciat,' L. ix. 3.
I Non is sum qui, quidquid videtur, tole dicam esse quale videatur^ C Ac. ii. 7.
'Innocentia est afiectio talis animi quae noceat nemini,' C. T, Z7. iiL & 'Est
ahquid quod non oporteat, etiamsi licet/ C p. Balb. 3. 'Quotusquisqne est

Digitized by VjOOQ IC

I 206. Consecutive Clauses, 45 5

i) This may happen :

After the Demonstratives is^ eiusmodi^ huiusmodi, talis,
tantus, tam, &c :

'Habetis eum (eiusmodi, talem, tarn bonum) consulem qui
parere vestris decretis non dubitet/ you have suck a
consul, as will not hesitate to obey your decrees^ C. CcU, iv.
II. ' Nihil tanti fuit quo venderemus fidem nostram
et libertatem/ nothing was so valuable that we should
barter for it our honour and freedom^ C. cuL Br, i6.

Wherever the Predication on which the Relative Clause
depends might be explained by talis or tam : for instance,
when it contains

a) Indefinite, Interrogative, Negative, and other Pronominal
words : aliquis, quidam, &c., quis, quot, ^uotusquisque,
&c., nemo, nihil, nullus ; unus, solus, pnmus, ultimus,
&c. ; nonnulli, multi, pauci, &c

b) Dignus, indignus, idoneus, aptus, &c.

c) A Comparative with quam.

d) A Verb, the Subject or Object of which (being the Antece-
dent) is not expressed, but left Indefinite. Such expres-
sions are : est qui, sunt qui, reperitur qui, habeo,
invenio, reperio qui, &c. : and many like phrases.

Even if the Antec. is expressed, the ReL will take Subjunctive
when it defines the class or hind.

quivoluptateinneget esse bonum? ' CZ^miL 39. 'Nullum est animal praeterhomi-
nem, quod habeat nodtiam aliquam Dei/ C. Leg. i. 8. 'Nihil est quod tam
miseros faciat quam impietas et scelus/ C Fin. iv. 24. 'Multae hodie sunt gentes
quae tapt^i™ lade noverint caelum, quae nondum sciant cur luna deficiat/ Sen. ^V.
Qw, vi 35. 'Sapientia est una quae maestitiam pellat ex animis, quae nosexhor-
rescere metu non sinat,' C Fin. i. 13. 'Sola est in qua merito culpetur Vespasi-
anus pecuniae cupiditas,' Suet yesp. 16. 'Est quod differat inter iustitiam et
Terecundiam/ C OJT' !• a3. 'Sunt qui discessum animi a corpore putent esse
mortem/ C. T. D. l 9. 'Est quatenus amicitiae dari venia posnit/ C Lm/. 17.
'Fuere qui crederent M. Lidnium Crassum non ignarum Catilinae consili fuisse/
SalL Cat 17. 'Fuit cum mihiquoque initium requiescendi fore iustum arbitrarer/
C J. Or. L 1. 'Quid est cur virtus ipsa perse non efliciat beatosf C T. D. v. 6.
'Livianae fabulae non satis dignae sunt quae iterum legantur,' C Br, z8. ' Men-
tem solam censebant idoneam cui crederetur/ C. Ac. i. 8. 'Campani maiora
deliquerant quam quibus ignosd posset,* L. xxv. ix 'Quid duldus quam habere
quicum omnia audeas sic loqui ut tecum?* C. Latl. 6. 'Non fadle est invenire
qui, quod sdat ipse, non tradat alteri/ C. Fin. iti. aa ' Nihil difficilius quam re-
perire quod sit omni ex parte in suo genere perfectum/ C LatL az. 'Nihil habeo
quod incusem senectutem/ C. Cat. M. 5. 'Quid est quod tu cum fortuna queri
possis?* C Fam. iv. 5. 'Non est causa cur Epicurus fatum extimescat,' C Fat,
9. 'Antonius quo se verteret non habebat/ C PkiL ii. 35. 'Ne qui infons
qtudem est adsuescat .sermoni qui dediscendus sit/ Qu. i. i. 'Augusto prompta ac
profluens, quae deceret prindpem, eloquentia fuit/ Tac Ann. xiiL 3. ' Pad, quae
nihil habitura sit insidiarum, semper est consulendum,' C. Off. L xi. 'Quis est quin
cernat quanta vis sit in sensibus?' C Ac. ii. 7. 'Cleanthes negat uUum esse cibum
tamgravem quin is dieetnocte concoquatur,' C N, D. ii. 9. 'Nemo tam ferus
fuit quin Alcibiadis casum lacrimarit,' N. Ale. 6. 'Totas noctes dormimus, neque
ulla est fere qua non somniemus,*C Div. ii. 59. 'Nihil est tam sanctum quod
non aHquando violet audacia/ C. >. S. Rose. 7a 'Nulla tam detestabilis pestis est
quae non homini ab homine nascatur,' C. Off. ii. 5. 'Non possunt una in dvi-
tate mdki rem atque fortunas amittere, ut non pluris sccum in eandem trahant CfUa-.

uiyiuzeu uy x^j^^^x^ -x iv-

4S6 Latin Syntax, S*^

Examples :

Aliquis (quis? quotusquisque ? nemo, mius, &c) est qui
sciat, ikere is somebody {who is there f how many are
there? there is nobody^ there is one) who knows.

Dignus (indignus, idoneus) est qui imperet, he is worthy
(unworthy, fit) to rule.

« Maior fuit quam cui resisti posset,' he was too great to oe

resisted . ,. . /

Sunt (reperiuntur, existunt, &c.) qui velint, there are {are
found, exist) those who will be willing, Habui puerum
quern mittere possem, J had such a boy as J could send
« Satis est causae cur timeamus.*

2^ If a Relative Clause, depending on a Negative or Inteno-
gative Predication, reqjuires Negation itsdf, qui non
(numquam, nusquam) may be used, or quin for qui
non:

Quis est (nemo est) quin (qui non) sues habeat? who is
there {there is nobody) thai does not keep swim f

'Nihil est (quid est?) quin (quod non) male narrando
possit depravari,' /^r^ is nothing {what is there?) that
cannot be spoilt by Ulling it badly ^Tox. Ph. iv. 4.

'Nullum intermisi diem quin ( « quo non) scriberem,*
/ let no day pass without writing, C.

a) Quin rarely contains any Case of the Relative except

Nom. or AbL ; but a few exceptional instances are
found :
'Nego in Sicilia tota ullam picturam fuisse quin Vcrres
conquisierit ( = quam non),' C. Verr. iv. i.

b) Quin must be resolved into qui non whenever the Nega-

tive has a distinctive application to a part of the Clause,
requiring special emphasis.

c) If another Relative Clause intervenes, quin -ut non, and

a Demonstrative Pronoun follows :
'Nihil est, quod sensum habeat, quin id intcreat,
there is nothing that has feeling but it perishes, C. N. D,
iii. 13-

d) In some instances quin consecutive will be resolved into

mitatcm,' C. /. L. Man. 7. * Quod litteris exstct, Pherecydcs Syrius i^imus <Uxit
animos esse hominum sempiternos/ C. T. D. L x6. 'Suae cuique utiUtati, quod ff *
alterius iniuria fiat, •eiviendum est,' C. Off. iii. la 'Refertae sunt Catonis orat»«
amplius centum quinquaginta, quas quidem adhuc invenerim et legerim, et 1
et rebus iUustribus,' C Br. \^.

{Exceptions with Indie.) 'Tuesis qui me tuis sententus saepissime ornastl/C
Fam. XV. 4. 'Sunt bestiae quaedam, in qutbus inest aliquid simile virtutia^ wt i*
leombus, ut in canibus,' C. Fin. v. 14. ' Interdum volgus rectum vidct : est ubi
peccat/ Hor. Epist. iL i. 63. 'Gemmas . . . argentum . . . sunt qui non ha-
bcant, est qui non curat habere,' Hor. Epist. ii. a. x8o (where est qui implies the
poet himselO- * Sunt quibus e ramo frondea facta caaa est,' Ov. F. iii 527, * Sunt
nonnullae diciplinae, quae officium omne pervertunt,* C Off. L a. 'Sunt
multi, qui eripiunt aliis, quod aliis largiantur,' C Off. i. X4. 'Duac sunt artes,
quae possunt locare homines in amplissimo gradu dignitatis, una imperatoris, altera
oratoris boni/ C. /. Mur. 14. ^ ,

{ ao7. Final Clauses. 457

ut non; if purpose is implied, ne takes its place; if
cause is implied^ cur non, quare non, &c : •
'Quid fuit causae cur in Africam Caesarem non seque-
rere,' what was the reason for your not following Caesar
into Africa f C. Phil, ii 29.

3) Qui with the Subjunctive is used parenthetically with a
sense of limitation : *quod sciam/ so far as I know : in
which use jthe Relative is often modified by quid em :
'Ahtiquissimi fere simt^ quorum quidem scripta con-
st en t, Pericles et Alcibiades,' Pericles and AlciHades are
about the most ancient orators of those at least whose
writings are known^C. Or, 2. 'Omnium oratorum,
quos equidem cognoverim, acutissimum iudico Q.
Sertorium,' C. Br. 48.

Exceptions, The Demonstr. before a Relative may be so definite,
that the Relative, having no consecutive force, takes an Indicative.
Thus *is est qui' may mean ^he is ^t person who' (fecit, did it).
Even talis qui, eiusmodi qui arc sometimes used with that definite-
ness which allows an Indic. : ' Mihi causa talis oblata est in qua
oratio deesse nemini potest,' the case I speah for is of a sort in
which no man can be at a loss for words, C. p. L, Man, i.

Sunt qui, sunt multi qui, sunt quidam qui, &c., are not always
indefinite: *Sunt qui appellantur alces,' Caes. B, G, vi. 27.
'Sunt quidam qui molestas amicitias faciunt^' C. LaeL 20.
'Multa sunt quae dici possunt' (^eaquae dici possunt, sunt
multa). So est qui and sunt cjui are constructed with Indic
in poetry, in imitation of Greek idiom : 'Suntquos curriculo pul-
verem Olympicimi collegisse iuvat,' some there are who delight
with the chariot to raise clouds of Olympian dust,' Hor. C. L i. 3.

iii. Final Clauses.'

A Final Clause expresses an End or Purpose, and its Verb is ^,^
Subjunctive.

A) An Adverbial Final Clause is introduced by the Conjunction
ut {in order that), but if Negative by ne {lest, that-not), ut ne, ne
quis, necubi, nequando, &c :

Venio ut videam ; veni ut viderem ; abito ne pereas, ut ne pe-
reas, nequando pereas ; abiit ne periret, &c.

Clauses

" Examples of Final Clauses (§§ 207-8).

A)(Adv*rbiaLy 'Sessum it praetor: quid ut iudicctur?' C A''. Z>.uL 3a 'Quidmereas
i^wkatwouidyou take) ut Epicureus esse desinasT' C N. D.x. 2^ ' Condiunt Aegyptii
mortuos ut q\iam maxime permaneant diuturna corpora,' C. T. D. L 45. 'Platonem
femnt, ut Pjrthagoreos cognosceret, in Italiam venisse/ C. T. D. L 17. 'Invenu
sunt specula, ut homo se ipse nosceret/ Sen. N. Qu, L 17. 'Dionysius, ne tonsori
ooOum committeret, tondere filias suas docuit,' C 7*. i7. v. 90. ' Hunc librum 1^^
ooovivis tuis, si me amas, hilaris et bene acceptis, ne in me stomachum erumpant,
•cum sini tibi irati,' C Ait. xvL 3. ' Caesar cum Pompeio Crassoque iniit sodeutem, ne
quid ageretur in republica, quod dUplicuisset ulU e tribus/ Suet Ceui. 19. 'Tu
'•quam plurimis de rebus ad me veUm scribas, «t prorsus ne quid ignorem/ C AtL iU.
30. ' Silanus agna quam maxime ad laevam iubebat ferri, necunde ab stationibus

uiyiuzeu uy x^j^^^x^ -x i-V-

45 8 Latin Syntax. § 208-9^

i) Such Clauses may follow Demonstrative words or phrases :
Eo, ideo, idcirco, propterea, ob earn rem, ob earn causam, eo
consilio. Idcirco fugit, ut salvus sit. Ob earn rem
fiigerat, ne periret

2) A Final Clause with ut or ne often stands parenthetically

in such phrases as the following :
Ut ita dicam, so to say, ne dicam, not to say ; ne longus sim,
not to be tedious ; ne te detineam, not to detain you^ &c

3) The construction of nedum with a Subjimctive is a pe-

culiar instance of a Final Clause. See § 85.
(The idea of Purpose is often contained in certain Temporal
Conjunctions, donee, dum, antequam, &c. See Tem-
poral Clauses.)

B) An Adjectival Final Clause is formed by a Relative or Rela-
tive Particle containing the notion of Purpose, and taking the
Subjunctive :

*Clusini legatos Romam qui auxilium a senatu peterent
misere,' L. v. 35. * Ne illi sit cera, ubi facere possit litteras,' Ut
him have no wax to write upon, Plant. As, iv. i. 22.

i) Quo is thus used, especially with a Comparative word :
'Medico puto aliquid dandum quo sit studiosior, /
think the physician should have something given to him
that he may be more zealous, C. Fam, xvi. 4.

Clauses.

Ca^ ^* Causal Clauses.

A) Adverbial Causal Clauses are introduced by Conjunc-
tions of three classes :

i) Quoniam, quando, quandoauidem, quandoque {since), siqui-
dem, quatenus {inasmuch as, seeing that), of admitted
Cause. The Verb is Indicative, if not Suboblique.

Punicis conspicerentur/L. xx\-iiL i. 'Haoc eo scrips! ut potius relevares mc/C
A if. uL la 'Eo perperam olim dixi ne vos forte imprudentes foris effutiretis^'Tcr.
PA. V. X. 18. 'Hanc ideo rationem subiecimus, ut hoc causae genus ipsum, de quo
agimus, cognosceretur/ C. fnv. ii. 33. 'Susdpienda bella sunt ob earn causam
ut sine iniuria in pace vivatur,' C O^. u zz. 'Legibus idcirco omnes servimus ut
liberi esse possimus/C >. C/u. 53. 'Quid stultius est quam cetera parare, anucos
non parare, optimam et pulcherrimam vitae, ut ita dicam, supellecdlem?' C. Lati.
1$. 'A te peto ut huic meae laudi vel, ut verius dicam, prope saluti, taum sta-
dium dices/ C Fam. ii. 6. ' Moleste ferebam tantum ingenium in tam levis, ne dicam
ineptas, sententias incidisse/ C. A^ 2?. i. az. 'Ne te morer, audi quo rem dedocam/
Hot. S. i. z. Z4. See Hor. S. L 3. Z37 ; C iv. g. 1. * Vix in ipsis tectis et oppidb firigus
hiemale infirma valetudine vitatiu*, nedum in man et via sit facile abesse ab iniuria
temporis,' C. Fam. xvi. 8.

S) {Adjectival^ 'Homini natura addidit rationem qua regerentur animi appe*
titus,' C N. D. ii. za. 'Hannibal tripartito Iberum copias traiedt, praeznissis, qui
Gallorum animos, qua traducendus exerdtus eratf donis conciliarent, Alpium tran»tus
specularentur/ L. xxi. 33. ' Subacto mihi ingenio opus est, ut agro non seme) anuot
sed novato et iterate, quo meliores fettis possit et grandiores edere,' C d. Or. tL

So-^ * ^n funeribus Atheniensiimi sublata erat celebritas virorum ac mulierum, quo ? *

Utio minuerctur.'C Z<f. iL 36. (Horace has quo ne/ S, a z. 37.)

uized by Google

{ 2og. Causa/ Clauses, 459

2) Quod, qtua {because), ascribe a Cause ; with Indie, normally.
But Causal Clauses are often Suboblique with quod, some-
times with quia :

* Mater irata est quia non redierim/ Plaut Cist. i. 1. 105.

Quod, quia, maybe strengthened by the same Demonstra-
tive words or phrases as Final Conjunctions : eo, ideo,
propterea, &c.

3) Cum {since) expresses, usually, conceived Cause, with Sub-

junctive.

a) While quod and quia (= Greek &ri^diorij and French
parceque) state a Cause ascripiivefy^ cum (-Greek iirce,
and French puisque) states it concepHvely^ hence taking
Subjunctive.
Hence too, when cum, after emotional expressions of yi^y,
grief, surprise, praise, congratulation, &c., assigns a fact
as cause, it takes an Indicative. See § 196.
(On cum in correlation with tum, see Temporal Clauses.)

^) The Subjunctive of a Verb of thinking is also used with
quod where the author doubtfully suggests the motive of
an action :

Helvetii, seu quod timore perterritos Romanes discedere
a se existimarent, sive eo quod re frumentaria inter- •
cludi posse confiderent, nostros insequi ac lacessere
coeperunt,' Caes. B» G. i. 23.

c) And, by a very remarkable idiom, a Verb of assertion fol-
lowing <juod is made Subjunctive, when the cause itself
(which is the really Suboblique notion) is contained in
the Infin. Clause dependent on that Verb.

Examples of Causal Clauses (§§ 209-10).

A) AdverlnaL

{Admitted Caused 'Geramus, dis bene im-antibus, quando ita videtur,
beUmn/ L. xlii. 51. 'Didte, qnandoquidem in molU consedimus herba/ Verg.
B, iiL 55. 'Quandoque hice homines iniussu populi Romani Quiritium foedus
ictiun iri spoponderunt, atque ob earn rem noxam nocuerunt, ob earn rem quo
populus Romanus scelere irapio sit solutus, hosce homines vobis dedo,' L. ix. la ' Vos,
Quirites, quoniam iam nox est, in vestra tccta discedite/C. Cat. iiL xa. 'Eadivi-
nationum ratio ne in barbaris qtudem gentibus neglecta est, si quid em et in Gallia
Dmidae sunt/C. Div, L 41. 'Audeat refrenare licentiam, clarus postgenitis, quate-
nus virtutem incohimem odimus,'&c. Hor. C. iii. 34. 28.

{Alleged Cause.) ' Codrus se in medios immisit hostis veste famulari, ne posset
agnosci, si esset omatu regio : quod oraculuni erat datum, n rex interfectusesset,
victricis Athenas fore,' C T. D.x. 48. * Hae sordes susceptae sunt propter unum me,
quia meum casum luctumque doluerunt,' C /. S*st. 69. 'Quia natura mutari non
potest, idcirco verae amicitiae sempitemae sunt,* C. Lael. 9. * Fed e servo ut esses
Ubertusmihi propterea quod serviebas liberaliter,' Ter. An. L x. xow

{SubtMiqiu.) 'Comitiorum ill! habendorum, quando minimus natu sit, munus con-
sensu iniungunt,' L. iiL 35. * Prindpes Trcvirorum de suis privatis rebus petere coepe-
runt, quoniam dvitati consulere non possent,' Caes. B. O. v. 3. 'lugurthae
bellum illatum est, quod Adherbalem et Hiempsalem, Midpsae filios, intere^
misset,* Eutr. iv. xx. 'Nemo ipsam voluptatem, quia voluptas sit, aspematur/ C
Fin, Lxa 'Necquiasit honesta atque puldierrima rerum eloquentia, petituripsa,
sed ad vilem usum et sordidum lucrum accingimur,' Qu. L X2. ' Falso queritur de
Datura gemis humantun quod imbecilla atque aevi brcvis forte potius quam virtute
regatur,' SalL lug. i. * Aristides nonne ob earn causam expubus est patria, quod
praeter modum iustus esset?' C T, D. v. 36. 'Plato escam malorum voluptatem
appellat, quod ea videlicet homines capiantur« uthamopisces,' C. Cat. M. 44.

O

gle

460 Latin Syntax. \ 209.

' Ab Atheniensibus locum sepulturae intra urbem ut darent,
impetrare non potui, quod religione se impediri di cerent,'
C. Fam. iv. 12. ' Qui e Gallia veniunt, superbiam tuam
accusant, cjuod negent te percunctantibus respondere,'
C Fam, vii. 16.

d) The ground of a writer's or speaker's present opinion will be
Indie, but that of his former opinion may take the Sub-
junctive, as if he were speaking of another person. See C.
T, D. ii. 3. cited by Madvig.

€) Non quod, non quia, non (]uo (less often nonquoniam),
are used with the Subjunctive when the reason denied is
conceivable J but not real; sed generally following with the
true reason :
*Non idcircolibrorum usum dimiseram, quod iis suc-
censerem; sed quod eorum me suppudebat,' / had
not abandoned the intimacy of my books because I was
angry with them; but because I was a little ashamed of
my behaviour to them^ C. Fam. ix. i. «Numquam mihi
defuturam orationem, qua exercitum meimi alloquerer,
credidi; non quo verba umquam potius quam res exer-
cuerim,sed quiaassuerammilitaribusingeniis,V««/^r
supposed I should lack Um^age to address my army ; not
that I have ever practised words rather than deeds; but
because I had been accustomed to the tempers of soldiers^
L. xxviil 27.

f) If the cause denied is one which is not conceivable^ non

quod, non c}uia take the Indicative:
' Ad urbem Scipioni majore resistitur \i ;

non quia plus

{CcHceived Cause.) 'Cum sint in nobis consiUum, ratio, pmdentia, neceasc est decs
haec ipsa habere maiora,' C JV. Z>. it 31. 'Cum in communibus suggestis coasiatere
non auderet Dionysius, contionari ex ttirri alta solebat,' C T. D. v. 90. * Cum Athmars
tamquam ad mercatiuam bonarum aitium sis profectus, inanem redire turpissiniaai
est,' C Oj: iii. a.

(yoH gucdf ^rv.) ' Mihi xpad vos de meis maioribus dioendi *fl^^l»** non datnr ;
non quod non tales fuerint, qualis nos, illorum «• nyt^n** procreatos, Ytdetis^ sed
quod laude populari atque honoris vestri luce caruerunt,' C d. L. A^. ii i. 'Stii>
diiun sapientiae mihi Latinis Uteris illustrandum putavi, non quia ph^Wnp*''^ Graecis
Ittteris perdpi non posset, sed meum senqier tudicium fuit, omnia nostros accepcua
Graecis fedsse meliora,' C T. D. L i. * Saepe soleo audire Rosdum, cum ita dkat, ae
adhuc reperire discipulum, quem quidem probaret, potuisse neminem ; non quo non
essentquidamprobabiles, sed quia, si aliquid modo esset vitii, id ferre vpsit non
posset, C <£ Or. x. a8. ' Crasso commcndattonem non sum poIUdtus, non qnin earn
valituram apud te arbitrarer, sed mihi egere commendatt<me non ridebatur,' C.
Fam. xiiL z6. ' Ego me ducem in dvili bello negavi e^se, non quin rectum esset, sed
quia, quod multo rectius fuit, id mihi fraudem tulit,' C Ati. viL 26.

B) A4jeciivaL

' Alexander cum in Sigeo ad Achillis tumulum adstirisset, O fortunate, ioqnit, ado-
lescens, qui tuae virtutis Homerum praeconem inveneris,' C /. Arch. to. 'Cam.
Dion non desisteret obsecrare Dionysium, ut Platonem Athenis arcesseret et etus coosiKIs
uteretur, iUe, qui in aliqua re vellet patrem imitari, morem ei ges^t,' N. Di, 3. 'O
magna vis veritatis, quae contra hominum calliditatem fadle se per se ipsam defendat,*
C. /. Cael. x6. * Numquam laudari satb digne philosoi^iia potent, cui qui parcat omne
tcmpus aetatis sine molestia possit degere,' C. Co/. M. x. ' Habeo senectuti magnam
gratiam, quae mihi sermonis aviditatem auxit, potioniset dbi sustuIit,'C Cnl. Af-
13* 'Virtus est una altissimis defixa radidbus, quae numquam ulla vi labefacta li
P otest, numquam demoveri loco,* C PkiL iv. 5. * Callidus adubtor non iadle <

uiyiuzeu uy x^jv^v^p* iv

§ 2IO-II. Temporal Clauses, 461

animi victis est, sed melius muri quam vallum annates
arcent,' L. x. 41. See Hor. S. ii. 2. 89.

g) Non quin is used for non quo nonornonquia non:
'Consilium tuum reprehendere non audeo, non quin ab
eo dissentiam, sed,' &c., / dare not blame yourplan^ not
thai I do not differ from it^ dut, &c, C. Fam* iv. 7.

B) An Adjectival Causal Clause is formed by the Relative
qui, or one of its Particles.

Qui causal usually contains conceived Cause, with Subjunctive.
Sometimes it contains quia^ and takes Indie

Quippe strengthens qui. cum, sometimes quod; the Mood
being usually Subjunctive; but quippe c^ui is found with Indie.
Ut qui, utpote qui, are rare, but found with each Mood: utpote
cum with Subjunctive only.

V. Temporal Clauses.

i) Temporal Conjimctions may be placed in four groups:

A) Ubi, when^ ubi primum, simul ac, simul ut, simul, as soon
as ; ut, when ; from the time when ; ut primum, cum
primum, &c, since; as soon as; quotiens, /u ofren as;
postquam, afrer that^ since,

B) I. Dum, donee, quoad, whilst ^ as long as; quamdiu, as

long as,

2. Dum, donee, quoad, until

C) Antequam, priusquam, de/ore that.

D) Cum.

With most of these Conjunctions various Demonstrative Adverbs
may be correlated, which are noticed in the Examples.

aTz
Tem-
poral
Clantct.

citor, quippe qui etiam adversando saepe assentetur/ C LatL a6. 'Animus
fortima non eget : quippe quae prolMtatem, industriam aliasque aitis bonas neque
dare neque eripere cuiquam potest,' Sail Iiig. x. ' Sed de hoc tu videbis, quippe cum
de me ipso ac de meis te cousiderare velim/ C ^//. tL 13. ' Multa de mea sententia
questus est Caesar, quippe quod etiam Crassum ante vidisset,' C Fam, L 9. ' Me
inoommoda valetudo, qua iam emerseram, utpote cum sine fetni laborassem, tene*
bat Brundisii,' C. Att. ▼. 3. 'Nero inusitatae hucuriae fiiit, ut qui retibus aureit
piscaretur,* Eutr. viL 9.

Examples of Temporal Clauses (§§ 211-12).

A) Ubi, &c, with Demonstratives, tum, tunc, turn demum, tum denique, ilx, iam,
continuo, extemplo, ihco, ilicet, semel, sutim, quamprimum, repente, &c

(Ubi, when^ ubi primum, eu soon tu, &c) «. ' Miserum est opus fodere, ubi sitis fiiuces
tenet,' Plant Most. iL x. 'Haec ubi aperuit ostium, continuo hie se coniedt
intro,'Ter. Hani. iL a. 35. (Ubi nuntiata sunt, statiro,'&cC Verr. v. 47. 'Ubi
. . . decessit, ilicet,'&c, SaD. lug. 41.) 'Ubi Sjrracusanorum doknvm cognovi,
tum eos hortatus sum/ &c., C Verr. vi. 63. 'Ubi primum est Ucitum, ilico pro-
peraviabire de foro,' Pbut. Men. vr. a. 34. 'Taleae ubi trimae sunt, tum denique
maturae sunt,' Cato, R. R. 45. fi. Divico ita cum C^aesare agit : Si pacem populus
Romanus cum Helvetiis faceret, in eam partem ituros atque ibi futiux)s Helvetios, ubi
ea% Caesar constituisset,'Caes. B. G. i. 13.7. 'IdfetiaUs ubi dixisset, hastam in
finis eorum mittebat,' L. L 3a. *Ubi pretlo non aeqiutate itira descripserat,
Vcncri iam et Libero reliquum tempus deberi arbitrabatur/ C|^«|7'.,vy.^i^ ^^

462 Latin Syntax. §211.

2) Tense and Mood vary much in Temporal Clauses.

Variation of Tense is naturally due to the various combinations
of Time in Clause and Sentence.

As to Mood, there is no Conjunction of Time which does not

nortnally take the Indicative. But the Subjunctive often is required :

(C) In Suboblique^ Gnomic, and (in some styles) Iterative

Construction.
b) When the notion of Time is complicated with that of Con-
sequence, Purpose, Cause, or Concession. Thus, cum is
constructed so as to express Consequence (Time of such
a ^'«^ that). Cause {since), Concession {although^ whereas) ;
sometimes even Condition. Dum, donee, quoad (untt/)^
antequam, priusquam, &c may imply Purpose.

The two latter sometimes take a Subjunctive which has no
such internal reason ; and which may perhaps be explained
by the Consec use of quam. See § 205.

(The two last examples shew the difiereiice <^ Iteradve Pluperfect constructicm in livy
and Cicero : Subjunctive in the former, Indicative in the latter.)

(Quando» w^rff^quo tempore.) ' Ubi satur sum, intestina nulla crepitant ; qaando
esurio, turn crepant,' Plaut. Men. v. 5. 27. 'Utinam tunc essem natus quando
Romani dona accipere coepissent,' C Q^. iL 27.

(Quotiens, asqfUnas.) 'Heraclitusquotiensprodierat et tantum circa se male
viventium, immo male pereuntium, viderat, flebat,' Sen. Ir. iL xa 'Qnotiens
patriamvideret, totiens se benefidum meom videre dicebat,' C d. Or, iL 3a

(Ut, when, as soott as; ut primum, cum, cum primtun.) 'Varro ut advenit, ex-
tcmplo Hostilius legionem imam agna in urbem ferre iussit,' L. xxviL 34. ' Ut Hoaus
cecidit, confestim Romana indinatur ades,' I^ L xa. 'Cum primum s^)ere
coepit, acerbissimos dolores percepit/ C Fam, xiv. x. 'Pompeius ut me primnm
vidit, complexus est/ C. Fam. x. X3. * Ut vidi, ut perii/ Verg. B. viiL 41, ' Ut quis-
que me viderat narrabat,' &c. C Verr. iL

QJXtSiMce,/rom tfu time wken^zx quo.) *Ut tetigi Pontum, vexant insomnia,'
Ov. T'r. iiL 8. 27. 'Ut sumus in Ponto, ter frigore constitit Ister/ Ov. Tr. v. xa x.
See Hor. C. iv. 4. 4a. 'Ut Athenas veneram, expectabam ibi iam quaitum dioa
Pomptinum,' C AH. v. xo.

(Simul, simul ac, simul ut, statim ut, as socm as.) 'Stmul ac duraverit aetas
membra animumque tuum, nabis sine cortice,' Hor. .S". L 4. 119. *Ego statim habebo
quod sentiam, simul ut videro Curionem/ C. Att. x. 4. 'Simul inflavit tibicen,
carmen agnosdtur,' Caes. B. G. iv. 27. 'Statim ut iUe praetor est factus . . .
mira contentio est consecuta,' C Fam. L 9. 5. 'Simul ac annuisset, numeraturum
se dicebat,' C >. Qui$$c. 3.

(Postquam, postcaquam, qfier tAai, smce, when.) ' Relegatus mihi videor postea-
quam in Formiano sum,' C. Att. iL xx. 'Postquam nee ab Romanis vobts uUa ^>es
est, nee vestra iam arma vos defendunt, pacem affero necessariam,* L. xxL 13- 'Quae
postquam sunt audita et undique primores patrum consules increparent . . • turn
T. Quinctius consules immerito bcrepari ait,' L. iv. 13. (In this place sunt audita simply
marks time as stated by Livy, increparent adds the circumstance which caused Ouinctius
to feel and speak.) ' Hannibal anno tertio postquam dcxno profugerat, in Afiricam
venit,' N. Hann. 8. 'Hoc scribis post diem quartum quam ab urbe disoessinms,' C.
Ati. IX. X2. ' Scriptum a Posidonio est triginta annis vixisse Panaetium posteaquam
illosUbros edidis$et,'C Off. m. ^ (In C Fam. iL xp, >. L. Matt. 4, instead ol
posteaquam, postea cum is the right reading.)

^ B) X. Dum, donee, quoad {whilst, as l&Hg €u\ often with Demonstratives, t^nv*^",
interea, interim, tantisper.

'A^roto dum anima est, spes esse didtur,' C. Att. ix. xo. ' Lacedaemonsomm
f!™/?'^i '^^?"°* Lycurgi lieges vigebant,' C 71 /?. L 42. 'Tiberius Gracchus
xamaiu laudaUtur, dum memoria rerum Romanarum manebit/ C Q^ iL xa.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

§211. Temporal Clauses. 463

c) By Latin usage (cum historic), when, in narrative, an

event is stated in the Perfect or Historic Present, a con-
temporary fact is expressed by cum with Imperfect Sub-
junctive ; a preceding fact by cum with Pluperfect
Subjunctive :
Cum videret, ingemuit ; cum vidisset, ingemuit

d) The Iterative Subjunctive is used in Temporal, Relative,

and Conditional Clauses, chiefly by historians. It occurs
when an action indefinitely repeated in past time is ex-
pressed )>y the Clause, the Principal Verb being then
generally in the Imperfect
'Cum cohortes ex acie procucurrissent, Nmnidae im-
petum nostrorum effugiebant,' Caes. B, C.il 41. * Ignoti,
fociem Agesilai cum intuerentur, contemnebant,'
Nep. Ag, 8. 'Quemcumque lictor iussu consuliapre-
hendisset, tribimus mitti iubebat,' L, iii. 11. ^Nec
quisquam Pyrrhum, qua tulisset impetum, sustinere
valuit,' lust XXV. 4. 'Ut quisque maxime laboraret
locus, aut ipse occurrebat, aut aliquos mittebat,' L.
xxxiv. 38.

And after si *

' Ubi his ordinibus exercitus instructus e s s e t, hastati omnium
primipugnam inibant Si hastati profligare hostem non
possent, pede prcsso eos retrocedentis in intervalla ordi-
num principes recipiebant Timi principum pugna erat
Si apud principes cjuoque haud satis prospere esset pug-
natum, a prima acie ad triarios sensim referebantur/
L. viii. 8.

*Dum ad Antium haec geruntur, interim Aequi arcem Tusculanam capiunt,' L.
uL 33. 'Dum is in aliis rebus erat occupatus, erant interea qui suis vulneribus
mederentur/ C p. S. Rose. 33, 'Ego te meiun esse did tantisper volo dum quod te
dignumst facies/Ter. Haut. i i. 54. 'Sic se quisque hostem feme, conspici, dum
tale fadnus faceret, properabat,' Sail Cat. 7. 'Donee eris felix, multos numerabis
amicos/ Ov. TV. L*8. ' Volgus truddatum, donee ira et dies permansit/ Tac. Ann.
L 68. ' Cato, quoad vixlt, virtutum laude crevit/ Nep. Att. 2. ' Minudus praefectus
annonae, quoad res posceret, in incertum creatus,' L. iv. 13.

(Dum with Historie Present) 'Dum haec in coUoquio geruntur, Caesari nun-
tiatum est equites Ariovisti propius tumuhim accedere/ Caes. B. G. L 46. 'Quidam
tradunt, dum ad palum deligatur, qtiia parum inter strepitus audiri^«i)r»/ quae
vociferabatur, Pentium fieri Flaccum iussisse,' L. xxvL x(S.

{Subcbligiu.) 'Dum in aestivis nos essemus, ilium pueris locum esse bellisa-
mum duximus,' C v4//. V. 17. 'Nihil trepidabant elephanti, donee continenti velut
ponte agerentur/ L. xxi. aS.'

{Purpose.) 'Die insequenti quievere, dum praefectus iuventutem ApoUoniatitmi
inspiceret,' L. xxiv. 4a 'Multa quoque et bello passus dum conderet urbem
inferretque deos Latio/ Verg. At. L 5.

(Quamdiu.) 'Tamdiu requiesco quamdiu aut ad te scribo aut tuas litteras
\tgo,' C. Ati. ix. 3. ' Deum atque hominum fidem implorabis, circumveniri Venem,
quod accusator nolit tamdiu quamdiu liceai loqui,' C Verr* n. i. 9.

3. Dixm, donee, quoad, untiL Demonstratives are eo usque, usque eo, tamdiu,
tantisper.

a. ' Retine Phormionem, dum hue ego servos evoco,* Ter. Pk. v. 7. 'Delibera hoc,
dum ^o redeo,' Ter. An. iL x. * £a manat in eondidone usque ad eum finem
dum indices reiecti sunt,' C Verr, L 6. ' Caesar exanimis aliquamdiu iacuit, donee
lecticae impositum tres servuli domum rettulerunt,' Suet Cats. 83. 'Tarquinii tam-
diu dimicaverunt donee Artmtem filium r^is manu sua Brutus interfecit,' Flor. i.

uiyiuzeu uy x^j v^ v^ -x i-V

464 Latin Syntax. §aia»

e) The Indicative is so used, by Cicero generally, in the Plu-
perfect. But an Imperfect Subjunctive Clause in Itera*
tive Sense is not unusual in Cicero: 'Zenonem, cum
Athenis essem, audiebam frequenter,' / used often to
attend Zends lectures^ when I was at Athens (where he
was more than once)/ C. N. D, i 2. This may happen
even when tum precedes cum : * Nos tum, cum maxime
consilio nostro subvenire communi saluti o port ere t, in
senatum non vocabamur,' C. PhiL v. i.

9XS

Gum. 3) Other uses of the Conjunction Cum:

a) Cum, when^ is the most extensively used Temporal Con-
junction, correlative to the Demonstrative tum, as dum
to interea; and signifying a point of Time, as dum
signifies extension of Time.

f) When the relation between the principal Sentence and the
Clause is merely Temporal, cum takes an Indicative in
the Present, Future (Simple or Exact), or Perfect Tense,
according to the time required :
Ciun venio, video ; cum veniam (venero) videbo ; cimi veni,
vidi (videbam, videram).

c) The time is more strongly defined by means of a Demon-
strative (tum, eo tempore, nunc, iam, &c.).

« Vos tum paruistis cum paruit nemo,' C. p, Ug. 7.

d) Cum may take an Imper£ Indie, if an Imperf. is in the
principal Sentence :

Cum veniebam, videbam :
Or, sometimes, if the point of time is to be strongly marked,
tiie principal Verb may be Perfect :

xo. ' Epaminondas femim usque eo in corpore retiiuut quoad renuntiatum est
Yicisse Boeodos,' Nep. Ep. 9.

/3. ' Expectandum putabant dum se res ipsa aperiret»' Nep. Pom. 3. 'Inli»
subtrahendi sunt ii, in quos impetum omantur facere, dum seips colligant,* C 7*.
D. iv. x8. 'Augustus rectorem solitus est apponere regibus aetate parvis ac morte
k^>sis, donee adolescerentaut resipiscerent,' Suet. Avg^. 48. ' Thesaalonicae ease
statueram, quoad aliquidad me scriberes,' C Ati. iii. 13. 'T. Quinctio conaufi pR>>
rogatum in Macedonia imperium, donee success^ o venisset,* L. xxxii. 98.

O (Antequam, priusquam.) a. 'Antequam de inc(»nmodis SteiKae dico^ paoca mibi
videntur esse deprovinciae dignitate dicenda/ C Verr. it a. 'Priusquam de cetens
rebus re spondee, de amicitia pauca dicam/ C Pkil. iL 3. 'Membria utinmr pri*
usquam didicimus cuius ea utilitatis causa habeamus/ C. Fin, iiL 66. ' Non ante
iinitum est proelium quam tribunus militum interfectus est,*L. xlL a. ' DodUora
suntingenia priusquam obduruerunt,' Qu. iL 11. 'Non defatigabor antequam
iUorum andpites vias rationesque percepero/ C d. Or. iiL 36.

^. 'Tempestas nunatur antequam surgat,' Sen. E^, 103. 'Tragoedi cotidie, ante-
quam pronuntient, vocem cubantes sensm exdtant,' C d. Or. L 59. 'Saepe
magna indoles virtutis, priusquam rdpublicae prodesse potuisset, exstincta fmt,'
C Pkil. V. 17. 'Numidae, priusquam ex castris subventretur, in proximos collts
discedunt/ SalL lug: 54. ' Appius non ante continuando abstitit magistratu quam
obruerent eum male parta, male gesta, male retenta iraperia,' L. ix. 34. * Proridentia
est, per quam aliquid videtur, antequam factum sit,* C Inv. iL 53. 'Nesdre, quid
anteaquam natus sis accident, id est semper esse puerum,' C. d. Or. 34- 'In
omnibus negotiis, priusquam aggrediare, adhibenda est praeparatio diligens' C
OJf. L 21. 'Priusquam incipias, consulto, et, nbi consuluerii^ mature fiurto
opus est,' SalL Cat. i. (The three last Examples are Gnomic.)

uiyiiized by VjOOQIC

f ai2. Temporal Clauses. 465

' Nupcr, cum te iam adventare arbitrabamur, re-
pente abs te in mensem Quintilem reiecti sumus/
lately y at the very moment we thought you were comings
we were thrown over by you suddenly to the month of
July, C. Att. L 3. See Verg. Aen. xii. 736.

e) Cum may take Pluper£ Indic.^ when a Demonstrative
marks the time :
* Tum cum in Asia res magnas permuiti amiserant, scimus
Romae fidem concidisse,' at the very time when numerous
persons had lost great properties in Asia we know that
credit sank at Rome, C. p. JL Man. 7.

y) Cum iterative ( = quotiens) takes Plup. Indie in Cicero, an
Imper£ being in the principal Sentence, when repeated
action is expressed : in which sense Livy has Subjunctive :
' Cum ad aliquod oppidum ven erat, eadem lectica usque ad
cubiculum deferebatur/ as often as he came to any town^
he was conveyed to his bed-chamber in the same sedan, C.
Verr, v. 11.

D. I.) Examples of cum with Indicative. (} 212.)

(Corns quo tempore.) 'De te, Catilina, cum quiescunt, probant; cumpatiuntur,
decemunt : cum tacent, clamant/ C. Cat. i. 8. * Lituo Romulus re^iones dirent tum
cum urbem condidit/ C. Div. L 17. 'O praeclarum diem, cum in illud amicorum con>
ciliiun ooetiunque proficiscar/ C. Cat. M. 93. 'Sedplura, cum bta cognoro/ C Att.
vr. 9. 'Regulus, tum cum vigilando necabatur, erat in meliore causa, qtiam si domt
aenax cap6vus, periurus consularis, remansisset,' C Ojff. iii. 37. 'Cum Caesar in Galliam
venit, alterius fiu:tionis principes erant Aeddi, alterius Sequani/ Caes. B. G. vi. la.
'CredOi tum cum Sicilia florebat opibus et copiis, magna aitificia ftiisse in ea insula,'
C. Verr. iv. ax. 'Cum Collatino coll^ae Brutus imperium abrogabat, poterat
videri fiuxra i^juste/ C Off. iil xo. 'Aliud est dolere, aliud laborare : cum varices
secabanturC. Mario, dolebat, cum aestu magno ducebat agmen, laborabat,'
CT. D.VL xs.

(Cumsquotiens, with Pltt^JntUc.) ' Cum palam eius anuli ad palmam converterat,
anallo Tidebatur,'C Off. iii. 9. See Ac. iL 47. Cum veresse coeperat (cuius
initium isce non a Favonio neqtie ab aliquo astro notabat, sed cum rosam viderat»
tum indpere ver arbitrabatur), dabat se labori atque itineribus,' C. Vtrr,
V. xo.

(Cum fui inversely.) *Piso ultimas Hadriani maris oras petivic, cum interim
Dyrrachu nulites domum, in qua eum esse arbitrabantur, obsidere coeperunt/C in
Pit. 38. 'BTolarat fam e conspectu fere fugiens quadriremis, cum etiamtum ceterae
naves uno in loco moliebantur/C. Krrr. v. 34. 'Haimibal iam scalissubibat muros
Loaxnrum, cnm repente patefacta porta Roman! erumpunt,' L. xxix. 7. 'Commo-
dum discesserat Hilarus cum venit tabellarius,' C Att. xiii. xg. 'P. Sesdus, fretus
sanctitate tribunatus, venit in templum Castoris, obnuntiavit consuli: cnmsubito
manus ilia Clodiana, in caede civium saepe iam victrix, exclamat. incitatur, in-
vadit,' C/. Sest. 37. ' Iam dies consumptus erat. cum tamen barbari nihil remit*
tere, atque, noctem pro se rati, acrius instare,' SaU. lug. 98.

(Cumses quo tempore.) Permuiti anni iam erant cum inter patricios magistratua
trilxmosque nulla certamina fuerant,* L. ix. 33. 'Nondum sex menses sunt cum hue
commigravit,' Plant Pert. L 3.

2) Examples of c u m with Subjunctive. ($211.)

{Iterative cum with Stdyunctive.) * Saepe cum aliquem videret minus bene vesti-
tum, suum amiculum dedit,' N. Cim. 4. 'Cum in ius dud debitorem vidissent,
uadique convolabant,'L. ii 37. (Especially with cum diceret, cum di cat, following
audio; an idiom which resembles the Consecutive use.) 'Ipsius Sulpicii nulla oratio
eat; saepe ex eo audiebam, cum se scribere neque consuesse neque posse diceret,'
C3c Br, 56. 'Saepe soleo audire Rosdum, cum ita dicat, se adhuc lepeiiie dis-
^mlom, quem quidem probaret, potuisse neminem,' C d. Or. L 98.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

466 Latin Syntax, ^a,,,

g) The Inverse Construction with cum occurs in Narrative
when the Clause seems to change places with the Prin-
cipal Sentence, indicating that one action is interrupted,
or quickly succeeded by another.
In this case, cum is often accompanied by such Adverbs as
repente, subito, interim, interea, lam, &c, and the
Verb is frequently Present Historic, now and then His-
toric Infinitive.
*Parata sententia consularis, cum repente ei affertur
nuntius,' the consuTs opinion was Just ready ^ when a
sudden message reaches him^ C. Phtl, xiiL 9. * Id modo
plebs agitabat, cum interim comitiorum mentio nulla
fieri,' mat was what the commons were debating^ while
meantime no mention was being made of comitia^ L.
iii. 37.

(Cum SuMUfitt.) 'Totiensne me litteras dedisse Romam, cum ad te
darem,' C Att. v. ix. 'Quippe ius Laodiceae me dicere, cum Romae Anlus Plodos
dicaV C. Aft. v. 15. 'Mihi non videbatur quisquam esse beatus posse, cum in
malis esset,' C T. I>. v. 8.

(Cfittsectttitfe cum— qtuUi tempore.) 'Erit illud profecto tempus» cum tu anins
post homines natos fortissimi viri magniludbem animi desideres,' C /. Mil 96.
'Fuic quidem cum mihi quoque initium requiescendi fore iustum arbitrarer/ C
Or*L X. 'Ingressus est urbem cum dextra sinistra minaretur dominis, notaret
domoSy' C PAH. xiiL 9. ( But Indie if cum squo tempore.) ' Fuit quodda m tem-
pus, cum ha agris homines passim bestiarum more vagabantur et sibi victu fero
▼itam propagabant/ C Inv. L a.

(Cum eatuoL) 'Qtiae cum ita sint, quid est quod de eius dvitate dubkecis»
praesertim cum aliis quoque in civitatibus fuerit adscriptusT' C /. Arch, 5. (See
Causal (Causes.)

(Cum c&ncesswe.) 'Atticus cum esset pecuniosus; nemo illo minus futt emaz,
minus aedificator/ N. Att. 13. 'Cum multa sint in philosophia graria et ntilia,
latissime patere videntur ea, quae de offidis tradita sunt,' C Offl i. a. 'Hts» cum
Cuere non possent, tamen loqui lioebat,' C>. Ctul, 17. (Specially frequent, wfaea
tum follows) : ' Cole iustitiam quae, cum sit magna in parentibus et propinqiiis, turn
in patria maxima est,' C tL Rep. vL xs. ' Cum plurimas fX mairimat comaioditatca
amidtia contineat, tum ilia nimirum praestat omnibus, quod debilitari anuDos aoa
patitur/ Cic. LaeL 7. ' Haec urbs cum manu munitissima esset, tum lod natuza terra
ac mari daudebatur,' C Verr, iL a.

(Cum ccndiiional israre): 'Haec neque cum ego dicerem, neque cum tu negare^
magni momenti nostra esset oratio. Quo tempore igitur auris index erigeret aai-
mumque attenderet? CumDio ipse prodiret, cum reperiretur pecunias nmi
psisse mutuas, cum tabulae virorum bonorum proferrentur,* C Verr. L la

(Cum historic.) 'Agesilaus, cum adversarios intra moenia compulisset, et at
Corinthum oppugnaret multi hortarentur, negavit id suae virtuti coovenire,' N. Ai^.
5. 'Socrates, cum paene in manu iam mortiferum illud teneret poculum, locutus ita
«st, ut non ad mortem trudi, verum in cadum videretur ascendere,' C 7*. Z). L 19.
'Clmon Cyprum cum ducentis navibus imperator missus, cum dus maiorem partcn
insulae devicisset, in morbum implicitus, in oppido Citio est mortnus,' N. Cim, 5.

(Cum Aw/<?ru: is found even after tum, where the Indicative might have been used.)
'Neque enim, si tibi tum, cum peteres consulatum, adftii, iddioo nunc, cum Muie-
nam ipnim petis, adiutor eodem pacto esse debeo,' C /. Mwr. y.

(In the following passage, the two Moods are used in sucoession ; haberent being porely
historic, erant appealing to later experience, shewn by perspexeratis): 'Unnmhoc
oerte videor mihi verissime posse dicere : tum cum haberet haec res pubUca LaucoMM^
Calatinos, Addinos, homines non solum honoribus populi rebusque gestis, venm
patientia paupertatis omatos ; et tum cum erant Catones, Phili, LaeUi, quoruB 1
tiam temperantiamque in amnibus rebus perspexeratis, tamen hui
nissa nemini est, ut idem iudicaret et venderet,' C d, L, Agr. ii. 94.

juizedbyGoOgle

Sen-
tcncei.

S 213. Conditional Sentences. 4/S7

h) Cum for ' ex quo tempore* takes the Indicative.

* Nondum centum et decern anni sunt cum de pecuniis'
repetundis a L. Pisone lata lex est,' it ts not yet 1 10 years
since Lucius Piso brought in a law concerning extortion^
C.0j:iL2u

vi Conditional Sentences. coS.

i) The Conditional (Hypothetical) Conjunctions are : si, (/" (si
non, if not) ; nisi, ni, unless, if not.

2) In the Compound Conditional Sentence, the Clause
which contains the Condition is called Protasis (quae praetendi-
tur); the Principal Sentence is called Apodds is (quae redditur),
the Conclusion.

These terms imply the logical assumption that the condition
comes first, and that the conclusion is in the nature of a reply to
the question, What then ? But it is equally possible to regard the
Protasis as an adverbial clause limiting a principal sentence : ' Maxi-
mas virtutes iacere onmes necesse est voluptate dominante,' C.
B si voluptas dominetur.

I. Normal Forms of the Conditional Sentence.

Protasis. Apodosis.

a. si das negat

if you offer he refuses

si dabis negabit

if you shall offer he will refUse

Normal Examples of Conditional Sentences. (} 213.)

a. iStm^Hc DaH.) 'Si amitti beata vita potest, beata esse non potest/ C Fm.
iL 37. 'Parvisunt foris anna nisi est connlium domi/ C OJfi L 2a. 'Si noles
sanus, curres hydropicus, et ni posces ante diem librum cum lumine, si non in-
tendes animnm studiis et rebus bonestis, invidiavel amore vigil torquebere/ Hor.
£/»/. L a. 34. 'Si bellum omittimus, (ace numquam fruemur/ C PhiL v. x. 6.
'Non si is, qui accei»t, bene utitur, idcirco is qui dedit, amice dedit,'C N. D.
ul 38. 'Si feceris id quod ostendis, magnam babebo gratiam; si non feceris,
ignoscam/ C. Fam. v. 19. 'Nemo poterit esse omni laude cumulatus orator, nisi
erit omnium artium scientiam consecutus,' C «L Or, L 6. ' Si in omnibus innocens
fuero, quid mihi inimidtiae nocebunt?' C Verr. iiL 69. ' Malevolentiae homimmi
in me, si poteris, occurres; si non potueris, hoc consolabere, quod me de
sutu meo nullis contumeliis deterrere po6sunt,'C Fatn, xi. xx. 'Telo si primam
adem praefregeris, reliquoferro vim nocendi sustuleris,' lust vL 8. 'Haud ergo>
ut opinor, erravero, si a Zenone disputationis prindpium duxero,' C N, D, iL sx.
' Apud maiores magistratum non gerebat is qui ceperat, si padres auctores ncm erant
facti,' C /. Platte. 3. ' Cesseram, si alienam a me plebem fuisse vultis, quae non
fint, invidiae : si commoveri omnia videbantur, teropori ; si vis suberat, armis,'C
/. SesL T/x * Si licuit, patris pecuniam recte abstulit filius,' C. p. Place, ^is-

'Si me amas, paulumhic ades,' Hor. Sat. i. 9. 38. 'Si vis amari, ama,'Sen. Ep.
9. Si quid novisti rectius istis, candidus imperti ; si non,' his utere mecum,'
Hor. EpUt. L 6. 67. 'Si quid in te peccavi, ignosce,' C Ati. iiL xs. 'Causam
investigato, si poteris,' C. Div. iL 38.

'Mirer, inquit, si vana vestra ad plebem auctoritas est,' L. iiL 3. 'Etenim, si
Lentulus putavit suum nomen fatale fore, cur ego non laeter?' C Cat. iv. x. 'Si
sdens fallo, tum me, luppiter optime maxime, pessimo leto afficias,'L. xxiL 53.
'Si qui voluptatibus dacuntur, missos faciant henores, ne attingant rempubli-
cam,'C>. Sest. 66. 'Quod si meis incommodis laetabantur, urbis tamen periculo
commoverentkir ' {fhey should have been touched— YLxiittaSx>i^ Past), C /. Sest. •.

H H 2 uiyiuzeu uy x^jv^wVtlv

468 Latin Syntax. § 2is*

^ si des (dederis) . neget (negaverit)

if you were to offer he would refuse

y. I. si dares negaret

(lit) if you had been he would have been refusing

offering
(often = if you offered he would refuse)

2. si dedisses negasset

if you had offered he would have refused

3. si dedisses negaret

if you had offered he would have kept refusing

p. iSum^Ho Dandi.) 'Thucydidis orationes ego laudare soleo ; imitari neque pos-
•im, si velim, nee velim fortasse, si possim,' C £r. 83. 'Si exsistat hodie ab
inferis Lycurgus, gaud eat miirorum Spartae ruinis, et nunc se patriam et Spaitam
antiquam agnoscere dicat,' L. xudx. 37. *Si gladitun quis apud te sana mente dc-
posuerit, repetat insaniens: reddere peccatum sit, offidum non reddere/ C OJf. vL
25. 'Si scieris aspidem occulte latere usptam, improbe feceris nisi monueris
alterum ne assideat/ C. Fin. iL x8. 'Nonne sapiens, si fame ipse conficiatnr,
abstalerit dbum xJteri homini ad nullam rem utilit Minime vero,' C Off. iii 6. See
Hor. Epod. iL 39, &c ; E^i. iL a. x-xj.

y. {SutHpHo Ficti.) x. *Si semper optima tenere possemus, baud sanecooaEa
multimi egeremus,' C Part. 25. ' Si imiversi videre optimum et in eo ccmsentire pos-
sent, nemodelectosprindpes quaereret/C Resp. L 34. * Si plane sic rerterem
Platonem aut Aristotdem, ut verterunt nostri poetae fabulas, male, credo, mcrerer de
meis dvibus, si ad eorum cognitionem divina ilia ingenia transferrem,' C Fin. L 3.

2. 'Antiodius si tarn in agendo bello parere voluisset consiliis Hannibalis, quam m
.susdpiendo instituerat, propius Tiberi quam Thermopylis de summa imperii dimi-
casset,' N. Hann. 8. 'Glebam commosset in agro decumano Sidliae nemc^ »»
Metellus banc epistulam non misisset,'C Verr. iiL x8.

3.^ 'Nam si quam Rubrius iniuriam suo nomine ac non impnlsii tuo et tua ctipi<fitate
fecisset, de tui comitis iniuria questum ad te potius quam te oppugnatum venirent,'
C Verr. L 31. * Esset Antonio certe sutim serviendum, si Caesar ab eo regni insigBe
acdpere voluisset,' C PkiL iiL 5. 'UUa si iuris tibi pderati poena, Borine,
nocuisset unquam, dente si nigro fieres vd uno tuipior ungui, crederem,' Hor.
C. iL a X.

4* * Consilium, rado, sententia nisi essent in senibus, non summum coosiliam
maiores nostri appellassent senatum,' C Cat. M. d 'Mortuis tam reUgiosa tm
muores nostri tribuerunt, quod non fecissent profecto, si nihil ad eos pertinere arbi-
trarentur,' C. LatL 4.

The following passages also strikingly illustrate the distinction between constmctioas
p. and y. x.

(«.) 'Si vir bonus habeat hanc vim ut, si digitis concrepuerit, possitmbcu-
pletium testamenta irrepcrc, hac vi non utatur, ne si exploratum quidem habeat,
id omnino neminem unquam suspicaturum. At dares hanc vim M. Crasso, ut digi-
torum percussione posset heres scriptus esse qui re vera non esset her», in fbra,
mihi crede, saltaret,' C Off. iiL 19. Here the first sentence (6) suggests a case
which (though imaginary and really impossible) Cicero, by a fabulist's license, is
entitled to represent as possible. The second falls into Construction y. x., because
Cxassus was dead at the time, and the condition, therefore, is a bygoae possibility.
Why then is not the Construction of the double Pluperfect Coi^. used ? Is it that
the floating period of Crassus's public life is contemplated ; or that Qcero, taking
Crassus as a mere type of unscrupulous greed, uses a form which indudes an imaginary
Future as well as an unagined F^ ? Compare Hor. C. iv. 8. 20 : ' Neque, si chartae
sileantquod bene feceris, mercedem tuleris: quid foret Uiae Mavortisque puer, si
tadtumitas obstarct mentis invida Romuli?'

(3.) * Cur igitiur Camillus doleret, si haec post trecentos et quinguaginta fne annoa
eventura putaret : et ego doleam, si ad decern millia annorum gentcm aliquam urbe
nostra potlturam putemf C T. D.'i. yj. Here, as the first hypothesis re^>ectiiv
CanuUus bdongs to a floating past time, it rightly takes the form y. i, while the second*
relating to the present and future of Cicero, takes /S.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

{ 213- Conditional Sentences. 469

4. si civis esses non negasset

if you had been a citizen he would not have refused

i) Class Alpha contains those Sentences with Indie. Protasis, in
which it may be assumed that both Condition and Conclusion are
real, because no suggestion is implied to the contrary. Hence it is
called Sumptio Dati, the Condition of ReaUty.

The Apodosis is usually either Indicative or Imperative ; but it
may be pure Conjunctive (Cj or C^) if it conveys a modest assertion^
a wish, an exhortation, or prohibition.

The combinations of Tense in Class a. may be as laige as the
logic of language allows.

Examples :

si vis, do (dabo) nisi vis, non do (dabo)

si voles, dabo (dedero) nisi voles, non dabo (dedero)

si volueris, dedero (dabo) nisi volueris, non dedero (dabo)
. si volebas, dabam nisi volebas, non dabam

si voluisti, dedi nisi voluisti, non dedi

si dedisti, gaudeo si non dedisti, deleo

si voluerat, dederat (dabat) nisi voluerat, non dederat (dabat)
si vis (voles, volueris, voluisti), da (dato)
nisi (si non) vis (voles, &c.), ne dato (ne dederis)

mirer si non vincimus (vincemus, vicerimus)

si potes (poteris), velim adsis

ne vivam nisi te amo

si fes est (erit, fuerit), eamus.

2) In Classes /3. and y. the Condition and Conclusion are more
or less unreal ; but of this unreality there are two kinds : one which
implies a possibility (more or less probable) of immediate or future
realisation ; the other, from which such possibility is excluded.

3) In Class i3. Protasis and Apodosis may be C, or C,, and the
variation can make no difference in the English rendering. This
Class is called Sumptio Dandi, the condition of Possibihty.

4) In Class y. the Protasis often expresses a Condition which
might possibly have occurred, but did not occur, in time past It
is therefore purely imaginary; hence such a Sentence is called
Sumptio Ficti. The Mood of both Verbs is (normally) Con-
junctive ; the Tense of each may be Imperfect or Pluperfect, or
one may be Imperfect, the other Pluperfect : the relations of time
beijig what these Tenses express, as shewn in the examples.

5) It is, however, proper to observe that in the double Imperfect
form of Sumptio Ficti (7. i), the reference to past time is often
feint, and the distinction between this form and Sumptio Dandi
discernible only in the greater liveliness of the latter : which brings
a Condition before the mind, as the Historic Present brings an
Action, more vividly and picturesquely. Hence Sumptio Dandi is
a favourite construction of the terse and vivacious Horace.*

' Such a relation of these two constructions is well shewn in a passage of Qcero
ifL Or. L 48, 49) which treats of the definition of the Orator. He begins by saying^
'Si forte quaereretur quae esset ars imperatoris, constituendum putarem/ &c.
then: 'Sin autem quaereremus quis esset is qui ad rempublicam . . . studium

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

470 Latin Syntax, % 214.

6) Thus the Construction of the double Imperfect (y. i.) exhibits
a Condition as Present in Time Past ; but such exhibition may
take either of two shapes :

a) The Condition may belong only to the Past :

* Si mehercule ex omni copia conventus Syracusani faceres
potestatem aratori non modo reiciendi sed etiam sumendi
recuperatoreSj tamen hoc novum genus iniuriae nemo ferre
posset,' if from your whole court at Syracuse you had
allowed the farmer not merely to challenge but even to
choose commissioners y yet could none have Some this novel
kind of wrongs C. Verr. iii. 13 (said of any time during the
now past government of Verres).

b) The Condition may not only exist in Time Past, but con-

tinue, and be still valid, in Time Present
'An possem vivere nisi in litteris wxyertva^ could I hoTfc
been living at all, if I lived not in literary studies t C.
Fam, ix. 26. Here Cic. refers not only to a portion of his
life past, but also to his present circumstances and feelings.

•14 II. Conjunctive Protasis with Indie. Apodosis.

i) An Indie. Past Tense is used in Apodosis to express an
action begun, but hindered by another action which appears in a
Conjunctive Protasis with nisi, ni, or si. Such an Apodosis gene-
rally stands before its Protasis.*

* Examples of Idiom i. (§ 214.)

(Jmperf. in Apodosis.) 'Labebar longius nisi me retinuissem/ C Log. L 19.
'Auctoritas tanta plane me movebat, nisi Cu opposutskes noa minorem toam,'C
Ac. iL aa 'Vincebat auxilip loci paudtas, ni iugo circummissus Veiens inTetticen
coUis evasitsety'L. iL 5a *Iam fiimes quam pestilentia tristior erat, ni annonair
foret subventum/ L. iv. s^* 'Atrox certamen aderat, ni Fabius consiUo neatri
parti acerbo rem expedisset/ L. iil x. 'Germanicus ferrum a latere diripuit elatna-
que deferebat in pectus, ni proximi pressam dextram vi attinuissent,' Tac Amau
L 35. Si in Cic. Verr. v. 49. 'Si per Metellum licitum e.nset, matres illorum sorores*
que veniebant' (In the two following places an Indie of being is understood in the
Apodosis) : ' Mitis legatio, ni praeferocis legatos habuisset,' L. v. 36. 'Suavis res,
si non causas narraret earum et naturas dominus/ Hor. J*, ii 8. 9a.

iPerf. Apod., usually with paene or prope.) 'Pons Sublidus iter paene hostibiis.
dedit, ni unus vir fuisset, Horatius Codes/ L. iL ta 'Prope oneratum est sinis-
tium Romanis comu, ni referentibus iam gradum consul pudore metum excussisset*'
L. iL 65. 'Paene imprudentia admissum facinus nuseral»le, ni utrimque pi acmirri
equites rem exploravissent,' Sail B. L 53. ' Eadem nave paene Aethiopia terns
Aegyptum penetravit nisi exercitus sequi recusasset/ Suet Can. 53. VirgUhas:
*Ncc Teni, nisi fau locum sedemque dedissent/yf/. xL 1x2.

(PhtPofffct Apodotis.'S 'Praedare vice ram us, nisi spoUatum, inermem, fugientem
L^ndus recepisset Antonium/ C Fam. xii. xa ' Qui ante Latinos ne pro ae qnidem
ipsis attingere anna passi sumus, nunc nisi Latini sua qxmte anna sumpsissent*
capti et deleti eramus, L. iii. xg. 'Me truncusillapsuscerebro sustulerat, nisi
Fauntxs ictum dextra levasset,' Hor. C. iiL 17. 38. See ilL 6. 3. 'Pcrierat imperium,
quod iam in extremo stabat, si Fabius tantum ausus esset quantum tra suadrhat,*
Sen. Ir. L xt.

suum contulisset, definirem hoc modo/ &c : then, 'Sin autem quaerereiur quts*
nam iurisconsultus vere nominaretur, eum dice rem/ &c., but next, 'Atqiie ... si
musicus, si grammaticus, si poeta quaeratur, possim similiter explacare,' ftc
Here evidently the transition from Sumptio Ficti to Sumpiio Dandi is not caused by any
ewential distinction in the nature of the hypotheses : though probably the use of examples
to esteblish the first three led Cicero to choose the Impc^. fonn as most suiuble for the
purpose.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

1 214. Conditional Sentences. 471

2) An Indie Pres. Verb of ability or duty (possum, debeo), also
est with longum, immcnsum, infinitum, or with Gerundive,
may stand in Apodosis with Pres. Conjunctive Protasis.

3) The idiom by which Past Indie. Tenses of Verbs of ability^ duty^
necessity^ fitness^ &c (including esse with Gerundive and other com-
plements), can be used instead of Conjunctive forms, is noticed in
p. 336. Such Verbs (except convenire, licere) retain the same
idiom in the Apodosis of a Conditional Sentence with Conjunctive
Protasis, so far as regards the Imperf. and Perf. Tenses (but the

{Vtrb cmdiiunud a tU^endent or suppresied Verb.) 'Admonebat me res ut hoc
quoque loco interitiim eloquentiae deploiarem, ni vererer ne de me ipso aliquid viderer
queri ' (admonebat res ut deplorarem=re admonente deplorabamX C Off, u. 19. 'Ob-
astere ac retinere conat t sunt n i stricUs gladiis viri fortissimi inertes submovissent '
(et retinuissent mentally supplied), L. xxiL 6a 'Volsci comparaverant aiudlia
qiiaemitterentLatinis,nimaturatumabdictatore Romano esset '(supply 'etmisis-
sentT* L. ii. aa.

{/inalogOHt idiom.') 'Nuiperot memini si verba tenerem ' (the mind supplies 'et
» *), Veig. A ix. 44.

Examples of Idiom 2 : —

'Hitehonunesnequedebent adiuvare si possint, neque possunt si velint/C
Vtrr. iv. 9. * N on potest iucunde yvn nisi cum virtute vi vatur,' C Off. ' Immensum
est si veiim singula referre,' Sen. Ef. 68. 'De quo iudido si velim dicere omnia,
muki appellandi laedendique sunt/ C. V*rr. L 60.

(Similarly) 'Si phis tibi promissa noceant quam illi prosint cui promiseris, non
contra officium est (i.e. potest) maius anteponi minorif' C Off, L xa

((X like nature are the Gnomic constructions):

'St valeant homines, ars tua, Phoebe, iacet (=iaceat necesse est),' Ov. TV. iv. 3. x.
'Istadiscuntur focile, si ettantum su mas quantum opus sit, et habeas qui docere
fideliter possit, etscias etiam ipse discere (discunturs disci possuntX' Cd.Or.vL^y
'Si ridere concessum sit, vituperatur tamen cachinnatio,'C 7*. D. iv. 31.

{^rts. ofPtriphr. Fut. in Apod with Conj. Protasis.) 'Quid, si hostes ad orbem
veniant, facturiestis? quid nplebsmoxarmata veniat?' L. iii 53.

Examples of Idiom 3 : —

{/mpetfect.) 'Omnibus eum contumefiis onerai^ti, quern patris loco, si ulla in te
pietas esset, colere debebas ' (implies 'et nunc debes),' C. PkiL iL 38. 'Si mihi
pater succenseret, te maiorem fiatrem pro minore deprecari oportebat. Ubi prae-
flidium esse oportebat, ibi exitium est,* L. xL 15. 'Poterat utrumque praedare
fieri, si esset fides, si gravitas in hominibus consularibus,' C Fam. L 17. 'Si verum
leqxmdere velles, haec erant dicenda,' C Fin. iv. 33. 'Quantus imperator
Aenulius fuerit, si ex alia re nulla aestimari posset, vel hoc satis erat,' L. xlv. 37.
(With concessive meaning of si, altkcuf^.) 'Quod si lie eret, tamen non debebas,'
C Pa$tt, viL 97. * Si Romae Pompeius privatus esset hoc tempore, tamen ad tantum
bellum is erat deligendus atque mittendus,' C p. L. M. X7. Nihil est necesse,
«t fSL quid esset, id necesse tamen non erat confiteri,' C Or. 69.

(Cicero generally prefers the Conjunctive Apodous when the Protasis is concesuvt.)
'Quae si maximememinissem, tamen illius temporis similitudinem iam sequi de-
berem,' Att. ix. X3. (Especially when the Apodosis is posse.) 'Si tibi nemo rcspon-
saras esset, tamen ipsam causam demonstrare non posses,' in CasL 13.

{Ptffeci.) 'Ne domi quidem, si sui iuris finibus matnmas contineret pudor, quae
l^eshic rogarentur abrogarenturve curare decuit,' L. xxxiv. a. 'Si ita esset, hac
l^e Ionium accusatum oportuit, qua accusatur Avitus,' C p. Clu, 33. 'Ergo si
viri illi arma habuissent, capi Roma me consule potuit?' L. iil 67. 'An una fieri
potuerunt, si una tribus non tulissent,' C. /. Platte, as. ' Hanc urbem vos non
hoatium ducitis, ubi, si unum diem morati essetis, moriendum omnibus fuit,'
L.iL3P.

(With concessive force of sL) 'Debuisti, Vatini, etiam si fidso venisses in sus-
{ndonem P. Sestii, t amen mihi ignoscere,* C in Vat, z.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

472 Latin Syntax. § 215.

Pluperf. in poetry only: ' Si di mihi parcere vellent, perdere de-
bueranV Ov.). The Indie, lays stress on the duty, &c, as existing

ilmperf.), or having existed (Perf.), independent of the Condition.
)dierwise the Apodosis will be Conjunctive.

4) Especially, the Past Indie. Tenses of the Periphr. Fut Con-
jugation are thus used in Apodosis.

9x5 III. Indicative Protasis with Conjunctive Apodosis.

i) Generally if the Protasis is Indicative and the Apodosis Con-
junctive, this implies that if the former is, the latter may be.

Such are the instances, already given (p. 469), of modest assertions
(dbterim, &c.), wishes (moriar, peream, ne vivam, &c.), exhortations,
prohibitions, &c, in Apodosis with Indie. Protasis.

2) Some passages occur, in which, though the Verb in the Pro-
tasis is Indie, the true logical Protasis is a Conjunctive Verb im-
plied in some adjunct, or to be otherwise mentally supplied.

'SiCaesaris causa in provinciam veniebatis, ad eum pro-
fecto exclusi provincia venissetis: venistis ad Pompeium,' ^
you were coming into the province in Caesar's interest^ no douit
when you were shut out of the province you would have come to
him: you came to Pompey, C. /. Ug, 8. Here veniebatis con-
tains a fact : * You were actually intending to come ; * but the
logical Protasis lies in the phrase, * Caesaris causa,' ' had it been in
Caesar's interest that you were intending to come.'

* Nisi Deiotarus revertisset, in eo conclavi ei cubandum fuisset,
quod proxima nocte comiit At id neque, si fatum fuerat, efifu-

fisset, nee, si non fuerat, in eimi casum incidisset,' C Div, iL
. Here the true Protases of the Conjunctive Verbs must be men-
tally supplied : * had it been so destined, he would not have escaped,
even if he had turned back : had it not been destined, he would not
have met with that calamity, even if he had not turned back?

Examples of Idiom 4.

{Jmptff. Indie, of Ptriphr. Fut. in Apod.) ' Conclave illud, ubi mansu ru» erat, «£
ire perrcxisset, proxima nocte comiit,' C Div. L X5. ' Illi ipsi aratores, qui rername-
rant, relicturi agros omnes erant, nisi ad eos Metellus Roma litteras misisset,'C
Verr. iu. 53. 'Quid? si ego morerer, mecumexspiraturarespublica, mecum casurum
imperium populi Romani erat?' L. xxviiL a8. 'Gravior ultor caedis, si superessel^
rex futurus erat,' L. L 4a

iPtff. Indie. 0/ Periphr. Fut. in Apod.) 'Si P. Sestius occisus esset, fuistisne
ad anna ituri? fuistisne vos ad patrium ilium animum excitaturiT fuistisne
aliquando rempublicam a fiinesto latrone repetituri?' C p. Sest. 38. 'Quid futurum
fuit, si ilia plebs agitari coepta esset tribuniciis proceUis?' L. iL x. 'Furius et
Aemilius currum triumphalem me conscendere prohibent, quos ego, si tribuni me txinni-
phare prohiberent, testis citaturus fui rerum a me gestanun/ L. xxxriiL 47.

{Protasis virtually contained in a word orpkraw.) ' Quid tandem incensis foturtm
fmt?'(=siincensaeessent), C Cat. iv. 8. 'Haec sine doctrina credituri fueruat,' C
T. D. L 9T. 'Quomodo trucidato te ipd evasuri fueruntf ' L. xL 14.

iDnty, &c strietfy depending on Condititm.) * Quod si bona Qninctii possideres,
possidere omnia eo iure deberes ' (Le. nunc non debesX C ' Omnino si id r*^*"^"**
placeret, necesse esset' (sed non placet^C ^//. xiii. 41. 'Nisi tualiquiddixissesb
nihil sane ex me quidem audire potnisses* (sed aliquid dixisdX C N.D.x. %x. ' Sfc
faciendum fuisset si Gabinium accusassem' (sed non accusariX CQu.F.iaL4'

lOOgle

««T

§ 216.1S. Conditional Smtences, 473

' Si domum tuam expugnaturus, capta domo dominum inter-
fecturus eram^non temper assem vino in unum diem?' L.xL 14.
Here *si expugnaturus (interfccturus) eram'may be regarded as
equal to ' si voluissem expugnare (interficere)/ because conditional
force may exist in a Periphrastic Future.

IV. Abnormal Relation of Tenses. ax6
Rare forms of Conditional Consecution occur in poetry :

'Cannina ni sint^ ex humero Pelopis non nituisset ebur/
TibulL L 4. 63 (where a permanent condition affects a past fact).

*Et faceret si non aera repulsa sonent/ TibulL L 8. 22 (where
faciat would be normal ; but the poet wished to mark past time
also as affected by the condition).

V. Protasis without si.

i) The Conjunctive Protasis often suppresses si.

' Rex velit honesta, nemo non eadem volet/ Sen. Tr. Thy, 214.
'Unimi'cognoris, onmis noris/ Ter. Ph, ii. i. 35. 'Dedisses
huic animo par corpus^ f'ecisset quod optabat,' Plin. Epist, i. 12.
'Deciens centena dedisses huic parco, paucis contento, quinque
diebus nil era t in locuhs/ Hor. Sat, i. 3. 15.

2) A Categorical fonn takes the place of the Conditional

'Ira exardescit, libido concitatur: in eandem arcem
confugiendum est/ anger flames out; lust is excited; to the
same stronghold must we fy^ C. 71 Z>. ii. 24. *Negat quis;
nego: ait; aio/Ter. Eun, ii. 21.

3) Sine with Ablative, or an Ablative Absolute, or some phrase,
may stand as Protasis instead of si with Verb :

*Sine Deo (Deo sublato) non esset mundus (-si Deum tol-
leres).' * Neque agricultura, neque frugum fructuumque reliquorum
perceptio et conservatio sine hominum opera ulla esse potuis-
set . . nee lapides e terra exciderentur sine hominum labore
et manu (i.e. nisi hominum opera, labor, manus accessissent)/ C.
Off.\i,Z' 'Animi magnitudo, remota communitate coniunc-
1 10 neque humana, feritas sit quaedam et immanitas (Le. si com-
munitas remota sit)/ C. Off, i. 44.

VI. Si in various senses. ^^

i) The Protasis and Apodosis of a Condition may stand in the
mutual relation of premise and consequence^ or cause and effect.
Hence si is found m correlation to it a, sic, tum, tum vero ; ideo,
idcirco.

'Hoc ita iustum est, si est voluntarium/ this is just ^ on con-
dition of its being voluntary, C. Off, i. 9. 'A patribus acceptos
deos ita placet coli si huic legi paruerint ipsi/ C. Leg, ii. la
* Haec si ages et senties, tum eris magnus consul et consularis ;
sin aliter, tum in istis amplissimis nominibus honorum non
modo dignitas nuUa erit, sed erit summa deformitas,' C. Fam,
X. 6. * Non, si Opimium defendisti, idcirco te isti bonum
civem putabunt,' they will not think you a good citisten because
you defended Opimius, C. d. Or, iL 4a

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

if 1 i
Hon,

474 Latin Syntax. § 21^20,

2) Si is used in a peculiar Final Sense {^to seei£; to try if.
Sec):

'Ad Gonnum castra movet, si oppido podri posset,' L. xliL 67.

* Circumfunduntur hostes si quern aditum reperire possent (-ut
possent, si possent)/ t/t^ enemy swarmed round to try if they could

find any access, Caes. B, G, vi. 37. ' Te adeunt fere omnes, si quid
velis (=3Ut discant quid velis, si quid velis)/ nearly everybody
calls on you to find out if you want anything^ C. Fcwl iii. 9.
*Expectabam si quid ad me scriberes ( = dum scriberes, si
scriberes)/ / was waiting to see if you would write to me anything^ C.
Poets use a similar idiom with Indie. :

^ Inspice si possum donata reponere laetus/ examine me and see
' I can cheerfully restore your giftSy Hor. Epist, L 7. 39. See
S, ii. 5. 87.

3) Si is used in a Concessive Sense: si maxime, though ever
so much ; si nihil aliud, though nothing else : which are often con-
nected with the Demonstratives tamen, certe, &c.

*Vivorum memini : nee tamen Epicuri licet oblivisci, si cupiam/
C. Fin. v. I. 'Caelestia si maxime cognita essent, nihU
tamen ad bene vivendum conferrent,' C. Ac, i. 4. *Si nihil
aliud, gratorum certe nobis animorum gloriam dies haec dederit,'
L. xxii. 29.

S19 VII. Si in combination with various Pronouns and Par-

ticles.

i) Si is enclitically followed by many Particles and Indefinite
Pronouns. Such combinations are :

Si quis, si qui, si quando, sicubi, &c. (also si quisquam, si alicjuis^
si unquam, &c.) ; si quidem, si modo, si tamen, si forte, si maxunCt
si vero, &c. ; sin (for si-ne), but if\ sin autem, sin vero, &c.

2) Si quis - qui or quisquis : si quando « quandocumque, &c.

'licet irridere si qui vult, plus apud me tamen verd ratio valebit
quam vulgi opinio : neque ego umquam bona perdidisse dicam, si
quis pecus aut supellectilem amiserit,* C. Par, i. 'Si quod erat
grande vas et maius opus inventum, laeti afferebant; si minus
eiusmodi quo dpi am venari potuerant, ilia quidem certe pro le-
pusculis, patellae, paterae, turibula,' C. Verr, iv. 21.

330 VIII. Idiomatic Uses.

i) A Clause with si (especially accompanied by an indefinite
Pronoun or Particle) is used to imply that the Apodosb is as
certain or remarkable as any similar case which could be cited :

'Si quid generis istiusmodi me delectat, pictura delectat,'
if anything of that kind charms me^ painting does, C. Fam, viL 23.

* Si quando urbs nostra floruit, nunc maxime floret,' Plin. Epist.
i. la 'Si tibi umquam sum visus in republica fortis, certe me
in causa Clodiana admiratus esses,' C. Att, i. 16.

2) Hence si quidem sometimes becomes Causal » //Mxiyiv^ asz

' Antiquissimum e doctis est genus poetarum, si quidem

Homerus fuit et Hesiodus ante Romam conditam,' of the learrted

classes, poets are the most ancient, seeing that Homer and Hesiod

Hved before Rome was founded, C. T. D. L I.

But si quidem may also "Si modo.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

S 221-22. Conditional Sentences. 47 S

3) The Protasis with si is sometimes designed to correct the
form of expression in the principal Sentence :

* Romae delectus habetur totaque Italia, si hie delectus appel-
landus est, cum ultro se offerunt omnes,* a levy is going on at
Rome and throughout Italy ^ if levy it can be called, when all pre-
sent themselves unpressed^ C. Fam. xL 8.

4) Si modo, si tamen, si vero are used for a similar piupose ;
also si forte.

* Ea diligenter a me expressa acvunen habent Antiochi, nitorem
orationis nostrum, si modo is est aliquis in nobis,' C. Att, xiiL
19. * Nunc incorrectum populi peryenit in ora, in populi quicquam
si tamen ore meum est,' Ov. Tr, iii. 14.

5) Often si enforces an entreaty by suggesting a reason.

*Si me diligis, excita ex somno tuas litteras,' if you have
any regard for me, wake up your correspondence, C. Fam. xvL 14.
' Nihil amplius oro, Maia nate, nisi ut propria haec mihi mu-
nera faxis, si neque maiorem feci ratione mala rem, nee sum
facturus vitio culpave minorem,' Hon Sat, ii. 6. 4.

6) The phrase si quaeris, si quaeritis {if you want to hnow\ also
si quaerimus, apologises for a possibly superfluous statement:

S i dis placet (save the mark I forsooth) is an expression of slightly
contemptuous surprise.

' Ea res, si quaeris, ei magno honori fiiit,* C. Off. iii. 20I * Et,
si quaeritis, is, qui appellatur dicax, in hoc genere maxima
cxcellit,' C. d. Or, ii. 62. * Etiam Latini, si dis placet, hoc bien-
nio dicendi magistri exstiterunt,' C. d Or. iii. 24.

IX. Sive, Seu.

Sive, seu {whether, or if, or), are often used in Distributive con-
struction, sive . . . sive, seu . . . seu, &c. See Conjunctions.

*Sinocte sive luce, si servus sive liber fJEudt, probe factum
esto,' L. xxii. 10. 'Veniet tempus mortis et quidem celeriter; et
sive retractabis sive properabis,' C. T*. /?. i. 31. *Mala et impia
consuetudo est contra deos disputandi, sive ex animo id fit sive
simulate,' C. N. D. ii. 67. * Inviso semel principe seu bene seu
male facta premunt,' Tac. H. L 7. MUo loco Ubentissime soleo
uti, sive quid mecum ipse cogito, sive quid aut scribo aut
lego,' Q. Leg,\\. i. 'Utcumque haec, sive errore humano, seu
casu, seu necessitate inciderunt, bonum animum habe,' L. xlv. 8.
* luxta periculoso ficta seu vera promeret, monuit Liviam,' Tac
Ann. L 6.

X. Conditional Negation.

i) Nisi {unless, except if) denies a supposition : si non (// not)
supposes a denial, the emphasis falling on the negative.

' Nemo fere saltat sobnus nisi forte ins a nit,' hardly any sohef
person dances, unless perchance he is mad, C. p, Mur. 6. * Si noil
quae ret, nuUus dixeris,* if he shall not ask, you will say nothings
Ter. Hec. i. 2. 4.

Si minus, sin minus, sin aliter, sin secus, are used for si non.^

Nisi is strengthened by Adverbs: nisi tamen, nisi forte, niii
vero,&c. ,

Digitized by VjOOQ IC

4/6 Latin Syntax, { 222.

2) One Conditional clause with si or si non following another
without distinct reference to the former may express an alternative
or contradictory hypothesis :

< ludicia non metuis : si propter innocentiam, laudo; si propter
vim, non intdlegis ei> qui isto modo iudicia non timeat, quid
timendum sit?' C Phil, il 45. * Si erunt in officio amici, pecimia
non derit; si non erunt, tu efficere tua pecunia non poteris,* C
Fam. xiv. i. * Quid nos, quibus te vita si superstite iucunda, si ,
contra gravis V Hor. Epod, L 5.

3) But sin, sin autem, sin aliter, are used in distinct reference to
another Condition which has gone before, actually or virtuaUy:

'Mercatura si tenuis est, sordida putanda est; sin magna et
copiosa, non est admodum vituperanda/ C. Off, i. 42. ' Luxuria
cumomni aetati turpis, tum senectuti foedissima est : sin autem
libidinum intemperantia accesserit, duplex malum est,' C. Off, L 34.
^Velim deinceps mdiora sint; sin aliter fuerit, reipublicae
vicem dolebo,' C. ad Br, 10.

4) Sin minus, si minus, sin secus, if noty may follow without
repeating the Verb :

* Senatus consultum si erit factum, scribes ad me; sin minus,
rem tamen conficiam,' C. Att, v. 4. ' Huic tu libro maxime vdim
ex animo, si minus, gratiae causa suffragere,' C. Fam, xiL 17.

Sin, sin autem, are sometimes used in the same way :
' Si Brutus conservatus erit, vicimus : sin, quoddi omen avertant,
omnis omnium cursus est ad vos,' C Fam, xii. 6. * Iniecta mihi
spes quaedam est velle mecum Ser. Sulpicium colloquL Si vir esse
volet, praeclara tfvv6^ia\ sin autem, erimus nos qui solemus,' C
Ati, X. 7.

5) Nisi is sometimes used in a sense resembling that of sed
(but):

* ^uid erat quod Capitonem primum scire voluerit ? Nesdo ;
nisi hoc video, Capitonem in his bonis esse socium,' why was it
that he wished Capito to be informed first f I cat^t say ; but this I
observey that Capito is a partner in this property ^ C, p, S.
Rose, 35.

In this sense nisi tamen, nisi quod are used.

6) Nisi is also used to set aside a possible objection :

* Adhuc certe, nisi ego insanio, stulte omnia et incaute,' sofar^
certainly y if I am not out of my wits^ all has been done foolishly
andunwarifyy C. Att, vii. 10.

7) Nisi forte, nisi tamen, nisi vero, have an ironical use :
'Eruci criminatio tota, ut arbitror, dissoluta est, nisi forte ex-

pectatis ut ilia diluam quae de peculatu obiecit,' C,p, S, Rose, 29.
*Frangetis impetum vivi, cuius vix sustinetis ftirias msepulti ; nisi
vero sustinuistis eos qui cum facibus ad curiam cucurrerunt,'
Q.p, Mil, 33. * Equidem nee cur Patro tantopere contendat video,
nee cur tu repugnes: nisi tamen multo minus tibi concedi
potest quam iUi laborare sine causa,' C. Fam, xiiL i,
^ 8) On the other hand, nisi si stands for nisi when the excep-
tion is purely conditional ; and often before quis,quando,&c.
*Miseros illudi nolunt, nisi si sc forte iactant,' they will not hav€

lOOgle

S 223. Conditional Sentences. ^yy

^ ^^f^^^^ ridiculed, unless^ indeed, they vaunt themselves^
C. d Or, ii. 58. ' Ambiguiun admirationem magis quam risum
movet, nisi si quando incidit in aliud genus ndicii,' C. d. Or,
iL 62.

9) Nisi, as a mere annexive Conjunction, especially follows
Negatives, Interrogatives, &c. :

* Nullum imperium est tutum, nisi benevolentia munitum,'
Nep. Di 5. * Hoc sentio, nisi in bonis amicitiam esse non posse,'
C. Lael. 5. ' Oleam Theophrastus negavit nisi intra xL millia
passuum a man nasci,' PL N, H, xv. i. * Quicquamne putas me
curare nisi ut ei ne desim,' C. Alt. xii. 4. ' Erat historia nihil
aliud nisi annahum confectio,* C d. Or, iL 12.

10) Hand (Tursellinus iv.) denies that ni is a contracted form of
nisL He regards it as an ancient negative particle, which re-
mains in use only in a conditional sense =» si non.

'Neque eius pugnae memoria tradita foret, ni Marsi eo pri-
mum proelio cum Romanis bellassent,' that battle would not
have been recorded, had it not been the first in which the Marsi
waged war with the Romans, L. ix. 41. « Ni virtus fidesque vestra
spectata mihi foret, nequiquam opportuna res cecidisset,' if I
had not well tried your valour and fidelity, this opportunity would
have occurred in vain, SalL Cat. xx. ' Respondere vadato debebat,
quod ni fecisset, perdere litem,* he was bound to appear in ^
court to one who had taken bail fi^om him, or, in default of appear^
ing, to lose his cause, Hor. Sat, L 9. 37.

a) Ni follows Optatives of Imprecation : 'Dispeream ni sum-
mosses omnis/ upon my life you would have supplanted
all, Hor. Sat, L 9.

/3) Ni is used in the formula of a wagcar: 'Lutatius, eques
Romanus, sponsionem fecerat, ni vir bonus esset,'
Lutatius, a Roman knight, had laid a wager {on condition
of losing) if he were not a good man, C. Verr, iii. 59.

(This was the usual mode of settiing disputes of personal honour
at Rome. See Mommsen, Rom, Hist, B. liL Ch. 12.)*

XI. The following table shews how to convert Conditional Sen- «3
tences into Oratio Obliqua when the Apodosis becomes an Infin.
Clause, and the Protasis is subordinate to it

* Examples of nisi (ni), si non, &c (§ 222.)

I. a. 'Actum de te est, nisi provides,' C Fam. ix. z8. ' Opprimemini, nisi provi-
deritis,' C ad Brut. La, 'Ni tua custodis, avidus iam haec aufertt heres,' Hor. S,
ii. 3- '5«.

b. Te nusquam mittam, nisi das firmatam iidem,' Plaut M. GL iL 5. 'Doli non
doll sunt, nisi astu colas/ Plaut. Capt. ii x.

c. 'Nisi ego ilium hominem perdo, peril/ Plaut Pert. iv. 9. 'Moriar, nisi facete,'
C Att. zvi XX. ' Mirum ni ilia salva est/ Ter. Haut. iii. 5.

d. 'Cogtxe eum coepit, sponsionem facere cum lictore suo, ni furtis quaestum
fiureret/C Verr. v. 54. *Da pignus, ni easit filia/ Plaut. E^id. v. «. 'Da herde
pignus, ni onmia memini et scio/ Plaut. Pers. iL 2.

e. 'Ausculta paucis, nisi molestum est, Demea/ Ter. Ad. r. 9. 'Impetnuim
libenter, nisi molestum sit,' C T. D. v. 39. 'Nisi molestum est, percontari
hanc paociiihic vult.' Plaut. Pers. iv. 4.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

4/8 Latin Syntax. f 223.

Conditio OUiqitt.

Conditio Recta. /si pecces, dolere,

as. dc\\€^ I i pecces, ] dolitunim

si ] peccaveris, \ (dolendum)

ipeccaturus sis,) esse.
si peccaresy dolitunim (dolendum)
esse

dolitunim

Si peccas, doles.

Si peccabiSy dolebis.

Si peccaveris, dolueris. L

Si pecces, doleas. J

Si peccares, doleres. .2

<

,peccav,sses,^j^j^j^)
Ipeccares, /^ ^^^^

II. a, 'Et certe, nisi is Antonium ab ixrbe avertisset, perissent omnia,' Cad Br. L y
'Haec illius severitas acerba videretur, nisi multis condimentis humanitads miti-
garetur/ C /. Qu. \. * Plures ceddissent, ni nox proelio intenrenisset,' L. xxiiL tS.

• b. * Haec ego non ferrem, nisi me in philosophiae portum contulissem,' C. Fnm, yn.
2ii>. * Nam ni vellent di, non fieret, scio/ Plant AuJ. iv. xa * Agesilaus talem ae im-
peratorem praebuit, ut omnibus apparuerit, nisi ille fuisset, Spartam fiitxiram non
fiiisse/ Nep. As. 6.

c. 'Quod ni ita sit, quid veneramur, quid precamurdeos?'C N. D.i.44. 'Qaod
ni ita se haberet, nee iustitiae ullus essetnec boniuti locus,' C Fin. iu. aa

III. X. a. 'Si republica no n possis frui, stultum est nolle privata,' C Fam. it. 9. 'Vas
factus est alter eius sistendi ut, si ille non reverdsset, moriendum esset ipsi,' C OJ'l
m. xa 'Ego vero meum con^um, si praesertim tu non improbas, vehementcr ap-
probo,' C. Qu. Fr. iii. 4.

b. 'Si mundus universus non est deus, ne stellae quidem,* Q. N. D. m. 9.
'Quod si verudmile non est, ne illud quidem est, haec unde fluxerunt,' C N. D.
iiLxS.

'Si tot exempla virtutis non movent, nihil umqnam movebit,' L. xxiL 60.
'Quae potest esse sanctitas, si di humana non curant?' C M Z>. i. 44.
'Si non tangendi copia est, eho, ne videndi quidem erit?' Ter. Emh. iv. a.

c. 'Si illud noo licet, saltini hoc lioebit,' Ter. Emh. iv. a. 'Si non una,
t amen iunget nos littera : si non osabus ossa meis, at nomen nomine tangam,' Ov. M,
xi. 706. ' Victi sumus igitur, aut, si vinci dignitas non potest, fracti certe et abiecti,*
C. Fam. iv. 7.

'Dolorem iustissimum, si non potero frangere, occuhabo,' C. PhU. tSl %,

a. a. *0 miserum te, si intellegis, miseriorem, si non intellegis,' C PhU, vl as.
* Bene si amico feceris, ne pigeat fedsse, at potius pudeat, si non feoeris,' Fbat.
TrtH. il a.

b. ^Si mihi veniam, quam peto, dederit, utar condidone ; *sin minus, impetiabo
aliquid a me ipso,' C Att. ix. X5.

'Sume, catelle; negat: si non des, optet,' Hor. S. ii. 3. 258.

c. 'Si afiers, turn patent, si non est quod des, aedes non patent,' Pbnt. At. L 3.

d. 'Valerium itireconsultum valde tibi commendo, sed itaetiam si non est iureooo-
sultus,' C Fam. iiL x.

3. a. ' Aes pro caiMte dent : si id fitcere non queunt, domum abeant,' Plaut /Vn*. Pr.
b. 'Quid, si quis non sit avarus, continucm' sanus?' Hot. 5*. iL 3. 159. 'Quid si

non impetraro?' C. Att. ix. a.

4. a. 'Hoc tamen nuntia, mdius me morituram fiiisse si non in funere meo nupos.
sem,' L. XXX. 15.

b. 'Interminatus est a minimo ad maximum, si quis non hodie munus mitfsict
sibi, etmi eras cruciatu maximo perlMtere, PlauL Ps. iii. x.

c. 'Peream male si non optimum erat,' Hor. S.iL x. 6. 'Pcream si non invitaot
omnia culpam,' Ov. Her. xviL xSj.

d. 'lubet P. Quinctium sponsionem cum S. Naevio facere* si bona sua ex edicto
praetoris dies xxx. possessa non essent,* C >. Qu. 8.

«, 'Volo te verbis pauculis, si tibi molestum non est,' Plaut. Ep. ifi. 4.

' Examples of Conditional Sentences in Oratio Obliqua. (J 223.)

rendum,* C C
niiMoe possit.

y Google

'Omnes intellegunt, si salvi esse velint, necessitati esse parendum,* C Q/^. n.
X. 'Equidem puulnm virtutem hominibus, si modo tradi rataooe possit. imti-

i 324-25. Concessive Sentences, 479

234

XII. Modoy dum, dummodo. Modo^

Modo (only) is used for si modo, if only ; modo ut, provided **""*'
that; with Negative, modo n^, provided that . . . not.

Tantum is similarly used in poetry.

Dum {whilst), dummodo {vmilst only\ may also signify, pro-
vided that, provided that only : and, if Negative, take ne.

All these Conjunctions require the Subjunctive.^

vii Concessive Sentences.

These, like Conditional Sentences, have Protasis and Apodosis.
They are called Concessive, because the Protasis concedes an ob-
jection : meaning although, even if, howe^fer, granting that, &c.

I. Concessive Conjunctions are of several classes.

(i) The strengthened forms of si (including si itself used con-
cessively), etsi, etiamsi, tamen-etsi (usually written tametsi),
even if, although.

The natural Demonstrative of these and of all Concessive forms
is tamen, nevertheless, yet; certe, at, at certe, sed tamen, tamen,
saltern, are also used

(2) The Universal Relative Adverbs, quamquam {howsoever^
although), utut {however).

tuendo ac penuadendo tradi/ C d. Or. L 58. 'M. Gaudius vodferatur : ita demam
liberam civitatem fore, ita aeqtiatas leges, si sua quisque iura ordo, suam nuuesta-
tem teneaty'L. iiL 63. 'Veneti tegadonem ad P. Crassum mittunt ; si velit suos
recipere, obsides sibi remittat/ Caes. B. G. iii 7. 'Ariovistus respondit: si ipse
populo Romano non praescriberet, quemadmodum suo iure uteretur, non oport*
ere ae a populo Romano in suo iure in4>ediri,' Caes. B. G. L 36. ' Additum decreto :
si quis quid postea, quod ad notam ignominiamque Philippi pertineret, ferrent,
id omne populum Atheniensium iussurum ; si quis contra ignominiam prove honore
eius dixisset fecissetve, qui occidisset eum iiure caesurum.' L. xxx. 44.
'(Hasdnibal Carthaginiensibiis suadet) si ulla Hispaniae cura esset, successorem sibi
cum valido exercitu mitterent,' L. xniL vj. * Batavi praemisere qui Herennio Gallo
mandata oohortium exponerent : si nemo obsisteret, innoxium iter fore; sin anna
occurrant, ferro viam inventuros/ Tac //. W. ao. 'Ad ea Epicydes, si qua ad se
mandata haberent, responsum ds ait daturum fuisse: ... si bdlo lacessant,
qMa re intellecturos, nequaquam idem esse Syracusas ac Leontinos oppugnare,*
L. xxiv. 33.

* Examples of modo, dum, &c., in Conditiomd Sense. ({ 224.)

'Manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria,'C Cmi, M. 7.
'Mediocritas in puniendo placet Peripatedcis ; et recte placet, modo ne laudarent
iracundiam,' C Off. L 35. ' Modo ut haec nobis loca tenere liceat, bellissime mecum
esse poteritis,' C Fam, xiv. a. 'Oderint, dum metuant/ Suet Calig. 30. 'Sin
autem ieiunitatem et sicdtatem et inopiam, dummodo sit polita, dum urbana, dum
elegans, in Attico genere ponit, hoc recte dumtaxat/ C Br. 83. ' Mea nihil refert,
dum potiar modo/Ter. An, v. i. 32. 'Ego si cui adhuc segnior esse videor, dum
ne tibi videar, non laboro,' C At/. viiL xx. 'Aliqui omnia recta et honesta neglegunt»
dummodo potentiam consequantur/ C. Off. iiL ai. 'Sit summa in iure dicimdo
aeveritasy dummodo ea ne varietur gratia, sed conservetur aequalnUs/ C Qit.
Pr. L X. 7.

(Dum non Msed conditinudly by Stntca.) 'Omnia licet foris resonent, dum intus
nihil tnmultus sit, dum inter se non rixentur cupiditas et timor, dum avaritia
luxuriaque non dissideant, nee altera alteram vexet : nam quid prodest touus r^;io-
nis silendum, si aflectus fVemunt t ' £/. 56.

(Tantum itted by Virgil conditionally, like modo.) ' Veniam quocumque vocaris,
audiat haec tantum vel qui vemt, eooe, Palaemon,' J9. iiL 49. See da S3» aiid
B. iL 98.

Con-
cessive
SeiK

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

480 Latin Syntax. § 226.

(3) The Verbal forms quamvis, quamlibet, qoantumvis {kow
you will^howsoeveTy although)^ licet {it may be that ^ olthougK)^
for which licebit is sometimes used. See Hon Epod. xv. 19.

(4) Ut in Concessive Sense («concesso ut, granting that^ Le.
although); with ne («concesso ut n^, granting that . . . nof).
Also cum (whereas).

II. Mood in Concessive Clauses.

(1) Concessive Sentences which have etsi, etiamsi, tametsi,
or si, in the Protasis, are subject to the same rules of Mood as
Conditional Sentences, of whidi they are merely special instances.

(2) A Concessive Clause with quamquam, utut, will be Indi-
cative ; but if Subobliqne or Gnomic, Subjunctive.

By writers of the Silver Age, as Tacitus and Suetonius, quam-
quam is freely used with Subjunctive.

(3) A Concessive Clause with licet and Subjunctive is a special
instance of Petitio Obliqua, in which ut is omitted.

Quamvis is used with Indicative once by Cicero ; sometimes
by Nepos, Livy, and the poets : usually taking Subjunctive.

(4) Ut, ne, Concessively used, are also special instances of
Petitio Obliqua, in which the Verb is suppressed.

Cum Concessive is fotmd with both Moods. On its use with
Indie see M. Lucr. L 566

III. Idioms of Concessive Conjunctions.

i) Etsi, quamvis, rarely quamquam, are used adverbially
to qualify words without affecting mood. Licet, quamlibet are
so used in poetry only.

'Si mihi obtemperatum esset, etsi non optimam, at aliquam
rempubhcam haberemus,' C. Off. L 11. ' Haec mira quamquam
fidem ex eo trahebant auod,' &c., Tac. Ann. vi. 3a * Res bello

fesserat, quamvis reipublicae calamitosas, attamen magnas,'
!. Phil. ii. 45. * Huic, licet ingratae, Tityrus ipse canam,' Prop.
iii« 30- 74' ' Adiuvat infirmas quamlibet ira manus,* Ov.

2) Quamvis, quam vultis, quam volet, &c., are so used in the
sense of quantum vis, ever so (much).

* Quasi vero mihi difficile sit quamvis multos (ever so many)
nominatim proferre,' C. p. Pose. 16. 'Exspectate facinus quam
vultis improbum (as dishonest as you please\ vincam tamen
expectationem omnium,' C Verr. v. 5. 'Quam volet iocetur/
Ut him jest as lie will, C. N. D. ii. 17.

3) Quamvis licet, quantumvis licet with Subjunctive.
'Quamvis licet insectemur Stoicos ; metuo ne soli philo-

sophi sint,* we may rail at the Stoics as much as we please: I am
afraid they are our only true philosophers^ C T. D. iv. 24.
'Quamvis licet menti delubra et viituti et fidei consecremus,
tamen haec in nobis ipsis sita videmus/ we may dedicate temples
as much as we will to Intellect and Virtue and Faith ; yet these
are things we perceive to be resident in ourselves, C. N. D. iil 36.
*Non possis tu, quantumvis licet excellas, omnis tuos ad
amplissunos honores perducere,' C. Lael. 2a

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

^226. Concessive Sentences. 481

4) The Protasis with etsiorquamquamis sometimes added to
modify or correct the Apodosis, and may be rendered * andyeV

* Do, do poenas temeritatis meae : etsi quae fuit ilia temeritas?'
I pay the penalty of my rashness : and yet what was that rashness f
<Z. A tt.'vL 10. *Puto mea non nihil interesse, quamquam id
ipsum quid intersit non sane intellego/ / thinh I have some
interest in the matter; and yet I don't quite perceive what that
interest isy C. Fam, v. 21.

5) The Protasis of a Concessive Sentence may, without a Con-
junction, be contained

a) In the Pure Conjunctive :

'Naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret/ Hon
Epist, i. 10. 24.

b) In the Indicative, especially with quidem :

'Matura res erat, consules tergiversabantur tamen,' L. il
45. 'Maxima est ilia quidem consolatio, sed tamen
necessaria,' C. Fam, vL 2.

c) In an Adjectival or Participial Enthesis :

'Homo natura lenissimus stomachari tamen coepit,' C.

Ac, ii. 4 'A nigro album etiam nullo monente oculus

distinguit,' Sen. Ep. 94
(On the (Toncessive use of si see p. 474)

Examples of Concessive Sentences. (§ 225.)

{Etsi, etUnuit tamttti.) *V\t\ boni faciunt quod rectum« quod honestum est, ets^
atdlum coDsecuturum emoiumentum vident/C Fin. ii 14. 'Cum tuia dare pouem
littenLs non praetermisi, etsi, quod acriberem, non habebam/ C. Att. xL 19.
'Sunt qui, quod tgntiimt, etsi optimum sit, tamen invidiae metu non audeant -^
•dicere,' C Off. L 35. 'Homo quod crebro videt non miratur, etiam si cur fiat
xiescit,'C Div. iL 33. 'Cur nolint, etiamsi tacent, satis dicunt,'C. in C<uc. 6.
'Rectum est in contentionibus, etiamsi nolns indigna audiamus, tamen ^ntvi-
tatem retinere, iracundiam repellere ' (GnomicX C Off. L 38. 'Equidem, etiamsi
•<q>petenda mors esset, domi atque in patria maiiem quam in extemis atque alienis
lods,' C Fam. iv. 7. 'Mihi quidem, tame t si haudquaquam par gloria sequatur
scriptorem et actorem renun, tamen inprimis arduum videtur res gestas scribere '
<Virt. Or. ObL but some edd. have sequitur), Sail Cat. 3.

{QuamqMomt utui.) 'Quamquam sunt omnes virtutes aequales et pares; sed
tamen est species alia magisalia formosa et illustris,' C. d. Or. iit 14. 'Utut erga me
meritus't, mflii cordi est tamen/ Plaut Cut. i. x. zix. ' Ut tu me carum esse dixisti
«enatui, sic ego te, quamquam sisomni dviute taeterrimus, tamen dice esse odio
aritatif'C /. Vat. 3. 'Vi quidem r^;ere patriam, quamquam et possis et delicta
corrigas, tamen est importunum,' SaU. Ing. 3.

{Qttamvit, lictt.) a. 'Quod turpe est, id, quamvis occultetur, tamea
lujbestum fieri nullo modo potest,' C Off. iiL 19. 'Licet ipsa vidum sit amintio,
frequenter tamen causa virtutum est,' Qu. i. a. 33. ' Assentatio quamvis pcmidosa
sit, nocere tamen nemini potest, nisi ei qui eam recipit atque ea delectatur,' C LaeL
96. 'Licet irrideat, si quis vult ; plus apud me tamen ratio valebit, quam vulgi
opinio,* C Par. t. ' iJla, quamvis ridicula essent, acut erant, mihi tamen risum
Bon moverunt,' C. Fam. viL 33. 'Pompeius multa alia vidit, sed illud maxime,
<iuamvis atrociter ipse tulisset, vos tamen fortiter iudicaturos,' C >. Mil. 8.
'Licet tibi significarim, ut ad me venires, tamen intellego, te hie ne verbo qui-
dem levare me posse,' C. Att. iil Z3.

h. 'Hoc ille natus, quamvis patrem suum numquam viderat, tamen et natuia
^•a duce, quae plurimum valet, et assiduis domesticonim sermonibus in patemae vitae

uiyiiized by CjOOQ IC

482 Latin Syntax. § 227;

6) The Protasis is sometimes a Relative Clause, which may be
Subjunctive or Indicative.

*Egomet, qui sero Graecas litteras attigissem, tamen, cum
Athenas venissem, compliwis ibi dies sum commoratus/ C. cL
Or, i. 18. * Oculorum, inquit Plato, est in nobis sensus acerrimus ;
quibus sapientiam non cernimus,' C. Fin, ii. 16.

Compa- viii. Comparative Sentences.

rative

Sen- I. These, which, as special instances of conceived Condition,

tences. contain m the Protasis* the meaning as if^ require the Verb of the

Protasis to be Subjunctive.
They are introduced by the Coniparative Conjunctions quam,

ut, ac (see Correlation) going before (or supposing) si, and are

usually preceded by one of the Demonstratives tam, ita, sic ; vel ;

perinde, proinde, aeque, similiter, &c. : is, idem, itidem.

Hence are obtained Conjunctional forms quasi (for quam si);

quasi si (rare); tamquam si;tamquam (imderstanding si);

velut si; velut (understanding si) ; also

perinde ^ ita

proinde
aeque
similiter
is, idem, itidem

perinde [ quasi
ac si proinde 1

J ut si

SIC

ita

non aliter quam si, and similar forms : sometimes proinde ac^
&C., without si; ac si, ut si, without Demonstrative.

nmiHtudinem deductus est,' C. p, Rob. Pott. a. ' Miltiades inter suos potestate erat
regia, quamvts carebat nomine,' N. Milt. a. 'Quamvis cecidere trecenti, noa
<Hnms Fabios abstulit una dies' Ov. JE>. Pont. L 3.

{Ut, He,cum,) 'Ut desint vires, tamen est laudanda voluntas/ Ov. E^, Pati,
iiL4.79. 'Ut rationem Plato nuUam afferret, ipsa auctoritate me frangeret,'C
T. D. i. ax. 'Ne sit sane sununum malum dolor: malum certe est,' C 7*. Z>. iL 5.
'Ne aequaveritis Hannibali Philippum, Pjrrrfao certe aequabitis,' L. xxL 7.
'Cum omnibus virtutibus me affectum esse cupiam, tamen nihil est, quod malini,
quam me et gratum esse et videri,' C /. Plane. 33. ' Hoc ipso tempore, cum omaia
gumnasia philosophi teneant, tamen eonim auditores discum aud^ quam idiiloso*
phum malunt,' C. d. Or. iL 5.

Examples of Comparative Sentences. (J 227.)

' Stultissimum est» in luctu capillum sibi evellere, quasi calvitio maeror le vetur,' C
7*. Z>. iiL a6. ' Nin forte iddrco numen esse non putant, quia non apparet, nee cemitur :
proinde quasi (Just oi if) noaiazxti ipeam mentem videre possimus,' C /*. Mil 31.
'Quasi SUA res aut honor agatur, ita diligenter Naevii cupidiud mmrem genmt,' C
/. Quinc. a. 'Educavit magna industria, quasi si esset ex se rata,' Plaot. C<u.
ProL 45. ' Sic Plandus quaestor est factus quam si esset summo loco natus,' C /.
Plane. a5. 'Sic cogitandum est, tamquam aliquis in pectus intimum inspiccT«
possitf'Sen. E^. 83. 'Antonius Plancum sic contemnit, tamquam si illi aqua et
igni interdictum sit,' C PhiL vl 4. 'Tu, qui id quaeris, similiter (ads ac si ane
roges cur te duobus contuear oculis, quum idem uno assequi possim,' C ^. 2>. iii. 5.
'Quae perdiffidlia sunt, perinde habenda saepe sunt ac si effici non possint,*C.
Part. a4. 'Meiuvat, velut ipse in parte laboris ac periculi fuerim, ad finem belU
Punid pervenisse,' L. xxxi. x. 'Sequani absentis Ariovisti cnidelitatcm, velut si
coram ad esset, horrebant,' Caes. B. G. L 3a. 'Sdpiades belli fulmen, Carthaginis.

*■ The true Apodosb is a suppressed Conjunctive Verb. Thus, in the sentence Tain
amo te quam si frater esses, the true Apodosis tosiessesis amarem understood : / i^w
you as (I should love ]rou) if you wore my brother.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

§ 228-29. Consecution of Tenses, 483

II. Comparative Idioms. ^^■

i) Ceu is used for ceu si {as if) in poetry, and in the prose of
the Silver Age. * Natura dedit cornua convoluta arietum generi,
ceu caestus daret,' PL TV. H, xi. 37. Ceu si is used by Lucretius :
* Ceu lapidem si percutiat lapis/ vL 160.

2) Quasi vero, quasi autem, like nisi vero, are used ironically
{as if forsooth) : 'Quasiveroid cupiditate defendendae nobilitatis
tecerit,' C. /"(«/«. iii. 7. Mmmo vero quasi tu dicas quasique
ego au tem id suspicer/ Plaut. Pseud, il 2. 40.

3) Quasi, tamquam, velut, ceu (like ut, sicut, si, nisi, etsi,
quamvis, ^uamquam), may be used as mere annexive or ad-
verbial Particles, not affecting Mood.

'Litteras Graecas avide airipui quasi diutumam sitim explere
cupiens,' C. Cat. Af, 8. 'Servis respublica et <}uasi {as it were)
ci vitas domus est,' PL Ep. viiL 16. *Ex vita ita discedo tam-
quam {as thottgh) ex hospitio, non tamquam ex domo,' C.
Cat, M. 23.

Sometimes quasi is used for fere or circiter {almost^ abouf) :
' Quasi ad duo milia,' about 2,000, L. xxvil 12.

Section V,

SUPPLEMENT TO COMPOUND CONSTRUCTION.

I. Consecution of Tenses. Comc!.

The Law that Primary Tenses are followed by Primary, Historic x^JJ^
by Historic (see § 98), is illustrated by all the Examples in this
Chapter, especially by those of Petitio and Interr. Obhqua, Con-
secutive and Final Clauses. On the use of the Tense S^ (-erim),
see $ 204.

i) The two following passages shew that a Present Past admits
either Consecution :

'Non ita generati a natura sumus ut ad ludum et iocum
facti esse videamur,' C. Off.\,i^. 'Homines sunt hac lege
generati, qui tuerentur iUum globum . . . quae terra dicitur,'
C. Rep. vi. 15.

It is, however, the prevailing idiom of Cicero, to construct the
Present Past with Historic consecution :

'Adduxi hominem in quo satisfacere exteris nationibus pos-
s^iisy^ I have brought a man before you^ in dealing with whom you
may do your duty to foreign nations^ Verr, i. 2. ' Quemadmodum
officiaducerentur ab honestate satis explicatum arbitror,*
I consider that I have explained enough how duties are derived
from moral principle, Off, ii. i.

honor, ossa dedit terrae, proinde ac famul infimus esset/ Lucr. iil X048. *Eius
n^odum sic velixn cures ut si esset res mea,' C F€uh. ii. 14. * Egnati absentis rem
uttueare aeque a te peto «c si mea negotia essent,' C Fam. xiu. 43. 'Qua
de re quoniam nihil ad me scribis, perinde habebo ac «i scripsisses nihil esse/
C Ait. iii. 13. ^ '

uiyiuzeu uy x^j^^^w

I I 2

gle

'I

434 Latin Syntax. § 229.

2) The Historic Present generally takes Historic Consecution :
but sometimes Primary :

' Sulla sues hortatur uti fortem animum gererent,' SalL lug.
107. * Pompeius, ne duobus circumcluderetur exercitibus, ex
eo loco discedit/ Caes. B, C, iii. 30. ' Caesar cohortatur milites
ne labori succumbant/ Caes. B, G, vii. 86.

Transitions occur from the Historic to the Primary Consecution
and conversely :

'Monebant etiam ne orientem morem pellendi reges inultum
sineret : satis libertatem ipsam habere dulcedinis : nisi quanta vi
civitates eam expetant, tanta regna reges defendant, aequari
simuna infimis: nihil excelsum, nihil quod supra ceteros emineat
in civitatibus fore/ they warned him also not to leave unpunished
the nascent custom of expelling kings: freedom (they said) was
sweet enough in itself: ifkinFs were not to defend their thrones as
vigorously as states seek freedom^ the highest were levelled Tvith the
lowest ; there would be in communities nothing lofty y nothing to
rise above the masSy L. ii. 9. * Novum in republica introductum
exemplum (jueritur, ut tribunicia intercessio armis notaretur
atque opprimeretur, quae superioribus annis armis esset resti-
tuta: Sullam, nudata omnibus rebus tribunicia potestate, tamen
intercessionem liberam reliquisse: Pompeium, qui amissa resti-
tuere videatur, ademisse, he complains thai a novel precedent
has been introduced in the commonwealth^ of censuring and putting
down by arms the intercession of the tribunes^ which in the pre-
ceding years had been restored by arms : Sulla (he said) though he
stripped the tribunician power of everything else^ had yet l^ the
veto free : while Pompeius^ who seemed to be restoring what was
lost, had taken it away^ Caes. B. C. L 7.

3) When two Future actions are brought into connexion there
are three possible varieties :

d) When both actions commence and continue together, both
Verbs will be in the Simple Future: 'Profccto bcati
erimus, ami corporibus relictis cupiditatum erimus
expertes,* C. T, D, The English idiom difrers : 'We shall be
happy, when we are free from desires.* So when we say,
* I wiU come if (when) I can/ the Latin construction is,
Veniam si (cum) potero.

b) When one action will commence after the other is com-

plete, one Verb will be in the Simple Future, the other in
the Future Perf. : * De Carthagine vereri non ante desi-
nam quam illam exdsam esse cognovero/ C. Cat, M. 6.
Cum ego veniam, tu discesseris.

c) When both actions will be complete together, both Verbs

are in the Future Perf. : *Qui Antonium oppresserit, is
hoc bellum taeterrimum confecerit, whoever shall hat/e
crushed A ntoniuSy will have concluded this most horrid
waTy C. Fam, x. 19.

But if an action going on is the condition of a Future action,
the Protasis may be Present :

'Perficietur bellum, si urgemus obsessos/ the war will
be finished if we press the besieged^ L. v. 4, ^ j

S ia?. Consecution of Tenses. 485

4) As the Simple Future has no Subjunctive of its own, the
Future Active form used in immediate consecution of Primary
Tenses is -urus sim : that used in immediate consecution of Historic
Tenses is -urus essem :

*Non debes dubitare quin aliqua republica sis futurus qui esse
debes/^w ought not to doubt that, while there is any republic, rou
will be what you ought to be,' C Fam, vL i. ' Antea dubitabam
venturaene essent legiones; nunc mihi non est dubium quin
venturae non sint/ / was in doubt be/ore whether the legions
would come ; now I have no doubt they will not, C. Fam. il 17.

But, in secondary subordination (futurity being expressed m the
first), Sj or (in Historic Consecution) S3 will represent the Future
Simple: S- or (in Historic Consecution) S^ will represent the
Future Perfect;

Examples:

(i) Qui hoc dicet errab it, subordinated, becomes:
Non dubito quin, qui hoc dicat, erraturus sit.
Credo eum, qui hoc dicat, erraturum esse.
Non dubitabam quin, qui hoc diceret, erraturus esset
Credebam eum, qui hoc diceret, erraturum esse.

(2) Si ita fecero, me culpabis, becomes:

Non dubito quin, si ita fecerim, me culpaturus sis. ,

Non dubitabam quin, si ita fecissem, me culpatiu-us esses.

(3) Id faciemus, cum Lemnum veneris, becomes:
Respondent id se facturos, cum Lemnum venerit :
Respondebant id ss facturos, cum Lemnum venisset.

5) If a Conditional Sentence in Sumptio Ficti, with Apodosis S,,
is subordinated by ut, ne, quin, &c., it may remain :

'Honestum tale est ut, vel si ignorarent id homines, vel si
obmatuissent, sua tamen pulchritudine esset specieque laudabile,'
mor^dity is such that, even if men were unacquainted with it or
had been silent, it would still deserve praise for its own native
lov^ness, C. Fin. ii. 15. Md ille si repudiasset, dubitatis quin ei
vis esset illata?* had he rejected it, have you any doubt that
viohftce would have been offered to him ? C. p. Sest, 29. ,

6) When S^, in the Apodosis of a Conditional Sentence, is subor-
dinated so as to form a Consecutive Clause or Oblique Interroga-
tion, the Perfect Subjunctive of the Conjugation in -urus takes its
place :

'Hannibal, nisi fugae speciem timuisset, GaUiam repetivisset,'
becomes, * Adeo inopia coactus est Hannibal, ut, nisi fugae spe-
ciem timuisset, GaUiam repetiturus fuerit,' Hannibal was so
pressed by scarcity, that, if he had not dreaded the semblance of
flight, he would have returned to Gaul, "L, xxii. 32. So, 'Die
agedum quidnam facturus fueris si eo tempore censor
fuisses/ Just tell us what you would have done, had you been censor
at that time, L. ix. 33. * Nee dubium erat quin, si tam pauci
simul obire omnia possent, terga daturi hostes fuerint,' there was
no doubt that if so small a number could have done everything at
once, the enemy would have taken flight, L. iv. 38.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

486 Latin Syntax. § 22^

7) < Might have* is expressed in a Consecutive Clause by potu-
erim : ' Captivi tantum timorem fecerunt, ut, si admotus extemplo
exercitus foret, capi castra potuerint ' {the camp might have been
taken)y L. xliii. 4.

< Ought or must have' is expressed by the Gerundive Pert Sub-
junctive: * Adeo aequa postulastis ut ultro vobis deferenda fue-
rint,' you have made such fair demands that they ought to have
been spontaneously offered yoUy L. iii. 53. 'In eos versa peditann
acies haud dubium fecit quin, nisi firmata extrema agmims fins-
sent, ingens in eo saltu accipienda clades Im^tW {great loss
must have been suffered)^ L. xxi. 34.

These Constructions arise out of the idiom by which potue-
runt is used for potuissent, and deferendum fuit for defer-
endum fuisset. See p. 336.

8) When an Infinitive (Present or Future), a Participle, Gerund,
or Supine, intervenes, consecution is still dependent on the principal

Verb:

quid agas, egens, acturus sis;
quid agatur, actum sit, agendum
. sit.

Credo me intellegere
Credebam me intellegere

quid ageres, egisses, acturus esses;
quid ageretur, actum esset, agendum
. esset

*Cato mirari se aiebat, quod non rideret haruspex, hara-
spicem cum vidisset,' C. Div, ii. 24. ' Cupido incessit animos
iuvenum sciscitandi ad quem eorum regnum Romanum esset
venturum,' L, i. 56.

But, if an Infinitive Perfect intervenes, the consecution is Pri-
mary or Historic according as the Infinitive is Present Past or
Simple Past: ' Ita comparatam esse hominum naturam om-
nium, aliena ut melius videant et diiudicent quam sua,' strange
that the characters of men are so constituted that they see and deade
the affairs of others better than their own, Ter. Haut, iii. I. 98.
*Liberatur Milo non eo consilio profectus esse, ut insidiaretur
in via Clodio,' Milo is acquitted of having gone with the design of
lying in ambush on the high road for Cloaius, C. p. Mil. 18.

But to this Infinitive we must apply what was said above, i) :
. * Satis videor docuisse, hominis natura quanto omnes anteirct
animantis,' / think I have sufficiently shewn how much the nature
of man surpasses all animals ^ C. N, D,\\, 51.

The same Rule applies to the Periphrastic Perfect Infin. :

*Quis est qui hoc non sentiat, quidvis prius futurum fuisse
quam ut hi fratres diversas sententias fortunasque sequerentur?'
who can help feeling that anything would sooner have happened,
than that these brothers should follow diverging sentiments and
fortunes f C.

9) As the Infinitive has no Conditional force of its own, it
acquires this by means of the Future Participle.

* I knew that he would come if he could,' Sciebam cum ven-
turum esse, si posset ; ' I know that he would have come if he
could,' Scio eum venturum fiiisse si potuisset

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

§ 230. Narratio Obliqua. 487

II. Narratio Obliqua. Nm-

When an author relates the speeches or writings of others not, obliqua.
as the speakers or writers delivered them, in the First Person, but
in a series of Oblique constructions, dependent on his own state-
ment that they so spoke or wrote, such use of ObUque Oration is
called Narratio Obhqua.

Caesar almost always reports speeches obliquely, Sallust di-
rectly; Livy and Tacitus in both ways, often gliding from the
indirect into the direct form. Enunciations are interspersed with
Petitions and Interrogations ; and in general, when transition
takes place from one form of Oratio Obhqua to another, a new
Verb is not introduced, the original Verb (by Zeugma) supplying
its meaning.

i) The Clauses are sometimes carried on in the Infin. Clause :

(i) After a Relative : * Nam illorum urbem ut propugnaculum
oppositam esse barbaris, apud quam (anam apud
eam) iam bis class is regias fecisse naufragium,' Nep.
Th. 7.

(2) After various Conjunctions (quia, quamquam, ami, nisi
forte, &C.) : ' Ideo se moenibus inclusos tenere Cam-
panos, quia si (}ui evasissent ahqua, velut feras bestias
per agros vagari, et laniare et trucidare quodcumaue
obviam detur,' they kept the Campanians shut up within
their walls on this account, that, if any of them got out
anywhere, they wandered over the country like wild beasts.

Examples of Narratio Obliqua. ({ 230.)

'Orat Tarquinius Veientis, ne se extorrem egentem ex tanto modo regno cum
liberis adolescentibus ante oculos suos perire sinerent: alios peregre in regnum
Roouun accitos ; se regem, augentem belle Romanum imperium, a prodmis scelenua
conjuradone pulsum : . . . patriara se regnumque suum repetere, et persequiin-
Sratoftcivis velle: ferrent opem, adiuvarent; suas quoque veteris iniurias ultiun
irent, todes caesas legiones, agnim ademptum/ Tarquinius entreats the people of Veii
not to allow him with his grown-up children to die b^ore their eyes, expelled in desti-
tute condition from a royal station lately so eminent : (he says) that others had been
invited to Rome from abroad to reign : that he, when hing, and aggrandising the
Roman empire in war, had been driven out by a wiched conspiracy of his nearest kin ;
/hat he wished to reclaim his country and kingdom, and to take vengeance on his un-
g*at4ful countrymen : (he entreats them) to lend their aid, to assist him : to set about
avenging their own ancient wrongs, the frequent slaughter of their legions, the curtail-
ment of their territory, L. H 6.

'Docebat Caesar, quam veteres quamque iustae causae necessitudinis ip«s cum
Aeduis intercederent : quae senatus consulta, quo tie ns, quamque honoriiica
in eos facta essent ; ut omnt tempore totius (TalKae principatum Aedui tenuissent,
prius etiam quam nostram amidtiam appetissent ; populi Ronuni hanc esse
consuetudinem, ut socios atque amicos non modo sui nihil deperdere, sed gratia, digni-
tate, honore auctiores velit esse: quod vero ad amicitiam populi Romani attulissent,
id iis eripi quis pati posset?' Caesar shewed, what ancient and Just grounds of
friendship existed between themselves (the Romans) and the Aedui ; what decree qfthe
senate had been made in their favour, how often, eutd in what honourable terms : how
the Aedui from time imme$norial had held the first rank in Gaul, even brfore they had
courted our friendship : (adding) that the custom of the Roman people was to resolve
that its allies and friends should not only lose nothing of their own, but even be in-
creased in influence, dignity, and honour: but {as to) what they had possessed at the
time of contracting friendship with the Roman people, who could endure that this
should be wrested from themt Cacs. B. G. i. 43.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

488

Latin Syntax.

S230.

and tore and slaughtered whatever came in their wayy L.
xxvi. 27. See ii. 13, xxxiii. 45.

2) Rhetorical questions belong to the primary clauses of Oratio
ObUqua, and take the Infinitive :

* Plebs fremit : Quid se vivere, quid in parte civium censeri^
si, quod duorum hominum virtute partum sit, id obtinere universi
non possint V the plebeians murmured: Why were they livings why
reckoned one portion of the citizens y if what the valour of two per-
sons had won^ their etitire body were unable to maintain f L. viL i8.

But Caesar generally throws such questions into the Con-
junctive.

3) Questions, to which an answer is expected, are regularly put
in the Conjunctive :

* Docet Caesar, latum ab decern tribunis, ut sui ratio absentis
haberetur, ipso consule Pompeio; qui si improbasset, cur ferri
passus esset? sin probasset, cur se uti populi beneficio prohi-
b u i s s e t ?' Caesar informed them^ that the ten tribunes had brought
in a billy allowing him to rank as a candidate^ though absent ^ in the
very consulship of Pompeius; if Pompeius disapproved^ why had
he allowed the bill to be brought inf if he approved^ why had he
prer'ented him from taking advantage of the peoples boon f Caes.
B, C L 32.

4) <!. A Potential Sentence may become Oblique by means of

the Verb possum ; an Optative Sentence by means of
volo.

Examples of the Conversion of Oratio Recta into Oratio Obliqua.

A. ENUNTIATIO.

I. Recta.

X. Eo. a. Ibo. 3. Ivi.

4. Eo quia (cum, quo, si)

iubes.

5. Ibo ctun (quo, si) ius-

seris.

6. Ivi quo (cum, quia) ius.

sisti.

7. Fadam quod voles.

8. Feci quod voluisti.

Q. Gratum est mihi quod
quievisti.

10. £>mnmoraris,urbscapta

est.

11. Non recuso quominus

(quin) cas.
la. Edo ut vivam.

13. Expedit dvitati ut re-

aeam.

14. Quaeres quid agam.

15- Moriar ni ^udeo.

16. Si quid mihi, Caesar, a
te opus esset, ipse ad
te venirein(venissein):
si quid tu me vis, ad
me veni.

a. Obliqua post Praesens.

Ait

se ire : ittirum esse : isse.
se (quia, &a)ille iubeat, ire.

se (cum, &c.) ille iusserit,

iturum.
se (quo, &C.) ille iusserit,

isse.
se, quod ille velit, facturum.
se, quod ille voluerit, fecisse.
gratum esse sibi quod ille

quieverit.
urbem, dum ille moratiu-,

esse captam.
se, quommus (quin) ille eat,

non recusare.
se, ut vivat, edcre.
expedire civitati ut ipse

redeat.
quaerere ilium posse quid

ipse agat^
yelle se mori ni gaudeat
si <juid ipsi a Caesare opus

sjt, sesc ad eum venturum

esse : si quid ille se velit,

ilium ad se venire oporterc.

3. Obliqua post PraeCeritum.

Dixit

se ire : iturum esse : isse.
se(quia, &c.)illeiuberet, ire.

se (cum, &c) ille ii
iturum.

se (quo, &C.) ille iussisset,
isse.

se, quod ille vellet, fectunun.

se,quod ille voluisset.fecisse.

gratum esse sibi quod ille
quievisset

urbem, dum ille moratur,
captam fuisse.

se, quominus (quin) ille iret,
non recusare.

se, ut viveret,^ edere.

expedire civitati ut ipse
rediret.

quaerere ilium posse quid
ipse agereL ^

veUe se mori ni gauderet.

si quid ipsi a Oiesare opus
esset, sese ad eum ventu-
rum fuisse : si quid ille se
vellet, ilium ad se venire
oportere.

uiyiiized by CjOOQ IC

S«3'.

Reflexive Pronouns in Clauses.

489

23t

b. An Imperative Sentence may become Petitio Obliqua ; or
it may be expressed by debeo, oportet, &c., or Gerun-
dive Construction.

III. The Reflexive Pronouns in Clauses. Se,

i. Se (Personal), suus (Possessive), are Reflexive Pronouns of
the Third Person ; implying reference to a Subject in that Person ;
which, in general, is the Subject of the Sentence. To supply their
defect, and for distinction or emphasis, ipse is used.

Se, suus, are therefore Pronouns of Subjective Reference al-
ways ; ipse, so far as it is used for them, or with them.

The Demonstratives is, ille, iste, hie, &c., are Pronouns of
Objective Reference. See § 65.

Tlie use of these Pronouns m Clauses is a difficult subject,
respecting which certain general directions may be given.

A) First : Pronominal reference must be interpreted according
to the logic of the passage.

This logical interpretation (the Reason of the thing) must be
applied especially when in the same Clause, or in suc-
ceeding Clauses, Subjective reference is made by the
Reflexive Pronoims to different Subjects.

Thus Caes. B, G, vii. 4, Veneti legationem ad P. Crassum
mittunt : si velit suos recipere, obsides sibi remittat
Here ^ the Reason of the thing' shews that suos must be

Examples of the Conversion of Oratio Recta into Oratio Obliqua. — cont.

B. PETITIO.

z. Recta.

3. Obliqua post Praesena. | 3. Obliqua post Praeteritum.

X. Abiquovis.
3. I quo condixi.

3. Utere vita dum potes.

4. Itc, create comulcs ex

plebe : tnuisferte aus-

I m p e r a t (orat« hortatur)

abeat quo velit.
eat ille quo ipse condixerit.
vita, dum possit, utatur.
cant, creent consules ex

plebe ; transferant auspi-

cia quo ne£fis sit.

Imperabat (orabat,
horubatiur)

abiret quo vellet

iret ille quo ipse condixisset.

vita, dum ptMset, uteretur.

irent, crearent consules ex
plebe: transferrent auspi-
cia quo nefa& esset.

C. INTERROGATIO.

z. Recta.

X. Quid tibi vis?

2. Num bellum pxtxikrit ?

3. Cur fiuatis quod vetitum

est?

4. Cur fedstis quod vetitum

est?

5. Quid deinde restat, si

neque ex equis pepuli-
mus hostem ; neque
pedites quicquam mo-
menti fadmus? Quam
tertiam expectamus
pugnam?

3. Obliqua post Praesens.

Quaerit

quid sibt velit ille? (velle

ilium?)
num bellum profutiurum sit

(««)^ . . , .

cur, quod vetitum sit, faci-

ant?
cur, quod vetitum sit, fece-

rmt?
^ quid deinde restet, si neque
^ ex equis pepulerint hos-
tem, neque pedites quic-
quam momenti fadant ?
quam tertiam expectent
pug^nam?

3. Obliqua post Praeteritum.

Quaerebat

quid sibi vellet ille? velle
ilium?

num bellum profiiturum
esset (esse)?

cur, quod vetitiun esset,
facerent ?

cur, quod vetitum esset,
fecissent ?

quid deinde restaret, si ne-
que ex equis pepulissent
hostem, neque pedites
quicquam momenti &ce-
rent? quam tertiam ex-
pectarent pugnam ?

Digitized by VjOOQIC

490 Latin Sytitax. 1 232.

referred to Crassus (Subject of velit), sibi to Veneti
(the Principal Subject).

ff) Secondly : in some Clauses there is an intimate connexion
between the use of the Reflexive Pronouns and that of the
Subjunctive Mood; both being determined by the same
law of Subjective relation.
Thus, if the following Causes be compared :

(i) Marcus salvus rediit^ quod ei peperceram:

(2) Marcus gratias mihi egit quod sibi pepercissem:
In (i), the Quod-clause is alleged by the si>eaker as the
cause of an act on the part of Marcus objectively regarded
(salvus rediit), for which reason the Demonstrative ei and
Indicative peperceram are used:
In (2), the Quod-clause is cited as the cause subjectively felt
and avowed by Marcus for an act of his own (gratias
egit); therefore the Reflexive sibi and the Subjunctive
pepercissem are used.

C) Thirdly: it often hapi)ens (principally in Adverbial and
Adjectival Clauses, or in Participial Entheses, which stand
for them) that a Subjective Pronoun is used when the
writer wishes to refer the Clause to the mind of the Sub-
ject: though, if the Clause were only part of his own
statement, he might have used an Objective Pronoun.
' Africanus, qui suo cognomine declarat, tertiam partem orbis
terrarum se subegisse, tamen, si sua res ageretiw, testi-
monium non diceret/ C. p, S, Rose, 36. Here Cicero
might have written eius for sua, if he had not wished to
continue the Subjective construction, and to place the con-
dition in the mind of Africanus (si mea . . . non dicerem).

iL The use of Reflexive Pronouns in the various Clauses will
now be noticed.

A) I. In a Substantival Clause standing as Object, while the
Principal Subject is in the 3rd Person, Pronominal reference
to that Subject will be Subjective, unless the Clause has
a Subject of its own, requiring Subjective reference to itsel£
'ait sibi et suis commodis serviendum esse (ser-

vin).
putat nos sibietsuis commodis obesse.
queritur quod vos sibi et suis commodis obsis-

tatis.
vult utseetsua commoda tueamur.
Marcus * orabat seetsuos liberos defenderem.
timet ne ipse et liberi sui n^legantur.
non .dubitat quin ipse et sua commoda sper-

nantur.
multa obstare putat quominus sibi suisque con-

sulatiur.
.videt quanta sibi suisque mala impendeant

Such examples are frequent, and free from difficulty. As
the Clauses have either no new Subject, or a new Subject

uiyiiized byCjOOQlC

f 333. Reflexive Pronouns in Clauses, 491

not of the Third Person, or a new Subject not admitting
Subjective Pronominal reference, there is nothing to dis-
turb the reference of the Reflexive Pronouns to tfie Prin-
cipal Subject Marcus.

2. But, when a Substantival Clause receives a new Subject
capable of Subjective Pronominal reference, many cfifii-
culties arise, the solution of which is generally derived from
* the Reason of the thing,' sometimes from the character of
the principal Verb, sometimes from that of the dependent
Verb.

n. The general Rule in such case is, that the Reflexive Pro-
nouns are referred to the Subject, if capable, of the Clause
in which they stand ; but if that Subject is not capable,
then to the Principal (or Prior) Subject.
The capability of the Clausular Subject is tested by seeing if
the Clause, converted into Oratio Recta, gives a good sense.
^Caesar reperit Dumnorigem his rebus suam remfami-
liarem aiudsse,' B, G,\, 18. Here the converted Clause
would be: 'Dumnorix his rebus suam rem familiarem
auxit,' which gives a good sense, and so determines the
reference of suam to Dumnorigem ; and this 'the Reason,
of the thing' demands.

Obs. Sometimes the reference to the Clausular Subject is
determined by quisque joined to the Reflexive : ' Natura
quidquid genuit in suo quodque genere perfectum esse
voluit,' C. T, D. V. 13.

Sometimes by other Indefinite Pronouns : * Nee ^uemquam
nisi sua voce, utcumque quis posset, ac sme patrono
rationem vitae passus est reddere,' Suet ClatuL 16.

/. On the other hand, conversion of the Qause in such ex-
amples as the following shews that the Reflexive Pro-
nouns cannot reasonably be referred to the Subject of the
Clause, but must go back to the Principal (or Prior) Subject
'Datames audit Pisidas quasdam copias adversus se
parare,' Nep. Dot, 18. 'Ariovistus respondit, omnis
Galliae civitates contra se castra habuisse,' Caes. B, G.
L 44. 'Caesar . . . docebat, ilium (Ariovistum) . . .
beneflcio ac liberalitate sua ac senatus ea praemia con-
secutum,' Caes. B. G, i. 43. See i. 33.

E) If the Clause is an Oblique Petition, with a Subject of
its own allowing Subjective Pronominal reference, the
meaning of the Principal Verb will cause a difference. If
that Verb is one of prayer^ comtnaruiy or endeavour, the
Subjective reference in the Clause will be to the Principal
Subject; if it is one of exhortaHotty advice, ox persuasiofty
such reference will be to the Subject of the Clause.

T^*__„^ forat (rogat, &c.) Aulumi (ut) sibi consulat (i.e.

Marcus \p^^^ imperat ^ Marco),

but

TWf^-^ e ihortatur (admonet) Aulumt (ut) sibi consulat n.e.

Marcus tAulosuadet(persuadet) / Aujo).

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492 Latin Syntax, \ 234^

This distinction lies in 'the Reason of the thing ;' that is, in
the assumption that we pray or command another for our
own benefit, that we exhort or advise him for his own,

(i) Iste petit a rege et eum pluribus verbis rogat ut id ad
se mittat/ C. Verr, iv. 28. ' Arverni Vercingetorigem
obsecrant ut suis fortunis consulat, neu se ab hostibus
diripi patiatur, praesertim cum videat omne ad se
belliun translatum/ Caes. B, G. vii. 8.

(2) Caesar Nervios hortatur ne sui in perpetuum liberandi
occasionem dimittant/ Caes. B, G. v. 38. * Rex supplicen^
non prodidit, monuitque ut consuleret sibi/ Nep. Tk.%,
'Helvetii persuadent Rauracis . . . uti, eodem usi
consilio, oppidis suis vicisque relictis, una cum iis
(Helvetiis) proficiscantur,* Caes. B, G. i. 5.

(Persuadeois found with Subjective reference in the Clause
to the Principal Subject): 'Multa pollicendo persuadet
Metellus (legatis) uti lugurtham maxime vivum, sin id
parum procedat, necatum sibi traderent,' SalL lug^. 46.
Ods. A Case dependent on a Passive Verb or on sum is
sometimes referred to as a Principal Subject, if it appears
such when converted into Active fonn.

*A Caesare invitor (-Caesar me invitat) sibi ut sim
legatus,' Caesar invites me to be his lieutenant y C Ati,
iL 18. * lam inde ab initio Faustulo spes fuerat ( = '
Faustulus speraverat) regiam stirpem apud se educa^
L.i.5.

But if it cannot be so converted, the reference will be
Objective :

'L. Quinctio Cincinnato in agro aranti nuntiatum est
eum dictatorem esse factum,' C. Cat, M, 16.

In the following places it might seem that the reference
ought to be Subjective :

*A Curione mihi nuntiatum est eum ad me venire,' C
Att, X. 4. * Nuntiatum est nobis a M. Varrone venisse
eum Roma pridie vesperi,' C. Ac, i. i.

But the Prep, a means ^^w, not by : a Curione (M. Varrone}
missi nuntiarunt; the true Subjects, therefore, are the
messengers.

«34 C) Pronominal Reference in Adverbial and Adjectival Clauses r

I. If the Clause is Final, the Pronominal reference to the

purposing Subject will usually be Subjective :
'Cuncti ad me saepe venerunt, ut suarum fortunarom.
omnium causam defensionemque susdperem,' C in Caec.
I. « (Tiridates) mittebat oratores qui suo Parthorumque
nomine expostularent, cur depelleretur,' Tac. Ann, xiiL 37^

Yet we find :

^Pompeius . . . idoneum locum nactus ibi copias collo-
cavit, suosque omnis in castris continuit, igmsque fieri
prohibuit, quo occultior esset eius adventus,' Caes. -5. C
lii. 30. 'Verres Milesios navem poposcit, quae eum
praeskiii causa Myndum prosequeretur,' C. Verr, L 34.

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5 234. Reflexive Pronouns in Clauses. 493

2. In Ut-clauses of a Consecutive nature Pronominal reference

to a Principal Subject will usually be Objective, because
([result not purpose being implied) there is so far no sub-
jectivity in the Clause.
' Ligarius in provincia pacatissima ita se gessit ut ei pacem
esse expediret/ C,p,Ug,2, * Habet hoc virtus ut
viros fortis species eius et pulchritudo etiam in hoste
posiu delectet,* C in Pis. 32.

Yet if in a result a purpose is implied, the Subjective Pro-
noun may be used :

''(Agesilaus) locum delegit talem ut non multum obesse
multitudo hostium suae paucitati posset,' N. Ag, 7.

In the following, the Reflexive is necessary for reference to
the Subject of its Clause :

-^Is enim sic se gerit ut sibi iam decemvir designatus esse
videatur,' C. d, L, Agr, iL 19. * Caput est Heradides
ille Temnites, homo ineptus et loquax, sed, ut sibi
videtur, ita doctus ut,* &c., Q,p, Flacc, 18,

In the sentence, 'Tum mittit rex ad istum, Si sibi
videatur, ut reddat,' C. Verr, iv. 29, the Reflexive seems
strange, when we compare : * Cimi ei scriptam orationem
orator Lysias attulisset, quam, si eivideretur, edisceret,'
C. d. Or, L 54. ' Reliquum a suis Tyndaridis peteret, si
ei videretur^' C. d. Or, iL Sd But the direct message
of the king, *si tibi videtur, redde,' is rendered in oblique
form.

Other special causes may make the reference in such
Clauses Subjective: 'Ambiorix ad hunc modum locutus
est : Sese, &c. . . . suaque esse eiusmodi imperia ut non
minus haberet iuris in se multitudo quam ipse in multi-
tudinem,' Caes. B, G. v. 27. The use of se instead of
eum is determined by sese preceding and by the anti-
thesis se . . . ipse.

3. Suboblique Quod-clauses often require Subjective Pro-

nominal reference to the Principal Subject :
'Sdpionem Hannibal eo ipso quod adversus se dux
potissimimi lectus esset, praestantem virum credebat,' L.
xxi. 39. 'Divitiacus ait, scire se ilia esse vera, nee
quemquam ex eo plus quam se doloris capere, prop-
terea quod per se crevisset,' Caes. B, G, i. 2a

4- Pronominal reference in Conditional Clauses often follows
the same rule: *Domino navis qui sit (Themistocles)
aperit, multa poUicens, si se conservasset,' Nep. Th, 8.
*Sed ausus est Furfanio dicere, si sibi pecuniam, quan-
tam poposcerat, non dedisset, mortuum se in domum eius
illaturum,' Q.p, Mil, 27.

5. The Subjective reference to the Principal Subject is often
kept in a Relative Clause, if 'the Reason of the thing*
shews that the Reflexive cannot be referred to the Relative
itself: 'Epaminondas ei, aui sibi ex lege praetor suc-
cesserat, exercitum non tradidit,' C. Inv, i. 33. 'Dexio

uiyiuzeu uy ■n^JVJvJVJ Iv^

494 Latin Syntax. % 235-36.

hie non quae privatim sibi eripuisti, sed unicum abs te
filium flagitat/ C. Verr, v. 49. ^Epaminondas . - . cos
coegit superare Lacedaemonios, quos ante se imDeratorem
nemo Boeotorum ausus fuit aspicere/ Nep. Ep, o.

Yet in such places the Objective Pronoun would not have
been wrong ; and in the last cited example there seems
little j ustification for s e instead of e u m.

When Caesar writes: ^Ambiorix in Aduatucos, qui erant
eius regno finitimi, proficiscitur/ B, G, v. 38, he uses the
Objective Pronoun because the Clause is a statement of
his own, not referred to the mind of Ambiorix.

Obs, But, if the Relative Clause is Suboblique, it will often
happen that Subjective reference is made to the Relative itself or
its inmiediate Antecedent : * Commemorant . . . errare eos, si quic-
quam ab his praesidii sperent, qui suis rebus diffidant,' Caes. B^
G, V. 41.

035 ^*' When Oratio Obliqua intervenes between the Principal Sub-

i'ect and Pronominal reference to it in a Clause, Latin authors^
laving evidently much freedom of choice, often prefer the Objec-
tive reiference, as less liable to conftision.

*Quod cum interrogatus esset Socrates, respond it, seseme-
ruisse ut amplissimis honoribus et praemiis decoraretur, et ei
victus quotidianus in Prytaneo pubUce praeberetur,' C d. Or. L
54. ^Tarquinius e suis unum sciscitatum Romam ad patrem mi^t
quidnam se facere vellet, quandoquidem, ut omnia tmus Gabiis
posset, ei di dedissent,' L. 54.

iv. When in the Clauses of a Compound Sentence Subjective
reference is made to more than one Subject, * the Reason of the
thing' must determine to what Subjects the Pronouns are referred
severally.

' Scythae petebant ab Alexandro ut regis sui (i.e. Scytharum)
filiam matrimonio sibi (i.e. Alexandro) iungeret ; si dedignaretur
affinitatem, principes Macedonum cum primoribus suae goitis (Le.
Scytharum) conubio coire pateretur,' Curt viii. i. * Ariovistus re-
spondit, Neminem secum (i.e. cum Ariovisto) sine sua ^e. con-
tendentis) pemicie contendisse,' Caes. B, G. i. 36. *Tarquinius
orabat Tarquiniensis ne se (i.e Tarquinium) . . . ante oculos
suos (i.e. Tarquiniensium) perire sinerent,' L. ii. 6.

Ipse. V. The Definitive Pronoun ipse, which may qualify Nouns or
Pronouns of any Person, assists in two ways the use of the Re-
flexive Pronouns in Clauses.

(1) By qualifying the Subject of a Cause in which a Reflexive
Pronoun occurs, so as to shew the reference of that Pronoun to the
Subject of the Clause rather than to the Principal Subject

'Natura movet infantem ut se ipse diligat,' nature prompis
an infant to love itself, C. Fin, ii. 11. Without ipse the Pronoun
se mifi^ht have been referred to natura. ^ Qearchus ait . • . proinde
consulant sibi ipsi ; iubeant abire se,' lust xvi. 4 (sibi is leferied
by ipsi to the Subject of consulant: se refers to the Principal
Subject Clearchus). 'Neque prius vim adhibendam putaveront
(Ephori) quam se ipse (Pausanias) indicasset,' Nep. Perns. 4.

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§ 237- Participial Construction, 495

< Flaccus milites portis murisque sibimet ipsos tecta milita-
liter co^gerat aedificare/ L. xxvii. 3.

(2) By standing for the Reflexive se, when antithetic to some
other word; whether to a Substantive, to suus, or another Pro-
noun. In such use ipse refers to the Principal Subject, and the
word to which it is antithetic is either the Subject of the Clause, or
referred to the Subject of the Clause.

* Pertimuerunt ne ab ipsis descisceret et cum suis in gratiam
rediret,' Nep. Ale. 75. * Caesar quaesivit, cur de sua (i.e. militum
desperantium) virtute aut de ipsius (i.e. Caesaris) diligentia des-
perarent/ Caes. B, G, i. 4a

If no such antithesis exists, ipse refers to the next preceding
Noun :

'Habemus a Caesar e, sicut ipsius dignitas . . . postulaba^
sententiam,' C. Cat, iv. 5.

Obs. The cases of ipse, when they appositively strengthen
and define se, semet, &c, suus, suusmet, &c., assist Pronominal
reference so far only as, by distinguishing Gender and Nuniber,
they often make the reference more clear and obvious.

* (Rex meminerat hos fratres) nuper praeter consuetudinem , . .
admovisse semetipsos lateri suo . . . seque mirantem quodnon
vice sua tali fungerentur officio ... ad armi^ros recessisse . . •
lam temeritatem verborum, quae in semetipsum iacularentur,
nihil aliud esse quam scelesti animi indicem ac testem/ Curt,
vii. 2.

Note I, Inter ipsos, in Cicero, is always preceded by a Case
(Genitive or rarely Dative) dependent on some Noun which admits
the notion of reciprocity: *ld iam patebit, si hominum inter
ipsos societatem coniunctionemqueperspexeris,' C.Z^r^.i. 10.
* Latissime patens hominibus inter ipsos, omnibus inter onmis,
societas haec est,' C. Off. L 16.

In other writers inter ipsos appears without the preceding
Case: * Sed gloriae maximum certamen inter ipsos erat,' Sail
Cat. 7. *Haec dum in India geruntur, Graeci milites, orta inter
ipsos seditionc, defecerant,' Curt. ix. 51.

Note 2. Inter se must be connected either with a Plural Ad-
jective or with a Verb, or Participle, implying likeness or unlike-
ncssy agreetnent or disagreement, &c., as, * Omnes inter se dissi-
miles fuerunt,' C. d. Or. iii. 7.

"37

IV. Participial Construction. parti-

A Participle is the Attribute of one that acts, or has acted, or
will act ; of one that is being acted on, or has been acted on, or
will be acted on ; to which must be added, of one that is meet for
acting on. As Adjective, it agrees attributively with Nouns and
Pronouns: as a Verb-form, it takes the same Case-constructions
as its Verb.

A) I. The want of a Perf. Participle Act. in Active Verbs is sup-
plied in Latin either by the Finite Verb Active, with Relative or
Particle, or by an Abl. Absolute Passive :

* Tarquinium regem qui non tulerim, Sicinium feram?'
having refused to endure Tarquin as king, shall I endure Sid"

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^v^pt iv-

dples.

496 Latin Syntax. % 238.

niust L. ii. 34. ^Alexander, cum interemisset Clitum, vix a
se manus absdnuit,' Alexander ^ having slain ClituSy hardly re-
frained from suicide^ C. T, D, iv. 37. * Pompeius, captisHiero-
solymis, victor ex illo fano nihil attigit/ Pompeius. having taken
yerusaUm^ in the very moment of victory y meddled with nothing
ielonging to that temple, C. p. Flacc. 28.

2. The want of a Pres. Participle Passive is supplied by the
Finite Passive Verb with Relative or Particle :

*Pueri, qui (cum, dum) docentur, discunt » Greek trainee
2i2aaicof(cyoi fAavOayovai, children {fy) being taught learn.

Rarely the Perfect Participle Passive takes a Present Passive
sense: *Sperata victoria' (-victoria quae speratur), L.xxx.3a

3. A Fut Participle Passive is not often used even in Greek.
In Latin the Finite Verb with Relative sUnds for it: 'Grata
superveniet quae non sperabitur hora,' Hor. Epist. L 4. 14.

4. Some Participles are used as mere Adjectives. Such are,
neglegens, patiens, sapiens, doctus, horrendus, tremendus, vene-
randus, &c.

Many appear as Substantives: amans, adulescens, sponsus;
nupta, sponsa ; coeptum, dictum, factum, praeceptum, &c.

Neuters such as the last named are sometimes modified by
Adverbs: *Verum est fortis eft sapientis viros non tam praemia
sequi solere recte factorum quam ipsa recte fact a,' C. /. MiL 35.

The Nouns, man, men, things, are frequently understood with
Participles: 'Grande locuturi nebulas Helicone legunto/ they
that would utter a sublime strain must cull mists on Heliconj^ Pers.
V. 7. 'Male part a male dilabuntur/ ill gotten, ill go, C. Phil, ii
27. 'Beatos puto, quibus deorum munere datum est aut facere
scribenda, aut scribere loquenda,* Plin. Ep. vL 16.

1138 B) A Participle may often be considered as an Enthesis or

Abbreviated Clause. Such use is of two kinds :

(i) Attributive, when the Subject of the Clause to be abbrevi-
ated is contained (in any Case, and expressed or imder-
stood) in the Principal Sentence, and the Participle agrees
with that word in Gender, Number, and Case :
'Alexander moriens (-cum moreretur) anulum suum
dederat Perdiccae,' Alexander in his dying moments had
given his rin^ to Perdiccas, Nep. Eum. 2. ' S pr et a ( « si
spreta est) m tempore gloria interdum cu'mulatior
redit,' glofy spumed at the right moment now and then
returns in ampler measure, L. 11. 47. ' A n i m o nobis opus
est non abhorrente (-qui non abhorreat) a quietis
consiliis,' we need a temper not averse from peacefid coun-
sels, L. XXX. 3a ' Servnlius Ahala Sp. Maelium, regnum
ap pet en tern (-quod appeteret) interemit,' Servilius
Ahala slew Spurius Maelius,for aiming at royal power,
C Cat. M. 16.

(2) Absolute, when the Subject of the Clause to be abbreviated
is not contained in the principal Sentence, but is placed,
together with the Participle, m the Ablative Case. See
§ 161, and Examples, p. 411.

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§ 239. Participial Construction. 497

i) It appears therefore that the Ablative Absolute must not
generally be used when a Noun-term for the Participle to
agree with can be foimd in the Principal Sentence. For
instance, we must not write : Nostra te legente, utere tuo
iudicio ; but, * Nostra legens utere tuo iucScio/ when you
read my workSy use your own judgtneni, C.

This rule is sometimes, but very rarely, violated, and then
only for the sake of some peculiar emphasis.

* Vercingetorix, convocatis suis clientibus, facile in-
cendit (eos),' Caes. B. (7. vii. 4. *Iugurtha fratre meo
interfecto regnum eius sceleris sui praedam fecit,' SalL
lug. 14.

2) The want of a Copulative Participle (being) enables the Abl.

Abs. to consist of Substantive with Adjective : * Caesare
vivo,' Caesar being alive^ or of two Substantives : * Caesare
duce/ Caesar being commander : * Consule Planco.'

3) The Impersonal Passive construction (erratur, litatur, &c)

enables a Participle alone to be used Absolutely :
Errato {a mistake having been made\ litato {sacrifice having
been duly performed) ^ &c.

4) A Clause may be Absolute with a Participle or Adjective.

See § 161. 4.

C. The Participial Construction, Attributive and Absolute, is
used to abbreviate

(1) Relative Clauses :

'Peloponnesus est peninsula, angustis Isthmi faucibus con-
tinenti adhaerens,' the Peloponnesus is a peninsula^
attached to the continent by the narrow pass of the Isthmus ,
L. xxxii. 21. ^ Sunt divitiae certae, in quacumque sortis *
humanae levitate permansurae/ sure riches are those
that will abide in whatsoever fickleness of human fortune,
Sen. ^^«. vi. 3. 'Pisistratus Homeri libros, confusos
an tea, disposuit,' Pisistratus arranged the books of
Homer, which were heretofore confused, C. d. Or, iii. 4.
(Where adhaerens = quae adhaeret; permansurae = quae
permansurae sunt; confusos « qui confusi erant) *Gau-
dentem ' (Hor. C. L i. 11) =>' hominem qui gaudet'

(2) Adverbial Clauses :

i) Consecutive Clauses are represented by Participial construc-
tion (chiefly where this is accompanied by a Negative) :

Sapientis est, nihil contra mores, leges, instituta facien-
tem, habere rationem rei famiharis,' // is a wise man's
duty to have regard to his private fortune, so that he do
nothing contrary to morals, laws, and customs, C. Off, ii.
15 (where nihfi facientem » ita ut nihil faciat, without
doing anything), ' Natura dedit usuram vitae, tamquam
peamiae, nulla praestituta die,' nature has given the
loan of life, as it were of money, without fixing any day
for repayment, C. T. D, \, 39.*

* Here observe the versions of the English idiom 'without,' followed by a Verb. ^T^

498 Latin Syntax. §239*

2) Final Clauses may be abbreviated by the Fut Participle :
'Catilina ad exercitum proficiscitur, signa illaturus urbi/

Catilina goes to the army, intending to march on the city,
Flor. iv. I. * Alexander Hephaestionem in regionem
Bactrianam misit, commeatus in hiemem paraturum,'
Alexander sent Hephaestion into the Bactrian country to
get provisions for the winter, Curt viii. 8. (Where iUa-
turus»ut inferat ; paraturum=ut pararet) See § 186.

3) Causal Clauses: 'Nihil affirmo dub i tans plerumque et

mihi ipse diffidens/ / affirm nothing because I gene-
rally doubt and distrust myself, C. Dtv, il 3 (dubitans =
quia dubito, diffidens - quia diffido). < Hephaestio longe
omnium amicorum carissimus erat Alexandre, cum ipso
pariter educatus/ of all his friends Hephaestion was by
far the dearest to Alexander^ because he had been brought
up with him, Curt iii. 12 (educatus = quia educatus erat).
*Flaminium Coelius religione neglecta cecidisse apud
Trasimenum scribit/ Coelius says, that Flaminius fell at
Trasimenus, because he had neglected religion, C. N, D. iL
3 (i.e. quod religionem neglexisset).

4) Temporal Clauses: *Herculem Germani, ituri in prodia,

canunt/ the Germans, when cdfout to march to battle,
chaunt Hercules, Tac. G, 3 (i.e. cum ituri sunt). * Tar-
quinius Ardeam oppugnans imperium perdidit,' Tarquin
lost his power, while besieging Ardea, Eutr. i. 8 (op-
pugnans =dum oppugnat). 'Pleraeque scribuntur ora-
tiones habitae iam, non ut habeantur,' most speeches are
written after being delivered, not that they may be deli-
vered, C. Br. 91 (habitae =■ postquam habitae sunt).
*Iove tonante cum populo agi non est fas/ when
Jupiter thunders, it is against religion to transact affairs
with the people, C. Phil. v. 3 (i.e. cimi luppiter tonat).

5) Conditional Clauses: ' Epistulae offendunt, non loco red-
^\X.2l^^ letters annoy J if not delivered in season, C. Fam.
xi. 16 (i.e. si non redduntur). 'Nihil, me sciente,

Marcus entered the city without being saluted by any one, may be variously rendered :
(1) Marcus nullo salutante urbcm ingressus est.
(3) Marcus a nullo salutatus urbem ingressus est.

(3) Marcus insalutatus urbem ingressus est

(4) Marcus sine cuiusquam salutatione urbem ingressus est.

(5) Marcus iu urbem ingressus est ut a nullo salutaretur.

(6) Marcus urbem est ingressus neque a quoquam salutatus est.

And, with a Negative, Marcus never entered the city without being saluted^

(7) Marcus numquam urbem ingressus est quin [or ut non) salutaretur.

This force of the Participle with a Negation may be illustrated by a few more
examples: 'Epicurus, non erubescens, voluptotes pcrsequitur omnis nominatim,'
Epicurus without blushing detmils all pleasures by name, C A^. D. i. 4a 'Constat Nu-
mam nonpetentemin regnum ultroaccitum,' it is well known that Nunut^ tntkout
being a candidate, was solicited to accept the royal office, L. L 35. * In bello dvili nihil
accidit non praedicente m^* in the civil war nothing has happened witJkomi mty
/oreUlling it, C Fam, vi 6. *Quis est qui nullis officii praeceptis tradendis
philosophum se audeat dicere V who will dare to call himself a philosopher without lay-
ing down any rules qf duty f C Offi i. 2.

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S 240. Participial Construction. 499

fhistra voles,' you shall wish for nothing in vtdn^ if I
know it, SalL (i.e. dummodo ego sciam).

6) Concessive Clauses: 'Scripta tua iam diu ex spec tans,

non audeo tarn en flagitare,' though I have long been look"
ing for your writings, yet I dare not demand them, C. Ac
Li. (te. etsi exspecto). 'Perditis rebus omnibus,
tamen ipsa se virtus sustentare potest,' though all things
be lost, yet virtue can support herself, C. Fanu vi. i. (Le.
quamvis perditae sint).

Nisi, etsi, quamvis may annex a Participial Clause :

*Etsi aliquo accepto detrimento tamen summa exer-

citus salva locum quem petunt capi posse,' though some

loss would be sustained, yet the spot they aimed at might

be occupied without the main army being destroyed, Caes.

7) In Comparative Participial Constructions the Particles are

prefixed to the Participial Clause : * Graecas litteras senex
didici, quas quidem avide arripui, quasi diutumam sitim
explere cupiens,' / learnt Greek in old age, and grasped
it indeed with much zest, as if I wished to quench a pro-
tracted thirst, C. Cat. M, 8. ' Antiochus securus de bello
Romano erat, tamquam non transituris in Asiam
Romanis,' Antiochus was careless about the war with
Rome, as imagining that the Romans would not come
over to Asia, L, xxxvL 41.

2>) Notes on Participial Construction.

i) The Participle Perfect Passive is used to express a past
action continuing in its consequences, after such Verbs as
habeo, teneo, possideo, &c. : *Illud exploratum habeto,
nihil fieri potuisse sine causa,' consider it clear, that
nothing could have been mcuie without a cause, C. Div, ii.
28. * Hoc tibi persuasum habe,' be persuaded of this,
C. *Hoc cognitum comprehensumque habeo,'
this is thoroughly known and comprehended by me, C.

2) It is used in older Latin with the Verbs do, red do, euro,
by way of Periphrasis: *Stratas legiones Latinorum
dabo,' / will lay prostrate the legions of the Latins, L.
viii. 6. *Hoc tibi effectum reddam,' ///^^/ this done
for you, Ter. An, iv. 4, *Inventum tibi curabo et
mecum adductiun Pamphilum,' 77/ look up Pamphilusfor
you and bring him with me, Ter. An, iv. 4.
To the same idiom belong the phrases missumfacere and
fieri: * Si qui voluptatibus ducuntur, missos faciant
honores,' if any are seduced by pleasures, they may bid
farewell to honours, C. p. Sest, 68. * Legiones bello con-
fecto missas fieri placet,' I recommend that on the close
of the war the legions be disbanded, C. Phil. v. 19.
After volo, nolo, cupio, oportet, a Perf. Participle repre-
sents Infin. Pass., see p. 449. The constructions * Pro-
perato opus est,' hasty action is needed, C. ; * Liberis
consultumvolumus,'zc/^ would have the children's good

K K 2 uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^v^pt i_x^

500 Latin Syntax. % 240.

regarded,C.\ <Mansum oportuit,' Ten, arise from the
Impers. use of Passive Verbs.
3) The Participle Perfect is used attributively to supply the
place of a Substantive expressing the action of the Verb :

*Prusiam regem suspectum Romanis et receptus Han-
nibal et bellum adversus Eumenem motum faciebat,'
both the reception of Hannibal and the commencement of
war against Eumenes made King Prusias an object of
suspicion to the Romans, L. xxxix. 51. * Labeo male
administratae provinciae arguebatur/ Labeo was
charged with maladministration of the province, Tac.
Ann, vi. 29.

Hence Livy, Tacitus, and Lucan use the Neuter Participle
Perf. Pass, to express the Substantival notion of the Passive
Verb, which the Greeks expressed by the Article and
Infinitive :

*Diu non perlitatum tenuerat dictatorem ne ante men-
diem signum dare posset,* the long-continued want of a
well-otnened sacrifice had withheld the dictator from being
able to give the signal before noon, L. vii. 8. So, tenta-
tum, L. hr. 49. * Summisque negatum stare diu,' Lucan,
i. ^o. ' Notum,' V. Ac, v. 6. ' Expectatum,' V. (7. iiL 348'

4) The Gerundive Construction is more largely used in the

place of Substantives expressing the transitive action of
the Verb :

'Flagitiosum est ob rem iudicandam pecuniam accipere,'
// is scandalous to take money to give a verdict in court,
C, Verr, ii. 32. *Temperantia constat ex praetermit-
tendis voluptatibus corporis,' temperance consists in
absHfunce from bodily pleasures, C. N. D. iiu 15. * Pho-
cion cum Demade de urbe tradenda Antipatro con-
senserat,' Phocion had a^eed with Demades as to the sur-
render of the city to Antipater, Nep. Phoc, 2.

InLiv/s Preface we read * ante conditam condendamve
urbem,' which probably means * before the actual or de-
signed foundation of the city,' 'before the city was built
or commenced.' See Gerundive Construction.

5) Participles are sometimes equivalent to Gerrmdive Instru-

mental Construction :

* Aer effluens hue et illuc ventos efficit,' the air, by flowing

hither and thither, causes winds, C. N. D. ii. 39. ' Cresat
indulgens sibi dims hydrops,' the dreadful dropsy grows
by self-indulgence, Hon C. ii. 2. 13. See § 161. 2.

6) A Participle and Verb are often best translated by two

Verbs:

* Caesar scribit, se cum legionibus profectum celeriter

adfore,' Caesar wrote word that he had set out with his
legions and would soon arrive, Caes. B, G, v. 38, * lure
interfectum Clitum Macedones decernunt, sepultura

Suoque prohibituri, ni rex humari iussisset,' the Mace-
onians voted that Clitus was justly slain, and would

uiyiuzeu uy ■n^JVJvJVJ l\^

§ 241. Arrangement of Words. 501

even have denied him burial j had not the king ordered him
to be interred^ Curt viiL 2.

7) A Participle Present after such Verbs as audio, video,

facio, pingo, &c., expresses the action or state of the
Object heard, seen, &c. :

* Audivi eum dicentem, vidi eum ambulantem,' &c.
Analogous to this is the construction, 'Est apud Platonem
Socrates . . . die ens,' &c, we read in Plato of Socrates
sayingy &c C.

8) The Participle sometimes repeats the preceding Verb :
*Mars videt hanc visamque cupit,' Mars sees, and seeing

desires her^ Ov. Fast, iii. 21.

9) A Participial construction is often involved with an Oblique

Interrogation or a Relative Clause :
* Cogitate q u a n t i s laboribus fundatum imperium, quanta
virtute stabilitam libertatem una nox paene delerit,' C.
Cat. iv. 9. Such a sentence cannot be rendered in
English without paraphrase : Consider how vast the toil
that founded this empire, how great the valour that esta-
blished this freedom, which a single night all but de-
stroyed

CHAPTER V.

ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS AND STRUCTURE AND
CONNEXION OF SENTENCES.

The Order of Words reflects the progress of a at-^*'
-writer's ideas. This is true of modern languages, such S^mof
as English and French, which, having lost their inflex- ^o^»-
ions, are obliged in the arrangement of words to follow
somewhat definite rules ; but it is worthy of special
attention in languages which, by inflecting the Nouns
and Verbs, can abandon the syntactical order as often
as emphasis or harmony requires. Latin is one of these
languages, which are called Transpositive.

A, Since an unusual order indicates logical or rhetorical em-
phasis, it is necessary for adequate translation that the ordinary
arrangement should be clearly understood.

We shall consider I. the beginning; II. the end; III. the
middle of the Sentence.

1. I. The Subject usually stands either first, or after the word
definitive of time, place, or logical connexion :

Verres Siciliam vexavit At ille in iudicium venit

2. Everything logically connected with the Subject must be
placed in close connexion with it :

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

502 Latin Syntax. { 242,

The Aeduiy since they were unable to protect themselves an^T
their property y sent ambassadors to Caesar,

'Aedui legates ad Caesarem mittuntyCum se suaque defendere
non possent,' Caes.

Democritus was of course unable to distinguish between black and
whitCy after he had lost his sight.

'Democritus, luminibus amissis, alba scilicet et atra
discemere non poterat,' C.

Hence, if emphasis is to be thrown on the Subject, it must be
placed in a striking position. Now the most striking position is
that farthest removed from the ordinary one. Therefore it should
be placed at the end of the Sentence : ' Scenicorum mos tantam
habet verecundiam, ut in scenam si»e subligaculo prodeat nemo/
C. 'Hannibal iam subibat muros, cum in eum erumpunt Ro-
mani/ L.

II. The end of the Sentence is occupied in general by the Verb,
because this usually contains the main predication, and unites
together the whole proposition. Such order is frequently observed
throughout long paragraphs, as in L. ix. 40, 41.

This arrangement, however, should be abandoned :

1. If it is inharmonious in sound, as happens whoever several
Verbs come together in a period: 'Constiterunt, nuntios in
castra remissos, qui, quid sibi, quando praeter spem hosds occur-
risset, faciendum essct consulerent quieti opperientes,' L. xxxiiL 6u

2. If it is necessary to give peculiar importance to the Verb,
which, like other words, acquires emphasis from an unusual posi-
tion: *Offendit te, A. Cornell, vos, Patres conscripti, circtmnfiisa
turba lateri meo,' C.

3. Or to emphasise a word, which in the middle of the sentence
would not have the requisite stress : * Sicine vestrum militem ac
praesidem sinitis vexari ab inimicis?' L.

4. To prevent the separation of closely connected words :
' *Erant ei veteres inimicitiae cum duobus Rosciis Amerinis,' C.

5. To secure directness of expression in clauses introduced by-
en im or autem : * Sed hoc vitium huic uni in bonum convertebat 1
habet enim flebile quiddam in quaestionibus,' C. 'Amicun^
aegrotantem visere volebat : habitat autem ille in parte urbis
remotissima,' C.

6. To secure Antithesis by the figure Chiasmus : * Aedes pesti-
lentes sint, habeantur salubres,' C. * Patriae salutem ante-
ponet saluti patris,' C.

III. The middle of the sentence is usually occupied by the
Adverb and other qusdifying words ; and by the Oblique Cases.

The Adverb, however, and the Oblique Cases, like other words,,
acquire emphasis from peculiarity of position : * His Fabriciis sem-
per usus est Oppianicus familiarissime,' C. * Secuti estis ahum^
diicem ; sequemini nunc Cam ilium,' L.

243 -^. Notes.

1) The Adjective or dependent Genitive usually follows its Sub-
stantive: *Vir bonus. Moderatio animL' But if it is emphatic

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^v^pt ix^

§ 242. Arrangement of Words. 503

or imparts a specific meaning to an Adjective, or other word, it
precedes it: Magnus Alexander, or Magnus ille Alexander,
luris prudens.

2) Usually Substantives having a Genitive belonging to them all,
should not be separated, but all should follow or precede it:
*Huius autem orationis difficilius est exitum quam principium
invenire,' C. *Honestum autem illud positum est in animi cur a
atque cogitation e,'C Similarly several Genitives depending on
a single Noun either follow or precede it : * Dedicatum est inter
cellam lovis et Minervae,' L. * Haec onmia honoris et am-
plitudinis commodo compensantiu*/ C.

Yet closely connected words are frequently separated for the
sake of emphasis: Mustitiam cole et pietatem,' C. * Quod et
aetati tuae esset aptissimum et auctoritati meae,' C.

3) An Adjective qualifying a Substantive with dependent Geni-
tive is placed first, the Genitive next: Una litterarum signifi-
catio. Constans- omnium fama.

But an Attribute acquires emphasis by separation from its
Noun: In miseriam nascimur sempiternam. *Unum a Clu-
entio profectae pecuniae vestigium ostende,' C.

4) Contrasted words are rendered effective by juxtaposition :
*Ex bello tam tristi- laeta repente pax cariores Sabinas viris

ac parentibus fecit,' L, * Mortali immortalitatem non arbitror
contemnendam,' C.

5) Similarly, different cases of the same word, and words having
a common derivation, are placed in juxtaposition :

*Alium alio n^quiorem. Sint semper omnia homini hu-
mana meditata, *Ut ad senem senex de senectute, sic hoc
libro ad amicum amicissimus de amicitia scripsi,' C. LaeL

6) Quisque should be placed in juxtaposition with suus and
the cases of sui: *Sua cuique virtuti laus propria debetur.'
*Gallos Hannibal in civitates quemque suas dimisit/ L. xxi.

7) The directness of Latin expression requires that in Negative
Sentences the Negative form should be stamped on the sentence at
once:

*Negat Epicurus quemquam, qui honeste non vivat, iucunde
posse vivere,* C. 'Nihil est agncultura melius, nihil homine
libero dignius,' C. * Vet at enim dominans ille in nobis Deus
iniussu nos hinc suo demigrare/ C. 'Nemini quicquam negavit.
Non memini me umquam te vidisse.

Hence non is frequently separated by one or more words from
mo do, solum, tantum, minus, magis :

Mus bonumque apud Scythas non legibus magis quam natura
valebat,' C.

8) Similarly for the sake of emphasis ante and prius are sepa-
rated from quam, and the Demonstrative from its Relative :

*Ante revertit quam expectaveram,' C MUud quidem post
accidit quam discesseram,' C. *Hanc esse perfectam philoso-
phiam semper indicavi, quae de maximis quaestionibus, &c., C.

9) The Demonstrative Pronouns usually precede their Substan-
tives : ^ T

uiyiuzeu uy ■v^JVjv-'Vt Iv^

504 Latin Syntax. § 243.

*Eius disputationis sententias memoriae mandavi: quas
hoc libro exposui meo arbitrio,' Cic

Unless it is desirable to bring them into close connexion with the
Relative :

' Numquam qui iratus accedet ad poenam mediocritatem
ill am tenebit, quae est inter nimium et parum,' C.

10) Prepositions are either placed immediately before their case,
or at least are only separated from it by a Genitive belonging to
the Case they govern :

'Sanguis a corde in totum corpus distribuitur/ C. * Quid est
tam inhumanum quam eloquentiam ad bonorum perniciem per-
vertere,' C.

1 1) Qualifying words, however, which form an essential part of
the word governed by a preposition, may intervene between the
preposition and its case :

Ob non redditos transfugas. De bene beateque vivenda
'£x illo caelesti Epicuri de regula et iudicio volumine,' C

12) Disyllabic prepositions often follow their case, if it is a
pronoun: is quern contra dico; sometimes also ad, de, per,
post, follow their case. This, however, is usually to prevent the
separation of the relative from its antecedent :

lUud, quo de agitur.

Aft Apposition to a Proper Name is commonly placed after the
name, as conveying a subordinate idea :

* Q. Mucius augur multa narrare de C. Laelio, socero suo,
solebat/ C. Agis rex ; Cyprus insula ; Hypanis fluvius ; Orpheus
poeta.

If, however, the Appellative is more important, and requires to
be emphasised, it will precede the Proper Name :

*Obviam ei venerunt duo consules, C Terentius Varro et L.
Paullus Aemilius,' L.

C. The Connexion of Sentences.

Connex- >) Latin writers not only paid great attention to the logical
ion of sequence of Clauses and Sentences, but made this logical con-
nexion obvious by placing a particle as the first or second word in
the sentence. Hence no sentence stands detached unless it is
logically disconnected from what precedes. Sentences connected
in thought form links of a chain, which only breaks off because the
topic is altogether dismissed.

2) The Relative and its Particles are particularly useftil for this
connexion of sentences, and for avoiding monotonous repetition.

The Relative may be used for the Demonstrative with a Particle,
and is therefore found with those Conjunctions which allow of
connexion by means of a Particle. See Coordination.

Quod cum audissem ; quod si fecissem ; quod quamvis non
ignorassem ; for Et cum hoc, &c.

From this habit of connexion by Relatives, appears to have
arisen the use of quod before many Conjunctions, as a merely
Sociative Particle. It is most frequent before the conditional

uiyiiized by VjO'L' -^ iw

Senten-
ces.

J 244. Periodic Style. 505

Particles, si, nisi^ and etsi, and is found also, though niore rarely,
before other Conjunctions : so quod cum, quod ubi, quod utinam ;
in all which the Conjunction alone would have been sufficient
Even before the Relative, we find quod thus used : * Quod <jui ab
iUo abducit exercitum, et respectum pulcherrimum et praesidium
finnissimum adimit reipublicae,' C. See § 82.

3) Another peculiarity, which in Latin helps the connexion of
Sentences, is the use of neque (nee). It stands for et with the
Negation, in whatever form it occurs in the sentence, unless when
it belongs exclusively to a single word in antithesis. This con-
nexion is in L^tin so common, that, for the sake of it, neque is
joined to enim and vero, where in English we could not use and^
and are, therefore, obliged to explain it by saying that neque = non,

D. The Period in Latin. „ "^^

Periods.

L i) A Period is a compound Proposition, consisting of at least
two, generally of several Sentences, which are so connected, that
grammatical construction is not complete before the last clause is
added.

A Period {ambitus or circuitus verborum) is so called because
the main proposition surrounds the interpolated clauses.

2) A Period is Simple, when it does not consist of more than
two such Sentences, related to each other as Antecedent and Con-
sequent (Protasis and Apodosis). It is Complex if it consists of
several Sentences so related.

3) Thus the following sentences do not constitute Periods :
Quemadmodum concordia res parvae crescimt, ita discordia vel
maximae dilabuntur. Vitis natura caduca est, et claviculis quid-
quid est nacta complectitur. But they may readily be made to
assiune a simple Penodic form :

Constat, quemadmodum concordia res parvae crescant, ita dis-
cordia vel maximas dilabL Vitis, quae natura caduca est, quid-
quid est nacta, complectitur.

The latter sentence, if we add to it, et nisi fulta sit, ad terram
fertur, becomes a Complex Period, in which vitis complectitur
is the principal sentence, quae natura caduca est, nisi fulta sit, ad
terram fertur, quidquid est nacta, are the clauses.

It may be further enlarged as it stands in Cicero :

* Vitis, quae natura caduca est, et nisi fulta sit, ad terram fertur,
eadem, ut se erigat, claviculis, quasi manibus, quidquid est nacta
complectitur,' C. Cat M, 15.

4) If the Subject of two Sentences united by a Conjunction is
one and the same, the almost invariable practice in Latin is to form
them into a Period :

* Antigonus, cum adversus Seleucum Lysimachumque dimicaret,
in proeUo occisus est,' Nep. Eum. * Verres, simul ac tetigit pro-
vinciam, statim Messanam litteras dedit,* C. Verr, 1.

So also when the Object is the same for both Propositions :

* Quem ut barbari incendium effugisse viderunt, telis* eminus
emissis interfecerunt,' Nep. Ate.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

So6 Latin Syntax, § 245.

5) The Clauses of a Period are modifications of the main pro-
position. By being grouped together in due order, they produce
the effect of logical completeness, of sonorous and dignified ex-
pression, which accorded well with the gravity and majesty of the
Roman character. The Periodic style is admirably fitted for the
great oratorical efforts of an accomplished rhetorician like Cicero;
and for history designed, as was Livys, to celebrate the greatness
and triumphs of the Roman people. Hence the style of the golden
age of Latinity is essentially Periodic. It is, however, but ill
adapted for an age in which a profusion of new ideas and fresh
information demands the most rapid and facile expression. The
modem style is on this account essentially unperiodic.

It will be easily understood that the Period is not suited for all
subjects. It is out of place in the description of ordinary and
trivial matter, in epistolary composition, in outbursts of passion,
irony and denunciation.

«45 1 1 i) As the dignity of the Roman character delighted in the

sonorous roll and fulness of the Period, so their practical sagacity
and critical ear required that it should be well proportioned, rhyth-
mical, unmonotonous, and above all, perspicuous and clear.

2) To secure the first of these reqxiisites, a Period should consist
of sentences of nearly equal length :

'Et quisquam dubitabit | quin huic tantum bellum transmit-
tendum sit | qui ad omnia nostrae memoriae bella capienda | divino
quodam consilio natus esse videatur,' C. * Stultitia etsi adepta est
quod concupivit | numquam se tamen satis consecutam putat,' C.

3) Roundness and regularity of sound is chiefly to be obtained
by correspondence in the structure of sentences. Words, which
are opposed to each other, should, as far as possible, be of the
same kind, so that noun should answer to noun, verb to verb, &c.
If possible, more than one important word should intervene
between a parenthetic Clause and the end of a Sentence :

' Magnitudo maleficii facit, ut, nisi manifestum parricidium pro-
feratur, credibile non sit,' C.

4) All good prose writing is rhythmical, that is, it flows on in
such a manner as to satisfy and delight the ear. It is, however,
especially necessary to attend to the cadence of a Sentence or
Period, because the necessary pause at the close gives the ear
time to criticise. The following is a table of cadences approved by
Cicero and Quintilian :

Creticus cum Ditrociheo . . -v.

Trochaeus cum Molosso . .

TrochaeuscumPaeoneTertio -3

Creticus cum Cretico ... -v. ,_ _

Dochmius ^..J. [n^rScipioV

Tnbrachys cum Spondeo . ^^^ . __ varietates.

Trochaeus vel Iambus . _^ ' Jpluribus de causis.

cum Dispondeo . . f w- 1 \ virum condemnarunt

Bacchius ^__ videri.

Palimbacchius

gloriam comparavit
membra firmarunt.
esse videatur.
cogitans sentio.

novisse.

5) As the rhythm of prose is essentiaUy distinct from that of

uiyiuzeu uy ■n^JVJvJVJ Iv^

8^246-47. Periodic Style, 507

verse, all verse-endings should be avoided at the close of a sen-
tence, particularly the hexameter termination of dactyl and
spondee.

Such endings, therefore, as quo me vertam nescio; esse
videtur; are carefully to be avoided. It should be observed,
however, that the historians were less careful on this point than the
orators and rhetoricians. Hexameter endings are frequently met
with in Livy.

HI. To prevent monotony in the periodic style, short detached
sentences \cola or commata) are introduced. Such frequently
occur in periodic style. To secure perspicuity and clearness of
expression in constructing them, the following rules should be
observed :

(i) That no Sentences be admitted into a Period but such as are
logically connected together,

(2) That of these Sentences the leading thought form the main
proposition.

(3) That the limitative and qualifying Sentence be placed in
logical subordination. Hence in a narrative the accessory details
should be arranged in the order of time.

(4) That every Period, indeed every Sentence, commence with
the word in closest logical connexion with the preceding :

*Bellum propter nos suscepistis; susceptum quartimi deci-
mum annum pertinaciter geritis,' L. ' Quod si accident, facienda
morum insti tutorumque m u t a t io est Commutato autem genere
vitae,'&c. C.

^5) Hence the Relative should be placed as near to the Ante-
ceaent as possible. To secure this, either the Relative Clause is
introduced parenthetically after its Antecedent :

*Acilius autem, qui Graece scripsit historiam, pluris ait
fiiisse,' C.

Or the Antecedent is drawn into contact with the Relative by
being placed at the end of the Principal Sentence :

*Dicebam habere eos actorem Q. Caecilium, qui praesertim
quaestor in eadem provincia post me quaestorem fiierat,' C.

The same remark applies to hie, inde, unde, ibi, &c. :
'Hannibal tris exercitus maximos comparavit. Ex his
unum in Africam misit (not unum ex his)/ L.

Hence quamobrem and quare always beg^n a sentence.

IV. As, in the construction of a Simple Sentence, minor addi- h7
tions and circumstances are thrown into the middle, and the Verb
closes the whole, so Clauses containing explanatory matter are
thrown into the midde of the Period :

* Scipio, ut Hannibalem ex Italia deduceret, exercitum in Africam
traiedt Itaque, ciun Romam venisset, statim imperatorem
adiit/ L

Digitized by VjOOQIC

So8 Latin Syntax. § 248.

The usual arrangement of clauses in a Period is analogous to
that of words in a Simple Sentence.

(i) The word or clause containing the Subject, with the words
or clauses immediately connected with it. (2) The words or
clauses explanatory of the time, place, motive, &c. (3) The word
or clause expressing the remoter object. (4) The clause express-
ing the immediate object. (5) The principal Verb.

To this arrangement there are frequent exceptions, particularly
in the position of the principal Verb, for, as was before stated, an
agglomeration of finite Verbs at the end of a Period was especiaUy
distasteful to the Romans. Hence the principal Verb frequently
precedes a Substantival, Final, or Consecutive Clause :

*Cum C. Licinius sacerdos prodisset, clara voce, ut omnis
contio audire posset, dixit se scire ilium conceptis verbis peier-
asse,' C.

* Commilitones appellans, orabat ne, quod scelus Ap. Claudii
esset, sibi attribuerent,' L.

* Quam rem Tarquinius aliquanto quam videbatur aegrius ferens,
confestim Tumo necem machinabatur, ut eundem terrorem, quo
civium animos domi oppresserat, Latinis inferret,' L.

V. Correlative construction is largely employed in forming
Periods. If emphasis is sought, the Relative is placed before the
Demonstrative :

' Quid ? ii (jui dixerunt totam de dis opinionem fictam esse ab
hominibus reipublicae causa, ut, quos ratio non posset, eos ad
officium religio duceret, nonne omnem religionem fimditus sustule-
runt?' C. 'Quod si, quam audax est ad conandum, tarn esset
obscurus in agendo, fortasse sdiqua in re nos aliquando fefel-
lisset,' C.

So qualis often precedes talis: quidquid id: and quo, hoc or
eo. But this is not the universal practice.

348 VI. Grammatical Subject and Object in Periods.

1) The literature of the Romans is distinguished above all
others by directness and lucidity of expression. This is mainly
due to the practical sagacity which was their distinguishing charac-
teristic ; but partly also to the conditions imder which their literanr
works were composed. There was then no eager public, demand-
ing daily information and periodical criticism : consequently there
was no popular literature. As reporters did not exist, we have no
trustworthy remains of spontaneous eloquence. The orations that
have come down to us are eitiier masterpieces redacted by the
orators themselves, or speeches attributed to eminent men by his-
torians. Hence both in matter and form they are the products not
of extemporaneous eloquence, but of literary labour.

Moreover, in .the case of the ancients, the limited character of
their scientific and other information, and the comparative want of
fecundity and diversity of ideas, made artistic expression in every
branch of art more easily attainable. The simplicity of conception
and purity and unity of execution, which distinguish the great
works of antiquity, are denied to a modem writer by the very pro-
fiision of thought and material which surrounds him. ^

uiyiuzeu uy ■N^JVjvJVt Iv^

S 348. 'Periodic Style. 509

2) To secure unity and directness of expression :

(i) The Subject remains in the same Case, as far as possible^
throughout a Period :

When they asked himy&r his opinion^ he replied,

Rogatus sententiam respondit

Hannibal allowed him to leave the camp; but he soon
returned, because he said that he had forgotten some-
thing,

'Cum Hannibalis permissu exisset e castris, rediit paulo
post, quod se oblitum nescio quid diccret,' C.

(2) The introduction of several independent subjects in the

same Period is avoided. Hence sentences expressing the
time, condition, or means of accomplishing the main
action, are frequently thrown into the Ablative Absolute
or are introduced in a Subordinate Sentence, not coordi-
nated as they frequently are in English :

This was observed, and they altered their plan.

Id ubi vident, mutant consilium.

The plan was universally approved, and the consul was

entrusted with the execution of it
Cunctis rem approbantibus, negotium consul! datur.

(3) If an Oblique Case of one sentence becomes the Subject

of the next, the change of Subject should be clearly indi-
cated by a Pronoun :

'Huius filiam virginem auro corrumpit Tatius, ut arma-
tos in arcem accipiat. Aquam forte ea tum sacris extra
moenia petitum ierat,' L. i.

'Principium defectionis ab 0th one facttmi est Is cum
magna popularium manu transfugit,' Tac.

(4) The Subject of discourse, in whatever case it may appear,

should receive prominence by being placed at the begin-
ning of the Period. Four cases require illustration :

a) When the grammatical Subject of the principal sentence

and clauses is the same :
' Dionysius, cum g^vior crudeliorque indies civitati esset,

iterata coniuratione obsidetur,' Nep.
*Ea animi elatio, quae cemitur in periculis, si iustitia

vacat, in vitio est,' C.

b) When the Subject of the principal sentence is the Object

of the clauses :
'Galli, cum eos non capcrent terrae, trecenta mitia ad

novas sedes quaerendas miserunt,' L.
'Rex Prusias, cum Hannibali apud eum exsulanti de-

pugnari placeret, negabat se audere, quod exta prohibe-

rent,* C.

c) When the Object of the principal sentence and of the

clause is the same :
'Praemia virtutis conmiimi petitorum consensu tulit,
concessit autem Alcibiadi, quem magno opere dilexit'

uiyiuzeu uy x_j ^^^ wVJ Iv^

510 Latin Syntax, §249-50.

*Polyphemum Homerus cum immanem ferumque finx-
isset, cum ariete colloquentem facit,' C.

d) When the Object of the principal sentence is the Subject

of the clauses :
'C apt is, cum paenitentiam profiterentur, ut parceretur

edixit,' L.
*Midae illi Phrygio, cum puer asset, dormienti formicae

in OS tritici grana congessenint,' C.

The forms a) and c) are most deserving of imitation, because they
possess greater directness and unity of expression. When, how-
ever, prominence is to be given to the motive or occasion of an act,
it may be necessary to employ the other forms.

«49 VII. Historical narrative requires frequent change in statements

of time : to express which, historians have recourse to two resources
— ^the Participial construction, attributive and absolute, and the
Conjunctions, cum, ubi, postquam. By these Livy can unite,
without failure of perspicuity, in one Period, what in English must
be broken into three or more :

*Numitor, inter primum tumultum, hostis invasisse urbem
atque adortos regiam dictitans, cum pubem Albanam in arcem
praesidio armisque obtinendam avocasset, postquam iuvenes per-
petrata caede pergere ad se gratulantis vidit, extemplo advocate
consilio, scelera in se fratris, originem nepotum, ut geniti, ut
educati, ut cogniti essent, caedem deinceps tyranni, seque eius
auctorem ostendit,' L. i.

* His, sicut acta erant, nuntiatis, incensus Tarquinius non dolore
solum tantae ad irritum cadentis spei, sed etiam odio iraque, post-
quam dolo viam obsaeptam vidit, bellum aperte moliendum ratus,

circumire supplex Etruriae urbes,* L. iL'
250

9uaii- E, Poetry and Prose alike require the virtues of Purity, Perspi-

S^le. cuity, Simplicity, and Harmony.

i) Purity is violated by Barbarism or Solecism.

Barbarism is the use of a word not properly Latin, as, confiscare^
*io confiscate:^ or (what is more to be guarded against as a more
easy error) the use of good Latin words in meanings they do not
bear : as, intentio, for 'an intention,' instead of consilium.

Solecism is a construction not allowed by Syntax : Parce me,
for parce mihi : Ita graviter a^^otavit ut paene mortuus est, for
mortuus sit

2) Perspicuity of style requires that it be clear and intelligible,
free from confusion and ambiguity.

3) Simplicity of style requires it to be free from affectation, and
unenciunbered by tawdry and tasteless ornament

4) Harmony of style requires that harsh and immusical sounds
be carefully avoided ; that long and short words be well inter-
mixed, and that grave and important words close the sentences.*

* ^^Pare ^th these a much less elegantly constructed Period in Caes. B. C.u.m
Massilienses . . . constituunt.'

. * P**-,*^** ^^ Prose Composition admits a fourfold distinction : (i) The Didactic :
WUie Epistolary; (3) the Oratorical ,(4) the Narrative or Historic. ^ r>,r\Ci\o

uiyiuzeu uy ■N^JWvJVt IvL

and

} 251-52. Quantity and Rhythm. 1; 1 1

PART III.

LATIN PROSODY.

A. PROSODiAy of which the Latin accentus is a trans- p«>-
lation, denoted in classical Greek the accent of a word. ^^^'
In later times, when Accent became confounded with
Quantity, the word was sometimes employed in dts
modem sense. In English and other languages Prosody
now signifies that part of Grammar which deals with the
.quantity of syllables and the rules of metre.

I. Quantity and Rhythm. Quan-

I. In Latin, as in Greek, Verse depended on the Quantity of syl- R^yt
lables, every syllable being either long or short ; and the various thm.
metres resulted from the various relations of the long and short
syllables to each other. We therefore first treat of the Quantity of
syllables, so far as it can be reduced to rule ; and then discuss the
most important metres : the Heroic Hexameter first, as the leading
and typical form of verse ; next the Elegfiac, and then the Lyric
metres, mainly those of Horace and Catullus.

Of the first three styles, the model in Latin is Cicero, to whom, we may justly say,
Don viget quicquam simile aut secundum, (i) His Didactic writings are in the form of
Treatise or of Dialogue. Of the Treatise, his work De Offidis is the best model ; of his
Dialogues, the Laelius or De Amicitia, and the Cato Maior or De Senectute, are best
adapted to the young Rtudent, who may proceed afterwards to the Tusculan Disputations
and the De Oratore (2) Cicero's Letters are either dignified or familiar. Of the dignified
style, the letters to Lentufus and Lucceius, and the first Ad Quintum Fratrem may be
taken as models ; of the familiar, the First Book of Letters to Atticus. (3) Speeches are
either Forensic or Public Forensic speeches are for the Prosecution or for the Defence.
Of the former, we have only Cicero's Verrine speeches, of which the Actio Prima may be
taken as a sample. The latter are numerous ; and of these the best samples for early
study are Pro Archia Poeta, Pro Milone, and Pro Murena. Public speeches may be
dassed under the three heads of Exposition, Eulogy, or Invective. Hardly any of Cicero's
Speeches belong entirely to the first class ; but some of the Catilinarianand later Philippic
Speeches approach iL Of Eulogy, Pro Lege Manilia is the best example. Of Invective,
the First In Catilinam and the Second Philippic.

In History, the greatest Latin authors are Caesar, Livy, and Tacittis. Caesar's
style is the clear, fuU, and unaffected narrative of an accompli^ed soldier. That of Livy
is more ornate and picturesque, bespeaking a student of the Greek historians. The
manner of Tacitus, though not without a Thucydidean tinge, is yet peculiar to himself—*
terse, vigorous, subjective, sternly moral, sometimes bitterly sarcastical : often rising to
eloquence, here and there indulging in picturesque description, especially of gloomy and
tumultuous scenes.

The student may further compare the following Periods in Livy and Qcero : Liv. L x6,
'Romana pubes . . . obtinuit.' xxn. 3, *Flaminius qui . . . proposuit.' xxiii. 25, *Hac
irantiata clade . . . submitterent,* Cic. /. S. Rose, i, 'Credo . . . comparandus.' /.
MiL 4, * Est enim . . . salutis.' /. Caecin. x, * Si quantum . . . audaciae/ /. Mwr,
«, 'Quod si . . . subeundas/ in Cat. iiL la, *Sed quoniam . . . providers:' in Cat.
L 13, 'Ut saepe . . . ingravescet,' See also Off. L 1. i ; Fam. iii. 8. r.

He may aJso consult with advantage, 'Hints towards Latin Prose Composition'
<Macminanand Co.), by Alexander W. Potts, Esq.. Head Master of the Fettes CoU^;e^
Edinburgh, who has afforded valuable assistance in the present chapter. .

uiyiuzeu uy x_j ^^^ wVJ Iv^

512 Latin Prosody, • % %^'z.

We learn from the ancient grammarians (Aristotle, Cicero, and
Quintilian among them) that Rhythm, or a due admixture of long
and short syllables, was of vital moment in prose as well as verse.
As our ears and tongues can at the best discriminate imperfectly
differences of Quantity, it is most important for us to acquire a
mental ear and tongue, to be able to feel the beauty of Plato as
well as Homer, of Cicero as well as Virgil. Cicero's technical
writings will supply an excellent conunentary on what is here
meant

2. Syllables are either Short or Long. A short syllable is tech-
nically denoted by this mark (^), a long syllable by this (-).

A short syllable was said to contain one Mora or time^ a long
syllable two Morae or times.

Syllables which at one period of the language were long, at
another were short

Certain classes of syllables, which might at the same period be
either long or short, are called Doubtful.

In verse a long syllable is exactly equivalent to two short

3. Long syllables have two main divisions, syllables long by
nature^ and syllables whose short vowel is lengthened by Posi-
tion, that is to say by coming before a double consonant, or two or
more consonants, whether in the same word or in two consecutive
words. In the words fato, maestis both syllables are long by
nature: in factus subsunt the four syllables, whose vowels are
short by nature, are all lengthened by position.*

4. K does not give position anymore than the aspirate in Greek ;
and qa has only the power of a single letter.

5. In the older language final 0, preceded by a short vowel, was
slightly soimded, if at all ; was often therefore not written, and

* Teclmically all long syllables and all short syllaUes are req>ective}y equal, though
the nature of the case and the testimony of the ancients prove that there is a great diver-
sity in their real length. Fractus and factus have each their first syllable long, but
the latter is only lengthened by position, the former is long by natiue also ; aqua and
nequS have each the last syllable short, but the rules of eli«on, observed by the most
careful poets, shew that 8 was much lighter than & We are often ignorant of the natu-
ral quantity of Latin syllables lengthened by position. The i) and m, and sometimes the
accent, gives us this knowledge in regard to Greek syllables, though we are sometimes
at a loss even there in the case of a, t, v. The poet Accius introduced the practice of
denoting naturally long vowels by doubling them. This was soon laughed out cX fiishioo
by Ludlius. We find some traces of this usage in inscriptions of that time : Maarcus,
paastoresandthe like. Later such vowek were often marked by anapexO: manytraccs
of which we find in inscriptions of all ages; &, Miirtis, domin^is, &c. Quintifian
alludes to both these fashions. Attention to general laws of the language wiO enable us
to determine the quantity of many vowels. Thus the vowel of the Supine and cognate
parts of the Verb was long by nature (even if the vowel of the Present Indie was short)
when it was followed by a medial ; the a of actus (for ag-tus) was long, of factus
short by nature ; the e of lectus (for leg-tus). Part was long, of lectus, Ao^ shoct.
Again, every vowel followed by nil or nf was long by nature, as in mens, sapiens,
and other cases ; while e was ^ort in mentis, sapientis, &c. This is what CSoero
means when he says in his Orator^ 48 : ' Inclitus didmus Inrevi prima littera, insanus
producta, inhumanus brevi, infelix longa : et, ne multis, quibus in verbis eae pri-
mae litterae suet, quae in sapiente atque felice, producte didtur tM.' In many cases
we know the length of the vowel by finding the Latin word written in Greek: Settins
(2ij(rT»ot), Roscius CPw<7jc(0f) and many pr(^>er names ; but M^yroVf Tpiixxfii and the
like show us that in such words the vowel was short by nature.

ju, zed by Google

I a53-' Quantity of Inner Syllables. 513

often with the older poets, indudmg Lucretius and Cicero when
young, did not give position: as, 'infantibus parvis,' Horvtis
draco.'

6. An important exception to the rule of position is this :

A vowel short by nature, coming before a mute followed by a
liquid in the same word, may either remain short, or be lengthened
by position: ten«brae or tenibrae, r«tro or ritro, triplex or
triplex. In the same verse Virgil has pJltris, p*trem ; Lu-
cretius pfttribus, p*tres; Horace nigris, nSgroque ; Ovid
vollicri, volacris.

7. Before fm, ca, a vowel cannot remain short : tegmen, agnus.
In genuine Latin words not compounded, the other mutes do not
precede m, n. Thus the older writers, such as Plautus, wrote
dr^ciima, mina, ciiclnus, lO'cInus, Alcumena, TScumessa,
and the hke, for the corresponding Greek words. The learned
poets, copying the Greeks, did not object to c^cnus, T^cmessa,
PrScne, &c. It is worth noting, too, that Plautus, Terence, &c.,
following no doubt the usage of common life, seem never to have
lengthened a short vowel before a mute and liquid; while the
Augustan and later poets preferred to lengthen one, when the mute
was a medial, b or c; writing lAbra, nigro rather than l&br a,
nigro. With this we might compare on the one hand the repug-
nance of Aristophanes to lengthen a short vowel before a mufe
and liquid, unless he is parodying a serious poet, and on the other
the great frequency with which this is done by the tragedians ;
while Homer nearly always lengthens the vowel in such cases,
unless constrained by the metre.

8. The older poets, among them Lucretius, do not hesitate to
leave a vowel short before a word beginning with so, sp, sq, M, x,
s, gn. The more careful poets avoid such positions, not choosing
either to lengAen the vowel or to leave it short Virgil has only one
instance of such a lengthening — *date tela, scandite ;' and once
only leaves the vowel short — * Ponitfi : spes ;' in each case the
license seems to be used for effect Horace has no instance of
either license in his Odes or Epistles ; but several in his Satires.
As in the case of mutes and liquids, this would seem to point to a
studied contrast between the usage of common life and the more
stately pronimciation of the higher poetry. In a few Greek words,
such as Scamander, Zacynthus, zmaragdus, some of the
poets follow the Greeks in a rare exceptional license. Catullus in
his two pure Iambic poems three times lengthens a short a before a
mute and liquid of the following word : as, * impotentia freta :'
* Propontida trucemque . . . ; ultima Britannia.' The peculiar
metre seems to have influenced him in this.

IL Quantity of Inner Syllables. ,53,

The Quantity of Final Syllables may be reduced to rules ; but
that of Syllables in the body of words is so indefinite, that we must
confine ourselves to pointing out a few general principles, with the
leading exceptions to these.

I. Where two vowels are contracted into one, the syllable is
long: cdgo, cftperio, tibicen, bdbus, iftnior, bigae, md-
mentum.

Y T uiyiuzeu uy ■<

,0

gle

5 14 Latin Prosody. % 253.

In semi, ante, and a few other particles, the vowd does not
coalesce, but is altogether elided, when followed by a vowd in a
compound word. The syllable is therefore not lengthened : semi-
h6mo, ant(e)fio, ant€a, &c., whether the vowd be omitted or not
in writing. Forms like * grave olens,* 'suave olens,* <magno
opere,* ' summo opere,' are better written as two words.

2. All diphthongs are long : GrSius, ura, harpfaa.

Except prae in composition before a vowel, as in pr Anstus,
priieunte. Ovid once wrote ' Mttotis ;* but in exile.

Statius once uses praeiret ; and in Catullus the prme of 'prae-
optarit' coalesces into one syllable with the op.

3. A vowel before another vowel in the same word, but a difierent
syllable, is short: tr*ho, m«ae^ via, lo, bdant, tttus.

Exceptions :

(1) G*IiSs, dius, Rh»a (Silvia), but Rh«a (Pia), »heu; fter
is Greek usage : and there are hundreds of other Greek words,
adopted by the poets, chiefly proper names, which keep a vowel
long before another : to, cycnius, &c. Diana, ihe are doubt-
ful: also some Greek words: as;. daedaUus and daedalius,
choria and chor«a.* Academia, long m Greek and the best
Latin, is shortened by some later poets.

(2) The I of flo is long, except when followed by or, as fieri,
fleret ; though Plautus and Terence sometimes have fl€ri, &c

(3) The a of the old Genitive of the xst Dedension is long :
terr&i, aul&i, purpureftL

(4) The a of the Gen. and Dat. of the 5th Declension is long in
dl8i, fidSi (Plautus, Ennius, Lucr.), but fidCi in Manilius and
later writers ; r«i (Lucr.), r«i (Hon). Lucretius and others some-
times make rei a monosyllable. In Terence, spei seems always
monosyllabic, but spti in Seneca. In Latin poetry no other G«i.
or Dat in -at seems to be found, neither speciei, materiei, nor
any such. Lucretius has si, Catullus <i, for the Dat of the Pro-
notm is.

(5) The I of Genitives in Ins is doubtful : illlus or illius, and
so with istfus, ipsfus, ullfus, nulllus, sollus (soUus, Ter.).
But always alius, which is contracted. In later writers alterlus;
but alterlus sometimes in Plautus. Utrlus, utrlusque.

By comparing Cicero {d. Or, iiL 183) with Quintilian (I 5. 18),
we learn £he interesting fact that in the time of the former the
prose pronimdation was illlus. unlus, &c; in the time of the
latter illlus, unius, as he with all the later grammarians held the
shortening to be a poetic license.

* In Latin 1 seems often to hare been doubled in pronundation and to hare aenred lor
a TOwel and consonant at once : thus in Cicero's time Pompous and such words were
often written with 11; and so Troi-ia-nus, ei-ius, cui>ius: and hence perhiqts the
quantity of the two last words. In compounds of iaclo it was usual to write 1 00I7
once, as in 6-Tcit, ilb-Icit, though the 1 was equivalent to JL We can thos acoouat for
the quantity of r6-Tcio, where the i formed a diphthong with the e of re» and also a
•eparate syllable. On the other hand ei^it, rei-cit, are sometimes disyllabk, and ib-
Icit, Sd-Tcit are found with their first syllable short. In the older writers, too, eias.
CUIUS aoe often monosyllabic, and sometimes hare the quantity cSiii^ €iils.

uiyiuzeu uy x^jv^wVt Iv^

§ 253. Quantity of Inner Syllables. 515

4. Derivatives aie said to follow as a rule the quantity of the
words from which they are derived. But this rule has many
exceptions, some systematic, some which seem to be accidental

(i) Disyllabic Perfects and their compounds, with the tenses
formed from them, have the first syllable long: vidi, invidi,
videram; but video, viderem, &c.; l»gi, Ugissem; but
Idgo, iSgam.

Except bsbi, d«di, (fidi) difHdi, (scidi) discldi, &c, stSti; '
(stfti) constiti, &c., tttli, attiili, &c

But these exceptions are perhaps only apparent, as the Perfects
seem either to be actually reduplicated, as dedi, steti, or to have
once been so, as tuli, &c. (tetuli, Lucr., &c).

(2) Some apparent derivatives are illusory: rex rSgiSyrSgina,
do not come from r<go. C6ma (<:ofii?) has no connection with
cdmo.

(3) Disyllabic Supines, with the parts of the Verb formed from
them, are also long: visum, visurus, &c Except datum,
Xtum, lltum, quitum, rfttum, (rtttum) dirtttum, &c., stfttum
fit>m sisto; but st*tum from sto; citum from cieo; but
citus from cio.

(4) Other apparent or real discrepancies might perhaps be ex-
plained, if we had the required knowledge : lux, Iftcis, liiceo, but
Ittcerna; moles, mdlestus; sftpio,s5por; hftmanus, h5mo;
ifiro, pei«ro.

(5) We find not a few variations of quantity in the same word :
Lucret has Ulquidis' and 'hquida' in the same verse; he has

* liquor aquai,' all others liquor (subst), but liquor (verb) ; he has

* flAvidus ' and * flttvidus,' * glomere,' but * gldmero,' &c. with other
instances. Silius derives Sftbini from Sftbus ; M ftmurra (CatulL),
Mamurra (Hor., Mart). Lttceres (Prop.), Lliceribus (Ov.).
Lemures and Lemaria (Ov.). Mamliri (Prop.), Mamttrium
(Ov.). C*tillus (Verg.), C*tllus (Hor.), Citillus (Stat).
Vertrftgus (Mart), vertr*ga (Gratius). Cdturnices (Plaut,
Lucr.), cdturnices (Ov., luven.). Vatlcanus (Hor.), Vatica-
nus later. Pftlatia, Pftlatinus, usually, but pAlatia (luv.^.
Often conabia ; often also conttbia^ coni&bio, conttbiis, &c. It is
an error to regard the latter forms as trisyllabic See Mimro on
Lucr, iii. 776.

(6) Sometimes the consonant is or is not doubled : vftciUo, but
yftccillo (Lucr., Cic). Compare fftr, farris, fiUrina; mamma,
nUtmilla; ofia, dfella ; tintino, tintinnabulum, Porsenna, PorsSna;
and perhaps cnrrus, ctirulis, quattuor, qu&ter ; llttera, lltura.

(7) The penult of the 3rd Pers. Plur. Indie Perf. is long: ama-
v«runt, legdrunt But the poets not unfrequently shorten it ; and
ded«runt (Lucr. Hor.), fii«runt (Lucr. Prop.), tul«runt (Verg.), ver-
t«runt (Hor.), locav«runt (Plaut) prove that tiiis was not done from
metrical necessity merely.

(8) The penult of the ist and 2nd Pers. Plur. of the Fut Perf.
Indie, and the Perf. Subj. is doubtful : viderlmus (Lucr.), ^erimus
(Verg.), fecenmus (CatulL); videntis, dixeritis, but dedcntis

uiyiuzeu uy ■v^j ^^^ xJVt Iv^

5 1 6 L atin Prosody. § 254.

(Ov.). The poets appear to have been determined solely by the
requirements of their metre.

As i and a are both vowels and consonants, from necessity of
the verse the vowel sometimes passes into its corresponding con-
sonant : ar-i6-tfi for anSt^, ab-i€-t6 for abXStd, ten-ul-i for tSnttBL
Sometimes without such necessity we have ab-ie-gnus, tenuis for
t&ittis, and the like. Trisyllabic in Horace is once princlp-iimi^
once consll-ium, in Virgil fluv-iorum ; Lucr. has flutant Some-
times the i is suppressed between two long syllables: vindem-
ifttor, stel-io, taen-ils. Lucretius once makes dr-iun-di a trisyllable
with short o. The third syllable of fortultus, gratultus seems
doubtfld: Statius certainly has grati&Xtus. Promontsrium is an
error : the real form is promuntttriunu On the other hand ▼ some-
times becomes tt: sdltto, dissdltto, vdli&o, &c. : Hor. has sllttae
and mili&u s. But rellcuus is the genuine form (Lucr., Plaut, &c) :
rgllquus does not appear before the Silver Age. The Augustan
poets abstain from using it, perhaps from a dislike to lengthening
the first syllable.

(9) V»mens, vimenter are the only genuine forms : v«li«mens^
&C. never appear in good writers.

(10) Many Crases occur in the poets, like aurei, ferrei, even
omn-i3. as disyllabic, precant-i&as trisyllabic.

(11) In words like deinde, dein, deesse, deest, deerrarunt,
the first e is altogether elided, as in antehac, anteactus, &c.;
so numquam, nusquam, nullus for neumquam, &c. In
neutiquam, neu becomes diphthongal

(12) Eodem, eaedem, eosdem, are disyllabic or trisyllabic;
but disyllabic only where the second vowd is long by nature:
eundem, eandem, are always trisyllabic. Idem (plur.) and
isdem are disyllabic in the best writers ; €isdem seems to occur
first in Juvenal: ei (nom.) or ii, eis or iis are avoided by the
poets.

(13) A few words like saesco, suetus, deorsum, seorsus are
eitner disyllabic or trisyllabic : suo is twice monosyllabic in Lucr.^
who has sis for suis after Ennius.

Note, The quantity is doubtful in many Proper Names, adopted
from the Greek, in which short vowds are often lengthened for
metrical reasons, as Pnamides.

854 in. Quantity of Final Syllables.

(1) I. Monosyllables ending in a vowel are long: except the
enclitics qu$, vS, n^ and qu& (Nom. and Accus.), which is also
an enclitic (siquS, nequ&).

2. It is perhaps most convenient to say that monosyllables
ending in a consonant are also long.

Exceptions :

fi) Such as end in b, d, 1, t, are short, two only, sal and
sol, being long (aut and baud, as diphthongs, are of course
long).

(2) Fie, ngc, in. In, f€r, p€r, t€r, vTr, c6r, bis, cls^ls
(Pron.), quis (Nom.).

Digitized byCjOOQlC

I 254. Quantity of Final Syllables. 517

(3) Also 6s (sum) : «s is found in Plautus, &c : but es (edo) is
circumflexed and long.

(4) Hic (Pron.) is doubtful : hoc (Nom. and Ace) is doubtful in
the old scenic, long in the later, poets.

(5) Ac in good writers never comes before a vowel, and its
quantity is uncertain. Very late writers seem to use it both long
and short

^11) 2. In words, of more than one syllable:
^. A final is long —

(i) In the AbL Sing, of ist DecL : as, mens*.

(2) In the Imperative of ist Conj. : amft, monstrft; but put*
is used parenthetically.

(3) In the Numerals trigintft, &c

(4) In Prepositions and Adverbs : circft, contr*, eigft, frusta*,

intrft, suprft, intere*, posteft, praetereA, postillft; which
are really Ablatives, and therefore regularly long, as
may be proved by forms like posthmc, anteh*c, prae-
terhftc ; and by the forms extrftd, supriid, arvorsum eftd
(adversum ea), in old inscriptions. But ittt, quin are
short : eia or heia is perhaps doubtful, certainly short.

j3. A final is short in all Noun-Cases but the Ablative : except

(i) In Greek words ending in a, the A is sometimes retained in
Latin, but there is a strong tendency to shorten it : philo-
mel* ; elegi* Ov.) ; elegi* (Mart Stat) ; Electrft (Cic.
Ov.), Electa-* (Sen.). Phaedra and Phaedr* (Ov.) ; Phae-
drft (Sen.). For Greek Nominative in df, we find Tiresi*
(LuciL), Tiresiii, Peli* (Sen.). But when a represents n,
it is short : as, nymphft ; so, Nom. Atridtt (Prop.).

(2) In Vocatives of Greek names in as, d is long : Aeneft,
Pallft; but doubtful in Vocatives from Nom. in es:
Ataid* (Hor.), Anchis* 'Verg.), Cecropidft (Ov.).

Jl final is short : except

(i) AbL Sing, of sth DecL : di« (hodie, &c.), r« (quare) ; so
fame, which in this case at least belongs to this DecL

(2) 2nd Pers. Sing. Imper. of 2nd Conj. : as, gaude, mone.
But c&v« (Hor. Ov.) ; though these have also c&ve ; vid«

(Phaedr. Pers.).»

(3) Adverbs from Adjectives of the 2nd DecL : valdi, aegrS,

docts ; and in fermS, fere, ohd.
But bend, maid, infemd (Lucr.), supemS (Lucr. Hor.), are

short
Temer* follows the general rule, as is proved negatively by

' The Latins had a strong tendency to shorten the final in familiar iamlnc words :
■compare put& above, and other examples, ending in i and o ; and this b especially
true and important in the old scenic prosody. In *valS vale inquit' (Veig.), 'mane
tnquii' (CahiU.), 'fave Ilithyia'(Ov.), the e is long and only shortened by a vowel

OUOWing. uiymzeu uy x_j v^ v^ pt i->^

5i8 Latin Prosody. § ^54.

a being always elided in Hexameter poets ; positively by
its frequently occurring with « in Seneca.

(4) When it represents if: nymphs, HebS, AntigonS, temp8»
&c

X final is long : except

(i) i is doubtful in mihf, tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi ; short in nisly
quasi, necubl, sicubl.

Obs. The t of uti («ut) is always long ; sicuti dactyl is a
fiction ; ibidem always in Hexameter poets ; the second 1
is doubtful in the scenic poets ; utique, utinam are short.
So ubinam, ub2vis ; but ubique.

(2) The t of Vocatives which represent t is short : Daphni;
AdonI ; also Thybrx.

(3) The t of Datives, representing ?, is short in Minoidi,

Tcthyl rCatull.), lasonl, Palladi (Stat). But Thetidi,
Paridi, ac, have t long ; and these are the more nu-
merous.

O final is long : except ^

(i) The archaic endd is short : also citft (adv.), mod5 (adv.),
dutt, eg5, cgd6, owing to the tendency to shorten the final
of famUiar Iambic words. Yet modd as well as mod* is
in Lucr.; egft occasionally in Plautus.

(2) Homft is doubtfiil, generally short.

(3) Scio and nescio, which have o doubtfiil in the scenic
writers, for metrical reasons have it short in Hexameter
poets, &c.

v final is long : except in the archaic indii ( » in), and nenQ ( « ne
oenum a ne unum » non).

T, a purely Greek letter, is short in the few words adopted fitnn
Greek: as, molj^, Tipht.

o final lengthens the Vowel : except donl^

' The final o ccmtinued always inflenbly long in DatiTes and AblattTCS of the and
DecL, and when it represented a final m (CliO) ; but in Verbs and Nominatives of the
3rd DecL It became doubtful ; though still in most cases generally long. Seneca, indeed,
Juvenal, and others, ventare to shorten the Gerund in do (vincendS, Tigiland6, ftcX and
Juvenal even po8trem6, though these appear at least analogous to the E^ and AbL mo:
so indeed is quomod6 (Hor.X

As might be inferred from the laws of Latm pronunciation, this shortening first took
place in Cretic and Iambic words. Virgil, an anxious metrist, only ventures to shorten
FoUiS (three times), nuntiS and audeO. In all these instances the o is elided : but, as
he never elides the final of a Cretic, preferring hiatus, as, insfil A lonio, he evidently
did not regard the o as long. It is probable, however, that the elision was a oampiywutsr,
and that the vowel was to him neither precisely long nor short, somnthing^ in fact, like a
final m, which he occanonally elides in Cretic words, audiam St, omnium Sgenoa
Horace, in his Odes as careful a metrist as Virgil, shortens only P^8, bat in his Sstiras
and Efristles he has, besides this word, e5, rogtt, vetS, dixertf, ofasecrtt, mentiS, qiio>
mod5. But before them Catullus has vol8, dabO, and put5, when, like putX, it is a quAn
adverb. Tibullus desixiO, Propertius caedit5, and even findS. Ovid always shoiteos
SohnS, Nas5 : and we find in him emimples of amO, canO, negtf , pettf , r^0, led, con-
fa^ desintt, oder6, Cnri6, Gallid, SdpiO, estO, cred6, toU6, repeiidO, nemS, ergtt. la
■Mst poets of the Silver Age this 6 b frequent enoog^ : we find qaand5« porrO, terO»
Awio, oct5, &c In all ages quandOquidem. -— > t

uiyiuzeu uy K^JVjvJVJ Lvl

1 254. Quantity of Final Syllables, 519

9 final shortens the VoweL

]• final shortens the VoweL

In nihTl it is doubtfiil; generally short, but occasionally
long in Ov. Lucr. Some only use contracted nil ; Virgil
seems only twice to use the disyllable, each time before a
consonant: B. il 6.; Ae, il 287. But there are some 18
instances in which it might be said that he wrote nihil,
not niL

[M final is treated of under the head of Elision.]
V final shortens the VoweL

The only Exceptions are Greek words.
Those in «n are long, as they represent n^x hymSn, &c
Those in oa are long, which re^esent w ; short, which
represent ov : Triton, Troildn. Those in ma, la, yn, are
long or short, as they are long or short in Greek : Elec-
trfta, but IphigenUia ; chelj^, but Tethfa.

m final shortens the Vowel : except
(i) Cehiblr is doubtfiiL

(2) Compounds of par are long, as disp&r, impftr.

(3) When -er represents rip it is long, as aSr. But or, even

when representing ^p, follows the general rule : Hect5r,
rhet5r.

Am final is long : except
The Nom. Sing, and Accus. Plur. of Nouns taken from the
Greek, which have -de : Palltts (-&dis), lamp&diUt, &c.

mm final is long : except
(i) pen^

(2) Nouns of Ded. 3 which increase short, as milSs millt-,

obsCs obsld-, segSs seg^t-. But pSs and compounds,
Cer^s, abiss, ariss, pari«s, remain long.

(3) Compounds of S0, as pot«s, adSs.

(4) Words representing Greek «c; as cacdethSs (Neut),

Arcad«» (Nom. Plur.).

Jm final is short : except
(i) Dat and AbL Plur. in -i» : terns, dominis, vobto.

(2) Accus. Plur. of 3rd DecL in -!•(-«•) : omni*, gentto.

(3) 2nd Pers. Sing. Pres. Subj. in -!• : adsl», velu.

(4) Compounds of vis, as mavis, quamvis.

(5) Nominatives which increase long : as, Samnis (-Itis) ; and
from Greek 7c : as, Salamis (-mis).

{a) The -Is of the Fut Perf. and Pert Subj. is doubtful : as,
dixerts (Hor.), dederi* (Ov.). Compare the quantity of
the 1st and 2nd Persons Plur. in these tenses.

{b) Sanguis has u always in Lucretius ; though usually short
in and after the Augustan age, it is long more than once

uiyiuzeu uy x^j v^ v^ -x i-X^

520 Latin Prosody, 5255,

»
in Ovid, Lucan, Silius ; and once in Verg. TibulL Seneca,
Valerius Flaccus, and in the * Aetna.' Virgil has only
pulvi0.

Os final is long : except

(1) Ex6* (Lucr.), comp6ti, hnp6«.

(2) Greek words which end in 00 as Chi5s, PhasidSs.

Vs final is short : except

(i) Nominatives in us with* in Gen.; virtiu (-tttis), tellfts

(-liris), (paltt* in Horace's Ars P. must be corrupt).
(2) Gen. Sing, and Nom. and Ace. Plur. of the 4th DecL

gradus.
(3), When -fts represents Greek -wqx Panthiu, Manttts
(Verg.).
T* final is short, occurring only in a few Greek proper name%
as Tiphj^i. Except Teth^ (Verg. Ov.), and chrysophrf*.

T final shortens the VoweL

Except contracted Perfects, disturbit (Lucr.), petit, obit.
The final of the uncontracted petiit, iit and its com-
pounds, as rediit, is often long ; some say always, and
do not admit exllt and the like.

9S5 IV, Quantity of Words in Composition.

Generally words in composition retain the quantity they had in
their simple form.* Thus : —

(1) Pro is long in composition.

But there are many exceptions : prttcella, prftfismus, pr5fidscor,
prdfecto, pr«fiigus, prdfimdus, prftfiteor, pr5fari, prfttervus (also
prdtervus m Plaut), pr5nepos, prftneptis, prdfimdo (but prdftmdo,
CatulL); pr»pello twice in Lucr., elsewhere prdpello; prScuro,

fripino, prl^pago (Verb and Subst) are doubtful ; Prdserpina, but
tttserpina once in Horace, once in his imitator Seneca. In
Greek words «r]tH» remains short, as Prdpontis. Yet prdlogus in
PLautus and Terence.

(2) NS- is long ; nSquaquam ; but short in n4$que, nSqueo,
nStas, nCfandus, nSfarius, &c.

(3) R« in composition is short, unless lengthened by position
merely, as rSscribo. The four Perfects, rSccidi, rBpperi, rSppidi,
rdttuh, have always r«, as they are really reduplications, and
should have the consonant doubled. As the old quantity was r9,
rSd, generally, rddduco or rsduco always appear in Lucr. Plant.

* In many cases, however, compound words have undergone such organic dumges as
remove them from the domain of prosody ; they belong to the general gramnuu- and
history of the language. We might ask again why we have (Smitto, not 6bmittD, as ia
5bmoveo, Obmurmuro ; hSdie, not hOddie (hoc-die) ; Idem (neat.X not Iddem, as Idem
(is-dem). But as such quantities are invariable in all periods of ^ language, we most
take them for granted, assuming that the tendency of the language was to shorten sodi
syllables in fiuniliar words. This tendency, nncfaccked in old time^ was artificially
resisted by more educated ages.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

§256. Elision. 521

Ter. Compare rSdda R«ccIdo is in Ov. Prop. luv. (Virgil does
not use the word). Isolated cases occur of rsUatus, rsUictus. The
Hexameter poets always have rsligio, rilicuus, rdliquiae from me-
trical necessity ; but also r^ligio, r^licuus, reliquiae in Plaut Ter.
Phaedrus, &c. ; and in later poets always rSliquus.

(4) In that peculiar compound Verb, formed with facio and
words like c&le- rare- (where by the way the word had a double
accent, as cdle-f^cit, rdre-f^cit), the quantity of the a is verv-
variable. Lucretius has many of them with these quantities:
rarefieri, rarefacere, expergefactus, confervefacit, putre-
factus, vacefit, patefecit once, patefiet once, but oftener

f»at€f., liquefit, but liqugfactus, calSfecit, cingfactus,
abSfacto, tepgfactus, timgfactus, conlabgfactus, conla-
bSfiunt It will be seen that the e is always long where a long
syllable precedes ; but generally short where a short syllable goes
before ; and this tendency to shorten the e is even greater in later
poet^ We see from the form cal facio how short the e was in
this word, the most usual of the class. Ritschl says that in Plautus
the a is long where the preceding syllable is long ; short, where it
is short We have thus another instance of the tendency to
shorten the finals of iambic words in common use, the e in all
these words having been originally long. This tendency has a
powerful influence, as will appear, on the old scenic poetry.
Videlicet, long in Hexameter poetry, shortens the e in Plautus
and Terence.

V. Elision. ^^,

(i) Elision, sometimes termed by Grammarians Synaloepha,
sometimes Ecthlipsis, is an important modifying principle of
Quantity. Shortly stated it is this. In a Latin verse, when one
word ends in a vowel or diphthong or m, and the following word
begins with a vowel or b, such final vowel or diphthong or m with
its vowel is elided, that is to say, does not count in the verse.*

' This general prindple, however, is subject to many limitations. Much depends on
the age of the writer, much on the style of verse. Plavtus, or Ennius himself in his
dramas, will firely employ elisions which the latter, to judge from the fragments, would
sever admit in his Annals, written ip heroic verse. Virgil has many elisions which Ovid
never admits : nay, Horace in his later Odes abstains from elisions found in the earlier
books, in his Epistles frx>m elisions which often appear in the Satires. We have room
here only for a few remarks. There b not evidence to show in what precise way the
dision took place ; how fiu* the former vowel was modified or destroyed ; whether some
short vowels, as S in indeclinable words, ben 5, qu?, atque, &c, disappeared alto-
gether ; whether a long vowel formed a kind of diphthong with a following long vowel ;
wfaedier a long vowel, elided before a short, was first shortened, and then formed a kind
of synaeresis with the other ; how it fared with syllables ending in m, and the like. As
dinon, especially of long vowels, continued to become rarer and rarer with careful writers,
in the higher kinds of verse, it is probable firom this, as well as from other fiicts, that the
artificial cultivation of the language produced a more distinct sounding of final syllables.
la a sin^e verse of Plautus or Terence five or six elisions, even of long or middle sylla-
bles in m, are usual enough. The quantity of syllables in m b somewhere between that
of a long and a short syllable.

That, as some suppose, the former vowel or diphthong was lost altogether in pronun-
ciation, and the accent thrown a syllable back, seems impossible : for then many verses
of the best poets would cease to be verses at all : such as Virgil's ' Sublimem expulsam
enierent,' ' Insontem infando indicia' The latter would then be equivalent to ' Insons
infiuu indido,* which has no rhythm.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

522 Latin Prosody. § 256.

(2) Elision is very rare when a vowel or diphthong immediately
precedes the elided syllable, though we find in Virgil, 'Alpheae au
origine;' in Horace's Satires, *fio et mersor.'

(3) Monosyllables, long or ending in m, should not be elided,
before a short vowel, except a few, such as me, te, se, tu, si, cum,
turn, iam, sum but not sim, qui sing, not plur. Her^ and in
what precedes and follows, we are not si)eaking of the old scenic
poets.

(4) Iambic words (^-) are never elided before a short vowel :
seldom (never by some poets, such as Ovid in his Elegiacs) even
before a long voweL Lucretius so cUdes only once, *equi atque
hominis.' Viigil, however, makes use of this license, but yet
under limitations.

(5) Careful poets, as Viigil^ abstain from eliding the ultima of &
Cretic (" ^ "), because this can be only before a short syllable.
The style of verse, however, makes a difference. Horace does t>iK
in his Satires, as ^ tantiili ^et,' not ekewhere ; Catullus in his
Lyrics and Elegiacs, not in his Heroics. So elision of words in m^
like omnium, is rare, yet occurs in the best writers : as, ' omnium
^jenos' (Verg.), *fluminum amores* (Ov.), 'principum amidtias'
(Hon).

(6) There are many distinctions in the elision even of short
vowels. Thus « or I elide more freely than 4 or d before a short
voweL Many poets will hardly thus elide & except in the first foot
of a verse or before another ft : Flumlna ftmem is a much easier
elision than Flumlna Srant The « of indeclinable words, such as
qu«, vS, atquS, nequS, bend, maid, temerd, is the easiest of all
elisions. A poet like Ovid will only admit the elision even of a
short vowel in the last half of the Pentameter with very great
hmitation, and such elisions as a rule occur only in the first foot of
this half; eUsions like insula habet,' *resistere equos,' are quite
exceptional In the final syllable of the verse Elision is im-
known.

(7) An apparent, not a real, exception to what is said must be
noted. We often see est at the end or in other parts of a verse,
where Elision would be inadmissible: 'dolori est,"laborum est,'
*meo est,' *sua est,' and the like. Here est is enclitic, and we
ought to write, or at least pronounce, dolorist, laborumst,
meost, suast Also es sometimes is an enclitic in the same
way.

Virgi], moved perhaps by his love of the older poets, frequently elides loos vowds, bat
generally in the first half of the verse or in the middle of the fourth foot : not at the very
beginnmg of the line : ' Si ad vitulam spectes,' in one of his earliest Edogues, being a
singular exception.

But between Virgil and Ovid a great change was going on : the latter has hardly o«e
elision of a long vowel for ten of Virgil's : his elisions too of syllaUes in m are modi
rarer. The most careful poets, such as Martial, follow Ovid ; though Virgil's authority
had weight with some of the later Epic poets. As an illustration of what is said,it b to
be noted that Horace, in the Fourth book of his Odes, only once elides a long syllable :
'Quod ^»iro et placeo ; ' and even here the o may have become doubtful, thoogh spoi»>
daic words did not so soon b^gin to shorten the finaL Horace, however, freely didcs
here syllables in m.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

1257- Hiatus. 523

A. Exceptions to the law of Elision, forming Hiatus. See Hiatus
§ la. xxxi. p. 52.

{a) The monosyllabic interjections a, 5, heu, for manifest rea-
sons are not elided by the dactylic poets. Ovid once has
the Greek Interjection ml ml unelided: once, too, he
writes : ' Et bis 16 Ar^usa vocavit 15 Arethusa/ for a
peculiar e£fecty and Catullus leaves 15 imelided in his
EfHthalamium. Others do not allow a vowel to fol-
low lo.

{b) Sometimes a long vowel is left unelided and long in the
arsis of a foot Virgil employs this license more than
others, deariy in imitation of the Greeks ; but there is not
more than one instance_to several hundred verses. * Stant
et iunipen et castaneae hirsutae' gives two in one verse.
Often It occurs in Greek words ; sometimes for poetical
effect: *Ter sunt conati imponere PelI6 Ossam;' 'Si
peredyhominum manibus.' Once and once only he leaves
a syllable thus long in the thesis of the foot : ' Glauc5 et
i Panopeae 6t Inoo Melicertae :' a manifest Greek rhythm,

as in Homer a vowel is very often thus left long in the
thesis of the first foot

Ovid keeps an unelided vowel more rarely than Virgil, and
in deference to him. Many poets abstain from it alto-
gether: Horace has it very rarely: *capitT Inhumato.'
< Daedaleo 5cior' is not genuine ; for the ft would then
remain long in thesis.

This license is very rare in middle syllables in m, and most
of the examples admit of easy correction, as in Propertius,
* O me felicSm, o nox mihi Candida' (read nox o).

{c) In thesis, too, a long vowel is sometimes shortened before
a short vowel, but generally in the case of Iambic or
Cretic words, which would hardly admit of elision, many
of them being Greek or Proper Names. It is sometimes
united with the other kind of hiatus in the same line ; see
some of the examples given above ; and Virgil's * Hyia
HyiS, omne sonaret' Virgil has * vSle vSlS inquit,' * In-
siilae lonio,* &c.; Lucretius, 'Remigi oblitae,' *etesiae
esse ;' Ennius has, ' Scipi6 invicte ; * Cicero, ' etesiae in
vada,* who in his * Orator' speaks of it as a license very
rare in Latin, common in Greek.

Such license is scarcely allowable in polysyllables in m,
tliough Ennius has ' Dum quidSm imus homo/ ' militiim
octo,' and Lucilius * sordidum omne.' Instances given to
Lucretius have no foundation.

Virgil's two examples of such a hiatus with a short syllable,
'Addam cerea pnm^ hSnos erit,' and 'patuit dfii lUe
ubi,' may perhaps be defended by the pause, but are
almost unparallded; for the 'mal€ 5minatis' assigned
by some to Horace, and the *malS, o miselle passer'
given by others to Catullus, are impossible.

{d) Long monosyllables and those in m are sometimes short-
ened in thesis before a short vowel: Virgil has *quf

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^v^ pt ix^

5 24 Latin Prosody, % 258.

amant/ * t« amice,' * » Alexi ;* Horace ' m« Smas,' * irtkin
adest.' Lucretius has eleven instances of this license j
which is frequent in the comic poets, but there only in
arsis.
[e) A license, resembling that of hiatus, is the lengthening of a
short syllable ending in a consonant before a voweL
Virgil has many examples, in imitation of Homer and
Ennius, the license often taking place in or before a
Greek word : * Pectoribus Inhians,' ^ Altius ingreditur et,'
•fultus hyacintho.' Lucretius has only two examples,
*£ulget auro,' *sciret inlmoque;' Catullus three, all
coming before the Greek word nymenaeus.

(/) Virgil, if his text is right, thus lengthens a short syllable
ending in a vowel : * gravis sectoque elephanto ;' bat
* anim* atque istius inscia culpae,' where there would be
hiatus also, isj:ondemned by all sound critics, as well as
' supervacu& aut' in JuvenaL

(£) Virgil, however, has one singular license : sixteen times he
lengthens que in arsis, though que is one of the shortest
sylkibles in the language and eminently susceptible of
elision ; and he has induced hardly any one else to follow
his example. But, in fifteen of the sixteen cases, que is
in the arsis of the second foot, as * Terraeque tractusque ;'
once in the arsis of the fifth, ' Noemonaque Prytinimque,'
with Greek words. Clearly it is a mere imitation of
Homer's lengthening of rv in the second and fifth foot.
In fourteen of the cases, too, the next word begins with a
double consonant*

Metre. B, Having discussed the laws of Quantity generally,
we proceed to apply them to the chief kinds of Verse
employed by the Latin poets, which are all borrowed
from the Greeks.

The poets, however, with whom we need concern ourselves, have
with gieat tact confined themselves to a few of the simpler kinds of
verse, discarding the more complicated feet, rhythms, and verses, as
unsuitable to their language. Those, however, which they have
selected, they have adapted with great skill to all its peculiarities.

I. Verse and Metre.

I. A Verse (versus, line) is composed of a certain number of
Feet

A Foot (pes) contains a certain number of morae, three at
least

* In all the above instances a purely short syllable is artificially lengthened. Viisfl
employs this license, so for as we know, much more than his predecessors. It is not,
therefore, a reminiscence of the time when such syllables were long : once on a tine
perhaps every final in the language was long. It is manifestly an imitatioo of Greek
rhythm. When a syllable in Latin is really doubtful, it is used indiflferently long or sbort
in all places of the verse : comp. Virgil's 'Ante orS pSCris pStrem qui obtruncat a4 uas ; *
Martial's 'CaptS tiiam, pudet heu. sed captO, Pontice, cenam.' Here lengdiaui« »
well as dxortening takes place in. thesia.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

5359- Metre and Verse. 525

Each simple Foot has two parts^ one of which is said to have
the ictus ypon it, and is called arsis (marked C)\ the other part
is called thesis. The relation of these parts to one another deter-
mines the nature of the Foot, and thereby of the Verse.

2. There are, properly speaking, only four distinct Feet with
which we need concern ourselves. Two of these have the arsis
and thesis equal, each consisting of two morae. Two have them
tmequal, the arsis containing two, the thesis one mora.

The first two are,

1. Dactylus - ^ ^ . . . lltSrS.

2. Anapaestus . . . . w/ - . . . pitulae.

The last two are,

3. Trochaeus (or Choreus) - >^ ... arm^

4. Iambus ^ - ... cSno.

These are the genuine Feet ; but for the Dactyl often appears in
every kind of Dactyhc verse

5. Spondeus " - ... fato.

Also

6. Tribrachys . . . . ^^^ . , . tSmgrg

can take the place of either the Iambus or the Trochee.

Therefore the Spondee and the Tribrach are representative
Feet*

In most kinds of Trochaic and Iambic verse, a Spondee may
be used for the Trochee or Iambus in certain parts of the verse ;
and sometimes it may be represented by an Anapaest or a Dactyl

In Dactyhc and Trochaic verse the arsis is on the first part of
each foot : Iftora, dhna. In Anapaestic and Iambic on the last :
patula^ can<5.

The arsis therefore falls on a long syllable ; in regular Dactylic
verse invariably. When, however, a Dactyl is used for an Aiia-
paest, the arsis falls on the first short syllable, Htdra: when a
Tribrach or Anapaest takes the place of a Trochee, the arsis is on
the first syllable, t^mere, pdtulae ; when a Tribrach or Dactyl is
used for an Iambus, the arsis is on the second syllable, temdre.^

11. Verses. Ve^

I. The Dactylic Hexameter occupies as large a space in Latin
poetry as all other Verses together, and is of more relative im-
portance than Ae Homeric Hexameter is in Greek.

* In Anapaestic verses both the Spondee and the Dactyl may stand for the Anapaest

* A full list of (so-called) Feet is subjoined for reference.

(a) Of two Syllables—
^/ V Pyrrhichius : pStSr I - ^ Trochaeus : vIdTt

^ .- Iambus: Smant I "* " Spondeus: IStQs

(^ Of three Syllables.

w \^ \/ Tribrachys : rSgerS
w V - Anapaestus: SnimOs
— x/ V Dactylus: cOrpori
« >i/ — Creticus: dlx&r2nt

— ^ Amphibrachys : IStlniis
> - Bacdmis: rSgibSnt
v^ Palimbacchius : resdste
- Molossus: dlcSbas

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526 Latin Prosody. 5259.

This famous Verse, as well as the Elegiac couplet, was first
adapted from the Greek by Emiius, who died ac 169 ; was gra-
dually improved, imtil it attained an admirable perfection in the
hands of Virgil, Ovid, and others ; and continu^ for manv cen-
turies to be the favourite form, until the total extinction of the old
classical world. It may be defined as a Dactylic Hexameter
Catalectic ^catalecticus in disyUabum), the last Dactyl losing its
final syllable. It consisted therefore of five Dactyls and a Tro-
chee.

But as the final syllable of a Verse (except when connected
closely by Synaphea* with the following Verse, as in the Anapae-
stic system and the Glyconic of Catullus) was indifferently long or
short, the final Trochee might always be a Spondee. And indeed,
while in Greek the last syllable is indifferent, in all the most carefiil
Latin writers it is much oftener long than short For Ennius.
followed by the rest, seems to have thought the last Foot a real
Spondee, and, from mistaking Homer, to have even introduced
occasional Hypermetrical Verses. In this he has been followed by
Virgil and most Latins, though to Homer this licence is unknown.
In him we feel that the last Foot is a Trochee or curtailed Dactyl ;
while the best Latin Verse lets us see that in the writer's mind the
last Foot was rather a genuine Spondee.

Of the five Dactyls which remain, the fifth must, as a rule,
always remain a Dactyl, probably to keep in view the Dactylic
nature of the Verse. The first four may be indifferently Dactyls
or Spondees ; and, contrary to the rule in Greek, in Latin Uie
Spondees are somewhat the more numerous, owing perhaps to the
character of the language.

Sometimes not only the older poets, but, for poetical effect,Vir^
and, in imitation of him, Ovid and others have a Spondee in tine
fifth foot ; but then (to give weight to the exceptional rhythm) the
two last feet are generally contained in a single word, and the
fourth foot is in most cases a Dactyl. Sometimes a purely Greek
rhythm, the words being often Greek, is introducea; in which
cases a Spondee now and then appears in Uie fourth foot These
three instances from Virgil will illustrate what is meimt :

' Cara deum suboles, magnum lovis incrementum.'
' Lamentis gemituque et femineo ululatu.'
* Nereidum matri et Neptuno Aegaeo.'

(fi) Of four Syllables (compouDd>-

w w \^ >y Proceleusmaticus : h5fnlbTb5s
^ \j \^ \j Paeon Primus : cOndTdTrails
w» -. v/ w Paeon Secundus : Smflblmils
s^ ^ ^ \j Paeon Tertius : nSmSrftlb
v/ K/ . Paeon Quartus : rJ^;ImTnI
^> ^^ — - lonicus a Minors : metuentCs
-i . w w lonicus a Majore : terrCblmus
w - w • Diiambus: prStSrvItls

— \/ - w Ditrocheus: cOndSdlssS
^ \^ \j ^ Choriambus: Opp5sItU
w . . \/ Antiq)astus: rJ^bSmfir

s^ - - - Epitritus Primus : SmSvlstl
• w» - - Epitritus Secundus : aQdlCbis
. -i w» - Epitritus Tertius: aCkllv&int

— — — w Epitritus Quartus : rgxfssfmiU
. . . . Di^>ondeus: sCkspCjcCrOnt

The Pyrrhich is not prop«rIy a Foot The Trochee is also called CSioreus, the 0«dc
Amphimacer : this has a second arsis. The Ionic a Minore is used by Horace and Cktul-
lus. The Proseleusmatic Is occasionally put for its equivalent Spoodee or Anapaest by
the old scenic poets, and even by Seneca.

* Synaphea (<rv»fll«Ttir) is said to exist in any system of Vetves, when die last syllable
of each verse is mfluenoed by the first syllable of the following •v«ne^ as it vookl be if
the two words stood in one and the same verse.

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5 26o. Dactylic Hexameter. Caesura, S^7

The two following :

* Cum patribus populoque^ penatibus et magnis dis.'

* Cum sociis gnatcKjue^ penatibus et magnis dis,'

are reminiscences of Ennius.

These Versus exoyhiaZovrec are pro^rtionally more frequent in
Catullus from imitation of the Alexandnne poets.

In the fragments of Ennius we find one or two verses without a
single Dactyl The only instance in later writers seems to be one
in Catullus :

* Si te lenirem nobis neu conarere.*

But to make a verse it is not enough to place side by side sue
feet of the kind mentioned ; as in these verses of Ennius :

* Poste recumbite vestraque pectora pellite tonsis.*

* Sparsis hastis longis campus splendet et horret'

Both verses are rude attempts to make the sound point the
sense ; but we might apply to them the * horret et alget,' which
Lucilius jocularly proposed for the end of the second.

For the beauty and harmony of a verse Caesura is necessary.

(i) Caesura is the technical term for the law that in some part
or parts of the verse the end of a word must coincide with the
middle of a foot.^

* Explanation may here be given of various technical tenns.
A. Hemimeris (iniifitpii) means |.

Hence one foot and a half (|) is called Trihemimeris :

two feet

^,

(4)

^^

Penthemimeris ;

three

r>

(0

»f

Hephtbemimeris

four

„

(!)

»»

Ezamples:

Hence:

(a) Caesura after i| feet is called Trihemimeral ;
(h) M ,$ H „ „ PenthemimersJ ;

(c) ,, „ 3| „ ,, Hephthemimeral :

(d) >. t> 4i r* f, Eunehemimeral;

a b c d

X. Fiidit e<]u(im I 00.^06 I tellils I percfissa I tridtfniL — Verg.
3. Aut &mite | 16vi | rftra | t^dit | r^tia.— Hor.

a b c d

In I (a Dactylic Hexameter) the caesuras a, b, c, being after an arsis, are Hrong ; but
d, being after a thesis^ is weak.

In a (an Iambic Trimeter) all the caesuras are after thesis, and therefore weak.

In contradistinction to Caesura (which is the coincidence of the close of a word with
the middle of a foot) the coincidence of the close of a word with the close of a foot may
be called ' Dialysis : '

Lumina | labentem caelo quae | ducitis | annum.

B. Metre (f^por, meetsurej is used in two senses.

I. Metre, in the first place, means the verse or sjrstem of verses used by a poet in any
composition (Heroic, Elegiac, Alcaic, Sapphic Metre).

(a) A Metre which contains only one kind of verse is called Monocohim ;

„ „ two kinds „ „ Dtcolum;

„ „ three „ „ Tricokun.

(from |A^ro«, tingte ; mrnkw^ mem6et%

(b) When two kinds of verse alternate, they form Disticbum (from iltg twice ; 9Ti(,
row\ a Distich or couplet

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960

528 Latin Prosody. § 2601

(2) The best and most common caesura in the Dactylic Hexa*
meter is the penthemimeral or semiquinarian, where tie coinci-
dence takes place after two feet and a half, or five half-feet :
Titjrre tu patulae | recubans sub tegmine fagi.

The caesura in question has place after patulae, though the verse
has also two subordinate caesuras, after tu and recubans.

When recurrence takes place after four verses, these form Tetrastichum. a Tetrastich
(stanza).

(c) Thus the Dactylic Hexameter (Heroic), Iambic Trimeter, Trochaic Tetrameter,
and others, are fbimd as Metra Monocola.

The Elegiac Metre and many others are Dicola Disticha.

The Sapphic and some others are Dicola Tetrastidia.

The Alcaic is Tricolum Tetrastichum.

II. Metre, in the second place, is used to express a given portion of a Veise in some
Rhythms ; as the Dactylic, the Trochaic, the Iambic, and the Anapaestic.

(a) In a Dactylic Vers^ one foot constitutes a Metre.

In Trochaic, Iambic, and Anapaestic Rhythms two feet (Stvodia) ccmstitute a
Metre.

(b) A Verse comprised in a ^ngle Metre is caUed Monometer ; in two. Dimeter ; in
three. Trimeter ; in four. Tetrameter ; in five. Pentameter ; in six. Hexameter.

(c) Wanting one syllable to complete its metres a Verse is called Catalectic (kctv
AificriKof) ; in syllaluun, if the incomplete foot retains one syllable ; in disyOabum, if if
retains two.

Wanting two syllables, Brachycatalectic OpaxvitaraAi)icro«) ;

Having a syllable above its metres, Hypercatalectic (virepicariAi}Kroc) :

H.iving its metres complete, Acatalectic (aKareiAi^icrof).

(d) A Verse may also be called according to the number of feet : Binarius (aX as die
Adonian ; Temarius (3), as the Pherecratean ; Quatemarius (4), as the Trochaic or
Iambic Dimeter ; Senarius (6), as the Dactylic Hexameter or the Iambic Trimeter :
Septenarius (7), as the Trochaic Tetrameter Catalecticus ; Octonariiu (8), as the Trochaic
Tetrameter Acat. of the scenic poets.

(3) Or a Verse may be called according to the number of its syllables, as PhalaediK
Hendecasyllabus (ixX So the Alcaic Strophe consists of two Alcaic HendecasyUabi
(iz), one Akaic Enneasyllabus (9), and (me Alcaic DecasyUabus (zoX

C (a) A syllable at the beginning of a Verse before the just Rhythm is called Ana-
cruus (aMucpov<ris, backstroke) : as (according to one mode of scansionX
O I magna Carthago probrosis.

(b) Two syllables so preceding the just Rhythm are called a Base, whidi nay be tro-
chaic :

Late I umve papaver ;
or spondaic:

D0r2m | difficilis mane.

(c) A double Base is trochee +spondee, as in the Sapphic Verse :

Ille ml par | esse deo videtur.
This may have Anacnms before it, as in the Alcaic Hesdecasyllable :
Mors I et fugac€m | persequitur virum.

D. (a) A Verse is called Asynartete {kmnr^Lfi/nnTOi) which is really composed of two
different verses welded, as it were, together :

Tu vina Torquato move I consule pressa mea
(b) A Verse which has one syllable more than its regular constitution, dided befocv a
vowel at the beginning of the next verse, is H]rpermetriad (Hypermeter) :
Sors exitura et nos in aetem | um
Exitium impositzua ctunbae.

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1 260, Caesura. 529

This caesura, however, is so powerful that it is alone sufficient
for a perfectly harmonious verse :

Illius inunensae | ruperunt horrea messes.

Or the verse may equally have two or three caesuras, as in the one
quoted, and

Silvestrem | tenui | Musam | meditaris avena.

Caesura after the first half-foot seems to have no force; and
* Quid faciat laetas segetes' seems equivalent to ' Conficiat laetas
s^etes.'

However, there is a weak trochaic caesura, after the trochee or
second syllable of the dactyl ; so that a verse may in a way have
five caesuras :

Una I salus | victis | nullam | sperare | salutem.

But in all these instances the penthemimeral is the one important
caesura. As a quite exceptional rhythm, we might find * viam | vi,*
for instance, instead of 'salutem,' which would give one more
caesura. This verse of Lucretius :

Augescunt | aliae | gentes | aliae | minuimtur,
in which are four strong caesuras, is faulty. See (11), p. 53a

(3) But, to avoid monotony, the best poets seek variety of
rhythm by other caesuras. Next in power to the penthemimeral is
the hephthemimeral or semiseptenarian caestu'a, coming, tliat is,
after three and a half feet, or seven half-feet But, to give a proper
verse, this caesura must be combined with one or more others. In
this verse.

Quid faciat | laetas | segetes | quo sidere terram,

it may be said the principal pause is at the hephthemimeris. But
the verse has its character really determined by the penthemimeral
caesura.

(4) When the latter is absent, the next best form is obtained by
uniting with the hephthemimeral caesura the trihemimeral, in the
middle of the second foot, and also the weak caesura which falls
between the two short syllables of a dactyl in the third foot :

Formosam | resonare | doces | Amaryllida silvas.

(5) Less perfect, though coming perhaps next to the above, is
that form which has only the trihemimeral and hephthemimeral :

Despiciens | mare velivolum | terrasque iacentes.

(6) It is less common to find the caesura at the third trochee
together with only the trihemimeral ; though sometimes a pleasing
e£^ct is thus produced ; as in this verse :

Praecipitat | suadentque | cadentia sidera sonmos ;
yet in Greek this is perhaps the normal type of the Hexameter.

(7) The caesura at the third trochee by itself is still rarer and is
ususuly intended for poetical effect :

Aequora concussitque | micantia sidera mundus.
Falleret indeprensus | et inremeabilis error.

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530 Latin Prosody, § 260U

(8) This caesura, preceded by one at the second trochee, pro-
duces an unpleasant rhythm :

O crudelis | Alexi | nihil mea carmina curas ;
unless it is designed for effect :

Una Eurusque | Notusquelruunt creberque procellis
and even Horace's familiar style will not reconcile us to

Dignum mente | domoque | l^entis | honesta | Neronis.
But the alternation of the trochaic with the stronger caesuras is
often pleasing :

Quantus ! Athos | aut quantus | Eryx J aut ipse | coruscis :
Marsa | liaanus | Paeligna | cohors | Vestina | virum | vis.

(9) Sometimes, but rarely, the preposition beginning a com-
pound word serves for a quasicaesura ; as in this verse of Horace,

Vestrum praetor, is intestabilis et sacer esto.
Virgil, or Lucretius, would mask the harshness by elision :

Conplerunt, | magno indignantur murmure clausi :
and thus in Virgil's

Magnanimi | lovis ingratum ascendere cubile,
the main caesura is hephthemimeral not penthemimeral ; while in
both verses the rhythm is helped by the trihemimeris.

(10) The effect of Elision generally on the caesuras and rhythm
of a verse, as was said above, is not easy to determine. It seems
clear that the elided syllable did not disappear altogether, and that
the rhythm of such a verse as this for example :

Monstrum | horrendum j informe | ingens | cui lumen | ademp-
tum:

was not identical with

Hie I vertex | nobis | semper | sublimis | at ilium.

The elisions, which in this case were designed for effect, must
have had some intermediate influence.

(I i) The close of the verse should have a free open movement,
in contrast, as it were, to the involution caused by the caesuras in
the middle of the verse. Good Latin verse indeed exhibits only
two main types of rhythm here : i. where the fifth dactyl is wholly
contained in one word and ends with that word : ' sidere terram,'
'adiungere vites ;' 2. where caesura takes place between the two
short syllables ; ' cultus J habendo,' ' primus | ab oris.'

The verse, as a rule, is faulty, when caesura takes place in the
middle of the dactyl ; as ' aliae | minuuntur' in the verse quoted
above from Lucretius ; unless the dactyl contains two entire wcnrds,
as ' ac tua nautae' in Virgil. Lucretius and the older writers often
violate this law ; Viigil very seldom, and then with his usual skill
for the sake of effect :

Ne saturare fimo pingui pudeat | sola neve.
Quam pius Aeneas et quam magni | Phryges et quanL
As this rhythm is much more frequent in Greek, Virgil and Ovid
are fond of^ using it with Greek words, like hymenaeus, h vac in-
thus.

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5 26i . The Elegiac Distich. 5 3 1

(12) The last foot should be contained in one word; though
occasionally it may consist of two monosyllables, as in the line just
quoted. Here again artists like Virgil use exceptional cadences
like * procumbit humi bos,* ' praeruptus aquae mons/ * atque homi-
num rex,' to produce exceptional effects.

(13) Lucretius often comprises the two last feet in one word^
like principiorum, material ; Virgil and Ovid very rarely, and
then always for a special purpose, as ' perfractaque quadrupedan-
turn ;' or with Greek words m imitation of the Greeks. Elisions
in this part of the verse should be of the easiest kinds : * or X :
ergo age in the fifth foot has its special excuse. Virpl has two
or three endings like 'mentem animumque,' 'hoc ammo hauri/
which strike by their rarity and are perhaps in compliment to
Lucretius. Elisions within the sixth foot are still rarer: Virgil
elides 9 in *huc turbidus atque hue,' *hinc comminus atque hinc :'
Horace in his satires ventures to say, Mugera centum an.' As
shewn above, est at the end of a verse makes no elision.

(14) Hypermetrical verses were introduced by Ennius, probably,
as was said above, from his misapprehending Homer. A super-
numerary syllable at the end of one verse is supposed to be elided
by a vowel at the beginning of the next, sometimes even when a
full stop intervenes. Lucretius has only one instance, * concurrere
deberle:' Catullus only one or two Virgil has more of them:
que is generally the superfluous syllable, and a long syllable pre-
cedes. But if his MSS. are to be trusted, he has these two end-
ings: 'vivaque sulpur|a,' 'arbutus horrid|a.'

(15) The part also of the verse which precedes the caesura must
be properly connected with the rest If there is no trihemimeral
caesura, the end of the second foot should not coincide with the
end of a word. Exceptions to this rule are exceedingly rare in
Virgil ; still rarer in Ovid. In the former we find, ' Scilicet omni*
bus est labor impendendus.' ' Armentarius Afer.' 'Sedtudesine
velle.' 'Spargens umida mella.' 'Per conubia nostra:' the
second foot l^ing always a dactyl. Lucretius has very many
instance s, and sometimes a spondee in the second foot, if a mono-
syllable follow : * Sive voluptas est.' Such a commencement as
' Et quaecumque coloribu' smt,' is also very exceptional. Once he
makes sound echo sense by a most exceptional but feUcitous
rhythm: 'Et membratim vitalem deperdere sensum.' Horace,
aiming at a conversational style, has a lew negligent rhythms.

s6x

2. The Elegiac Distich* (Dactylic Hexameter with so-called The
Pentameter) comes next in importance. Borrowed by Ennius pj^J.
from the Greeks, it passed to Catullus, Gallus, TibuUus and Pro-
pertius, and attained its final poHsh in the hands of Ovid : he and
the two last mentioned being always looked upon as its greatest
masters.

* Rhythm of the Elegiac Distich :
(i) Dactylic Hexameter.

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532 Latin Prosody, § 261.

(i) The Elegiac Hexameter is subject to the same laws as the
Heroic. But Ovid indulges in very few licences^ fewer even than
in his own Heroic, though tliere he is stricter than VirgiL He
seldom deviates from one or other of the two best types of caesura ;
and abstains from harsh elisions. Catullus' Elegiacs, on the other
hand, are much harsher in their elisions than his Heroics are.

• (2) The second verse of the couplet, called the Pentameter from
a strange fancy of the ancient grammarians, has been brought by
Ovid and others under much stricter rules than the Greek verse
from which it is derived. It consists of two Dactylic Penthe-
mimers, which must be kept quite distinct, and the sentence, or at
least a distinct clause, must close with the couplet*

The first Penthemuner corresponds precisely with that of a
Hexameter, ending with a distinct, penthemimeral caesura, never
followed by an elision; for a verse like Propertius's *Quaerere:
non impune ilia rogata venit,' never occurs in Ovid.

The second of the two Penthemimers gives the Latin Elegiac its
peculiar character. Like the Greek, ^e two full feet must be
dactyls ; but the Latin, unUke the Greek verse, ought to end with
an Iambic word.' This restricts the rhythm to very few types,
which do not differ essentially in their general effect The rest
of the penthemimer must either be contained in one word, like
delituisset; excutiatijue ; or in two: ut videare; arte
regendus; praebuit ille (excutiat sit would be inadmis-
sible); or in three: tu mihi sola; quo sit amanda ; quisquis
es, adde; ille vel alter; or in four: as, mens sit et apta.

Ovid's Elisions in this part of the verse are the easiest and
slightest, as of « or I ; if ft, only before another a. They have
place too only in the middle of the first dactyl, or else between its
two short syllables. Elision between the two dactyls is very rare,
except in the case of quC. In the second dactyl it is very excep-
tional, as ' insula habet,' * resistere eguos.' At the end it is utterly
inadmissible, except before the enchtic est (es) spoken of above.
Ovid in this part of the verse never elides any long or even
doubtful syllable. With him, therefore, Ennius's 'meaequipa-
rare queat,* or Propertius* * si altera talis erit,' would not be
possible. Catullus, however, has very harsh elisions in this half
of the verse, especially in his short vituperative Elegiacs: 'me
pretio atque malo ;' even 'ploxemi habet veteris.'

As the Romans definitively accepted the strict Ovidian type for
the Elegiac, we are bound to do the same. It commends itself,
however, by its own intrinsic merits, its marvelloiis ease and

* Very rareij the Subject is in one distich, and the Verb in the next : as.

Languor et immodid nullo sub vindice somni

Aleaque et multo tempora quassa mero
EripiuBt omnis aniroo sine vulnere nerves, Or.

• In Versus Elegiacus a final trisyllable is rare and ungraceful : a final word of four or
five syllables b less ungraceful, but rare in Ovid : as.

Maxima de nihilo aascitur historia. Prop.
Lis est cum forma magna pudicitiae, Ov.
The final di^Uable should be a Verb, Substantive, or Pronoun ; rarely an Admb:
more rarely stdl an Adjective or Pi^idple, and only when a strong enphasb &lls oo

Hoc fodet positae tc mihi, terra, levem, Ov. ^ t

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§ 262-63. Lyric Metres, 533

buoyancy. Propertius in his earlier poems has a very distinct
style of his own : in his later, influenced doubtless by the example
of his younger friend, he approaches much nearer to the Ovidian
movement

3. Lyric Metres. ^^

(i) The Lyric poetry of the Romans is far less in amount than ^^^'^
their Heroic and Elegiac. It is of much less importance also than
that of the Greeks. The same is true of their Iambic and Trochaic
poetry, if we omit the old scenic verse. The peculiar excellence,
however, of the two chief representatives of these styles, Catullus
and Horace, gives to them an important rank in Latin literature.

Catullus and Horace saw that Latin was imfitted for the rich
and complicated variety of choral rhythm, so brilliantly worked
out by the Greeks, and confined themselves to the simpler and
more manageable melodies of Alcaeus and Sappho, and, in the
case of Catullus, of the Alexandrine school. Thej^ subjected even
these to stricter laws, in conformity with the genius of their lan-
guage, as had been done by Virgil, Ovid, and others in the metres
cultivated by them. They also both made use of Iambic measures,
but in different ways.

Horace and Catullus are the only important models in these
styles, with two exceptions. Each had a follower ; Catullus a very
bnlliant one in Martial, who has largely employed in his Epigrams
the Phalaecian Hendecasyllable and the Iambic Scazon, increas-
ing the strictness of their laws on principles of metre akin to those
of Ovid. Seneca in his numerous choruses copies the lyrical mea-
sures of Horace, especially Asclepiads and Sapphics, but with
little skill and often in a very hybrid fashion.

(2) Though it is so much used by the old scenic writers, and was
always the favourite measiwe in popular chants, and seems so well
adaptied to the genius of the language, and is so common in Greek,
the Trochaic Tetrameter Catalectic is hardly found in the extant
learned poets. Seneca has very few of them : the * Pervigilium
Veneris,' though brightly burnished, is of the copper age. Ana-
paests, too, found httle favour, if we except Seneca, Pkutus, the
old Tragic fragments and those of Lucilius.

(3) Both Horace and Catullus must have tried many metres, before
they finally decided which were best adapted to their genius and

?urpose ; but such they seem to have found at last. The Odes of
lorace are 104 in number: of these, ninety-seven are Alcaic,
Sapphic, or Asclepiad; of which last he employs five different
systems. 263

But his Epodes preceded his Odes in time; and here the Iambic Epode*
is the prevailing type. Only one, however, the 17th and last, is in <>« Ho-
continuous Trimeter Iambics. Horace has here imitated strictly ^^^'
the Greek Trimeter. The caesuras are very precise : generally the
penthemimeral, now and then the hephthemimeral. Of resolved
feet he admits the dactyl in the first, and the tribrach in any of the
next three places. It is remarkable, too, that he observes the law
of the Greek tragic pause in the fifth, with one exception only in
the eighty-one verses, in which the rhythm is designed for a pecu-
liar effect ; in which, too, elision disguises the violation ;
Alftibus atque cinibus homicfdam Hectorem.

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534 Latin Prosody. § 264-

He must have felt, however, that the regular Greek trimeter was
not effective, alone and unrelieved ; and has not repeated the
experiment

(4) Catullus, too, with his nice tact, must have felt the same. He
has but one poem (52), of four lines, in ordinary trimeters, two of
the four being pure Iambics. Like Horace, he would not have
liked to recall the old scenic verse with its spondees, effective in
its way, but to them inartistic. He has therefore obviated the
monotony by two opposite methods.

Two of his best poems, the 4th and 29th, are in pure Iambics, to
which his taste and skill give lightness, force, and variety.

In contrast to this, eight of his poems are in the Scazon, or
limping Trimeter (Choliambus) of Hipponax :

Mis^r CatuUe | d^sinas in^ptire,

Et qudd vides perfsse | perdittim ducas.

The peculiar movement produced by the inversion of rhythm at
the end is very effective. The caesura is indifferently penthemi-
meral or hephthemimeral, but always one or other. He has a
dactyl once in the first, once in the third place; but no other
resolved feet Martial after him uses the Scazon often and with
equal success.

(5) To avoid the monotony of the continuous ordinary Trimeter,
Horace has composed the first ten Epodes in Iambic couplets, this
Trimeter alternating ^-ith a Dimeter, resolved feet being very rare.
In the remaining sbc Epodes he has sought still further variety by
coupling in five of them the regular Heroic with some other metre
— in two (14, 15) with the Iambic Dimeter just spoken of; in one
(16) with a pure Iambic Trimeter; in one (12) with a Dactylic
Tetrameter Catalecticus in disyllabum, in which metre he has also
composed two of his Odes (i. 7 and 28). In the fifth (13) he has
joined the Heroic with an Asynartete verse, the lambelegus, com-
posed of a Dimeter Iambic followed by a Dactylic Penuemimer.
In the remaining Epode (11) he has united a Trimeter Iambic
with the reverse Asynartete, a Dactylic Penthemimer followed by
an Iambic Dimeter.

364 Besides the above, he has single examp^les of five other metres

in his Odes : namely i. 4 ; i. 8 ; ii. 18 ; iii. 12 ; iv. 7. The first
contains a peculiar Verse (Dactylic Tetrameter going before three
Trochees) alternating with an Iamb. Trinu Cat : the second, a
verse consisting of Dactyl and two Trochees alternating with
Iamb. Trim. Cat; the third, Trochaic Hephthemimer alternat-
ing with Iamb. Trim. Cat ; the fourth, a pure Ionic a Minore
system; the fifth. Dactylic Hexameter alternating with Dactylic
Penthemimer.

Most of the foregoing systems have technical names firom their
supposed inventors or chief cultivators. See Table of Metres.

(6) But all these seem to have been but experiments, and he con-
fined himself chiefly to three Lyric types of metre, one which was
mainly Dactylic, one which joined this with the Trochaic move-
ment, and a thurd which united the Dactylic, Iambic, and Trochaic
rhythms.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

S 26$. Lyric Metres. . 535

(7) Of the first, or Asclepiad, Horace employed five systems, AscI^
each consisting of one or several kinds of the following verses. y^

.^ ^, . Verses.

1. TheGlyconic:

f / • -

— — — V/Ai/ — VW

Sfc te dfva pot^ns CyprL

2. The Pherecratean:

- - - £ -
Grdto P^ha sub dntro.

3. The Lesser Asclepiad:

/ / f \ / / V

— — — vv/ — I — VV — V —

Madcenis atavfs | ^dite r^bus.

4. The Greater Asclepiad;

/ f / \ / / \ / / \j

Td ne qua^sierfs | scfre nefds | qudm mihi, quAn tibi.

In all these four varieties, out of which he has composed 34 of
his 104 Odes, Horace tenaciously keeps a Spondee for the base,
with perhaps one exception, *Ign!s Iliacas domos ;' whereas with
the Greeks and with Catullus the Trochee is the typical base of the
Glyconic verse. But in his one poem, written in the greater
Asclepiad, Catullus also has a Spondaic base.

Horace too in both 3 and 4 is most tenacious of the penthemi-
meral caesura, as we have marked in our scheme ; not so Catullus
and other Greeks. In the two apparent exceptions :

Dum fiagrantia de|-torquet ad oscula :

Arcanique fides | prodiga per|-lucidior vitro :

&e preposition gives a quasicaesura. He has but one real ex«
ception :

Non incendia Carjthaginis impiae,
occasioned perhaps by the proper name.

Out of these four lands of verse he has composed five different
Asclepiad systems :

1. The Lesser Asclepiad alone, as i. i.

2. The Greater Asclepiad alone, as i. 11.

3. A stanza composed of three Lesser Asclepiad verses, followed
by one Glyconic, as i. 6.

4. A couplet of alternate Glyconics and Lesser Asclepiads, as
i-3-

5. A stanza of which the first two lines are Lesser Asclepiads,
the third a Pherecratean, in which the last syllable is always long ;
the fourth Glyconic ; as i. 5.

In two of these five systems the metre shews they are in stanzas
of four verses. In the other three kinds, as in the Odes generally
of Horace, the Odes are multiples of four, except in one Ode,
written in the Lesser Asclepiad, iv. 8. But such divisions in the
case of the nniform metres, and of those which run in couplets, is
of no practical importance, as there is no necessary pause at the
end of each fourth, any more than of the other verses.

uiyiiized by CjOOQ IC

966

536 Latin Prosody. { 266.

Catullus has employed the Glyconic with great happiness in his
long ' Epithalamium,' and in one other poem, the 34th. The
stanza in the former consists of four Glyconics^ followed by a
Pherecratean :

C^ L ^ ^ Lk, ^ (four times)

- o - K/ v/ - ii (once)

in the latter, of three Glyconics followed by the Pherecratean. But
his rhythm is nearer the Greek than is Horace's, as he prefers a
Trochee for the base ; and in one stanza the four Unes are con-
nected by synaphea, the last syllable of the Glyconic being always
long, while that of the Pherecratean is doubtful; in the other
stanza the first three and last two lines are similarly connected.
The light Trochaic base, and the point given by the final long syl-
lable together produce a beautiful and powerful metre, hyper-
metrical syllables sometimes suffering elision at the end of a line.

Horace's earlier Asclepiads seem to suffer from the number of
weak short syllables at the end of verses ; and to a feeling of this
we refer the occurrence of such lines as these in the 4th b(X>k :

Cur facunda parum decor(o (hypermetrical)
Sed cur heu, Ligurine, cur;
Lentum sollicitas ille virentis et
Audivere Lyce di mea vota di

and even the Alcaic :

Ne forte credas interitura quae.
Sapphic ^8) The Sapphic stanza, consisting of three Sapphic Hendeca-
Verscs. syllables, followed by a Dactyl Dim. CataL in disyUabum (Versus
Adonius) ;

/ / ^

~ SJ SJ - ^

Rfsit ApdUo.

In his first three books Horace rarely departs from the following
rhythm in the Sapphic HendecasyUable :

/ • I / -

Idm satis terrfs | nivis dtque dirae,
differing in this exceedingly from Sappho. The monotony \% in-
creased by his always having a Spondee in the second foot He
seems himself at least to have felt the faultiness of his monotonous
caesura, and in his fourth book and ' Carmen Saeculare' often sub-
stitutes the caesura at the third Trochee : as,

Liberum munivit | iter daturus.

But the stiffness is thus increased and the monotony not much
diminished.

He sometimes, like Sappho and Catullus, has hypermetrical
verses ; sometimes too, like them, he has no break between the
third and fourth verse : as,

Labitur ripa love non probante u-
xorius amnis.
Catullus has two Sapphic Odes, one a very early poem, a trans-
lation of Sappho ; the second written with reference to this, and,
as it were, a defiant retractation of it. He is less regular in his

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^v^pt i-X^

5 267. Lyric Metres, 537

rhythm than Horace, and three times has a Trochee in the second
foot

But he seems to have felt the futility of competing with Sappho,
and has with brilliant success made a variation of £e Sapphic his
own, by adopting in forty out of fifty-nine of his Lyric and Iambic
poems the Pha^ecian HendecasyUable, which differs from the
Sapphic in this, that the Dactyl forms the second instead of the
third foot This difference, however, has enabled him to wield it
with marvellous grace and at the same time freedom, as it has no
regular caesura, which is apt in a short verse to cause monotony :

Quoi dono lepidum novum libelliun
Arlda modo pumice expolitum ?
MSas esse aliquid putare nugas.

Martial has adopted it with equal success ; but the first foot with
him is always a Spondee ; and we learn from the elder Pliny that
a Spondee in his time was alone admitted. In his 55th poem
Catullus has tried the experiment of occasionally substitutmg a
Spondee for the Dactyl, but the result is not happy.

^9) Horace's most successful stanza is that in which he has adapted Aka^
to Latin forms the famous system called after Alcaeus. It consists Stanza,
of (i. 2) two Hendecasyllabic verses of this form,

Qui rore puro Castaliae lavit
(3) an Enneasyllabic verse of this form,

267

v/ . ~ ^

Dumeta natalemque silvam.
completed by (4) an Alcaic Decasyllabic :

DeUus et Patareus Apollo.

This varied metre, combining Dactylic, Iambic, and Trochaic
forms, has gained by the restrictions to which the poet has subjected
it In the three first verses of the stanza he has admitted an Iambus
rarely in the first foot, and not at all in his 4th Book. The fifth
syllable too of verses i, 2, which Alcaeus uses as doubtful, is always
long, with one single exception :

Si non perirSt immiserabilis.

In those verses the Penthemimeral Caesura is strictly observed,
with only these two exceptions :

Mentemque lymphatam Mareotico.

Spectandus in certamine Martio ;

though more than once he has the quasicaesura after the Preposi-
tion of a compound word ; as,

Hostile aratrum ex|-ercitus insolens.

Verse 3. too gains stateliness and weight by rejecting the most
usual Iambic movements ; thus,

Himc Lesbio sacrare plectro

Digitized by VjOOQIC

538 Latin Prosody, §268^

is the only instance of the second Iambus being contained in a
word thus ending in an Iambus ; and only in the earlier books
does it ever end with a word of four syllables, like barbarorum.
Its most normal rhythms are :

Breunosque velocis et arcis.

Commisit immanis(]ue Raetos.

Quantis fatigaret rumis ;

and next to these :

Vexare turmas et frementem.

In the verse *Non decoloravere caedes/ there is probably a
pause after the preposition de.

This verse is sometimes hypermetrical: as, ' Cum pace delabentis
Etruscum | In mare.'

In Verse 4 these seem the best rhjrthms :
Vindelici didicere nuper.
Alpibus impositas tremendis.
Auspiciis pepulit secundis;

or modifications of these :

Stravit humum sine dade victor.
368
Gaiiiam- The GaUiambus of Catullus is worth considering from the cele-
*"*■ brity of his sixty-third poem. Varro and others used this metre id
poems now lost. Its nature, often misunderstood, is simple enough.
We may take as its type an Ionic a minore Tetram. Cat with an
unvarying caesura at the end of the second foot :

No whole verse of Catullus is of this primary form.
Of the first part an example is

£t earum omnia adirem :
of the second,
'stadio et gymnasiis ;' but Catullus probably wrote guminasiis.

As a rule, in each part what is called Anaclasis occurs, that is to
say, the last long syllable of the first foot changes place with the
first short syllable of the second foot ; and the same occurs
between the third and fourth feet : we then get this form :

/ / / \ / ^ C

Aliena quae petentes | velut exules loca.

This is the most common form for the first part ; but usually in
the second part a further change takes place : the second long
syllable is resolved into two short ones; and we then get the
regular type of the verse :

Super alta vectus Attis | celeri ratS m&ria.

Occasional variations of this type occur.

TibicSn Qbl canit Phryx | curvo grave calamo,

gives in one verse three of these variations :

Ibi marl^ vasta visens | lacrimantibus oculis,
gives the fourth.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

§269.

Table of Verses and Metres,

539

TABLE OF CLASSICAL LATIN VERSES AND
METRES.

I. SINGLE VERSES.

A. Dactylic Rhythms.

(i) Trimeter Catalecticus in Syllabam (Penthemimer) called
Archilochius Minor :

«» v/ w I . w w I .

Arbori|busque co|mae| Hor.
(2} Tetrameter Catalecticus in Disyllabum^ called Alcmanius : *

269

Mobilijbus pojmaria | rivis, Hor.

In the case of a Proper Name Horace has a Spondee in third foot ;

Mensojrem cohi|bent, Arjchyta.

(3) On the Hexameter and the Elegiac Pentameter, see §$ 259-
261.

B, Trochaic Rhythms.

(i) Dimeter Catalecticus :

Non tra|bes Hy|metti|ae, Hor.

(2) The Tetrameter Catalectic or Septenarius was used by the
Greek Tragic and Comic Poets ; also by Plautus and Terence.
The Latin Poem (of uncertain age and author) called Pervigilium
Veneris^ is a Monocolum in this metre ; of which the following is
the scheme :

Cras a|met qui | nunquam a|mavit || quique ajmavit | eras a|met.

Dialysis after the 4th foot is essential.

In Comedy the license of feet is vastly wider (see Note, p. 474) ;
but a Trochee or its equivalent, a Tribrach, must precede the final
syllable. Plautus also uses the Tetrameter Acatalectic or Octo*
narius with similar license, but always with final Trochee.

C Iambic Rhythms.
(i) Dimeter Acatalectus :

Forti I seque|mur pec [tore, Hor.
Canidija trajctavit | dapes, Hor.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

540 Latin Prosody, § 269.

(2) Alcaicus Enneasyllabus : Iamb. Dim. Hyperc,

G.|w.|..|w_.G

Periu|ra pu|gn|acis | Achivos, Hor.
Caesura after the 3rd syllable is required. See § 267.

(3) (Trimeter Acatalectus, or Senarius, which sometimes consists
of six Iambic feet (Hexapodia lambica) :

Suis I et i|psa Ro|ma vi|ribus | ruit, Hor.
Gemeljle Casjtor et | gemd|]e CasjtoriSy CatulL

But usually Spondees are admitted into the first, third, and fifth
places ; a Tribrach may stand in any place but the last for an
Iambus ; a Dactvl in the first place^ and an Anapaest in the first
(rarely in the fifth) for a Spondee :

Pater I na ru|ra bo | bus ex|ercet | suis, Hor.

Alitiibus at|que cani|bus homi|cidam Hec|torena, Hor.

Pavidum|que lepo|rem et ad|venam | laqueo | gruem, Hor.

A penthemimeral or hephthemimeral caesura is necessary to the
harmony of the Verse. This Verse may form a Metrum Mono-
colum, as Hor. Epod. 17.

Note, The Comic Poets, Plautus and Terence, admit Spondees,
Dactyls, and Anapaests, in every place but the last, sometimes
even Proceleusmatics ; with numerous other licenses.

The Iambic Trimeters of the fabulist Phaedrus resemble these,
but take fewer feet of three syllables and fewer licenses.

(4) Scazon, or Choliambus ; which is an Iambic Trimeter with a
Spondee in the sixth, and an Iambus in the fifth, place ; as,

Miser | Catul|le de|sinas | ine|ptire, CatulL

Used as a Metrum Monocolum, but not by Horace. The cae-
suras as in (3}.

(5) Trimeter Catalecticus :

Mea I reni|det in | domo | lacu|nar, Hor.
Iunctae|que nym|phis Grajtiae | decenjtes, Hor.

The penthemimeral caesura is essential

(6) Versus Hipponacteus (Dimeter + Hephthcmimer).
Deprenjsa najvis in | mari || vesa|nien|te venjto, CatulL

Dialysis after the Dimeter. This verse forms a Metrum Mono-
colum, not used by Horace.

D. Ionic Rhythms.

(i) lonicus a minore Dimeter Acatalectus :

Patruae ver|bera linguae, Hon
(2) lonicus a minore Tetrameter Acatalectus :

1 — I 1

Miserarum est | neque amori | dare ludum, | neque dolci, Hon
(3) Versus Galliambus. See § 266.

Digitized by VjOOQ IC

1 269. Tabh of Verses and Metres, 541

E. Mixed Rhythms.

I. Logaoedic. Logaoedic Rhythms are those in which Dactyls
are follQwed by Trochees.^ A Base often begins them, and some-
times a Choriambus is inserted.

(i) Adonius : Dactyl Dim. Cat in Disyll,

— w w 1 « O

Risit A|pollo, Hor.

(2) Aristophaneus (Dactylus simplex dupliciter Trochaicus) :

» V w I . v/ I . G

Lydia | die per | omnis, Hor.
Dialysis after the Dactyl

(3) Pherecrateus ; an Adonius with Base, which, in Horace, is

Spondaic, in Catullus, chiefly Trochaic :

Vix du|rare cajrinae, Hor.
Lute|umve pajpaver, Catull

(4} Glyconeus ; the Base of which, in Horace, is Spondaic, In
Catullus, usually Trochaic :
Base

Mater | saeva Cu|pidinum, Hor.
Tardat | ingenu|us pudor, Catull

(5) Asclepiadeus Minor, the Base being Spondaic :

Biiae

Maecejnas atavis||edite | regibus, Hor.
Elision at Penthemimer is rare : as,

Audi I tarn modere|re arborijbus fidem, Hor,
It is used as Metrum Monocolum (Asclepiadeum Primum)*

(6) Asclepiadeus Maior, the Base being Spondaic :

NuHamlVare sacra | vite prius j sevens | arborem, Hor.

Caesuras after 6th and loth syllables. This is Metrum
Monocolum.

(7) Alcaicus Decasyllabus :

Ncc vcte|res agi|tantur | omi, Hor.

(8) Phalaecius Hdhdecasyllabus ; Metrum Monocolum, not
used by Horace.

* As the last syllable of a verse is doubtful, a final Trochee can pass into a Spondee.
In the Pherecrateansof Horace it always does so ; and in his rerses generally a final long
yflable is preferred.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

542 Latin Prosody. 1 269.

BaM

Soles I occide|re ct re|dire | possunt, CatulL

Sometimes an Iambus appears as Base, seldom a Trochee :
Minister vetuli puer Falemi, CatulL
Arlda modo pumice expolitimn^ CatulL

A Spondee is sometimes put for the Dactyl, but very inhar-
moniously.

(9) Archilochius Maior: Dactylic Tetrameter with Dactyl in

fourth place, where is Dialysis, and three Trochees :

Solvitur I acris hi|emps gra|ta vice || veris|et Fajvoni, Hor.

(10) Sapphicus Minor, consisting of a Dactyl and two Tro-
chees preceded by Trochee + Spondee (called by some a
double Base) :

Nota quae se|des fue|rat co|lumbis, Hor.

Sappho, the inventor of this verse, as also Catullus, often
began with a double Trochee : but Horace always length-
ens the fourth syllable.

The strong caesura after the fifth svUable is usual ; occa-
sionally the weak caesura is found after the sixth (short)
syllable :

Non semel dicemus || io triumphe, Hor.

One or other is essential to the harmony of the verse.

(11) Sapphicus Maior; which only differs from the last in
having a Choriambus between the Spondee and Dactyl :

1 — 1...|..|-

Saepe trans fi|nem iaculo | nobilis | expe|dito, Hor.

(12) Versus Alcaicus Hendecasyllabus, in which an Iambic
Penthemimer (0 - ^ - -) is followed by Dactyl and
— N^ o :

Mors et fiigacem || persequi|tur virum, Hon
Vides ut alta || stet nive | candidum, Hor.

The first syllable is seldom short The penthemimeral
caesura is observed. Elision sometimes occurs there :

Regum timendo || rum in proprios greges, Hor.

(13) Versus Priapeius of Catullus : Mftrum Monocdum.

— w I _.v>^ I .w.n.w I .WW I .C

O co|lonia|quae cupisJ!pontc|]uderc|longo,

Quendam | municijpem meum || de tu|o volo | ponte, CatulL

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1 269. Table of Metres. 543

2. Asynartete.
(i) lambelegus Archilochhis : Iamb. Dim, Dactyl Penthem.

Tu vi|na Tor|quato | move || console | pressa me|o, Hor.
(2) Elegiambus Archilochius, Dactyl. Penthem. Iamb. Dim.

lussus abjire dojmum || ferejbar injcerto | pede, Hor.
There is a Dialysis at the end of the Penthemimer.

Note a. The Anapaestic Rhythm is the converse of the Dactylic.
It admits however Spondees and Dactyls ; in »i4iich the arsis falls
on the second syllabic The most usual verse is the Dimeter,
having a break after the second foot :

O va|ne pudor || falsum|que decus.
Decies|nivibus||canuit|Ide, Sen. Tr.

The Greek dramatic poets used this verse in systems ending
with a Dimeter Catalectic, called Versus Paroemiacus ; but Seneca
has not in this imitated them; nor does he admit a Dactyl at the
close of a line. A Monometer is sometimes introduced (in Greek
always before the Paroemiacus), called a Base. In Anapaestic
metre the last syllable of the Dimeter is not indifferent, and makes
position with the succeeding verse (Synaphea).

Note b. The Satumian Verse was an old Roman measure, not
used in the best ages. The following is cited as its purest t^'pe :

Dabunt | malum | Metel|li || Naevijo po|etae.

Bat great license was taken in its fonn.

II. STROPHIC METRES.
a. DiCOLA DisncHA or Distropha.
On the Elegiac Distich, see § 261.
(i) Metrum Hipponacteum.
Troch. DinL Cat + Iamb. Trim. Cat

Non ebur ne^ue aureum

Mea renidet m domo lacunar, Hor. il 18.

(2) Metrum lambicum Senarium Quatemarium.

Iamb. TrinL Acat + Iamb. Dim. Acat

Beatus ille qui procul negotiis

Ut prisca gens mortalium, Hor. Epod, 2,

(3) Metrum Archilochium PrimunL

Dact Hex. Cat in DisylL + Archilochius Minor.

Diflugere nives ; redeunt iam gramina campis,
Arboribusque comae, Hor. Od. iv. 7.

(4) Metrum Archilochium Secundum.

Dact. Hex. Cat in DisylL -1- lambelegus Archilochius.

lOOgle

544 Latin Prosody. § 269^

Horrida tempestas caelum contraxit, et imbres
Nivesque deducunt lovem ; nunc mare nunc siluae,

Hor. Epod. 13.

(5) Metnim Archilochium Tertium.

Iamb. Trim. Acat + Elegiambus Archilochius.
Petti, nihil me, sicut antea, iuvat
Scribere versiculos amore percussum gravi,

Hor. Epod. II,

(6) Metrum Archilochium Quartum.

Archilochius Maior + Iamb. Trim- Cat

Solvitur acris hiemps grata vice veris et Favoni,
Trahuntque siccas machinae carinas^ Hor. Od, L 4.

(7) Metrum Pythiambicum Primum.

Dact Hex. Cat in Disyll. + Iamb. Dim. Acat

Mollis inertia cur tantam diffuderit imis
Oblivionem sensibus, Hor. Epod. 14.

(8) Metrum Pythiambicum Secundum.

Dact. Hex. Cat in Disyll. + Hexapodia lambica.
Altera iam teritur bellis civilibus aetas,
Suis et ipsa Roma viribus ruit, Hor. Epod, 16.

(9) Metrum Alcmanium.

Dact Hex. Cat in Disyll. + Dact Tetram. Alcmanius.

Laudabunt alii claram Rl^odon aut Mitylenen
Aut Ephesum bimarisve Corinthi,

Hor. Od. \. 7 ; Epod. 7,

(10) Metrum Asclepiadeum Secundum.

Versus Glyconeus + Versus Asclepiadeus Minor.
Sic te diva potens Cypri,
Sic fratres Helenae lucida sidera, Hor. Od L 3.
Horace has twelve Odes in this measure.

(i i) Metrum Sapphicum Maius.
Versus Aristophaneus + Sapphicus Maior.
Lydia, die per omnes
Te deos oro Sybarin cur properes amando, Hor. OdLS^

b. DicoLA Tetrasticha or Tetrastropha.
(i) Strophe Sapphica Minor.
Temi Sapphici Minores + Adonius.
Integer vitae scelerisque purus
Non eget Mauris iacmis neque arcu
Nee venenatis gravida sagittis,
Fusee, pharetra, Hor. Od. i. 22.
Horace has twenty-six Sapphic Odes.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

f 269. Table of Metres. 545

The Adonian Verse is so intimately connected with the third
Sapphic line that Hiatus at the close of the latter b unusual^ and
Tirords are sometimes divided between the two verses : as^

Thracio bacchante magis sub inter-

lunia vento, Hon

An Hypermeter is sometimes found among the Sapphic lines : as

Dissidens plebi numero beatorjum
Eximit virtus, Hor.

<(2) Metrum Asclepiadeum TertiunL

Temi Asdepiadei Minores + Glyconeus.

lam veris comites, (juae mare temperant,
Impellunt animae lintea Thraciae ;
lam nee prata rigent, nee iluvii strepunt
Hibema nive turgidi, Hor. Od. iv. 12.

Horace has nine Odes in this measure.

(3) Strophe Glyconea CatuUiana.

Temi Glyconei CatuUiani + Pherecrateus CatuUianus.

Sis quocum<}ue placet tibi
Sancta nomme, Romulique
Antic[uam, ut solita es, bona
Sospites ope gentem, CatuU. 34.

:Synaphea is kept in this Metre.

Catullus in Poem 61 uses this Metre as Pentastichon.

Namque lulia Manlio,
Qualis Idalium colens
Venit ad Phrygium Venus
ludicem, bona cum bona
Nubit alite virgo.

Here Synaphea is observed between lines i, 2, 3, and between 4, j.

c. Tricola Tetrasticha.

(i) Metrum Asclepiadeum Quartum.
Bin! Asdepiadei Minores + Pherecrateus + Glyconeus.
Prima nocte domum claude : neque in vias
Sub cantu querulae despice tibiae :
Et te saepe vocanti
Duram difficilis mane, Hor. Od, iil 7 29.

Horace has seven Odes in this Metre.

Although the Pherecratean ends, in theory, with a Trochee^ yet
in the usa^e of Horace a final long syllable is adopted.

(2) Strophe Alcaica.

Bini Alcaici Hendecasyllabi + Alcaicus Enneasyllabus + Aka^
icus Decasyllabus.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

546 Latin Prosody. { 269.

Qui rore puro Castaliae lavit

Crinis solutoSy qui Lyciae tenet

Dumeta natalemque silvam

Delius et Patareus Apollo, Hon Od. iil 4. 6t.

Horace has thirty-seven Odes in this Metre.

NOTE,

The metres of the Comic poets, Pkutus and Terence, are too hige a sub-
ject to be treated in this grammar. We will merely observe that many
final syllables (ar, or, at, et, It), short in later poets, are lengthened by
Plautus and Terence ; Iambic words, on the other hand (such as habent,
bonis), are often scanned as Pyrrhichs; the law of position is often vio-
lated ; and long initial syllables slurred into short quantity, when they
follow monosyllables or elided Pyrrhichs. Add to these licenses the most
extensive symzesis and the free use of Spondee, Dactyl, Anapaest, even
Procdeusmatic for Iambus or Trochee (always excepting the final foot),
and it will be seen at oncte in how wide a field of rhythm the old scenic
poets ranged. See p. 56.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

APPENDIX.

A. LATIN ORTHOGRAPHY.

Orthography is defined by Suetonius (Ocf. 88), as * the form
and method of writing taught by grammarians/ and by Quin-
tilian (L 7), more shortly, as 'the science of writing correctly/
We may blend the two definitions, and say that Orthography
is * the science of writing in correct form the words of any
language.'

The Greeks settled their orthography with reference to four considera-
tions : (I) analogy ; (2) etymology ; (3) dialect ; (4) history. The Latins
left dialect out of question, but had regard to the other three points.
Yet, owing to the fluctuatii^: character of their language and its many
chauDges during the seven centuries between the first Pimic war and the
£dl of the Roman empire, the settlement of a solid Latin orthography is a
work of difficulty. The labours of Ritschl, Lachmann, and others have
indeed during the last few years thrown much light on thb subject
Ritschl justly selects the age of Quintilian's great work (about the close of
the first oentuiy, A.D.) as the standard of Latin orthography ; but, un-
fortunately, it is only by an inductive process, often uncertam, that the
forms of words can, generally speaking, be referred to this age. Inscrip-
tions, of course, have the greatest value ; but they are often inconsistent
even when contemporaneous. The earliest MSS. are several centuries
later than the Oiristian era ; and they also disagree. The opinions of old
grammarians are not less various. Hence it often happens that the
classical form of a word can be determined only by a balance of conflicting
evidence ; and difterent minds wiU strike the balance differeni^. A few
probable results, compendiously stated, must suffice here. The student
may compare Munro's Inftvd, to Lucretius, and Ribbeck's ProU^. to VirgU,

Here forms assumed to be most classical are named first : others of
nearly equal authority are added with 'or: ' those of minor authority are
withm brackets; those which seem inadmissible follow 'not,' and are in
italic type.

I) A, e : de&tigo or defetigo ; depedscor (depadscor).

3) •, ae, oe : caecus, not coecus ; caelum, heaven, not coelum ; also
caelum ftc gravmg'tool; caementnm (cementum); caerimonia,
not ceremoma ; caespes, not cespes ; Camena, not Camcena ; cena
&C., not coemi Sec; ceteri, not caeteri; faenum (fenum?), not
fietmm\ fecundus, vixA faecundus \ femina, jiQt Jbetmna \ fetus &&,
iMfietus; fenn8(foenn8);foedus,/fva(K;glAeba;heres,notAKfv;r;
levis, not laevis ; maerere and maestus, not moerere and moesius ;
oboodixe (obedire) ; obscenus, not obscaenus o^coenus ; Pael^usi

NN2 T

uiyiuzeu uy x^jv^wVt Iv

548 Appendix.

not PeUgnus ; paelex, not pdUx ; paenitet, not poemUt, but poena;
paenula, noiftenula ; pomaerium (pomerium) ; prelum, noi pradumi
proelium, not pradmm ; raeda, not reda rheda ; saectilumy not
seculutn ; saepes &c., not sepes &c. ; scaena (scena). *

3) e, 1: benevolus (benivolus) ; deminuere &c., not tSmtnugre &c. ;
di (dei), dis (dels) ; genetrix, not genitrix ; heri (here) ; intellego
(intelligo) ; negl^;o (negligo) ; protinus or protenus, but qoatenus ;
valetudo (valitudo) ; Vergilius, not Vir^Uus,

As respects -is (eis) or -es, Accus. Flur. of I-nouns, admitting
that in tne republican age -Is was the more usual, as it is cer-
tainly truer in formation, yet we believe that, before the age of
Quinidlian, -es was in general use ; and this, with its superior con-
venience, has led to its frequent retention. On -d or -i in AbL of
I-nouns, see § 24. 5.
- 4) 1, n : The middle tone between \ and il (see § 11. p. 8 ; § 12. p. 33),
led to the existence of a large number of double forms : aestimare
(aestumare) ; Brundtsium (Brundiisium) ; indutus (incUtos) ; l&bet
&C. or Ubet &c ; recuperare (redfperare) ; Dat PL of DecL 4 :
grad-Tbus &c. (^[radubus &c. § 25) ; maximus (maxiimus), and all
Superlatives ; vicenstmus (vicensumus), and other Ordinals in -Xmos
(-iunus) ; so marititmus (marit&oius) ; monimentum or monumentum ;
tollmen or tegumen ; and other similar derivatives. But the ii-fonn
in many of these was archaic in the Au£>ustan and following age,
which wrote camtfex rather than camilfex; lacrima rather than
lacruma ; dtpeus rather than diipeas ; optYmus rather than optiimus^
except perhaps in old formulas; mandpium, not mancupimm;
victima, not viciuma.

5) 6, n : -endus (-undus) in Gerundive forms : -undus was the andent
form, but superseded by -endus in the Imperial age.

•6) •, « : adulescens (Noun), adolescens (Part) ; epistula or epistola;
suboles (soboles). The earlier Latins, even to the Augustan age,
wiote o rather than « when « preceded : but « was recdved under
the emperors : hence vult (volt) ; avus (avos) ; equus (equos), ft&
But Ribbeck in Viigil almost always avoids wo, til See 12.

7) a, o : vertere (vortere) ; versus (vorsus) ; vertex (vortex). The
forms in o are comparativdy archaic. But fenoris or feneris,
feneror; iecinoris or iedneris ; pignoiis or pigneris, pigneror.

9 I, y : J is not propeily a Latin letter, but introduced in Cioeit/s
age to represent Greek v. Therefore, such forms as dyfeus, kyems,
itulytus^ ocyus, satyra^ stylus^ syha^ Sylla^ are now juily exploded,
the true forms b^ng dipeus (dtmeus), hiemps, indutus (inditvs),
odus, satira, stilus, silya, Sulla. But, where Giedc v is represented
bvy, this letter holds its proper place : lyra, Nympha, Syrus, Syria,

9) guo or iro : ling&re (linguere) ; ninffit (ninguit) ; stinguere and com-
pounds, not stingere\ tingire (tinguere) ; ungdre (ungueie), but
unguentum, unguen ; urgere (uiguere).

10) V or o : vicensimus (vigensimus), trlgensimus or trioensimns, b«it
quadragensimus, &c. ; so ducenti, trecenti, sescenti, but qnadrin-
genti or quadrigenti ; quingenti, &c ; vioeni, triceni, but <^uadn-
geni, &c ; duceni, treceni, sexceni or sesceni, but quadnngeni,
qumgeni, &c. See NuMERALiA, § 33. Cycnus or cygnus ; Cnosos
or Gnosus.

'') ffnorn: nasd not gnasci\ natus (gnatus), but agnatui, oofnatiii»
&C. ; noscere lixA gnasctre \ but agnosoere, cognoscere, Ac.

lOOgle

A. Orthography. 549

12) • or 4 (qn) : cotidie or cottidie, not qttotidU ; coquns (anc. cocns, coqus);

eqaus (anc. ecus, equs, equos) ; pecunia (anc pequnia) ; locutus
(anc. loqutus) ; secutus (anc. sequtus) ; loquuntur, sequnntur (anc.
locontur, secontur) ; cui (anc. quoi, quoei) ; cur (anc. qur, quor) ;
quum or cum, conj. (anc. qum, quom) ; cum, prep. (anc. qum,
quom). The form cum b good for preposition and conjuncnon ;
quom was used for both to the Augustan age: after which the dis-
hke of «« seems to have gone out of fashion ; and the form quum is
often used for the conjunction. But qu was uttered as c. labbeck
in Virgil commonly edits ecus, ecum (or -quos, -quom) locuntur,
secuntur, &c., instead of the forms with qn.

13) b for ▼ : ferbui or fervi ; to avoid vu.

14) b initial present or absent : Hadria, not Adria\ alucinari (halucinari) ;

Hammon ( Ammon) ; harena (arena) ; harundo or arundo ; haruspex
or aruspex; hariolus, not ariolus\ have (ave) ; hedera, not edera ;
cms, era, or herus, hera; heres (eres); herdscfire, not erciscere\
holus (olus); Hibcr (Iber) ; Histcr (Ister); umere, umor, &c.,
rather than humhr, humor^ &c ; umerus, not humems.

15) b interior: aeneus, &c. (aheneus, &c.) ; cohors or cors ; incohare

(inchoare) ; nihil or nil ; prendo (prehendo) ; vemens, not vehemms,

16) euphonic p : compsi, comptum, &c (comsi, comtum, &c.), and others ;

hiemps (hiems).

17) el or tl before a vowel. Authority &vours dido, condido, solacium,

patridus, tribunidus, &c., not diiioy &c. ; and contio, fetialis, in-
dutiae, nuntius, nuntiare, &c., setius; not concioy &c. Also con-
yitium rather than convicium ; suspitio (Subst.), raUier than suspido;
bat the forms of these with ol were also used. See Corssen, I. 56.

l8)boTp: caelebs (cadeps): urbs (urps),* &c., obsonium, obsonari
(opsoniam, opsonari) ; obtulit (optulit) ; subter (supter). But bs
was sounded as p«, bt as pt.

19) 4 or t final. In Quintilian's time the endings in d, baud, sed, apud,
&C., had become general in preference to Uie ardiaic t, haut (hau),
set, aput, &C. But 4 final was sounded as t.

ao> -ieere or -lioere. The compounds of iac^re have been elsewhere
noticed. To the Augustan age the single 1 seems to have prevailed :
adicere^ deicere^ conicere, reicere, &c. But in imperial times It
was at least admissible: adiicere, coiicere or coniicere, &c, the
former 1 being a consonant. And in adicere, &c 1 did double duty
as consonant and vowel «ad-3ri-cere, &c.

21) et or t: artus not arctus ; autumnus, not auctumnu5\ but auctor.

22) a kept or omitted : conectere, conexus, coniti, conivere, conixus,

conubium, not connectere, &c. (M. Lucr. L 633): coniunx (coiunx
coittx) : B before m was liable to elimination : thus Numeral Adverbs
in -ens passed into -es ; the earlier form being, however, generally
preserved : quotiens (quoties) ; totiens (toties) ; milieus (milies), &c.
So vicensimus (vicesimus). Such omissions of n abound in Inscr.
as cosol for conso^ cesor for censor. See Corssen, I. 249, &c

23) Consonants singled or doubled : on this point documents are especially

discrepant. We find Britannia or Bnttaimia ; cottidie or cotidie ;
luppiter (Inpiter) ; littera (litera) ; loquella or loquda ; querella or
quoela: bat medela, suadela, &c., also cautela, tutda, reliquiae
(reUiquiae), but relicnus (later reliquus) ; rdigio (relligio) : causa
(caussa) : paultun (paullum). But nummus (numus) ; bracchium,
not hrachmm\ Messalla, not Messala\ sollemnis, not soUnmsi

uiyiuzeu uy x^j v^ v^ -x i-V-

'550 Appendix,

sellers, &C., not iokrs^ &c. ; sollicitus, not j^»»0kx, &c. "^-Yet amdiis ;
rather than asnulus ; culeus rather than culleus, &c ; litns, not
liUus ; ilico rather than illico ; vilicus rather than villicus ; stili-
ddium. Pliny wrote mille but milia ; Augustus, however, writes
millia, milliens; and Corssen, I. 226, prefers the IL Reppuli,
repperi, rettuli, seem better than repuli, &c, which are, however,
used.

24) Assimilation : quidquid (quicquid) ; quicquam (quidqnam), quicqiie

(quidque) ; quamquam (quanquam) ; tamquam (tanquam) ; umquam,
numquam (unquam, nunquam) ; -cumque (cunque) ; quendam not
qttentdam \ eundem not mmdetn ; tantimdem not tantumdem ; qno-
rundam not quarumdam ; eonmdem not eorumdem. When m
remains before the guttural or dental, it is sounded as n : quamquam
s quanquam wheii uttered.

25) Assimilation of Compounded Prepositions. This is received or

rejected in MSS. and Inscr. with such apparently free option in
most instances, that no safe rules on the point can be laid down.
Thus we read in imperial times adlectus and allectus, coU^psus and
conlapsus, collegium and conlegium, illustris and inlustris, impen-
dium and inpendium, irritus and inritus, even imperium and in-
perium, &c. On the whole assimilation prevails. See Brambadi,
Neugestaltung der Latein. Orthographie, p. 300^ &c.

26) Not less uncertainty exists in regard to words banning with s, when

compounded with ex (ecs: c. U, ^i). We find exspectare and
expectare, exspirare and expirare ; exsequi, exsequiae, and cxe-
qui, exequiae ; exsecrari, &c., and execrari, &c. ; exserere and
exerere ; exsilire and exilire ; exsultare and exultare ; espedaUy
exsul, exsulare, exsilium with exul, exulare, exilium. In some
words, it is perhaps better to retain the « ; but exul, &c., have
ample authority ; and exddiimi (from exsdndo) is b^er estatiished
than exsddium.

27) Accessory Note :

' We have now (writes Mr. Munro) an accurate transcription of the
large fragments of the Ancyra monument, containing no doubt
an exact copy of the ** Res gestae " of Augustus, whidi, as
Tacitus (Ann, i. 1 1) tells us, he had written out with his own
hand, a short time probably before his death. The spdling is
interesting, as Suetonius says that Augustus was a purist on such
points.

' He always admits ra : rivus, vivus, as well as annnus ; but be
writes Phrates, praerant.

' In Gen. Plur. we find denarium, sestertium, deum, nummom ;
triumvirum, but xv virorum. In Gen. Sing, always 1, not tl ;
proeli, lull, Pompei, congiari. In Dat AbL Plur. of Bed. I
and 2, both U and lU : dis, colonis, provincis, &c. ; but also
consiliis, &c ; both municipis and munidpiis. Dalmateis, emer-
iteis, quadrigeis : but oftener Is in Dat. and AbL Plur. Some>
times U, but oftener es in Accus. Plur. of 3rd DecL : once
pluris in Nom. Plur.

^Honos, incohare, Messalla, plebis Gen. Sing., but plebei Dat,
sescenti, valetudo.

' Always 1, not «, in the fluctuating instances : l^timus, Septimus,
fi^equentissimus, redperare, manibiae, &c. Compare what Sueto-
nius (ch. 87) says of his writii^ sYmus for sumus. Perhi^ it
was this love of consistency which makes him always speD millia,

uiyiuzeu uy x^jv^v^pt lx^

B, Latin Pronunciation. 551

milliens ; though he writes milituxn, militare. He has absens,
not apsens ; adque, apud, sed, aliquod, with d not t ; cumque,
but nunquam. Always quotiens, not quoties ; milliens, vicensi-
mns, &c. Canssa, claussmn ; also clausum, indusmn.

'Generally he writes z, not zs, as exilium : compare Quintilian
(L 7» 4), who speaks of it as an affectation to wnte exspecto for
expiecto. But Augustus has exstinguere and sexsiens.

* He writes immortalis, but inmissus ; coUatidus ; once coll^um,
five times conl^;a or conlegium ; acdpere, oppressns, but ad-
signare; imperator, impendere; but inpoisa in the heading
written not by Augustus, but probably by Tiberius.'

These interesting extracts shew that spelling had a laige license even
in the Augustan age.

B. LATIN PRONUNCIATION.

In the year 1872, the Latin Professors of Oxford and Qam-
bridge (then Messrs. Palmer and Munro) issued the following
Syllabus, in compliance with request

' If it were thought advisable to adopt any existing pronunciation, we
should be inclined for many reasons to reconmiend the Italian with
perhaps a few modifications. But not to speak of other difficulties, tiie
tyrannv of accent over quantitv is at least as marked in the Italian as in the
£i^g;lish reading of Latin ; and we hold with the most experienced teachers
that to distinguish between long and short syllables is an essential part of a
reform in pronunciation. At the same time Italian appears to us to offer
many valuable aids which should not be neglected ; as English in its tones
and vocalisation seems so different from old Latin, that often it is not easy
to find in it even single sounds to give as adequate representations of an
old Latin sound. The Italian of literature has been fixed for six centuries,
and manifestly approximates to the Latin of the 7th or 8th century.

< There can be little doubt that during the best ages the writing, as seen
in inscriptions, was meant to represent exactly the sounding of words, and
that a difference of spelling implied so fiur a difference of pronouncing.

' We propose then that the letters of Latin should be sounded as fofiows :

*I. Vowds and Diphthongs :—

' a, as the accentuated Italian a : Le. as the middles of amata^ or as the 0
oifather.

' J, as the unaccentuated Italian a : Le. as the first and last a of amata.
It is not easy to represent this sound in English : we know nothing better
than the first a in cnuay^ aparty aha,

'^, as the Italian closed e : arena ; nearly as £U in English /am :

' or, as the Italian open e\ secolo ; nearly as the first e in English there^
or Frwich ph^e.

*/, the same sound shortened : nearly as in English mm, or our sounding
of M^y. A wide induction, extending firom classical times to the present,
would support what is said of ^, ae\ thus Italians represent Latin ae
always by their open e, and as a rule e by closed ^, / by open e,

'i^ as accentuated Italian*: i.e. as the first t of timidi^ or the * of
machine : f, as unaccentuated Italian i: i.e. as the two last f*s of Hmidt^ or
the i of pity. The way in which Latin f is represented in Greek on the

lOOgle

552 Appendix,

one hand, and in Italian on the other, and its history in Latin itseU, wookt
tend to shew that its actual sound approximated to that of e^ and was some-
thing between the i of pUy and the e of petty .

*dy as Italian closed o : nearly as in German ohne^ English more,

* iff as Italian open o shortened : nearly as in German gM ; less nearly as
in English oftyt. The English and English-Latin o is very peculiar, in most
cases hardly an ^ at aU : compare our Aonas, domos \ and our non^ bos^
pons on the one hand with nos, Aos, donum on the other.

* Perhaps, comparing Italian, we should pronounce d, when it precedes r,
or when it represents aUj as the Italian open o : gloria^ tnctoria^ plostrum^
Clodius,

* Hf as accentuated Italian m : as the first u of tumuiOf the second of
iumulto, or as M in rule, lure.

*a, as unaccentuated Italian « : as the second u of tumulo, the first of
tumulto, the u oi fruition,

'aUf as Italian au : nearly slsowijx English ^Kncvr.

' In genuine Latin words the other di^thongs are very rare, except ia
archaisms where ei, oe, oi, ou are common enough.

* m, as Italian m, or Latin / quickly followed by Latin i?. Of Latin
words we find perhaps only Aeu, cat, sat ; and we do not fed competent to
propose a different sound for it in the many Greek words adopted into
Laitm.

'^is also very rare in Latin words : for them, as well as for Greek woids^
we should prefer a sound like the German d' : as an alternative we propose
the open Italian c for oe, as before for ae,

' ^* too as a diphthong is very rare : we would give it the Latin / sound
quickly followed by a Latin f sound.

* But in a large dass of words containing ae, ei, oi, or ui, iUbt i is a, semi-
consonant, and should be sounded like English y : pronounce Grtmu,
maior, Thna, ei$ts, Pimtpeius, Seianus, cuius, as Grd'yus, ma-yor, Trb-ya^
e-yus, Pompe^yus, Se-yanus, cQ-yus: eicit, reicit, as e-yieit, re-yicit. The »
or e iAproin, prout, dein, ddnde, when not forming a distinct ^llaUe, does
not form a diphthong, but is elided, and must be treated as a mial vowd is
treated, when it is elided before an initial, vowd : so in neOtifuam e is
dided.

* II. In a fuller Discussion more might be said of the Consonants : afe»
Remarks must suffice for the preset^,

* c, alwa]^ as >& : in Cicero, fades, as well as Cacus,

*g, always as ^ in ^ : in gero, gingiva, gyrus as wdl nsgaudeo,

* s, at the beginning and end of words, and at the bes[iiming of syDables,
and bdbre consonants, is always sharp (as the s of sin) in Italian and
should be so in Latin : sol, stella, de-sero, ni-si, nos, sonm,

^s, between two vowels, has in Italian a soft z sound, as in our rose : we
would thus sound in Latin rosa, musa, miser. But words of this kiixi in
Latin are but few : much more numerous are those where s m^giit also be
written ss, a lost consonant having been assimilated and the vowd always
lengthened : cattsa, casus, visus, odiosus, divisio (see Quintilian I, 7, 20).
ItaUan is here very suggestive ; and in all these wofds s should be sharp.

' / is always a pure dental, in ratio as in ratis, in notio as in notus, in
vitium as in tnta.

* bs, bt should be sounded (and generally written) 9Spt^pi: U^ms^ aps^
apsens, optulit, supter.

* /, or consonant /, as ^ in yard.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

B. Pronunciation.

555

' As to consonant i#, or v^ we believe that its sound was as near as-
possible to that of the vowel m : L e. like the oh of the French oid^ not differix^
much therefore from English w. But as there is great diversity of opinion
on this point, we propose to leave it an open question, whether it shall be
pronounced in this way, or as the English and Italian v,

'^, s, ch^ ph^ th were brought into the language to represent Greek
sounds : s, ph^ th we propose should be sounded as at present : ch should
never be pronounced as in our charter : it would be better to give it a i^
sound succeeded by an i sound ; but it must follow the fortunes of Gredc x*
y^ or Greek v, had some middle sound between Latin u and i, perhaps re-
sembling either French u or German u \ but^ and j^ came probably much
nearer to i and f than to u and H.

* In our Latin pronunciation quantity is systematically neglected: attention
to it seems essential in any reformed method : a and d should be distin-
guished in matris undpatris, as in mater and pater. The ancients observed
the natural length of vowels, when the syllable was also long by position :
as in Marcus^ pastor : Cicero tells us that every vowel when followed by ns
or nf became long by nature : as in infimus^ insanus : gn seems to have
had the same power over the preceding; voweL Often too an extruded
consonant leaves a naturally short vowel long : e from/ijc.' es, est from edo r
Sestius (IVtios), but Sextius (2^|tios). On the other hand the long vowd
of many final syllables in time became short ; and we can scarcely suppose
that, while the naturally long vowel in amat, docet was shortened, it always
remained long in amant, decent : it seems certain also, whatever the reason
may be, that the e was short in docentis^ etc, as much as in legentis^
audientis.

' Following the tradition of the Italians, we fortunately keep the accent in
most cases on the right syllable, though the loss of quantity has changed
its nature. In a summary like this we cannot dwell on the exceptions.

* In respect of elision we may see, by comparing Plautus and Terence
with Ovid, how much the elaborate cultivation of the language had tended
to a more distinct sounding of final syllables. We must not altogether
pass over the elided vowel or the elided syllable which ends in m, except
perhaps in the case of / in common words, que, neque^ and the like. How
fiu- too final m was mute, or nasal, it is not easy to determine. Est 'is'
seems often in pronunciation (and in writing) to have lost its e and become
an enclitic st after a vowel or m : thus tuo est, meum est can end an Ovidian
pentameter, labori ist an Hexameter : we must therefore pronounce tuost^

To the foregoing suggestions of these eminent scholars the present
Editor assents generally. Only, (i) He cannot conceive that oe ought to be
sounded in the same manner as ae, even alternatively ; (2) It is not to his
mind an open question, whether Latin ▼ had the sound of English ▼. His
principal reasons for believing that Latin ▼ had always the sound, or nearly
the sound, of English w are given in a foot-note on pp. 66-7.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

SS4

Appendix.

a AFFINITIES IN THE ARYAN FAMILY.

I. As a stimulus to the interesting study of Comparative
Philology, examples are here given of the afl&nity between
words in Latin, Greek, and Indie (Sanskrit).

i) Noons.

Gr.

Gr.

aes

—

ayas (tfwi)

mater

fiipip

mfttar

aevum

alfiiy

&yuiiUA)

medius

|M<rvof

madhyas
nas,xAs

ager

*YP^

uras
ahis

nasus

P«

anguts

^t«

navis

rave

naus

aniinus

OMIiOC

anilas

novus

Wfoc

navas

anser

x4y

hansas

nox (noct-)

Fikr-

n^VtafW

aurora

nubes

W^

nabhas

bos

fiout

gaus
ivan

od-or

•tmk

SAis

can-is

<ev«r

oc-ulus

ow-

akshi

cor(d-)

icap6ia

hrid, bard

opus

apas

cuculus

k6kkv(

kokilas

os(oss-)

o^rc-or

astbi

dens

IMrr-

dant

ovis

o7!f

avis

deus \
divusf

div- devas \
dyaus J

patCT ,

pitar

pcs(p«d.)

irda.

pftd

dexter

e«^T«p^

fwkshi^yas

primus

rpofUtt

domus

i6futs

damas

sal

^f

saras

ego

ry^

aham

somnus

VWMK

svapnas

equus

twwot

aivas

Stella \
a-strum j

»}

fores

evt>a

dvSr

star

fratcr

^pdriip

bhrdtar

svasar

fumus
genu

ywv

dhflmas
jSnu

sua-vis
suus

f*r

svfidus
svas

gravis
hiem-8

gurus

taurus
umerus

ravpoc

stuoras {xt^n^gj
ansas

ignis
imber

m'^itt

agnis
abhram

ulna
ursus

apJCTO(

aratni

rikshas^ arkdtts

iecur

yakrit, yakart

ver

Sap

vasantas

laus

iravas

Vesta

vasia. vtstn

levir

ianp

devar

vestis

io^

(vasti)

lupiis

XvKOi

vpkas, varkas

vidua

vidbava

lux (luc-)

KVK'

rue'

virus

«Js "

vishas

mag-n-us

tiiyt

mahi

2)^

/erbs.

L.

Gr.

I.

L.

Gr.

L

aest-uo
ait

indb
Sba

^}

^Xiym

bhi^

ago

^

frii^

My^

S?^

apiscor
aro

ip6»

<^> •« •

fu-
fugio

bhd

bhiu(i»0

bibo
cano
cio

wo-

p&(pibftini)
kvan

lungo
linquo

ACiVM

s

duo

coquo

credo

KkVU

6m
pad

loquor
lubet

AM.

h£l

i irad-dadbSmi)

luo

X^

10

creo

Kpaint

fekar

men-

•dico \
-dicoj

Uut-

di<

moneo, &C.

man

do

Bi-^iu

dfi (da-dS-mi)

metior

mi

(-dere)
domo

CC"

dh& (da-dhft-ml)

mmuo
misceo

ml.in|.iitirf
miir

Sdo

SKT

ad

morior

^*uy)

mp.mar.

iss>

l(.W)

bMsb

mulgeo
mungo

MMwrn

mrii.wad
mud

fm

^-VOi

(g)no6co

jnfi

iero

^P«

bhn,bhar

pac-iscor

wy-

pa<

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

C. Affinities in the Aryan Family.

555

2) Verbs — continued.

L.

Gr.

I.

L.

Gr.

L

^teo

irij|ui-vAi|^(

grtpar

tejco

ariym

•thag

4n»e-sco

mi-|uu

ten-do

Tfr-TW

tan

•dndo

gt.>

aiid

terreo

-rpim

tras

sedeo

sad

toUo

ToA- rAa-

to]

•equor

tfiro^Mi

sad

uro, ussi

—

ush

sapo

^pim

^Mttp

veho

Foxfm

vah

»ec-

verto

vrit, vart

stenu)

vrpmrrvfu

AtQlCsU)

vestio

i4m

vas

sto

era-

video

•««•

rvid,A«wr)
(val?)

coo

—.

av

volvo

^1^

<e)Mim (esse) l9-iu

as-mi

vomo

f«^

▼am

3) Particles.

L.

Gr.

L

L.

Gr.

I.

Ab

Jhrtf

apa

Ob

htl

abhi

.ante

^Lrri

and

per

«p*

pari

«t,et

Iri

at-i

pro

wp6

C'di

bU

a^

dvis

quando

icTrc

hen
in

r

hyai
m(am?)

semi-
simul

a::-

aam-

in.

«.ir.

a-an-

sub

i«tf

upa

intus

<rT6«

super

v«4p

upari

Mii

4) Numerals. See $ 34, ▼!.

In the Sanskrit words palatal k' is expressed by d (sounded as ch in
* child ') ; the softly aspirated sibilant (often representing LAtin c, Greek k)
by s'. The vowel ri may be rendered by ar (vrit = vart).

II. Grimm's Law teaches that the Mute Consonants of
Latin, Greek, and (generally) Indie, when they pass into Low
Dutch and High Dutch languages respectively, undergo certain
•definite changes ; namely : —

When L., Gr., I. have sonant surd aspirate

Low Dutch has surd aspirate sonant

High Dutch has aspirate sonant surd

1. Among Low Dutch languages are (^thic, Friedc, Dutch, English ;
High Dutch are Old, Middle, and present German.

2. The Surds are c, q, k, t, p ; the Sonants, g, d, b, v; the Aspirates,
xih, th, z, ss, ph, f, pf.

1. L. effo
L. cord-
is Ob

2. L. taoere
L. tn

L. pater

3. Gr. \%txw
Gr. BvyAna
Gr. «cc^aX^

ExampUs.

Goth, ik
Eng. heart
Eng. up
Goth. •h«»Ti«"
Eng. thou
Eng. Ikther
Go3i. laifon
Goth. Oauhtar
Goth, haubith

Germ. ieli

Germ. hers

Germ. auf

M. G. dagen

Germ. du

Germ. vater

Germ. leeken

Germ. tochter

Germ. haupt

(This law is subject to exceptions.)

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

S56 Appendix.

D. THE ANCIENT DIALECTS OF ITALY.

On the ancient races and dialects of Italy, see T. Momm-
sen's History of Romcy bk. i. ch. 2. 3. 9. 13. 14. Mommsen
comes to the following conclusion : ' tiiat from the common,
cradle of peoples and languages there issued a stock which
embraced in common the ancestors of the Greeks and the
Italians; that from this, at a subsequent period, the Italiaa
branched off, and these again into the western and eastern
stocks, while at a still later date the eastern became subdivided
into Umbrians and Oscans/ As to the Etruscans, who called
themselves Ras or Ras-ennae, he says they were not, according
to the story, Lydian emigrants from Asia ; they perhaps had
their earlier abode in the Raetian Alps, thence migrating into
Italy and driving out the Umbrians from the land afterwards
called Etruria. Their name (Rasennae) seems to have passed
into Tursennae, Turseni, Tyrrheni, which the Umbrians dian^ged
into Tursci, the Romans into Tusd and Etrusci. Their lan-
guage (he adds) differs as widely from all the Graeco-Italian
dialects as did the languages of the Kelts or of the Sdavonians.
Yet he thinks they may have belonged to the Aryan family.
They received a modification, or rather several modifications^
of tiie Semitic alphabet, from which their neighbours, the
Umbrians and Sabellians, obtained their oldest letters.

Our knowledge of the early dialects of Italy is chiefly gained
from extant inscriptions, some of which are sepulchral, some
dedicatory, while others contain laws, decrees, or religions
formularies. Besides Latin and Etruscan, the dialects of
which the most specimens survive are the Umbrian and the
Oscan, the former in eastern and north midland Italy; the
latter chiefly in its south midland districts. Between these the
Sabellian forms a link : while Faliscan (a relic of Umbrian in
Etruria) and Volscian, south of the Roman plain, and cognate
to Oscan, appear in a few remaining fragments.

A) The Umbrian Dialect.

The most important remains are the Eugubine Tables, seven in nnmber,
discovered in the 15th century near Gubbio (Iguvium). Th^ are a code
of religious ceremonies, engraved partly in letters of an alphabet borrowed
from Etruria, partly in Roman letters. The ancient letters contain an
older, the Roman a later Umbrian dialect. Old Umbrian is without the
letters o, g, d, q, x. Of these o is represented by u ; d by a peculiar
form of r (here marked r), which in New Umbrian becomes rs. Old Um-
brian has k, but not hard c ; it has a soft c fliere marked o), which in New
Umbnan we mark as s. Final z—ts.

(New Umbrian fonns stand between brackets. Latin eqnifalents.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

D. Italian Dialects, 557

a) Umbrian Vowels.

Diphthongs faded into long vowels in New Umbrian : as, (qu&turW
4^naestor. Ai=aj ; ei is medial between ! and e ; au bet^v^en u and o,
usually becoming o: (toni)»taurus. Sometimes i takes the place of u:

!si-m) a snem ; (mani) *- manu. Compounds seldom weaken a into i : thus,
proomurent) « procmuerint Vowels are dropt by Syncope and Apocope ;
thos, pihazspiatus; katel»catnlus. lu (io) becomes i; tertisstertius"
so in old Latin alis* alius, alidsaliud.

b) Umbrian Consonants.

P represents Latin qu : pis^quis : — ^r (rs)iBd : arveitu « advehito, rere
adedit: — ^nd is changed into nn or n, (pihan6r) for (pihand&)*piandi;
panupdfor pandupeisquandoque. B stands for v: benest-»veniet : for
p : Irabru for kapni»caprum. R for s is frequent : em (erom) for esum
aicsse ; -arum for -asum ; (totar) fortutas ; but asaaara ; fust=fuerit, &c.
M and s final are weaker than in Latin, and generally &11 off : kapru or
kabru-icaprmn ; puplu (poplo) spopulus : also t &lls off: fJMias&dat;
rere for dedet * dedit.

Thus we see in this early language that Italian tendency to reject con-
sonant terminations, which, checked for many centuries by the intervention
of classical Latin, set in again with the decay of Rome, and culminated in
the modem Italian.

The chief final consonants in Umbrian are r, t, s, m (all weak and

rThaps hardly sounded when written) ; rarely n, z ; f in Accus. Plur. >
in a few pronouns, p (b Latin que) in a few particles.

c) Umbrian Nouns.

I) First or A-Dedension.
Sing. N. a, u (o). Ace. am. G. as (ar). D. e. Abl. a. Loc.

amem, emem (eme, e).
Plur. N. as (ar). Ace. af. G. amm. D. Abl, es. Loc. afem,
afe.

Examples: tuta (tota) or tutu (toto), a state, people; asaaara;
(cesna) =cena ; (peica) spica, &c.

a) Second or 0-Declension (regular form).

Sing. N. us (os). Voc. e. Ace. um (om). G. es (er). D. e. AbL

u (o). Loc umem (omem).
Plur. N. us (ur, or). Ace. uf (of). G. um (om). D. AbL es (er, ir,

eir). Loc. ufem (ofem).

Examples : puplus (poplos) ; kaprus (kapros), &c.

Syncopated forms occur : ins (is) : Ikuvins (Ikovis) for Ikuvi-
nus ; az (os) : pihaz (pihos) for piatus, &c. ; and apocopated
forms : katel = catulus ; (ager), &c. Neuters in um (om)
differ only as in Latin ; having PI. N. Ace. in a, u, o.

3) Third or Consonant and I-Dedension.

Sing. N. masc. fem. s or none. Ace m. G. es (er). D. e. AbL

e, i (ei). Loc. emem.
Plur. N. masc fem. es (er). Ace f. G. um (om). D. AbL es,
is (eb). Loc efem.

Examples : Cons. Noun, kvfetur (qu^stur) ; I-Noun, ukar (okai),
Nom. S. (okris), a mountain.
Neuters, which are rare, have a in Accus. PL

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

558 Appendix.

U-Nouns are few: manusmanos; vutu^voltns: D. S. mana; AbL
S. maniy for mann.

d) Umbrian Verbs.

Verb of Being : enim (erom) ^esse. Besides this form are extant onl^
estaaest; (sent) a sunt; (sir)a>sis; (si)=sit; (sins)asint

From root fii- are extant: faia=fiat ; fuiestafiet ; ftist=faerit ; fiuent*
fiierint; (utusfito; (fututo) » fitote.

Umbrian has the Consonant, A, and E-Conjngations. Huschke attempts
a paradigm of the Tenses, which Donaldson cites {yarron, p. 104). A
few well-established forms must suffice here.

Pres. Ind. -u « -o : sestu >= sisto ; (suboca-n) ssubvoco ; stahu =sto.
Pass, emantur.

Pres. Conj. fecial faciat, tera (dersa, dirsa)sdet or rather di-det, the
Verb being a reauplicated form of da ; (dirsans, dirsas) ^dent, (porta4-a>
■■portet; (etaians, etaias)Biitent ; habia=habeat; ariiabassaohibeant.
Pass, mugatu^mugiatur.

S. Fut benes - venies ; fcrest = feret ; (eest) = ibit ; habiest - habebit j
staheren ■■ stabunt.

Perf. Indie. -fiH-yi; pihafispiavi.

Fut Perf. -ust" -uent ; -urent « -uerint ; (benust) = vencrit ; terost^
(dirsust) *• dederit ; (iust) « ierit ; fakust ^ fecerit ; (andersesust) = inter-
stiterit ; dersikustsdixerit ; (portust) sportaverit ; (habust) —habuerit ; —
ambrefnrent=ambiverint; (procanurent)Bprocinuerint ; pihazfust-^piatas
fiierit ; oersnatur furentncenati fiierint.

Imperative: -tu— -to; -tuta -tutu (-tuto) = -tote ; aitu-Baieto; terta
(dirstu, ditu) ■■ dato ; teitu (deitu) => dicito ; feitu, fetu «» fiuato ; am-
prehtu «a ambito ; enetu = inito 5 upetu — obito ; kuveitu i» conrehito ;
(etuto)-ieunto; aitutu^aiunto; habetu-^habeto ; habetutu (habituto)^
habento.

Partic. Per£ Pass, -tu -tos-tus : declined as noun: (screhto) sscriptam;
(comohota) a commota.

Gerundive: probably -nusv-ndus: pihan^r-ipiandi

Infin. Pres. Act. -um=£re; ferum-tferre; %iu, for fagiu-m, B&cerc.

There are also traces of Supines -um -u.

e) Umbrian Numerals.

x) Cardinal: otUy unu-tunus: two^ dusduo; from whidi Nom. m.
dur, Ace. m. duf, f. tuf, n. tuva ; Abl. tuves : — ihree^ Ace m. L
tre^ tre (trif treif), n. trija, AbL tris. We find the word (petor-
pnrsus)aquadrupedibus: therefore petoresmxattuor (whenc peter-
ritum, a fimr-wheeled carriagt^ Hor.). We find semenifs (seh-
menier, sdiemenier)s=semestnbus; Uierefore se (sehe)Bsex: also
(desendul)i>duodecim ; therefore de9en (desen)BdecenL Otheis
are not extant : but, under 1000, a general correspondence with
Latin numerals may be inferred.

2) Ordinal: prumu (promo) » primus : tertiu (tertio) ■Btertius : tnpla
B duplus. Others are not extant

f ) Umbrian Pronouns.

1) Personal Firsts (mehe)3snuhL Second: Ace S. tiu (tio, ti<nn>
ate: (tefe)aBtibL Reflex. (seso)BBsibL

2) Possessive. AbL S. tuer (tover)«tuo: tu2»tua; vestril-ivestri.

3) Demonstrative. Various cases occur of the following :

Ere, crek (erec)— is; (esto)-iiste; (eso)shic; (ero)— ilk. Pro-
bably also (ho) B hie ; this occurs only in the affix -hunt (-hoot)
attached to some forms of erdc and cro, like -ce in Latin.

uiyiiized byVjOOQlC

D. Italian Dialects.

559

4) Relative and Interrogative.

RcL (poe) 1 pu=»qui, quae; svepu^siqua. Another Rel. is pure
(porse). Of these only a few forms are extant. Pis » quis ? pisl
esquis indef. ; pisipompevquicumque.

g) Umbrian Particles.

1) Adverbs: (rehte)—recte ; supeme ; (nesimei) ■tproxime. Enik,
erakaillic; esuf-tistic; ifeKibi;if-onts ibidem. Enuk, enu (eno),
mnmek, erek (erse)-itunc, tum; pannpei»quandoque; este, isek,
iteksita; neipanon, nee.

2) Prepositions: Separable, ar (ars)«=ad; (ehe, eh)»ex; hutra
(hondra)B infra; kum (com) ku (co)KCum, con- co- ; pus (post)
= post ; pustin (posti) = post-in ; pre « prae ; (sei) = se ; super ;
(subra)asnpra ; tra (tref, trahef, traha)= trans: per^irfp/, pro, is
appended to its case : tutaper Ikuvina»pro avitate Eugubina.
Inseparable: an»in (negative); amb- ampr- (ambr-)a>ambi: ah
(aha), periiaps»ab ; anter (ander) » inter ; en— in ; up, us (os) re ;
sub for up-s, —ob, os ; pru (pro) —pro ; pur —por- in porrigo, &c.

3) Conjunctions : Coordinative : et ; several others also, ene, enu, &c.
=et ; neife=neque ; ute (ate) =aut ; heris — heris=vel — ^vd ; (surur,
surunmt) sdein, deinde (?).

Subordinative : ape (apei)«ubi; (amipo)*«donicum, donee (?) ;
prepa — priusquam ; pus-pane •■ postquam ; pune » quum ; pufe
■subi ; pere (perse, pirse)»quippe ; (pirsi) —quando ; puze (puse,
pusd) ■■ quasi ; sve = si ; (nosve) = nisi ; svepis — siquis ; svepn
(svepo)«siqua.

Note. The following Latin Verb-roots occur in Umbrian: (ae-) ; aj-»
ai-ere ; ben- —venire ; der (ders-) or ded- reduplicated from da- ; dik-, deik-
»dicere; i-, e-—ire; em-aemere; es-^esse; fak-=facere; fer-—fcrre;
fing- = fingere ; frek- — fricare ; fii- ; gna- — g-nasci ; (gno-) — g-noscere ;
babe- — habere ; hera » velle ; kan- = canere ; cave- « ca vere ; krema- =»
cremare ; kura-=a curare ; ci- — cire ; (loka-) = locare ; mal- =» molere ;
(move-) = movere ; mu^ = mugire ; ning- = ningere ; ug- (og-) = augere ;
ul- (ol-) ; ur- (or-)=onri ; par^par^re ; penn-pendere ; pese ; ple-=»
plere ; (porta-) = portare ; ques- = quaerere ; seka- = secare ; sere- =» servare ;
skrdi- B scribore, (sona-) b sonare ; stahe- » stare ; sum- « sumere ; take- »
tacere ; tene- - tenere ; tenn- = tendere ; terg- = teigere ; trem- = tremere ;
turse-^torrere; vei- veh- = vehere; vel-= velle; vert- = vertere ; vire-»
videre ; (v-oka) ^vocare. Perhaps also the root tu- (to-) represents Indian
dhft, Gr. 9ff-, Lat. -de-re.

B) The Oscan Dialect.

Of the Oscan inscriptions some are in the old Umbro-Oscan cha-
racters borrowed from Etniria, others in the Roman, a few in Greek letters.
The chief fragment is the Tabula Bantina found in 1793, containing
Roman Uws for the Apulian town of Bantia.

The old Oscan is without o, (^, x : its other letters generally agree in
power, though not iir shape, with the corresponding Latin. It had
however two forms of i, and two of u. The second form of i, which in-
clined to e or ei, is here noted as t, and the second form of u, which in-
clined to o, as «. In the Tabula Bantina they are not distinguished
fromi, a

(New Oscan forms stand between brackets.)

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

56o Appendix.

a) Oscan Vowels.

The Oscan diphthongs agree generally with the Latin : alsae, andently
^; elaei; vi«oe, anciently oi.

Weakening of vowels is less frequent than in Latin : thus (fefacust) ^
fecerit : Syncope and Apocope often occur, especially in DecL 2 : ti&vtlks
■i tuticus ; Bantins » Bantinus ; Fiimpaiians ^ Pompeianus ; cevs b ci vis ;
hurssshortus ; Mutil=Mutilus, &c. Also HelrennissHerennius ; Puntits
s: Pontius, &C. Oscan often inserts a vowel between a liquid and another
•consonant : ter-^mniss*terminos ; ar-a-getudsaxgento ; also i before i or
z,\ tiurri—turrim ; VilnikiissVinicius.

b) Oscan Consonants.

Here we find much resemblance to Umbrian. Thus p*«q: pams
•quam, n^/ivrics s Quintius ; ben- s ven- : kumbened b convenit ; nn = nd :
«psannam»operandam ; ht=ct, saahtumB8an(c)tum; ditxadBCxtia; ft
»pt; (scriftas) a scriptx ; multas (moltas)Bmultae. T remains after ns :
(censtur) » censor ; ti before a vowel -ss: (Bansae)sBBantiae. S remains
between vowels: asa=ara; but in Gen. PL (-azum) n-arum : here and in
•azet for uerit zt=soft s ; but in horzshortus z»ts ; in (zicolom) sdiecolmn
2sds. V may come between u smd a consonant : tnvttksstuticus. Final
m, s, t, do not fall off as in Umbrian. We find the ending d in AbL S.,
as in old Latin ^ toutad ; suvad*suS; (dolud)Bdolo; also in some 3id
Persons of Verbis, as deded«dedit; in the Imperative: llkitud«liceto;
•estud«esto ; and in Adverbs : amprufidKimprobe ; ehtrads extra.

c) Oscan Declensions.

1) First or A-Declension.

Sing. N. masc as, a, fem. « (o). Ace. am. G. masc. ai, fern. as. D.

at. Abl. ad. Loc. at (ae).
Plur. N as ? Ac as. G. (azum). D. AbL ais.

Examples : tuvta (touta) tnvtn (touto), a state or people \ viva via.

2) Second or O-Dedension.

Sing. N. ns (os, us). Ace. mm (om). G. eis. D. vL AbL «d (ad).

Dx^ el.
Plur. N. us. Ace. uss. G. um. Abl. vis (ois).

Example: status; (dolus).
As in Umbrian, the Nom. S. often takes other forms : ins for imts ; ans
for anus ; Is for ius, &c.
The variation of Neuters resembles that in Latin.

3) Third or Consonant and I-Nouns.

Sing. N. s or none. Ace Im. D. rt. AbL id.
Plur. N. ss or none. Ace. D. AbL iss.
The Neuters have no distinctive peculiarities.

Note. * Meddls (meddix, medix) tnvtlkus* (tuticus) is the Oscan name
for the chief magistrate, or mayor, of a town. See Liv. xxiii 35, xxiv. 19,
xxvi. 6.

d) Oscan Verbs :

Verb of Being: root es ; sum; lsl«est; (set)aBsit; estud^esto:
Toot fti : (ftiid)«=fiat: fiisld (fiist)«-fiet ; fiifims»ftierunt

The Conjugations are Consonant and A only : Pres. Ind. Act. (anget)
*agit; amfret« ambit; (dat) ; faamat » habitat ; eltunsBeunt Piss.
(vincter) «= vincitur ; sakarater « sacratur.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

D. Italian Dialects, 561

Pres. Conj. Act. (angit) = agat ; (hipid) = habeat, (pnihipid)-prohibcati
stalt-stet ; (dat)=det : Plur. 3rd P. -Ins.

Pass. sakahlter«-sacretur.

S. Fut. Ind. Act. (didest) « didet, (deivast)»iurabit.

Perf. Ind. Act. priifatted=probavit ; (deicans) =dixenint.

Put. Perf. Act. (dicust) - dixerit ; (hipust) = habuerit ; (fefecust) =
fecerit.

Imperat. Act. likltud (licitud) » liceto ; factud » facito.

Infin. Pres. (deicum) a dicere ; (moltaum)Bmultare ; (censamur) =
censeri.

Part Perf. P. (censto)='censo; pnsst = positus ; (deivatud)-iiurato.
Gerundive: «psannam*operandani.

e) Oscan Pronouns,

1) Possessive : savels^sui ; suvad = su&; (sivpin» siom)BSuum, n.

2) Demonstrative : izlk (izic), Ink, Idik (idic)*is, ea, id : in (ionc)
-leum ; Istdumasidem : ekik (exdc) sillud, with other case-forms of
the same pronoun, of which Nom. S. is not extant, but supposed by
Mommsen to be ekus, eksus, by Aufrecht eiso (eizo), Umbr. eso =hic

3) Relative and Interrogative.

S. Pus (pos) pal (pae) pud (pod) = qui quae quod : (phim) pam pud
(pod)3squem quam quod: puv««quo. PI. pnsaqui ; (pous)<-
quibus. Pis, pld — quis quid ? (pieis) — cuius ? ; (pitpit) ■» quidquid ;
-pldo-que; pvitiinis-pldsutrique, pL .

f) Oscan Particles :

1) Adverbs: (amprufid) s improbe ; ipaibi ; (mais)=:magis ; (min) »
minus; prof * probe; fortiss forte.

2) Prepositions : Separable : az^ante ; anter sinter ; ehtradsextra ;
kum (com) = cum, com; (contrud)— contra; up (op)=ob, apud;
(perum)Bper; pust (post) = post Inseparable: (an- am- a-)a
in- ; (-en)=in ; pru-=Bpro.

3) Conjunctions : Coord. ; avt (aut) =at ; (auti) =iaut ; ekkum^item ;
Inlm (inim), in (in), &c. ^et; (-ni)=ne; nep (ne, nei, neip)aa
non, ne. Subord. pun (pon)»quom, cum; (pam, pan) » quam;
(pruter-pam pruter-pan) »priusquam ; puf aubi ; pnkkapid (pocapit)
= quandoque ; sva (sve) >= sL

Note, The chief Latin Verb-roots found in Oscan are : ag- ; c-ben- »
venire ; kumben- =convenire ; censa- =censere ; da- ; deic- die- =dicere ;
(deiva-)aiurare; e- i-»ire; em-; es- ; fac- ; fu- ; habe- haf- (hip-)-
habere (pruhip- «prohibere) ; Uga- =l^;are ; (molta-) «>multare ; pat- =
pandere; pnua- «probare; pus-(pos-)-ponere j rega- = r^;ere ; sac- =
sancire; ssdcara-asacrare ; sta- ; vinc-=vincere.

[The fullest account of the Umbrian dialect will be found in Aufrecht
and Kirchhoffs Umbriscfu Dmkmdler : of the Oscan, Sabellian, &c in
T. Mommsen's Die Unterilalischen DiaUkte. The student should also con-
sult Schleicher's Vergieiehende Grammatik^ Corssen's Ausspraehe^ &c., and
various papers in Kiihn's Zeitschrift by Corssen and other scholars.
Donaldson's Varronianus gives much valuable information : but some of its
theories must be cautiously viewed. See Peile's Introduction to Greek and
Latin Etymology. '\

C) Specimens of Ancient Latin, taken from Corpus Inscriptionnm
latinarum (Ritschl and Mommsen).

I. Epitaph of L. Cornelius Scipio Consul B.c. 259.
Ilonc oino ploirume cosentiont R[omai]
duonoro optimo fuise uiro uiroro

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

562 Appendix.

Luciom Scipione : filios Barbati

consol censor aidilis hie fiiet a[pud uos :]

hec cepit Corsica Aleriaque urbe [pacnandod :]

dedit Tempestatebus aide mcretofd uotam.] 32.

[In Classical Latin : Hunc unnm plurimi consentiunt Romae bonomm
optimum fiiisse virum virorum Lucium Sdpionem : filius Barbati consul
* censor aedilis hie fuit apud vos : hie cepit Corsicam Aleriamque urbem
pugnando, dedit Tempestatibus aedem merito votam.]

IL Epitaph of another L. Cornelius Scipio.

L. Comelio Gn. F. Gn. N. Scipio.

Magna sapientia multasque uirtutes

aetate quom parua posidet hoc saxsum.

quoiei uita defecit, non honos, honore,

is hie situs quei nunquam uictus est uirtuteL

annos |;natus uiginti is Diteist mandatus :

ne quairatis honore quei minus sit mandatus. 34.

[In Classical Latin: L. Cornelius Gnaei filius, Gnaei nepos, Scipio:
magnam sapientiam multasque virtutes aetate cum panra possidet hoc
saxum : cui vita defecit non honos honorem (?) is hie situs est qui nunquam
victus est virtute : annos natus yiginti is Diti est mandatus, ne qnaeiatis
honorem (eius) qui non sit mandatus.]

III. The Columna Rostrata in honour of C. Duilius, Consul B.C. 260^
which seems to be an antiquarian restoration of the Empire, is restored and
explained by the learned editors, I. 195. But every line and sentence is
mutilated. No consonants are doubled ; c stands for g, as ledoneis ; exemrt
for exemit; we find maxonosque macistratos, but [maxjvmas copias;
castreis, sodeb ; numei ; naveis, claseis, but also navales, clases ;
exfodont » efliigiunt.

Extract: Ma[celam . .] pucnandod cepet enque eodem mac[istratod
prospere r]em navebos marld consol primos e[eset c]Iasesque navaks ■
primos omavet, cumque eis navebos claseis Poenicas om[nes . . "max]
umasque copias Cartacmiensis praesente[d maxumod d]ictatored o[Ior]oiD
in altod marld puc[nandod vicet].

[In Classical Latin : Macelam urbem pugnando cepit, inque eodem
magistratu prospere rem navibus mari consul primus gessit, dassesque
navales primus omavit, cumque eis navibus classes F^nicas omnes . .
maximasque copias Carthagimenses praesente maximo dictators illonim
in alto mari pugnando vicit ] I - i.

In the second 'navebos' the stonecutter had engraved u first, then o
over it.

IV. Extract fit>m the Senatusconsultum de Bacchanalibus, B.C. 186.

Haice utei in conventionid exddeatis ne minus trinum noundimun;
senatuosque sententiam utei scientes esetis . . . eorum sententia ita ftiit :
sei ques esent, quei arvorsum ead fedsent quam suprad scriptum est, eeis
rem caputalem fadendam censuere . . . atque utd hoce in tabolam
ahenam inceideretis, ita senatus aiquom censuit ; utdque earn figier
ioubeatis, ubei facilumed gnosder potisit ; atque utei ea Bacanalia, sei qua
sunt, exstrad quam sei quid ibei saeri est, ita utei suprad scriptum est, in
diebus X. quibns vobeis tabdae datai erunt fiEiciatis utd dismota sient in
agro Teurano, I. 196.

[In Classical Latin : Haec ut in contione edicatis ne minus trinum
nundinum ; senatusque sententiam ut sdentes essetis . . . eonun sententia
ita fiiit : si qui esscnt qui adversum ea fecissent quam (Le. aliter quam)

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^ v^pt i-X^

E. Poetic Forms and Idioms, 563

siqira scriptom est, eis rem capitalem fociendam censnere . . . atqne nt
hoc in tabulam ahenam incideretis, ita senatus aeqaum censoit ; iitqiie earn
figi inbeads, ubi fiunllime nosci possit ; atqne ut ea Bacchanalia, si qua
sunt, extra quam si quid ibi sacri est, ita ut supra scriptum est, in diebus
X. quibus vobis tabulae datae enint, &datis ut dunota sint in agro
Tenrano.]

V. Extract from the Lex lulia Municipalise enacted by C. lulius Caesar,

Queiquomque inmunicipieis coloneis praefectureis condliabuleis c. R.
Ilvir. Illlvir. erunt aliove quo nomine mag. potestatemve sufragio eorum,
quel quoiusque munidpi coloniae praefecturae fori conciliabuli erunt,
habebunt, neiqub eorum quern in eo municipio colonia praefectura foro
concUlabuIo In senatum decuriones conscriptosve l^to neve sublegito neve
coptato neve redtandos curato nisi indemortuei damnateive locum einsne
quei confessus erit se senatorem decurionem conscreiptumve ibei h. L esse
non licere, I« 206.

[Here c R. »civium Romanorum ; mag. smagistratum ; Ilvir. «
duumviri; Illlvir. squattuorviri ;. h. Lahac lege. Observe ei for i in
AbL and Nom. PI. ; neiquis for nequis ; st0^o ; conscr^ptum ; and the
Pi^. 'in' proditiadlyjomedtoitscase: inmunicipieis, indemortuei locum.]

E, POETIC FORMS AND IDIOMS.

Alduyagh the general Rules of Grammar are applicable to poetry as well
as to prose, yet poetry has many words, phrases, constructions, and
collocations peculiar to itself. A few of these will here be mentioned.

L Etymology and Use op Words.

1) The archaic Gen. of ist Decl in a/ is used by the Epic poets,
Looretiiiis and Virgil, as, aulai, aqual

2) Viigil and Horace always contract the Gen. of 2nd Ded. in ii : ott»
togurt, ingent, impert The el^[iac poets retain ii generally.

3) The contraction of the Gen. arunty orum into iim is confined to
Masculine Substantives : agricolihn, sociihn ; aiid of Adjectives to a few
polysyllables only : magnanimfim heroum.

4) Many Genitives in mm are contracted into urn : &pOm, cohortfim.
This may be done in Present Partidples : amantOm. Words of the form
• w, as nublum, seldom lose i ; but mensftm, sed^ are found.

5) The Dat in «i, and the Gen. and Dat. in a, may be contracted into
u, ei victu for victui, fide for fidei.

6) The Iroperf of the 4th Conj. in Ham, and the Put. in ido, are
archaisms occasionally used by Virgil : vestibat for vestiebat. This is not
done in lyric verse, rarely in d^iac The Infin. Pass, in «^ is an archaism
used occasionally in epic poetry ; not allowable in d^ac, rare in lyric.
Other archaic forms are found.

7) Such forms as amaram amasse, fleram flesse, noram nosse, aodienuB
audisse are of usual occurrence.

8) Tmesis is frequent, as Quae me cumque vocant terrae, Veig. ; inqus
ligatus, Verg. Cum tu argento post omnia ponas, Hon

9) {a) Substantive is us^ for Adjective or Participle : Victor equus ;

fiibulae manes ; populus late rex.
{6) Partidple or Adjective for Substantive : volitans, an insect ;
volantes, ^ds ; natantes, JbAes ; praeceps, a precipe : JP^^5\»)fylp

564 Appendix.

level sur/aee ; inane, the {void) air. So, Opaca domomm, stzata
vianim, &c
(c) Neuter Adjective for Adverb ; Lugubre rubens ; perfidnm ridens ;
transversa tuentes, &c.

10) The Plural Number for the Singular : as, Tua numina posco ;
sibila colla tumens. And the Singular for die Plural : as, Thyna merce
beatum ; late loca milite complet

1 1) Transitive Verbs are used intransitively : Venti posuere, Veig. In-
transitives used transitively: Horret iratum mare, Hor. Even Passives
sometimes assume a Transitive force : Fontis avertitur, Veig.

12) The use of the Simple for the Compound Verb is a poetic idiom :
Pone moras for depone ; tendere for contendere ; tenere for rednere, &c

13) In regard to tenses, the Historic Present for the Preterite is often
used ; also the Preterite Aorist for the Present to express habit or frequency ;
the Perf. Infin. for the Pres. Infin.

14) Many words are purely poetic, not being used in prose. They are
too numerous to be here specified, but should be noted in reading.

II. Syntax.

1. Agreement. A Neuter Complement with Masc. and Fern. Sub^
stantives : Turpe senex miles ; and Synesis, are frequent in poetry.

2. Government

1) The Accusative of Respect after Adjectives and Verbs is very frc
quent : Cetera laetus ; sibila colla tumens.

2) The Dative after Compound Verbs is favoured by the poets.
Verbs of contendingj repelling^ differing, unidng, have a Dative in
poetry ; but in prose, for the most part, a Preposition with its Case :
Mihi contendere noli ; solstitium pecori defendite ; scurrae distabit
amicus ; verba sodare chordis, &c.

A Dative after a Verb of Motion is peculiar to poetry, but rare : It
clamor caelo. A Dative after a Finite Passive Verb is poetic :
Neque cemitur ulli.

3) A large number of Adjectives govern a Genitive in poetry only r
Inane fymphae, nimius pugnae, gpravis morum, integer aevi, &c.

4) The Infimtive Mood after Adjectives is frequent in poetry, and rare in
good prose : Callidus condere, catus iaculari, audax omnia perpeti, &c
After some Substantives : Causa perire, tempus abire, &c. After
Verbs of motion : Populare penatis venimus : of entreaty ; Hoc
petit esse suum : of feeling ; Furit reperire, dedignata teneri : oi
hastening ; Trepidat claudere, &c Est is used for ucet with Infin. :
Aen^an cemere erat : Nee sit mihi credere tantum. The use of the
Participle after Verbs of Sense for the Accusative and Infinitive is
a poetic Graecism : Sensit medios delapsus in hostis. The Infini-
tive Active is used poetically where a prose writer would use the
Participle in dus \ Dat ferre talentum ; quern sumis celebrare, &c

5) Many instances of Ellipsis and Pleonasm are fotmd in Poedy, too
numerous to be here cited.

Note, — Historians, as Sallust, Livy, above all Tacitus, often heighten
their style by the intermixture of poetic imagery and expression^ especially
when a narrative is picturesque, or a speech impassioned.

III. Collocation.

The Collocation of words in poetry is much more free than that of prose,
but will be better learnt by reading and practice than by any attempt to
reduce the subject to rules.

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^v^pt ix^

F. Supplement to Figurate Construction, 565

R SUPPLEMENT TO FIGURATE CONSTRUCTION. §61.

1. Anacoluthon is the passing from one construction to another before
the former is completed : 'Si, ut Graeci dicunt, omnes aut Graios
esse aut barbaros, vereor ne Romulus barbarorum rex luerit,' C.
*Quae qui in utramque partem excelso animo magnoque despiciunt,
cumque aiiqua his ampla et honesta res obiecta est, totos ad se con-
vertit et rapit; tum quis non admiretur splendorem pulchritudi-
nemque virtutis ?' C. Anacoluthon is often due to Attraction.

2. Hysteron-Proteron is when, of two things, that which naturally comes
first is mentioned last: 'Moriamur et in media arma ruamus,' Verg.
Ae, it 353.

The following Figures belong to Rhetoric : —

3. Synecdoche puts the part for the whole : ' Caput for homo \ tectum
for domus,' &c. Sometimes the whole stands for a part : * Sal sextante est'
(Liv.), for modius sails.

4. Allegoria is a chain of metaphors : * Claudite iam rivos, pueri, sat
prata biberunt,' Veig. B, iii. ill. Meaning, * Cease to sing, O shepherds ;
sufficient recreation has been taken.'

5. Hyperbole magnifies beyond credibility : * Sudor fluit undique rivis,'
Verg. Ae, v. 200.

6. IMoies states less than is actually meant : Non laudo, for culpo.

7. Inmia says one thing and means another, but so as to let the real
meaning be understood: 'Egregiam vero laudem et spolia ampla
lefertis tuque puerque tuus,' Verg. Ae, iv. 93.

8. Climax rises by gradations, like the steps of a ladder : *• Quod libet
iis, licet ; quod licet, possunt ; quod possunt, audent/ C.

9. Polyptoton brings together cases of the same Noun : * lam dipeus
clipeis, umbone repellitur umbo ; ense minax ensis, pede pes et cuspide
cuspis,' Stat.

10. Paronomasia is a play upon the sound of words: *Tibi parata
erunt verba, huic verbera,* Ter.

11. Antitheiis contrasts opposites: <Urbis amatorem Fuscum salvere
inbemus ruris amatores,' Hon

12. Chiasmus places a double Antithesis in introverted order: 'Ratio
nostra consentit, repugnat oratio,' C. /¥«. iii. 3. *Non video
quomodo sedare possint mala praesentia praeteritae voluptates,'
C. 71 D, V. 26. «Alba ligustra cadunt, vaccinia nigra leguntur,'
Verg. B, ii. 18.

13. Oxymoron unites seeming contraries: 'Temporis angusti mansit
Concordia discors,' Lucan i. 98.

14. Periphrasis describes a simple fact by various attending circum-
stances. Thus, instead of ' now night is approaching,* Viigil says, * Et
iam summa procul villarum culmina fumant, maioresque cadunt altis de
montibus umbrae,' B, i. 83. See the beautiful periphrases of old age and
death in Ecclesiastes, ch. xii.

15. Simile or Parabole illustrates a statement by an apt comparison:
' Per urbis Hannibal Italas ceu fianmia per taedas vel Eurus per Siculas
equitavit undas,' Hor. C iv. 4. 42.

1 6. Apostrophe is an appeal to some person or thing : * Quid non mof*
taliapectora cogis auri sacra fames? Verg. Ae, iii. 56.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

566 Appendix.

17. Prosopopoeia represents inanimate things as living and acting : * Te
Spes et albo rara Fides colit velata panno/ Hor. C. L 35. 21. 'B^fi
ferratosrupit Disco rdia postis,' Enn,

18. Aposiopisis suppresses the conclnsion of a thought: 'Quos ego— >
sed motos praestat componere fluctus,* Veig. Ae. L 135.

Most of these Figures (to which might be added others) are used m
prose as well as in Poetry.

G. MONEY, WEIGHT, AND MEASURE.
I.

* As ' was the Roman unit of weight and measure. See its duode-
cimal division, § 34. viii.

II. Money.

1. Cattle were the earliest Italian medium of exchange. The wofd
*pecunia' (from *pecus*) preserved the memory of this fact, as Ejo^
chatul and VSaf, frx>m Germ, vieh^ point to the same custom in the Teuton
branch. Oittle fines are noticed in ancient laws as commuted for sums
of money ; a sheep being rated at 10 * asses librales,' an ox at 100.

2. The metals used for agricultural implements, iron and (in Italy)
copper, were the next medium of exchange. These were at first we^faed
out roughly (the 'libra' or pound being the unit of this 'aes lude'),
then cut in bars of various shapes and sizes, corresponding to the
weights, and bearing generally some mark, as an ox, a swine, &c. This
was called 'aes signatum.' Its origin is referred to the reign of Senrins,
that is, to a time before authentic history. 'Aestimare,' to valuta is de-
rived from ' aes ;* and the act of weighing copper continued in later times
to be the "l&gpX form of 'mancipatio* in sales, repayments, and in one
matrimonial solemnity (per aes et libram). The bit of unwrou^^t copper
with which the purchaser struck the scale was callol ' randus ' or ' nxus-
culum.*

3. About the year b.c. 451, u.c 303, copper money was first coined,
with impressions obverse and reverse, by the Decemviri. Their coinage
comprised the 'as libralis,' and some of its fractional ports, * semis,'
'triens,' 'quadrans,' 'uncia,' and 'semuncia.' It had an alloy of about
7 per cent of tin, not reducing its intrinsic value ; but, lat^, another
alloy of about 23 per cent of lead, by which the value was reduced, kad
being in proportion to copper as 1:2. Varro says : ' Libram posdo as
valebat ' : and in theory, this copper * as' was libral, equivalent to a pound
of 12 ounces : but in practice existing specimens shew variation from % or
9 to 14 ounces, giving an average of about 10. Hence this coinage, on a
scale nominally duodecimal, was really dedmaL

4. It continued in use nearly 200 years : but shortlv before the first
Ptmic War, about B.C. 269, u.c. 485, a mint was established in the ten^
of Juno Moneta, and three commissioners were appomted (triumvin
monetales auro aigento aere flando feriundo), who hegan to coin silver
money ; the coins being the denarius (nominally 10 asses), the quinarius or
half-denar (nominally 5 asses), and the sestertius or quarter-denar (nominally
2| asses). About die same time, a revolution was made in the copper
money itself. The libral as (nomiiially of 12, but actually 10 ounces on
the average) was reduced frx>m the libral to the triental standard, that is, to
the weight of 4 ounces. Nevertheless, the old libral standard was occa-
sionally used or referred to, under the title of 'aes grave.' As the

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

G. Money ^ Weighty and Measure. 567

denarius represented 10 asses of the triental standard, ^40 unciae, its
quarter part, the sestertius, was equal to 10 unciae, which was the average
value of the libral as. llius it came to pass that, in the new monetary
system, tfie silver sesterce represented the old copper *as,* so that any
numerical sum < aeris gravis' (as in Livy) may be counted at the
same number of sesterces, under the triental standard.

5. Between the first and second Punic Wars, the value of silver in
proportion to copper ftdl considerably. In consequence, the triental • as '
sank first to the sextantar, and then, B.C. 217, u.c. 537, by the Flaminian
law, to the uncial standard. At the same time the denarius was raised,
by way of compensation, to the value of 16 (uncial) asses, making the
sestertius equal to 4. The weight of this denarius was ^ of a pound ; that
of the older one, ^, and the smaller silver coins in proportion. Among
these was a coin called *victoriatus,' fi-om the figure of Victory stamped
<m it The original value of this was } of the denarius ; but by the
Clodian law, B.c. 104, u.c. 650, it was reduced to the same value as the
'qoinarius,' or \ of the 'denarius.*

6. Although the sesterce, when ^ 4 uncial or semundal asses, ceased to
possess the ancient value of the libral as, it still continued to represent the
popular calculation of *aes grave.' During the first Civil Wars, B.C. 86,
17. c. 668, the Marian Consul Valerius Flaccus carried an iniquitous law
(afterwards repealed by Sulla), enabling debtors to clear themselves by
paying one coined * as ' (^ of the sesterce) in place of one ancient *■ as,'
or the sesterce itself. In other words, debtors might dischaige themselves
firom all liability by paying 25 per cent, of their debts, or, as we com-
monly say, five shilling in the pound.

7. After the second Punic War silver became so abundant that it
thenceforward constituted the chief Roman currency, and copper money
was, as among ourselves, small change only. This led to a further reduc-
tion of the copper *as,* which, by the Papirian Law, B.C 89, u.c. 665,
fell to a semuncial standard, indicating a rise in the value of copper as
compared with silver. From this date copper coinage ceased for half a
century, being resumed during the second Civil Wars. Besides the copper
coins hereto^re mentioned, the following were also in use from time
to time : the * dupondius,' in value 2 * asses * ; * tressis,* 3 * asses * ;
* decnssis ' 10, &c. * Centussis ' was not a coin, but a sum ; and when
Persius says, * Centum Graecos curto centusse licetur,' he means that
the rude centurion would not give an * as ' apiece for 100 Greek philo-
sophers.

8. Gold coinage in the republican times was occasional but not frequent,
dnefly for the purpose of military donations. The * aureus * of SuUa was
^ of a lb. of gold ; that of Pompey ^ ; that of C. Julius Caesar ^ ; that
or Augustus ^. This last and most important coin was made equal to
25 denarii or 100 sesterces. Mommsen values it at i/. is. $d.y
Hultsch at i/. IS, 9</. Thus it corresponds nearly to the English guinea.
This rate makes the Augustan denarius about 10*4^. and the sesterce
2'6d,y though before the gold co'mage they were severally about 8*4^.
and 2'id, Some writers have been led into error by confounding the
intrinsic value, or weight, of these two coins with their current or relative
value. Finding the oldest republican denarius to have contained ^ of a
pound of silver, the later republican and Au^tan ^, the Neronian ^,
they have fallen into the mistake of assuming a corresponding depre-
ciation of the cutrent value of the coins. As between the older and later
republican coinage, silver being the standard of both, such calculation
would be just ; but, when the Augustan gold standard came in, the current
values of the silver (and gold) denar and of the brass sesterce (its fourUi
part) then coined were determined by their several relations to the

y Google

568 Appendix.

'aureus* as ^ and yjg. At that time (see Mommsen, p. 766, &c.) gold
was not quite ten times as valuable as silver, while now it exceeds silver ia
the proportion of more than 15:1. As the relative values changed,
derangement of the coinage would result ; but the calculations here
given hold good for at least two centuries after Augustus (allowing
for the simultaneous reduction of the intrinsic value of the coins bj Nero).
For the further details of this intricate subject the student must consult
T. Mommsen*s *Geschichte des Romischen Miinzwesens,* of whidi a con-
venient abridgment is found in Hultsch's *Griechische und Romische
Metrologie,' Uiough with calculations lof value sometimes not agreeing
with those of Mommsen. We now set down a few practical rules,
enabling the student to appreciate, at least approximately, die coins and
sums cited by classical authors, especially by Livy, Cicero, and Tacitus.

9. The 'sestertius* (*semis-tertius* because 2\ asses originally,
though afterwards -4) is often called *nummus* (a tenn borrowed
from the Sicilian coinage, i^i^/iof), sometimes 'sestertius nummus.'
It forms the basis of ^1 pecuniary calculation after the following
manner : —

(a) Sums under 1,000 sesterces are named in sesterces (• sestertii ' or

* nummi *) : ' decem sestertios (nummos) * = 10 sesterces ; * quxnos
sestertios (nummos) * = 5 sesterces each, &c.

(b) In sums above 1,000 sesterces, the thousands may be described as
consisting of sesterces : ' duo milia sestertiorum (sestertiihn, nnm-
mOm) ; * 2,000 sesterces ; * sexagena milia nimunum (sestertium),^
60,000 sesterces each.

Or a (supposable) noun sestertium, only found in the Plural
*sesteriia,* may be used, where each of the *sestertia* counted
means a sum (not a coin) of about 1,000 sesterces. * Sexcenta
sestertia * = 600,000 sesterces \ * duodena sestertia * « 12,000 sesterces
each, &c

Or, again, both 'milia* and 'sestertia' can be used: 'dena milia
sestertia * = 10,000 sesterces. And, in poetry, 'milia* is used
with ellipse of * sestertium : * * muUum sex milibns emit,' he
bought a mullet for 6,000 sesterces, Juv. Horace has ' bis dena ses-
tertia nummum,* » 20,000 sesterces.

On the mode of writing compound numerals see § 34, viL Thus
' sestertia tria miha et quadringenti octc^nta nummi * s 3,48a
sesterces; *xxxi milium quingentorum Ix nummorum* = 31,560-
sesterces.

(c) The last mentioned mode of calculation extends to all sums under
a million. For a million, and all higher amounts, must be used
the Numeral Adverbs ; see § 34. vii ^. But the words centum
(centena) milia are frequently understood, not expressed, in
pecuniary calculations, with these Adverbs. Thus maybewrittea
dedens sestertium (sestertii, sestertio) or deciens (understanding
sestertium), to express 1,000,000 sesterces. In Cicero we also
find * deciens centena milia,* and in Horace ' deciens oentena * to
express this sum. The normal sum * centena milia * is rated by
Hultschat 875/. for the republican age, and 1,087/. 13X. ^. for the
Augustan. As this is probably a high estimate, we may take
these sums approximately at 870/. and 1,080/. When an amount
is described with more than one Adverb, the numbers they contain
must be added together if the larger Numeral ^stands first, but
multiplied when the smaller is first ; care being taken not to reckon
the * centena milia,' which is understood, more than once. Thus

* miliens quingentiens * = 1 50, 000,000 sesterces, but ' quaterdedens
miliens * — 1,400,000,000 sesterces.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

G. Money ^ Weight, and Measure, 569:

(^ For the Gen. ' sestertiiim ' may be written its symbol HS, for
IIS, z\ (or, as some say, for LLS), the cross line indicating
the PI. * asses,* as the PI. * librae ' is indicated by our lb, £.

\f) If the sums are described by cypher, it is sometimes difficult to
distinguish whether sesterces, or sestertia, or centena milia
sestertiom are meant, unless the rule mentioned (§ 34, vii 2) be
observed. Thus, when Livia Augusta bequeathed to Galba
'sestertium quingentiens,* Tiberius reduced the amount to 'ses-
tertia quingenta, quia notata non perscripta erat summa.' That
is, he chose to read USD for HS[D|.

Examples : —

' HS deciens et octingenta milia ' * i,Soo,ooo sesterces,

Viciens ducenta triginta quinque milia quadringentos decern et

septem nummos ' =-2,235,417 sesterces.
(Hultsch cites a place in which miUe is used for deciens.)

10) The following rules, of a roughly practical nature, will enable the
student to calculate approidmately the sums which occur in classical
authors : —

1) For sums in * aes grave * (often in Livy) count the amount ' aeris
gravis ' as the same amount of sesterces, and count the sesterce =
2 -4//. Thus * milia aeris gravis * = i,ooo sesterces = 2,40a/. as \ol.

2) For sums under the silver currency from B.C. 217 — B.C. 30,
u.c. 537 — u.c. 624, cited by Cicero and other writers, count the
sesterces 2 'i^.

If 'sestertia* (i.e. 'milia sestertium*) are to be regarded as an
exact total of i,ooo sesterces, this would give them the current
value of 8/. 15^., and this is a convenient figure, though Hultsch
rates it somewhat higher, S/. 15X. (id.

This calculation, as already stated, gives to 'centena milia
(sestertium) * an approximate value of 870/., which will be the
multiple understood with the Adverbs in -iens. Thus * deciens*
a= 8, 700/. , ' centiens ' - 87,000/. , ' milieus ' — 870,000/. , &c , ap-
proximately.

3) Under the gold standard from B.C 30 to A.D. 200, count the
sesterce, as above stated, 2*6^., ' sestertia ' at 10/. idr., ' centena
milia* at 1,080/. approximately. Thus 'deciens* = 10,800/.,
' centiens *B 108,000/., 'miliens,'* 1,080,000/., approximately.

III. Interest.

The As and its fractional parts were used to calculate interest Thus
fmterest bemg paid monthly at the rate of so much per 100 Asses) :—
Undae usurae=T^ per cent, per month « I per cent per annum
Sextantes = f „ „ « 2 „ »»

Quadrantes = J ,, „ = 3 „ „

&c. &c &c

Asses usurae ■■ i per cent, per month = 12 per cent, per annum.

Asses usurae were also called centesimae; and binae centesimae«2
per cent per month =24 per cent. ; so quatemae centesimae =48 per cent
per annum. Horace says: 'Quinas hie capiti mercedes exsecat* (i.e.
quinas Centesimas), this man slices off (iO per cent, from the capital ; because
in lending money he deducts from it interest at the rate of 5 per cent, per
mcmths w> per cent, per annum.

Digitized by VjOOQIC

570 Appendix.

Unciarium fenus, the yearly interest legalised by the Twelve TaUes,
was probably i uncia per As (« 8^ per cent.) for the old year of lo months.

Note. The silver sesterce of republican times had also the followiog
fractional parts : Mibellas^^ sest (quinqne libel]ae»|) ; sembella ^li-
bella)=^ sest.; teruncius (J sembella) =s^ sest Cicero {Att. vii. a)
uses these terms to express fractional parts of an inheritance ( jo^ ^ ^
severally). See Mommsen, p. 199.

IV. Weight.

The Unit or As of weight was the ' libra * or Roman pound (the sup-
posed weight which a man could support on his hand horizontally ex-
tended). It was duodedmally divided (see § 34, viii), the 'unda,' ounee^
being its 12th part, and the scriptulum or scripulum, scrupU^ its 2S8th
part. Its exact relation to English weight is a debated question. See
Smith's Diet Ant, under Libra and Pondera^ where it is calmlateA
at about 5050 grains. Hultsch (with 35ckh and Mommsen) rates it at
327*453 grammes (French) =5044 grains English nearly. MehroL § 21.

V. Mbasure op Length.

(a) The Unit or As of length was * pes/ the fiot : the human body fiir-
ni^ing the first or technical measurement. ' Digitus ' was a finger-breadth :
* palmus,* a hand^breadth^ =4 digits : * pes,* af:>ot, «>4 palms a 16 digits.

(b) In the second, or duodecimal division, of the foot (§ 34, viiL ), * nnciJ^'
the I2th part, was an inch. Hence 3 unciaeB4 digits »i palmus.

We find 2 feet sometimes called 'dupondius ;' 24 feet 'sestertius' (also
'gradus') ; i^ 'sesquipes.'

(r) Coming to larger measures,

• Palmipes *«pes + palmus— i J footaio digits.

'Cubitus,' cubit (measured from the elbow to the tip of the middle
finger), = i J foot « 6 palms— 24 digits.

'Ulna, eHf is often a synonym of 'cubitus,' i\ foot : but it sometimes
means the full span of the human arms, reckoned «= 6 feet.

{i) Land was measured out by the 'pertica' or 'decempeda,' a mea-
suring rod of 10 feet. An ' actus ' of length — 12 decempedas.

(/f) For the measurement of roads the unit was 'passu^' apace or dmbU
x/i^«" twice 2\ feet or 2 • gradus' -5 feet.

'Mille passus' (or 'milia passuum' or 'milia'), 1,000 pacet, expressed
the Roman mi/e (miliarium) = 5,000 y&/.

*Stadmmf*aJi*rhng (borrowed from Greece), was J of a mile —625 feet.

The Roman mile was about J of the geographical mile, and less thui an
English mile by about ^.

(/) The relation of the Roman * pes ' to modem feet is a difficult problem.
See Hultsch, Afetr. § 15. Smith's Diet, Ant, states it as less than the
English foot by -A of an inch.

According to Hyginus, a standard foot (pes monetalis) was kept in the
temple of Juno Moneta.

VI. Measure of Surface.

The As of superficial measure was the < iugemm ' or Roman acre : which
Smith's Diet, Ant, states at about { of an English acre. Hultsch's state-
ment b the same. It contained 2 square * actus ' « 28, 800 square feet. It

lOOgle

G. Moneyy Weighty and Measure. 571

was duodecimally divided, like the * libra' and < pes.' Of the finctioDS of
the 'ingenim' the most important is the 'scripulum' (scruple) or *decem-
peda quadrata ' » 100 square feet. Of these the * dima' contained 36, and
the 'actus' 144. Surfaces exceeding the iugerum were : heredium^
2 iugera : centuria=s 100 heredia ; saltus =4 centuriae.

ASI these sur&ces were squares, except the * iugerum' itself, which was
the sum of two equal squares. The sides of these squares were related to
€ach other as follows, the decempeda here counting as i :

dec. dima actus hered. cent salt.
I 6 12 24 240 480

The following Table (given by Hultsch) shews the relations lolly 1

saltus I

centuria 4 i

heredium 400 100

iugerum 800 200

actus 1600 400

dima 6400 1600

scripulum 230400 57600

VIL Measures of Capacity.
1 Liquid Measure.

{a) The Romans took for their standard a vessd of a cubic foot in con-
tent, called ' quadrantal,' afterwards (from the Greek if/u^opvit)
'amphora.' Its parts (which are chiefly Greek) are thus ^diibited
by Hultsch, Metr, § 17. 3 :

I

2

I

4

2

I

16

8

4

I

176

288

144

36

amphora

I

uma

2

I

congius

8

4

I

sextarius

48

24

6

I

hemina

96

48

12

2

I

quartaritts

96

24

4

2

I

acetabulum

iii

48

8

4

2

I

cyathus

576

72

12

6

3

n

i/>) The * sextarius' (less than a pint) was an As duodecimally divided,
like the 'libra,' 'pes,' and 'iugerum,' the 'cyathus' being its
'unda' (not quite half an ordinary wineglass). Hence are to be
understood the following passages, dted by Hultsch :

* Interponis aquam subinde, Rufe,
£t, si cogeris a sodale, raram
Diluti bibis unciam Falemi.'

Mart, i 106.

' Quotiens largissime se invitaret, senos sextantes non excessit«'

Suet Aug, 77.

(Seoi sextantes, i.e. 12 cyathi, &11 short of a fuU pint of wine.)
' Foto ego sextantes, tu potas, Cinna, deunces,
£t quereris quod non, Cinna, bibamus idem.'

Mart. xi. 36.

Martial also speaks of one who was ' septunce multo perditus.' In the
ibUowing epigram he alludes to the custom of drinking to the health
of a person as many ' cyathi ' as there were letters in his name.

Quincunces et sex cyathos bessemque bibamus,
Gaius ut fiat lulius et Proculus. — Mart x. 36.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

572 Appendix.

(c) The 'scmimcia' was called Migula,' a spoon carrying \ 'cya-
thus ; * the * sidlicus * was * cochleare ', carrying \ * cyathns.'

(d) * Culeus * (* cuUeus ') was a wine- vat, holding 20 amphoras. The
'amphora' itself was an earthen vessel with two handles, whence
its name.

(^ < Cadus' is sometimes used in the same sense as *amphoia;' but
usually it means a cask of no definite sise.

ii. Dry Measure.

The * modius' approached 2 gallons (j^ bushel) English. Its divisiaos

modius I

semodius 2 i

sextarius 16 8 i

hemina 32 16 2 i

quartarius 64 32 4 2 I
acetabulum 128 64

8421
cyathus 192 96 12 6 3 li

Again the 'sextarius' is duodecimally divisible, its *uncia' being^
* cyathus,* its ' semunda * being * ligula.'

Larger measures are 'trimodius* (3 'modii*) and 'decemmodius* (lo
'modii').

The * sextarius' is sometimes called < librarius.'

H. COMPUTATION OF TIME.

A, The Julian Calendar agrees with the English, except in the
manner of naming the days of the month. Every Roman month had
three chief da3rs : Kalendae or Calendae (Calends), Nonae (Nones), Idns
(Ides). The Calends were always the ist day of the month ; the Nones
were on the 5th : the Ides on the 13th ; except in March, May, July, and
October, in which months the Nones were on the 7th, the Ides on the 15th.

March, May, July, October, these, we say,
Make Nones the seventh, Ides the fifteenth day.

These three days, the Calends, Nones, and Ides, were taken as points,
from which the other days were reckoned backwards. That is, the
Romans did not say, such and such a day after ^ &c., but such and ss^ a
day before the Calends, or Nones, or Ides.

Calendae from calare, to caU\ Nonae, ninth before Ides; Idas from
iduere (=div-id6re), to divide. See Hor. C. iv. 11. 14.

B, If January be taken as a sample, the first dav was Kalendae
lanuariae. The 2nd must be reckoned badcwards from the Nones, whidi
in January fell on the 5th, Nonae lanuariae. But in this reckoning the
day of the Nones itself must be included. Therdbre our 4th of January
was the 2nd day before the Nones, called pridie (ante) Nonas lanuarias.
The 3rd of January was 'tertio (ante) Nonas lanuarias ;' the 2nd, 'quarto
(ante) Nonas lanuarias ;' or, abbreviated, *IIL Non. Ian.,' «IV. Noil Ian.'
To obtain the Roman name for the 6th of January, the reckoning most be
made backwards firomthe Ides, which fell on the 13^1, «Idus lanuariae.*
Thus the 12th was 'pridie Id. Ian. 5' the iith, • III. Id. Ian ;' the lOth,
• IV. Id. Ian.,' &c. ; the 6th was therefore ' VIII. Id. Ian.' To obtain the
name for the 14th of January, the reckoning is back fipom the Calends dL

lOogle

H. Computation of Time. 573

tiie next month, Kalendae Febrnariae. Thus, January 31st was 'pridie
KaL Feb. ; ' January 30th, ' III. KaL Feb.,' &c &c ; January 14th was,
therefore, <XIX. Kal. Feb.'

C From these observations it appears that the Roman name for any
given English day may be found by the following rules : —

1) If the given day is between the Calends and Nones of the Roman
month, subtract its English number from the English number of the day
on which the Nones fidl, increased by one •, the remainder will give that
number before the Nones by which the day is called in Latin.

2) Similarly, if the given day is between the Nones and Ides of the
Roman month, subtract its English number from the English number of
the day on which the Ides &11, increased by one ; the remainder wUl give
that number before the Ides by which the day is called in Latin.

Thus, to find the Roman name for the 4th of June, the Nones of June
fidling on the 5th, subtract 4 from 5 + i, or 6 ; the reinainder is 2 (pridie) ;
ther^rethe 4th of June is 'pridie Non. lun.' Again ; to find the Roman
name for the loth of Mav, the Ides of May fiilling on the 15th, subtract
10 from 15 -¥ I, or 16 ; the remainder being 6, the loth of May is called
« VL Id. MaL'

3) But if the given day is between the Ides of the given month and the
Calends of the next, then subtract its English number from the total
number of days in the given month, increased by two ; the remainder will
give that number before the Calends of the next month by which the day is
called in Latin.

Thus, to find the Roman name for the i8th of August ; subtract 18 from
31 + 2. or 33, the remainder is 15, and August i8th is called 'XV. KaL
Sept.* For April 21st, subtract 21 from 30+2, or 32, there remains 1 1 ;
and April 21st is called XI. Kal. Mai. For February 25th, subtract 25
frtnn 28+ 2, or 30, there remains 5 ; and February 25th is called < V. KaL
Mart'

D, As regards Construction, the forms Kalendis, Nonis, Idibus, are used
as Ablatives of tone ; and when tertio, quarto, &:c., Kalendas, &c. are used,
the words die ante are understood. But Cicero does not employ these
latter phrases: he writes (for instance) 'ante diem tertium Kalendas
lanuarias,' or, in abbreviated form, ' a.d^ III. Kal. Ian.,' to express Decem-
ber 30th, and so in every case.

Here the Preposition ante has, by a corruption of custom, quitted its
proper place before Kalendas, to stand before diem, which it does not
govern. So merely idiomatic is this mode of expression, that it is used in
dependence on Prepositions: 'Consul Latinas in ante diem tertium
Idus SextUis edixit,' the Consul proclaimed the Latin holidays Jbr the nth
o/Anigustj L. xlL 16. ' De Quinto fratre nuntii nobis tristes venerant ex
ante diem iii. Non lun. usque ad pridie KaL Sept,' I hauesadnews
of my brother Quintus from the yd of June dovon to the ^Ut of August,
C. Att, V. 17.

£, The names of the months are all Adjectives agreeing with mensis
understood : lanuarius, Februarius, Martins, Aprilis, Maius, lunius, lulius
{so called from Julius Caesar, but before his time Quintilis), Augustus (so
called from Augustus Caesar, but before his thne SextiUs), September,
October, November, December. With the words Kalendae, Nonae,
Idus, they are used attributively, very seldom as Possessive Genitives :
* Natus est Augustus IX. Kalendas Ociohres^* Augusttis was born on
the 2yd of September, Suet. Aug^, 5. * Memoria tenent, me a.d. XIII.
Kalendas lanuarias principem revocandae libertatis fuisse/ t/ie^
remember that on the 20th of December I took the lead in restoring freedom^

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^v^ pt ix^

S74

Appendix.

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Digitized byCjOOQlC

K. Abbreviations used in Latin.

575

C. Phil, xiv. 7. *Capaam venire iussi sumus ad Nonas Februarias,'
we were ordered to come to Capua by the $tA of February^ C. Att, v. 17.
' VII. Idus Maias aestatis inidum,' the gth of May is the commencement
of summer^ Colum. xi. 2.

Feast-days are sometimes used to express the dates of letters : 'Liberal!-
bus Utteras accepi tuas,* /received your letter on the day of the Feast of
Liber, C. Att. ix. 5.

In Leap-year, the twenty-fourth of February (a.d. VI. Kal. Mart) was
reckoned twice over ; hence this day came to be called dies bisssxtus,
and Leap-year itself was called annus bissextus.

JC. SIGLARIUM ROMANUM, OR ABBREVIATIONS USED
IN LATIN.

I. PRiENOMINA.

A. Anlus.

C. Gaius.>
Cn. Gnaeus.^

D. Decimus.

K. Kaeso.
L. Lucius.
M. Marcus.
M'. Manius.

P. Publius.
Q. Quintus.
Ser. Servius.
Sex. Sextus.

Sp. Spurius.
T. Titus.
Tl. Tiberius.

Women's names were expressed by inverting the character : as, D, Gaia.

2. Titles.

Cos. Consul. Coss. Consules or

Consulibus.
Des. Designatus.
D. Divus.
Imp. Imperator.
III. V. R. C. Triumvir Reipublicae

Constituendae.
P. C Patres ConscriptL

P. M. Pontifex Maximus.

PRC. Proconsul.

S. P. Q. R. Senatus Populusque

Romanus.
Tr. Pl. Tribunus Plebis.
X. V. Decemvir.
XV. V. S. F. Quindecimviri Sacris

Faciundis.

3. In Voting on Trials and Elections.

A. Absolvo. C. Condemno.
N. L. Non liquet.

4
F. C. Faciundum curavit.
H. C. E. Hie conditus est
H. & E. Hie situs est

A. P. Antiquam (l^em) probo.
V. R. Uti rogas.
On Tombs.

Ob. Obiit.

P. C. Poni curavit

V. Vixit

5. Miscellaneous.

A. U. C. Anno Urbis Conditae.
D. D. Dono dedit.
DD. Dederunt
D. D. D. Dat, dicat, dedicat
D. M. Dis Manibus.
F. Filius.

F. F. F. Felix, faustum, fortuna-
tum.

O. M. Optumus Maxumus.

S. C. Senatusconsultum.

S. D. Salutem dicit.

S. P. D. Salutem plurimam dicit

S. V. B. E. E. Q. V. Si vales, bene

est, ego quoque valeo.
Tr. Pot. Tribunida Potestate.

* These names are written in MSS. Gaius, Gnaeus, but abbreviated C, Cn.

uiyiuzeu uy x^jv^wVt Iv

576

Appendix,

6. Modern.

A. C. Anno ChristL

A. D. Anno DominL

A. M. Anno MundL

a. C. n. ante Christum natum.

C£ Confer or Conferatur.

Coll. Collato or Collatis.

Cod. Codex. Codd. Codices.

Del. Dele or Ddeatur.

Ed. Editio. £dd. Editiones.

e.g. Exempli gratia.

Etc. or &c. Et cetera.

h. e. hoc est.

I. C. lesus Christus.

Ictus. lurisconsultus.

ibid, ibidem.

i.e. id est.

L q. idem quod.

L. or lib. Liber.

L. B. Lectori benevolo.

L c. loco citato.

p. C. n. post Christum natum.

C. P. P. C. Collatis pecuims poni

curavenmt
Cet. Cetera.
1. L loco laudato.
1^. lege or legatur.
MS. Manuscriptus (liber).
MSS. Manuscripti (Ubri).
N. B. Noto bene.
N. T. Novum Testamentum.
Obs. ,Observa or observetur.
PS. Postscriptum.
q. V. quod vide,
sc. scilicet
s. v. sub voce,
vid. vide or videatur.
V. 1. vide locum,
viz. videlicet.
V. Cel. Vir Celebenrimus.
V. CL Vir Clarissimus.
V. T. Vetus Testamentum.

7. Academical.

A. B. Artium Baccalaureos.
A. M. Artium Magister.
D. Doctor.

LL.D. Legum Doctor.
M. D. Medidnae Doctor.

Mus. D. Musicae Doctor.

S. T. P. Sanctac Theologiae Pro-
fessor (which nD.D. Doctor of
Divinity).

* ' It was always supposed that the Universities fi^ve two Idods of D^rees or Certift*
cates of profidency — in Arts and in the Faculties. The inferior or preparatory Degree ia
«ach department was that of *' Bachekur** (baccalaoreusX a harbarous tide derivea from
the French Bas Chevalier, which primarily denoted a Knight Bachelor, one who sat at
toe same uble with the Bannerets, but» oeing of inferior rank, was *' mis arri^re^* 01
"plus bas assis : " hence it came to denote the unfinished apprentice, the unmarried mam,
and the semigraduate. The complete d^ree in Arts was that of Magister, MoMier—iak.
the Faculdes, Doctor. Ttacher\ two tides eqtuvalent to one another and to the cornmon
deagnation of Professor, or claimant of complete knowledge. The Arts were seven in
nunU>er (Grammatica, Grammar ; * Dialectic, Li^ ; Rhetorica. RtuU>tk -m\cti^ w«re
called Trivium; Musica, JIfwnr; Arithmedca. Arithmetic \ Geometria, Gtowtetrvi
Astrologia, Astroloiy—yH^!^^ four were called Quadrivium) ; and are «»imin^^ t^ in tBO
tedminl lines :—

GRAM- loquitur ; DIA- vera docet : RHET- verba colorat ;
MUS- canit ; AR- numerat ; G£- ponderat ; AS- colit astra.

Music from an Art has passed into a Faculty, and has special Degrees. The older
Faculties are Divinity, Law, Medicine : the first of which was supposed to indude all
Arts.*— Donaldson, Lot. Gr. p. 47a

* When Public Schools were first established to prepare boys for the studies of the
University, the subject mainly taught in them was the first and fundamental Art— diat of
langiuge— Grammatica. Hence such a school was called Schola Grammaticalis, «
Grammar School ; and, when founded by Royal Charter, it was declared to be liben
Schola Grammaticalis, a Frtt Grammar School, i.t,/rec from aU siq>eriority but that
of the Crown.

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577

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES.

I. (§ 6, p. 5.) ' Primitive Sound or Root'

It seems necessary to explain more distinctly the sease in which the word
* Primitive ' is here used.

When a root appears with some variety of form in several kindred lan-
guages (as Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit), it is natural to ask which of the
forms is earlier than the rest, and whether such earlier form is to be
regarded as 'primitive,' or a still earlier one is to be assumed as once
existing, though disused. To determine these points certainly or with high
probability, the various forms must be carefully compared, and tested by
well-ascertained principles and facts of language. Among such principles
and facts are the following :

(1) Guttural Letters sounded from the throat with the lips apart are pri-
mitive, as compared with all others.

Thus the vowel a, having its proper sound, either from the back of the
throat, as in Indian ^ ( -> Engush uk), or from the front, as in English
ak (for the sounds in English * ale,' * all,' are diphthongal), is />^ great
primitive vowel, into which no other passes by strengthening, though itself
may be weakened into others. Such weakening is either by closure of the
lips, as in the series a, 6, u, or by employment of the palate and tongue,
as in the series <f, /, f. Hence it follows that

If an a-sound compete with another vowel-sound, the a-sound belongs
to the primitive form.

Example. The Sanskrit stem signifying * father' is pilar, the Latin
pSt^r, the Greek (v&r^p) trSrip-. We are hence able to infer that the
primitive stem is i^tar, of which Sanskrit (in pttar) has weakened the first
syllable, Latin and Greek the second.

(2) A long vowel is the sum of two short vowels.

Hence it appears that a root with long vowel is the development of
another with short vowel, which is therefore the earlier of the two.

Example. The * foot * of man or any other animal is expressed in Latin
and Greek by the root p6d- irW-, but in Sanskrit the word is pid, nom.
pdd-as m. This shews, what we might have been pretty sure of, that the
vowel of the root is a ; but here we find long k; so we are led to expect an
earlier root with short ^ from which a is developed. And this we find in
the Sanskrit verb-root p5d, *to go,' which has derivatives with a, plid^
pada-m, * a pace,' * a step.' The Latin and Greek Nominatives pes, mis,
nave the same quantity as pdd, and so in Compounds Sk. dvip^ Lat
bipes, Gr. Ulirovs, Sec. But the verb-form pad does not exist in Latin and
Greek (unless bitere and ForfSr can be referred to it).

(3) Guttural Consonants, by (i), antecede the rest. Others are not
changed into them, though they are represented by others.

Hence if a guttural form compete with another, the guttural may be
regarded as primitive.

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5/8 Suppkmmtary Notes,

Examples. In Sanskrit, c' (soft ch) and s' often represent k, c ; aCv may
represent kv, qu ; sometimes Lat p, », t, represent a guttural ; Sk. j re-
presents g. See pp. 59-61.

(4) Of the Consonant trills r, 1, so often interchanged (p. 64), r must be
-considered the earlier.

(5) Sanskrit words beginning with h have lost an initial which preceded it-

(6) The vocalized r-trill is expressed in Sanskrit by the vowel n (rt. tot
this in Latin and Greek is usually represented by ar, er, or. Even in Sk.
ar is the earlier form, and Professor Cowell has pointed out to me (since
this Grammar was reprinted) that the great Sanskrit Dictionary, now
bemg published at St. Petersburgh by the Russian Government, rejects n
from verb-roots, and receives ar as the true form, though the p-form is that
which Indian scholars use. Terminal diphthongs are also rejected. The
words of the editors are : ' Wir haben aus den Verbal-wiirzchi die Vocale
ri, ri und li voUstandig verbannt ; desgleichen die Diphthonge vom Aoslaut
■derselben ; p im Auslaut von Nominalthemen haben wir durch ar eisetzt.'

Hence they write bhar not bhfi, kart not kyit, pitar not pitp, da not
*de*or*do.^ . .

The following instances may suffice to illustrate the principles stated ;
the suggested primitive form being placed in the fourth column :

Lat. Gr. Sk. Pr.

coqu- w«»- pac' pak (kak ?)

quinque ithn* panc'an pankan (kankan?)

fi(n)qu- Aiir- ric' rik

equ-us Tinrof as'vas akva-s

gno- Tvo- jni gna

vert vpit, vart vart

cord- KOi^-ia h|id, hard khard ?

serp- <f)ir- sfip, sarp sarp

lup-us "KvK'Oi vrika-s, varka-s varka-s

turs-us ApKT-os pksha-s, arksha-s arksa-s

levi-s i'Xaxv-s laghu-s, raghu-s raghu-s
(for leg- vis)

Raghu-s is a derivative of the verb-root ranh, or ra/f-gfa, to matfejlaetfy.

Exemplifying these principles further from other roots and words cited in
p. 554, we are led to infer that the following, among others, are the primi-
rive forms : % {frive; Up acquire \ kru kear \ kar make\ dh2, place \ dS,
^e\ dik shtu)\ bh&r bring \ bhu be\ gan prodMce\ m&n tki$Uk% ni2
measure', mSx fade^ die ; sad sit ; s&k follow ; star strew ; st& stand-, stiig
cover ; tan stretch \ vSs clothe ; ghans goose ; kvSn dog ; dv&r door ; Ms
sheept &c. Many of these forms will be seen to differ in some nspttii or
other from the Sanskrit, while others agree, as man, sad, tan, vas, avis,
&c The only two which agree exactly with Greek or Latin are ag, ap.
Thus it is shewn how primitive forms are deduced with probability from a
comparison of kindred languages.

An instructive example may be added : the derivative word Sk. s^ravas,
Gr. Khios^ L. laus. The root is (Prim, kru) Sk. s'ru, Gr. kAv-, L. da*
hear. The derived forms may be compared letter by letter :

Sk. s' r a v a s = s'ravas.

Gr. ic X e (f) 0 ff = ic\«(f)oy.

L. — 1 av — s — laus.
Here it is seen that

(a) in Sanskrit : the primitive k passes (as often) into s' ; r remains ; iv
from u is a constant formation ; Ss is a Noun -ending.

{b) in Greek : k remains in «c ; the rough liquid r passes into the soft X ;

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Supplementary Notes.

579

-jwr is weakened into «f, and the F (»v) is lost in later Greek ; os n. is the
-weakened ending for as n.

if) in Latin : k fiEdls off (p. 44) ; r passes into 1, av is vocalized into au ;
and as the ending us is hereby precluded, a suffix d is brought in, and the
nom. lau-d-s (=laus) is formed, which, by Latin analogy, b^mes Fern.

A similar word is hravas (clearly for dhravas from root dhvp, or dhurv,
•to bend* or 'make crooked ')« Latin ftaus ; fir corresponding to dhr,
the rest as in s'ravas and laus.

The following is a list of Sanskrit roots corresponding to most of those
•cited on pages 14-17 :

English. Sanskrit. English. Sanskrit

\oyoke yuj krurvo jn&

hear s'ru hide kiU

float plu slip lamb

cleanse pd measure mi

stink pfiy fasten pa5f

l^ayy sound ru rule rSj

shine rue' bathe sn&

ccrver sku stand sthd

sew siv strew stp, star

be strong tu seiu hji, har

shew dis' niake^ create kfi, kar

shine div sit sad

^0 i caver sthag

that i caver vp, var, val

tie down si move val

adhere 11 sound svan

j/>y spas^ sleep svap

Mr^-^ tri the sun svar

/(?z'^, ^ferwr lubh speak vac*

^m*^ aj ^/ PPi pa^» pur

jA/w bha, bhis /wi5?, ^iif mri, mar

beget jan ^ bhd

The roots due- lead, nu- «^?rf, fid- trusty ac- sharpen, sa- j<w, mar- ^/i/lfer,
4ure not represented in Sanskrit.

We find push, nurture, and putra a son in Sanskrit, with which L. puer
and its cognates are probably connected.

Sanskrit has the Adjective rudh-ira red, but not the verb rudh to be red i
yet to such a root we must refer the words ruber, rufiis, i-pvB-pds, &c

The Latin verbs luo, lavo to wash, and f-luo to flow, are probably related
to Sk. plu to float.

To break is in Sk. bhanj : if this is the root of Gr. fpoy, L. frang-, it
has developed r in those languages.

L. sero, connect, may be from the Causal of Sk. sr? sar, to proceed.

That Sk. sarva, all, is of the same family as the Latin words of solidity,
salus, solum, sollus, solus, sollers, &c., appears certain: and they are
referred by some to the root syi, sar.

Sk. svar, the sun, may indicate a verb-root svar or sur, to shim : but
such root is not extant.

IL 'Relations in the Simple Sentence, §§ 103-105, pp. 352-8/

In the belief that the meaning of these sections will be most clearly
shewn by the analysis of a passage according to the principles laid down in
them, the first Ode of Horace (C. i. i.) is chosen for that purpose.

Horace, presenting three Books of Carmina to his illustrious finend

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580 Supplementary Notes.

Maecenas in the year B.C. 19, u.c. 735, places this Ode first by way of
dedication. The outline of what he says is this :

* O Maecenas, my beloved protector, various are the delights of men.
Some who, like the Greeks, love excitement^ display and barren honour , are
glad to win the great 01)rmpian chariot -race.* Romans having large landed
property are overjoyed, one, if the popular vote exalts him to the three offices
of state ; another, if he is enabled to acquire unrivalled wealth. The
yeoman farmer would not be tempted by the riches of Attalus to forsake the
tillage of his hereditary fields. The merchant captain, amidst the perils of
shipwreck, may regret his native village ; but let him return there, and rest-
less greed soon drives him back to sea. The Epicurean quaffs his wine,
and takes life easily from day to day. The soldier is all for camps and
battles ; the huntsman for the hardships of the chase. As for me * — at
Rome I enjoy, as a learned man, the society of the great ; elsewhere, the
haunted forest and the favour of the Muses. But if, after reading what I
now send, you rank me among lyric poets, I shall reach the very zenith of
delight.'

Maecenas atavis edite regibus,

o et praesidium et dulce decus meum,

sunt quos curriculo pulverem Olympicum

collegisse iuvat, metaque fervidis

evitata rotis palmaque nobilis.* 5

terrarum dominos evehit ad deos

hunc, si mobilium turba Quiritium

certat tergeminis tollere honoribus,

ilium, si proprio condidit horreo

quidquid de Libycis verritur areis. 10

gaudentem patrios findere sarculo

agros Attalicis condicionibus

numquam dimoveas, ut trabe Cypria

Myrtoum pavidus nauta secet mare.

luctantem Icariis fluctibus Africum 15

mercator metuens otium et oppidi

laudat rura sui : mox reficit rates

quassas, indocilis pauperiem pati.

est qui nee veteris pocula Massici

nee partem solido demere de die 20

spemit, nunc viridi membra sub arbuto

stratus, nunc ad aquae lene caput sacrae.

multos castra iuvant et lituo tubae

permixtus sonitus bellaque matribus

detestata. manet sub love frigido 25.

venator tenerae coniugis immemor,

seu visa est catulis cerva fidelibus,

seu lupit teretes Marsus aper plagas.

me* doctarum hederae praemia frontium

dis miscent superis, me gelid um nemus 30

nympharumque leves cum satyris chori

secemunt populo, si neque tibias

Euterpe cohibet nee Polyhymnia

Lesboum refugit tendere barbiton.

quodsi me lyricis vatibus inseris, 35

sublimi feriam sidera vertice.

The following Syntactic Analysis is thus arranged : —

In the Predicative Relation (I) both related words. Nominative and
Verb, are placed together. In II-VII, one word is stated ; and that to
which it is related by agreement or government is added within brackets,

uiyiuzeu uy x_j v^v^pt ix^

Supplementary Notes. 581

sometimes by its initial only, but so as not to be mistaken. With Annexed
words (VIII) the Conjunction, if any, is given, the related words following.
Words to be mentally supplied are in italic type. Numerals by § or page
refer to the Rules, as given in the Syntax or Uses of Words.

1. Predicative Relation. (§ 108. Concord i. § 115.)

3. Sunt homines (§ 114. 2, § 206. note). 4. collegisse iuvat (§ 177-8).
6. iUud t\Mi si, &c. (when si nearly » quod, the Protasis forms a Sub-
stantival Clause which may be, as here, the Subject of the Apodosis). * 7-8.
turba certat. 9. tile condidit. 10. quidquid verritur. 13. /^ dimoveas.
14. tile secet 16-17. mercator laudat. 17. ille reiicit. 19. est homo,
19-21. qui spemit. 23. castra iuvant 25. venator manet. 27. cerva
visa-est. 28. aper rupit. 29. hederae miscent. 30-2. nemus chorique
secemunt (§ 112). 33. Euterpe cohibet. 33-4. Polyhymnia refugit 35.
Ju inserts. 36. ego feriam (p. 350, § 109).

II. Qualitative.

<i) Attribution (§ 108. Concord il.).
a. As Epithet (p. 354).

2. Meum dulce (d). 3. Olympicum (p.). 4< fervidis (r.). 5. nobilis
(p.). 7. hunc {dominum^ see note). 7. mobilium (Q.). 8. tergeminis
(h.). 9. proprio (h.). 10. Libycis (a.), ii. patrios (agr.). 12. Attalicis
(c). 13. Cypria (t). 14. pavidus (n.). Myrtoum (m.). 15. Icariis(f.).
17. sui (o.). 18. quassas (r.). 19. veteris Massici {vini). 20. solido(die).
21. viridi (a.). 22. lene (c.). sacrae (a.). 23. multos (homines), 25.
frigido (I.). 26. tenerae (c). 27. fidelibus (c). 28. Marsus(a.). teretes
(p.). 29. doctarum (f.). 30. superis (dis). gelidum (n.). 31. leves (c).
34. Lesboum (b.). 35. lyrids (v.). 36. sublimi (v.).

fi. As Enthesis (p. 354. See also § 237-9).
I. Edite (M. =qui editus es). 5. evitata (m. »quae evitata est). 11.
gaudentem {virum^<\\x\ gaudeat). 15. luctantem (A. adum luctatur or qui
luctetur). 16. metuens (mere = cum metuit). 18. indocilis (mere, s quia
indocilis est). 22. stratus (qui = cum stra vent, ^^zz^'/f^j/r^/f^A^. 24. per-
mixtus (s.). 25. detestata (b.). 26. immemor (v.).

(2) Apposition (§ 108. Concord ill.),
o. As Epithet (p. 354).

1. Regibus (atavis, which is the principal noun here : royal ancestors),
fi. As Enthesis (p. 354).

2. Praesidium (M. = qui es praesidium . . . meum). 15. nauta (iZ&—
faettis nauta). 29. praemia (h. «= quae sunt praemia).

III. Objective. Nearer Object. (§ 120-1. See § 237.)

3. Quos (iuvat). 3. pulverem (coll.). 6. dominos (evehit, see note). 7.
hunc (evehit, see note). 8. eum (toUere). 9-10. frumentum (condidit).
II. virum (dimov.). 12. agros (f.). 14. mare (s.). 15. Africum (met).
16. otium (laud.). 17. rates (r.). pauperiem (pati). 19. pocula (sp.).
20. partem (dem.). 21. membra (stratus, § 122. 6). 23. homines (iuv.).
28. plagas(r.). 29. me (misc). 30. me (sec.). 32. tibias(a). 33. bar-
biton (t). 35. me (i.). 36. sidera (f.).

IV. Receptive (§ 132-3, &c. See § 237).

15. Fluctibus 0- § 135. b. c). 23. lituo (p. § 135. b.). 24. matribus
Kd. § 141. 7). 27. catulis (v. § 134. I). 30. dis (misc. § 135. b.). 35. vatibus
^i. p. 385).

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582 Suppletnentary Notes,

V. Circumstantiye. (§ 143, &c. Ablative : Adverbs : Prepositions.)

1. Atavis (ecL § 159). 3. curriculo (coll. § 145). 5. rotis (evit. § 145^
or § 151). 6. ad deos (eveh. g 70. i.). 8. honoribus (toUere, § 151).
9. horreo (c % 155. 2.). 10. de areis (§ 71, p. 300). 11. sazrulo (f.
I 145). 12. condicionibus (dim. § 145). 13. numquam (d.). 14. tiabe
(s. § 145). 17. mox (r.). 20. de die (§ 71, p. 300). 21-2. nunc — nunc
(str. p. 317). sub arbuto (str. § 71, p. 306). ad caput (str. § 70. I.). 25.
Sub love (m. § 71, p. 306). 31. cum satyris (ch. § 71. IV.). 32. popix£>
(sec. § 158). 36. vertice (£ § 145).

VI. Proprietive (§ 162, &c.).

6. Terrarum (dom. § 174). 7. Quiritium (t. § 166). 16. oppidi (r.
§ 165). 19. vini (pocula, § 166). 22. aquae (c. § 165). 23. tubae (s. %
165). 26. coniums (I § 174, 2. 7.). 29. frontium (p. § 165). 31. nym*
phanun (ch. § 160).

VII. ProlaUve (§ 180).

8. ToUere (c). 11. findere (g.). 18. pati (indodlis). 34. tendere (r.).

VIII. Annexive (§ 188).

2. £t decus (praesidium). 4-5. metaque palmaque (coU^isse). 9. ilium
(hunc). 17. et rura (otium). 20. nee demere (pocula). 23-4. et sonitus
bellaque (castra). 31. chorique (nemus).

(A) Vocative (§ 1 18) Interjections (§ 104) and Conjunctions.

I. Maecenas (§ 104, § 118). 2. O (§ 104. 118) et (§ 77. 3). 7-9. si— si
(see note). 13. ut (*j<? thai he^ &*c.* § 205 : or, if to dunoveas be given the
sense of persuading, *ut secet 'may be referred to § 197). 20-1. nee — nee
(§ 77- 3)- 27-8. seu— seu (§ 221). 32-3. si neque— nee (§ 77. 3.)

(B) Relative Construction (§ 108. Concord IV. § 105).

3. Quos (agrees with antecedent homines^ § 108. case is governed by
iuvat, § 121). 10. quidquid {pmne frumenium is suppressed antec. On
Case, see I.) 19. qui (agrees with antecedent homo : is nom. subject of
spemit). 35. quod si, but if {^astowhich^ if &c. See § 82. 6).

[Notes, ' L 5. A full stop is placed after * nobilis,' and no stop after
* deos ' in 1. 6, with Macleane and Munro. Horace would tolerate no-
where, much less in the opening lines of his First Ode, such a construction
as ' hunc — iUum ' dependent on 'iuvat ' or 'evehit' supplied from a previous
and specially distinct sentence. ' Nobilis ' forms a beautiful endixig to the
sentence * sunt quos,' &c. ; and ' evehit,' having for its subjects the two
clauses ' si mobilium,' &c., 'si proprio,' &c., is an exquisite, though not

supported by Lucan's 'terrarum dominos,' Phars, viii. 208, which Orelli
cites, is here preferred.

« L 29, &c. The reading • te,' which some suggest for the first 'me,' is
tempting, because Maecenas was learned : see C iii. 8. 4. But perhaps
Horace in these lines speaks of his own two modes of life, both delightful :
one, which, as a scholar favoured by the great (di superi, /./. Augustus^
perhaps including Maecenas: see C iii. 3, 11. — 5, 2. iv. 5, 33), he en»
joyed at Rome ; the other, in his Sabine villa near Tibur. See iv. 3, the
most exquisite of all his poems, where he expresses similar feelings in
another form, and exults in having gained that which in the present ode he
declares to be the summit of his hopes — ^to be called ' Romanae fidicen
lyrae.']

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INDEX I.

SUBJECTS.

(Bflference is onde sooietimeg to Sections, § : sometimes to Pages. An asterisk marks a
term introduced in modem works on Latin Grammar. Italics with asterisk mark
a term introduced in this Grammar or its companion works. ]

A APO

Substantive). Gr. i9(Btn¥ (epithet),
§15. Declension of Adjectives in
Decl. II. and I., 9^ ; in Decl. III..
115-119. IiregiUanties, § 28. Com-
parison, § 29. Derivation, § 59.
Uses. § 63. In Qualitative Rela-
tion, § 103. II. See Agreement ;
also Contents.

♦Adjectival Clause, § 189. Adjectival
(Relative) Clauses, § 204-210.

Adonius Versus, 541.

Adverbium, Adverb (<juia ad Veibum
est), § 15. Companson of Adverbs,
§30. Correlation of, §54. Table
of, 228-330. Derivation of, 255-258.
Strengthen Superlative andf other
Adjectives, 279.

♦Adverbial Attribute and Apposite,

A, the standard guttural Vowel § 12.
Its sound ; strength. 10, 11 ;
forms diphthongs with i, u, 12;
weakenings. 20-32. See Contents.

♦A-Nouns, Bed. I., § 22. See § 20-
21.

♦A-Veibs. Coni. I.. % 43-47. § 53.

Abbreviations (Siglanum Romanum).
Appendix K., 575.

Ablativus Casus (auferre, to take
away), the Ablative Case, so called
from one of its uses ^paration).
1 19. Its form in the Declensions,
§20. Governed by Prepositions,
§ 71-72. In Circumstantive Re-
lation, § 103. V. Syntactic uses,
§ 143-161. See Contents.

Ablativus Absolutus (absolvere, to
release), the Ablative Absolute, so
called because it stands released, as
it were, from government. Also
called *Ablativus Convenientiae,
§161. §238-240.

Ablative Supine. § 40. § 187.

Abstract Names, 71. 125, 272.

Abtmdance in Nouns, § 27.

Acatalectus (a, not, «aToAi|y«ir, to stop
short). Versus, 528.

Accentus (accinere, to intone). Accent,
Acute or Circumflex, 7.

Accentuation, § lO. 5x1.

Accusativus Casus (accusare. to
accuse), the Accusative Case, so
called because the accused is the
Object of prosecution. Gr. «iT4«TMti|
«TM<rc¥, § 19. Its form in the De-
clensions, § 20. Governed by Pre-
positions. § 70. §72. ObjecHve
Relation, % 103. III. Syntactic
uses, % 119-131. See Contents.

Active Voice (agere, to do), § 36.

Active Sentence, how changed to Pas-
sive Form, § 106.

Adaptation or Partial Assimilation of
Consonants, 42.

Adjectivum, Adjective (quod adidtur

278, 365.

♦Adverbial Clause, § 189. (A) Ad-
verbial Clauses, § 204-227. See
Contents.

Adversative Conjunctions, § 57. 318.

Affirmative Answers, § 83.

Agreement, § 108-114. See Con-
tents.

Alcaic Verse, 8 267. § 269.

Alphabet, the letters of any language,
so called from Alpha, Beta, the &st
two Greek letters. Latin Alphabet,
§ 7. § 12.

Anaooluthon, a Figure of Syntax, 565.

Anapaestus, Anapaest, sj yj L, b, me-
trical Foot, 52^.

Anapaestic Rhythm, 543.

Anaphora, 318.

Animals, names of, their gender, 76, 77.

* Annexive Relation in the Sentence,
§ 103, VIII. 432. Conjunctions*
316.

Answers, Affirmative and Negative,
§88-89.

Antecedent, 357, 361. Agreement of
Relative with, § 108. 361, ^. 368.

*Apoddsis [knt^il^vax, to render back).
it a Predication is so limited by a

^^.v

584

Index I.

Clause, that the Clause can be stated
first, the Predication afterwards,
such Predication is called Apodosis,
while the Clause is called Protftsis
(rpoTctWtf', to stretch before). These
terms are chiefly used in r^;ard to
Compound Conditional and Con-
cessive Sentences {if, although) ; if,
although— I stand (Protasis), / see
(Apodosis). But there would be no
impropriety in applying them when
the Clause is Temporal or Causal,
* when— because— I stand, I see, ' or
when it is Relative, as * whoever
stands— he will see.* Any^ such
clause is conditionally limitative,
and is a Protasis; because a con-
dition precedes in logical order that
of wWch it is the condition. But in
grammar the terms Apodosis and
Piotasis are applied to the princi[Kd
sentence and condition severally, in
whatever order placed.

Appellativa (appellare, to call by
name). Common Names, 71.

* Apposite (apponere, to place by), a
Substantive attributed to another
Substantive, 71, 353.

Apposition, 71, 353, 359, 360, 364-
367.

Arsis (atp«tK, to lift), that Syllable in a
Foot on which 'ictus* falls, § 258.

Articles {0^90), none in Latin. 73.

•Aryan Affinities, Append. C, 554.

♦Aryan Family of Sp)eech, § 2.

As, Compounds of, 149 ; parts of,
157, Appendix G., 556, &c.

Asdepiad Metres, § 265. ; 544, &c

•Assimilation of Vowels, 32-35 ; of
Consonants, 41-^3.

Asynartetus (i, not, awafirwt to link),
Versus, 528, 543.

Atonic or Baryton Syllables, § 10.

•Attraction (attrahere, to draw to), a
very important usage in Syntax,
§ 61. § 110. § 114.

Attributum (attribuere, to assign). At-
tribute, 71. In Qualitative Rela-
tion, 353, 354. Concord, § 108.

Attribution. Idioms of, § 113.

B, a medial labial mute Consonant,
Relations of, 63. Euphonically in-
serted, 44 (note).

Base in metre, 528 (note).

•Being, Veib of (sum, esse). § 42.*

C. a tenuis guttural mute Consonant*
modifled from r. Sounded as K.,
9, 60 (note). Relations of, 59-64.

Caesura (caedere, to cuf), § 260. and
note.

Calendar (Roman), Appenduc/^.. 57a.

Cardinalia (cardo, hinge). Cardinal
Numerals, § 33. Uses of, § 34.

Case, § 19. ^ ^

Cases, Formation of, § 20. See De-
clensions.

Case-construction, § 116-176. See
Contents.

Catalecticus («aTaA^«K, to stop short).
Versus, 528.

Causal Conjunctions: Coordinative
and Subordinative. § 57.

Causal Coordination, 320.

•Causal Clauses, Adverbial and Ad-
jectival § 209-210.

♦Character (x«pa«TW, impressed mark)
of a Stem or Root, 7a

*Circumstantive Relation, § 103. V.

* Clause, 352.

•Clipt Stem, 30, 170.

♦Coalition, ^3.

Collective Nouns or Nouns of multi-
tude, 71. Their construction, 36a.

*Combinate Tense-forms, § 38.

Common Gender, § 18.

Common Names (Appellativa). 71

Comparatives and Superlatives, their
formation, 42 (note).

Comparative Constructions, 314, 3i5»

4<H. 405- ^ _,.

Comparative Conjunctions. Coortuna-
tive and Subordinative. § 57.

♦Comparative Sentences, § 227-228.

Comparison, § 29-30.

♦Compensation, 18.

♦Complement (complere, to complete)^
the (Predicative), that which com-
pletes the construction of a Sen-

* The term * Substantive Verb,* as used to denote * sum, esse,* has every disadvantage
which a term can have. (1) It is a false translation of its Greek original, p^fUi ihraprrwir
(vcrbum existensX (2) It tends to confuse learners, who ought to consider a SuAstanHve
one part of speech and a P'erb another. (3) If any form could claim the term Substan-
liTc Verb, it would be the Infinitive, which partakes of each character (Verb-oounX
These evils are aggravated by the modem practice of saying Substantive Verb, not Sub-
stintive, which was the universal pronunciation of the Adjective formerly, in accordance
with Johnson's authority (a substantive proposition). There is no more reason to obUterate
his wise distinction by applying the general rule of pronunciation to this word in both
iu senses, than to accent the first syllable in a^/acent, sub/ective, and hundreds morew

juizedbyGoOgle

Subjects,

S8S

COM

ENG

fence, when the Verb is copulative,
§ 102. Oblique Complenunt, 351,
360, §131. See Predicate.

Composite Subject, a68, 353, § 112.

-Composition of Words, § 60.

Composition of Verbs, 8 52. § 60.

^Compound Sentence. § lOO, § 198-
228. See Contents.

Concessive Conjunctions, § 57.

^Concessive use of Conjunctive Mood.

•Concessive Sentences, § 225-226.

Concords, Four, § 108.

Concrete Names, 71.

Conditional Conjunctions, § 57.

Conditional Sentences, § 213-224.
See Contents.

Conjugation (coniugare, to yoke to-
gether), the Flexion of Verbs, 72.
Periphrastic, § 47.

Conjugations, the four, § 43. Their
Paradigms, § 44-50.

Conjugating, method of, § 43.

Coniunctio (coniungere, to unite), Con-
junction, Gr. (rvi^9/Mf, 73. § 57.
Coordmation by, 77-81. See Cor-
relation and Compound Sen-
tences.

•Coniunctivus Modus, Conjunctive
Mood, § 37. Pure Conjunctive,
Examples of, 174. § 93-95.

•Consecutio Temporum, Consecution
of Tenses, § 98. § 229.

•Consecutive Conjunctions, § 57.

•Consecutive Clauses, § 205, 206.

Consonants, § 7. Scheme of, 8.
Affections of, 41-58. Relations in
Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit, § 12.
XXXV. See Contents.

*Consonant Nouns, § 20. § 24.

♦Consonant Verbs, § 43-47. § 53.

Contraction, 52, 56.

•Coordination by Conjtmctions,
§ 77-81. By Relative, § 82.

* Copulative Verbs (copulare,/<7 couple).
List of, § 101.

♦Correlation, § 73-76.

♦Correlative Ftonouns and P^uticles.
§31.

D, a medial dental mute Consonant,
63. Sounded as t when final. T
written for final d, 63. Inter-
changed with 1, 65.

Dactylic Hexameter, § 259-260.

Dativus Casus, Dative (Receptive)
Case, § 19, 20. In Receptive Re-
lation, § 103. IV. Constructions,
§ 132-142. See Contents.

Declension (declinare, to slope down).

Declensions of Substantives, the Five,

§20. Their Case-endings. § 21.
First Decl., § 22. Second DecL,
§ 23. Third Decl., § 24. Fourth
Decl., § 25. Fifth Decl, §26.
Declensions of Adjectives. 93, 94,
115-119. Irregularities of Declen-
sion, § 27-28.
Defective Nouns. § 27. Defective
Adjectives, § 28. Defective Ve^b^

Deminutiva, Diminutives, 247.

♦Dental Consonants, •$, 63.

Deponent Verbs, § 36. Their Con-
jugation, § 45. Paradigm, § 171.
Exponents of First Conj., 207-208.
Of Second Conj., 214. Of Fourth
Conj . ► 215. Of Third Conj . , 225.

Derivation, § 59. Of Nouns, 235-253.
Of Verbs, 254. Of Particles, 255-

259-

Desiderative Verbs (desiderare, to
desire), 206.

Dialects of Italy. Append. />.» 556.

Diphthongs (in, ^Bf^ffoi, sound), 6,
12. 13-

Disjunctive Conjunctions, § 57.

Disjunctive Coordination, 318.

♦Dissimilation of Vowels, 34. Of
Consonants, 43.

Distributive Numerals, § 33.

Double Object Verbs, their construc-
tion, 354, 379. ^^ .

♦DubitaUve Sense of Conjimctive, 339.

Duration of Time in Accus., 375 ;
Abl, 401.

£, medial Vowel between a and i. Its
sound and strength, 11, 19. Forms
diphthongs with i, u, 12. Various
affections of, 24-28, 38.

♦E-Nouns, Fifth Declension, § 20.
21. §26.

•E-Vcrbs, Conj. II., §43-47. §53.

^Ecthesis {^KtK^ivai, to place out), a
word or words standing out of the
predication with which they arc in
context ; as, a Vocative Case, or an
Interjection, with their adjuncts,
§104.

Elegiac Distich, § 261.

*El^on (elidere, to strike out), the re-
moval of a final Syllable before a
word beginning with a Vowel, 52.
§256.

Ellipsis {iXXtCntiy, to optit), omission
of one or more words in construc-
tion, §61. 274, 346, 367.

♦Enclitic words (iyKXit^iv, to lean on),
those which throw back accent on
the word which they follow, 7, 259,

Ending, §14.

English Language, 2.

uized by Google

586

Index I.

BNT

INF

*Enikesis {imMimt^ia place im), 352.

*£auiitiatio (enmitiare, to declare or
staU), a statement, § 100.

♦Enundatio Obliqua, the First Class
of Substantival Clauses, § lOO, 189.
194-903. See CONTENTS.

Epicoene words, 77.

Epithet {jMBvnv, pUced on to\ an Ad-
jective in simple Attribution ; as, vir
bonus, 1 15. See Attribute.

Etymology (lr«|M« Atfyof* ^rue account),
§1. §6.

*Eiuphoiiic Insertion of Consonants,

44*
*£iu>hony, 19.
Exclusion of Consonants followed by

Contraction of Vowels, 56-58.
Extensible Verbs, §103. §103, VII.,

§180.

F, an aspirate spirant Consonant ; its
sound uncertain, 9. Corresponds to
bh, dh, gh ; ^, 0, x> 61, 62, Passes
into h, 63.

•Facdve Verbs, 351. Their con-
struction with Accusative (Oblique
Clause), 380-381.

Families of Language. § 2.

Figures of Syntax and Rhetoric, §61.
Appendix F., 565.

*Final Conjunctions (finis, end, pur-
pose), § 57.

*Final Clauses, Adveibial and Adjec-
tival. § 207-a08.

♦Finite Verb, § 35.

♦Flexion (flexio. a lending), ^1^15.

Foot, § 258. List of Feet, 525 (note).

Fractions, how expressed, 157.

Fk%quentative Verbs, 305.

Futurum Tempus, Future Tense,
Simple and Perfect, § 38. Their
uses, J 90. 229. Consecution, 484,
485. See Periphrastic Conjugation,

G, a medial guttural mute Consonant,
§ 12. 9. Its Relations and utter-
ance. 61.

Galliambus of Catullus. 538.

Gender (genus), § 18.

Generic Names, 74.

Genetivus Casus, the Genitive (Pro-
prietive) Case, Gr. ytvudi «T«<rt?,
1 19. Formation of, in Sing, and
Plur., § 20. Genitive in Proprietive
Relation, § 103. VI. Syntax of
Genitive, § 152-176. See Con-
tents.

Gentile or Clan Names ; also from
People, Cities, &c., 252.

Gerundia, Gerunds, § 40. Construc-
tion, § 181-184.

Gerundive Forms, 33 (note).

Glyconic Metre. 536.

Gnomic Use ofSnfytnciive, 343.

Grammar, divisions of, § 1.

Greek; its influence on Latin, a^

Affinities, Append. C, 554.
Greek Nouns m First DecL, §33.

In Second Decl., 92. In Third:

Decl., iia-115.
♦Guna, 12.
♦Guttural Consonants, 8, 61.

H, an aspirate guttural Consonant, 9»
Relations of, 61-62.

Hexameter (DactyUc). § 29»-260.

♦Hiatus, 52-53^ § 257.

♦Historic Infinitive, 332-333.

♦Historic Present, 332,

♦Historic Tenses, 164, § 98.

Homonymous Verb-forms (>|iMn>n«»
having same name), § 227.

•Hortative and Jusshre uses of Con-
junctive Mood, § 95.

I (j). Vowel and Consonant, 9, 10.
Its soimd and strength as i-vccalis ;
weakest Vowel, xi. Forms diph-
thongs when strengthened by a, e, o^
12. Selection of i, 29, &c. Weakens
a and e, § 12.

I as a vincular or link-vowel, 11, 30-
32. I and u, 31.

*I-Consonans (j), 9, 10-68. Sound, Ap-
pend. 3.

♦I-Nouns in Third DecL, § 24.

♦I-Verbs, Conj. IV., § 43-47. 214-
216.

Iambic Rhythms, § 263. 539-540*

Illative Conjunctions, § 57. Coordi-
nation by, ^20.

Imperative Mood (imperare, to am-
mand), § 37. Its Tenses, 163.
How used, § 92.

Imperfect Tense, | 38. Impcpfect In-
die, its uses, I 90. Subjunctive,
§229.

Impersonalia Verba, Impersonal
Verbs, so called because they cannot
take a Personal Pronoun as Sub-
ject, § 50. §109.

Impersonal use of Passive Verbs, § 50.
359. Of Gerundive Construction,
§ 50. § 181.

Inceptive or Inchoative Verbs, 196^
§53.

Indicative Mood (indicare, to sMew) m
Verbs, for categorical or absolute
statement. § 37. Uses of. § 90.

♦Infinite Verb, § 35. § 40. § 177-
188. See p. 169.

Infinitivum. the Infinitive. § 35. § 4a
Its constructions, § 177-188.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

Subjects,

587

INF

^Infinitive Claase (Accusative with

Infinitive). § 194.
Interest. Calculation of. Append. G.,

56^570.

Inteijection (intericere, to throw be-
twien). Interjection, § 58, 357.

Interrogations, § 86-87.

*Interrogatio Obliqua, the Third Class
of Substantival Clauses, 100. § 202.

Interrogative Particles, § 86-87.

Intransitive Verbs, 159, § 122-127.

-io- Verbs of Third Conj., § 46.

Irregular Nouns, § 27-28.

Italian Dialects, Append. D., 556.

*IieraHve CoTistnution with Subjunc-
tive, 343, 463 ; with Indie, 464.

K, a guttural tenuis mute Consonant,
gradually disused in Latin, 9.

Kalendae or Calendae, the Calends of
the Roman month. Append. H.,
572-574.

L, a dental lic^uid Consonants lisped
r. Its Relations, 64, 65.

*Labial Consonants, 8.

Language, Families of, z. Languages
derived from Latin. 3.

Latin, § 2. Literature, § 5.

Letters, § 7-12.

♦Letter-change, § 12.

Letter-writing, Tenses in, § 90.

•Locative Case, §20, §156. See
Declensions.

Logaoedic Rhythms, 541.

Loss of Initial and Final Letters, 44*
47. Of Inner Consonants by con-
currence with other Cons., 47-50.
Of Inner Voweb before Consonants,
50-53. Of Inner Vowels with Con-
sonants, 54.

Lyric Metres, § 262.

M, a labial nasal Consonant Eupho-
nically inserted, 44. Its Relations,
64.

Metaphor (iMra^epetK, to transfer), a
Figure of Rhetoric, 270.

Metonymy (fwri, Jro/M), a Figure of
Rhetonc, 370.

Metre. § 258.

*Mobiiia Substantiva, Substantives
which have Feminine as well as
Masculine Form, 74.

Money, Computation of. Appendix
a, 566.

Month, Roman, Appendix H., 573.

Moods. § 37. § 90-97.

♦Morpholc«y {t^oft^, firm, Aoto*, ac-
count), Wordlore, §8. § 13.

Multiplicative Numerals, 148.

'Mutation of Letters, § 12.

N, a nasal Consonant, usually dental,
but before Gutturals becoming
guttural or palatal ; its Relations,
64.

Names (Roman). 353. How abbre-
viated. Appendix K., 575.

*Narratio Obliqua, § 230.

♦Nasalization, insertion of n, 19.

Negative Particles and Pronouns,
§83-85.

Negative Answers, 330.

Neuter Adjectives, their Substantival'
use, § 63. 365.

Nomen, Noun. § 15. Gr. 6i«fi».^

Nominative Case, hvoiMioructi vtiurt^^
§ 19. Formation of, in Sing, and
Plur., § 20. Uses of. § 115-117.
See Predicative Relation.

Number. § 17. § 39. § 62.

Numeralia, Words of Number, § 33-
34.

Numeral Series, Declension, Table,
§33-34.

O, medial Vowel between a and u.
Its sound and strength, 11. Forms
Diphthongs with i, 13. Weaken^
ing into u. 31.

*0-Nouns, Second Declension, § 20.
§23.

♦0-Verbs (fragments of), 33i.

•Obiectum (obicere, to cast in the way) ,
Object (correlated to Subiectum,
subject), that on which a Subject
acts. It may be Nearer Object
(Accus. Case), or Remoter (usually
Dative, sometimes Accus.) See
Accusative, Dative, and Opjective
Relation.

*ObjecHve RelaHon, \ 103. III.

♦Objective Genitive. § 163. § 174.

♦Obliqua Oratio, § 190-193.

♦Oblique Subject or Complement (the
Subject or Complement of an Ob-
lique Infinitive Clause). 353 (note),
§131.

Optative use of Conjunctive, § 95.

Order of Words in a Sentence, § 241-
243.

Ordinalia, Ordinal Numerals, § 33.

Ordinative Particles, ^17.

Orthography, Appendf. A., 547.

•Oscan Dialect. Append. D.

P, a labial tenuis mute Consonant,
§ 12. Euphonically inserted, 59,

63.
♦Parasitic u (v) joined to q, lo. 58.
Part affected. Accusative of, 374
Participles (partem capere), 165
Participial Construction, § 237-240.

See Contents.

Digitized byCjOOQlC

588

Index L

Particulae, Particles or Small Parts of
Speech, a name given to the four
undeclined Parts, including some
which are inseparable, or only used
in Compounds : ambi-, dis-, in-, re-,
se-, § 24. § 54-58. 255-259

Partitive (partiri, to divideX words
which take a Genitive of the Thing
Distributed, § 171. See Genitive
in Contents.

Parts of Speech or Words. § !*• § 16.

Passiva Vox (pati, to sufftr)^ Passive
Voice in Verbs, § 36. ■

Patronymic ^^^a-riifi^ father, o«>Ma.
name), a name expressing descent
from a father or ancestor, 75.

Pferfect Tense (perficere, to complete),
§38. Disyllabic Perfect, 18. Its
double use in Latin, 164. Its uses
in the Indie. M., 162. In pure
Conjunctive M., § 90. §95. In
Subjunctive, § 204. § 229.

Perfect-Stem and Character, § 41.
Its Formation, § 51. § 53.

Period (r«pio5<K, circuit) and Periodic
Style in Discourse, § 244-249.

*Periphrastic Conjugation, a term
used to express the forms of predi-
cation obtained by connecting the
Participles with the Verb sum :
especially the Future Active Parti-
ciple in -urus and the Gerundive in
-ndus, § 47. The term would be
equally applicable to the Combinate
Passive Tenses with sum and Perf.
Part., but is not usually given to
these. See p. 164, § 47.

Person, 5 39.

♦Petitio (petere, to seek), that Form of
a Simple Sentence in which the Im-
perative Mood is used. § 100.

♦Petitio Obliqua, JndirectWillspeeck,
the second of the three kinds of
Substantival Clauses, 349, § 197.

Phalaecian or Hendecasyllable Verse,

537.

Pherecrateus Versus, 535.

Phonetic Decay, 11.

•Phonology (-^i^, sound, k6yoi, ac-
count), Soundlore, § 7-12.

Phrase {*pa<ri«, from •^paC'ti', to speak
intellij^ibiy), 352 (note).

Place, Adverbs of, §55. Construc-
tions of, § 155-157. See Con-
tents.

PUutus and Terence. 3. Their Pro-
sody, 56, 546.

Pleonasm (irA«oi'd^«ii', to exceed), a
Figure of Syntax, § 61.

Pluperfect Tense (pkis quam per-
fectum, more than complete), § 38.
Its use in the Indie. M., § 90. Con-
junctive and Subjunctive, § 229.

Plural Number (plures, more), § 17.

Peculiar uses of, § 62.
Plural only ; words generally without

Singular, 125.
Plural, variation of meaning in. 128.
Poetic Forms and Idioms. Append. E.,

563-

Position, a Term used in Prosody to
express that a vowel is long, short,
or doubtful in quantity by coming
before certain letters, 512,

Potential Use of Conjunctive, 338,

Praeteritiva Verba, Verbs not conju-
gated with Present-Stem, § 49.

•Predicate (praedicare, to declare), that
member of a Sentence by which
something is declared of the Subject.
Writers on Logic resolve every pro-
position into Subject, Copula, and
Predicate. But m Granimar this
would only mislead, for it is not
in such form that authors write.
Neither sum. nor any other Copula-
live Verb, exactly corresponds to
the logical Copula ; and the word,
which such Verb links to the Sub-
ject, is often not identical vrith
a logical Predicate. For these
reasons (while Madvig and most
other Granunarians are followed
in allowing the term Predicate in
Grammar to a Finite Verb) the
term Complement is used to express
the word or phrase linked by a
Copulative Verb to the Subject, and
so computing a Simple Sentence,
§ 101-102.

•Predicative Relation, § 103, I.

Prefix, 70.

l*reposition (praeponere, to place he-
fore), Gr. wprftf€<r«, 72. Table of
Prepositions, § 56. Prepositions in
composition with Nouns, §60. Wi\h
Verbs, § 52-60. Use of Preposi-
tions with Cases, § 70-72.

Present Tense, §38. lu uses in Indie.
M . . § 90. In Conjimctive M., § 94.
In Consecution, § 229.

Present Stem and Character, | 41.
Affections of Present Stem, § 51.
See Contents.

♦Primary Tenses, § 38. § 95.

•Primitive Roots. $5. Supplementary
Notes. 577.

•Proclitica {vftoKkt»9w, to learn for'
ward). Particles which merge their
accent in the following word. 7.

Prohibition, forms of, § 92. § 95.

*Prolative Relation (proferre, to ex*
tend), that in which Predication is
extended by an InfinitiN-e added to
Verbs, Participles, or Adjectives. 356.

*Prolative Infinitive, § 130.

lOOgle

Subjects.

S89

PRO

SUB

Pronoun (Gr. avrmwiiic), § 15. Pro-
nouns, § 32. Use of. § 64-69.
See Contents.

Pronominalia, 137, 142, 292, 368. § 73.

Pronunciation of Vowels and Diph-
thongs, § 12. Of Latin generally.
Append. B.

Proper Names; Names peculiar to
Persons or Places, 71.

Proportional Numerals (duplus, &c.),
148.

*Proprieiive Relation, that of the
Genitive to the Noun on which it
depends, 356. § 103.

Prosodia {^poaiUw, to sing in accord),
Prosody, 1, § 251-269.

♦Protasis. See Apodosis.

Punctuation, § 11.

*Pure or Independent Conjunctive
Mood, § 37. Uses of, § 93-95.

Q, a guttural tenuis mute Consonant,

only used with parasitic u (v), 9, 10.

Its Relations, 59-61. Sounded as

c before u. Append. A.
^Qualitative Relation, that in which

Attributes orApposites stand to their

Nouns. § 103, II.
Quality. Ablative of, § 153. Genitive

of. § 168.
Quantitative Words, taking Genctivtis

Rei Demensae. § 172.
Quantity of Syllables. § 8. § 252-255.
*Qiiasi-Passive Verbs, i6a
Questions. See Interrogatio.

R, a dental liquid Consonant, § 12.
Its relations, 64-66. Substituted
for s, 65.

* Receptive Relation, that in which a
Dative Case stands to a Trajective
or other Verb or Noun on which it
depends. § 103, IV.

♦Recta Oratio Mistinguished from
Obliqua O.), Direct Discourse in a
Principal Sentence. § 100, § 190.

Reduplication (reduplicare. to re-
double), a peculiar mutation, by
which the form and sense of words
is varied in Greek, Latin, and other
languages, 40. Reduplication in
Present-Stem. § 51. In Perfects,
§ 51. Loss of. X18.

Reflexive Pronouns (reflectere to bend
back), se with its Possessive suus ;
So called because they 'bend back'
their reference to a preceding Subject
of the Third Person, § 32. Their
use. § 66. In Clauses. § 231-235.

^Relations of construction existing

between words in Simple Sentences*
§103.

Relative Pronoun (referre, to refer)
qui quae quod, so called because
referred to an Antecedent noun-
term, § 32. The root of most Sub-
ordinative Conjunctions and of
numerous Adverbs, § 59. Coor-
dination by Relative, § 8^. Agree-
ment of Relative with Antet^ent,
§ 108. Concord IV. Notes on.
§114.

♦Relative (Adjectival) Clauses, § 204.
Consecutive, § 206. Final. § 208.
Causal, § 210.

Rhythm (pv«/tb«), modulated flow or
measure in verse or prose, 512.
Prose rhythm, 506. Rhythms in
Verse. § 269.

♦Root. § 14. § 59. Supplementary
Notes, 577.

S, a dental sibilant Consonant. Rela-
tions, § 12. Passes into r. 66.

♦Sanskrit, 1, § 6. Append. E. SuppU
Notes. 577.

Sapphic Stanza in Horace and Catuk
lus. § 266.

Sapphic Metres. 542-544.

Selection, 20-32.

♦Semiconsonants, 9-10.

♦Semideponent Verbs, 160.

Semitic Family of Language, § 2.

Sententia (sentire, to express thought),
a Sentence, § 100.

Sentences. The Parts of Discourse;
their kinds. § 100. Order of Words
in a Sentence, § 241.

Shortening of Vowels, 55, &c.

Simple Sentence; three forms of.
§ 100. Its parts. 101-103. Con-
structions of, § 107-188. See

CONTK NTS

Singular Number. § 17. § 27. § 62.

Singular only, woixis without plural,

125.
•Soundlore (Phonology), § 7-12. Seo

Contents.
•Stem, § 14. The three Stems in

Verbs, § 41. § 51. § 53.
♦Strengthening, § 12. 12-19.
Strophe or Stanza (<rrpiinLv, to turn),

Strophic Metres, 528 (Note), 543-

546.
♦Subiectum, Subject, that member of

a Sentence of which action or state

is predicated. § 102.
Subiimctivus Modus (subiungere. to

subjoin), the Subjunctive Mood, a

name given to the Conjunctive

Mood when subordinated to an-

y Google

590

Index L

other Verb, § 37. 175. § 96-98. In
Suboblique Construction, § 190-
193. In Compound Sentences,
§ 194-228. See Contents.
*SvbobUqtu Construction, the Con-
struction of Verbs in Subordination
to Oratio Obliqua, real or virtual,
§ 190-193.
^Substantival Clauses, why so called :
their varieties, § lOO. Construc-
tion, § 194-203. See CONTENTS.
Substantive (substare, to stand be-
neatli), the first of the inflected
Parts of Speech, § 15. Declensions
of. § 17-26. IiT^rularity m, § 27.
Uses of, § 62.
♦Suffix, § 14. List of Noun-suffixes,

§ 58. Suffixes of Particles, § 59.
Superlativus gradus (superferre, to
carry above), the highest Degree of
Comparison in Adjectives and Ad-
verbs, § 29, 30. Idioms of, 379.
Supine, an immeaning term, applied
to the two Cases of the Verb Infi-
nite which end in um and u, 165.
Their construction, § 185-186.
Supine-Stem, § 41. Its formation,

§51.
Syllaba (vvXXaiifiavuv^ to take together),

a SyUable, § 7.
Syllabation, 9.
Synaphea, ^20 (note).
•Synesis {vv¥t.4vpLt^ to understand;
vTivtffi^y meaning, a Figure of Syn-
tax, by which meaning rather than
form determines the construction,
§ 61. e 111. § 114.
Syntax (<rvi^«4r«tr, to construct), a
Division of Grammar, § 1. § lOO-
250.

T, a dental tenuis- mute Consonant,
8,63.

Tenses, § 38. § 90-98. Consecu-
tion of, § 98. §229.

Temporal Clauses (Adverbial), §211-
212. See Contents.

Temporal Conjunctions, § 57. § 211.

Thesis in Verse, § 253.

Time of Syllables (Mora), § 8. § 512.

Time, Constructions of, § 124.
§ 154. Computation of. Appen-
dix H., 572.

Tmesis, 35, ^99. 563. ^ . ^ ^

Towns, Names of; their .Gender,
§ 18. Their constructions, § 125.
§ 155-157.

• Trajective (traicere, to throw over).
Verbs and Adjectives which by
their meaning suggest a Remoter
Object, 3S5, 384.

Transitive Verbs, 159. § 121-126.

Transposition of Consonants, 44.

U-V, Vowel and (Spirant) Consonant,
its uses in each character, la

U as weakening of a, o, 11, 21.

*U-Nouns (Fourth Decl.), § 26.

♦U-Verbs (in Third Conj.), § 4a.
§ 53. 224.

♦Umbrian Dialect, Appendix D.

Universal Relatives, 141, 146. 291-
§73.

V, a soft Labial Spirant, 8, la 67.
Sound of, 66 (note). Appendix B.

Variant meaning of Plural Substan-
tives, 128.

Verb, Gr. Anua, § 15. § 3*-63. §59.

254. §«>• §»0-W-
Verse, § 258. Ac.
♦Vmculation, 11, 30-
Vocales, Vowels, § 7-12. Sdieme

of, 8.
Vocative Case (vocare, to call), §19.

§ 20. Vocative Ectbesis, § 104.

§ 118. 119.
Voice (also called Genus), that form

by which Verbs are marked as

doing or suffering, § 36.
♦Vowd-changc. § 12. See Con-
tents.
Vowel-weakening in Compounds, 35-
See Contents.

"iaddhi, 12.

♦\^d(

♦Weakening, § 12. § 19, Ac. See

Contents.
Words, § 14-19.
♦Wordlore (Morphology). § 13-99.

X. double Consonant =cs ; not in the
older Latin Alphabet, 9, 68.

Y represents Gr. v, introduced with »
( « f ) in Cicero's age. 9. Its sound.
Appendix B.

Z, introduced with y. only used in

latinised Greek words, 9.
Zeugma, §61.

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

S9I

INDEX 11.

LATIN VV^ORDS,

[The reference is to pages. An asterisk calls special attention to the word.)

ji, ab, abs, ao2, 231, 263.

299-300
abicio, conido, eicio,

&€., 10, 549
abiete, ariete, pariete.

10, 27
absque, 302
ac, atque, 233, 312. 313,

316
accestis. 55
accipiter, 77
acer, 16
acsi, 482

acetabulum, 571-572
adpens-is, -er, 29
actus, 570-571
acus, acuo, 16
ad; 232; 263, 293
adamantinus, 29
adeps, 65
adfatim, ad - amussim,

26, IOC 256
*adimo (forabimo?), 263
adiuris, 57

admodum, 1^5, 2k6, 329
*adolere, aboTere, &c. , 210
adorea, 102
adulescens, adolescens,

548
adultus» 160

advers-us, -um, 232, 294
aeque ac, 312
aequi boni facere, 416
aerugo, 36
ties, 56, 566
aes grave, 566-569
Aesculapius, 29
aestimare (aestumare),

548.566
aetas, 54

Agaue, Agave, 130
■age,apage.a^esis,&c., 191
agmen, agmin-, 25
ago. i6» 61

aheneus, a^eus, 50, 549
ai, 12

aidilis, 12

aio, 13, 48, 190

ain tu ? 190

ala, 48

Alcumena, 29

ales, 27

alias . . . alias, 292

aliquis, aliqui, 289, 290

alis, 144

aliter, 292, 314, 421

alius. 142. 292, 314. 362

alter, 42, 142, 144, 154,

292, 362
alteruter, 141, 260, 292
alucinari, 549
alumnus, 23
amabo, 235, 3^
amb-, 203, 266
ambissint. 55
ambo, 151
amentum, ames, 50
amphora, 571-572
amphonmi, &c., 87
amplus, «>

ampulla (amphorula), 23
an, annon, 326-329
ancora, 21
anguis, anguilla, 50
animans, 76
anser, 61

ante, 232, 251, 255, 294
ante diem, 573
antecedo. antidpo, 31
antequam, priusquam.

464
anulus. 550
apio, 189 (note)
apis, 109
apprime, inprimis, prae-

dpue, &c, 280
Apniis, 51

apsens, optuli, &c., 42
apud, 232. 294
aquilft, 33 (note)
aranea, 47, 64
arbiter, 65

arbos, aibustum. 24
arceo, anc, 4
arcesso. 65
armentum, 28
artus (part.), 549
arx, 46, 64
as, 157, 566-570
asses usurae, 569
at, atqui, 259, 319
Athenis, 87
attinet, peitinet. 192
au, 12, 13
auceps, 27, 52, 57
audeo. 52, C7
audieram, &c., 58
Aurelii. 63
auris, 66
Aivora, 66
ausim, 55
aut, 250
aut, vet ve, 318
autem. 259, 314
autumnus. 549
avariti-a, -es, 33
avos, &c., 34
avus, avia, 74

balanus, &c, 29 (note)
balneum, 52
•bam -bo, &c., 51, 63
barbarus, 40
bardus, 65

belli, humi. &c., 83, 91
belli gerundi, 23
bellicus, 30
belliun, 46, 63
bene, bontis, ao, 34
benigne, 330
benignus, 51
-bero -beri, &c., 51, 63
bibo. 40
biceps, 54
bicessis, 54

bidens, biennium, bifa^
riam, &c, 149

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

592

Index II,

biduum, triduum, &c,

IS, 52. 149
bigae, quadrigae, 56
biumx, 149
bimus, &C.. 149
binarius, &c., 148
bini, 153, 155
bis, 44, 63, 153
bissextus, 575
bobus, bubus, 57
bonus. 44. 63
bos. 63, 67
brevis. 48
bruma, 57
Bnindisium (Brundu-

sium). 548
bubo, 77
bulbus, 23

cadus, 572

caecus, 547

caelebs, 27

caelum, 45. 547

caementum, 49, 547

caerimonia, 547

caeruleus, 43

caespes, 547

calamitosus, 54

calcar, 45

calfacere, 51, 263

caligo, 16

camena, 50, 547

candidus, 30

canis. 59

canis, iuvenis, vates, log

capella, 51

*capio, 189 (note)

capsis. 187

camifex, 548

caro, 65

Carthagini, 83

casa, 45

Cauda, 45

caupo, copa, 74

causa (caussa), 14, 55, 56

causa, 394, 414

cautum, fautum. &c.,io,

57
cave with Subj., cave sis,

vide sis, 337
caveo, 14. 443
cavi, lAvi, fovi, &c., 18
cavus, 45

cedo. cette, 52, 191
cella, 16

cello, fallo, pdlo, 67
celo, clam, &c., 16
celsus, 28
cena, 50. 547
cenatus, 160
censeo, 451
centum, 59, 152, 154

centuria, 57 x

centussis, 36

Cerealis, 66

Ceres, 17, 25

cemo, crimen, cribnim,

&c., 17, 65
certe, certo, 329
ceteri, 547
ceu, neu, seu, 13, 45
Charisin, 43
Chalybon, 113
cicindela, 40
dconia, 40
cincinnus, 40
cinis, 25. 29
circuit, 53
circum, drca. cirdter,

266, 295-296
circumago. 53
ds, dtra. 133, 151, 294
dthara. 25
citimus. 42. 151
dvis, 15, 76

dam. danculum, 16. 256
clandestinus, 43, 251
claustrum, 43
depsit. 55

cliens, clienta, 53, 74
clima, 571
clipeus, 548
cludo, 13
duo, 14, 44, 64
coalitu*-, 160
cochleare, 572
codex, &C., 13, 27
coemo, 53

coepi, coeptus sum, 189
cogo, 450

Conors, core, 56, 549
color, colos, &c., 66
columna, 41
columus, 44
comedo, 53
comes, 27
comminiscor, 190
con, com, 203, 251, 263
concedo, 450
condido, 549
conectere, conubium,

&c., 549
congius, 571
comunx, coiunx, 76
consuetudo, 54
consul. 22, 36
consulo, consilium, 34
contamino, 48
contio, 57, 549
contra, 251, 296
contumella, contumax.39
convitium (conviduin),

34 (note). 549
copia. 35
copis, 53

coquo, 59, 578

cor, 46

coram, 256, 302

cordi esse, odio esse^

&c., alteri. 390
corpulentus, 50
cotidie, cottidie, 155,

355. 549

cxeare, crescere, &c., 17

credo. 216

Cres, Cressa. 75

cretus, 160, 404

cnidus. cnidelis. crus-
tum, &C., 141

cubitus, 570

cuculus, 40

cucumis, 29

cui bono fuit ? 391

cuicuimodi, 144

culest, 53

culeus, 572

cmn (prep. ), 233. 263. 302

cum, or quum (con).):
for quod, 442 ; causal.
since, 449 ; temporal
when, 463-467 ; con-
cessive, although, 4Sa
482

cum, quum (quom), 549-

cum-tum, tum-tum, &c^

317
cuncti, 56
cupio, 449
cupressus. 28, 50
cur, quare, &c., 36, 53
cura, 14
curaut, 337
curculio, 40
curia, 57
euro, 451

custos, cutis, &C., 14
cyathus, 571-572
cygnus, 43

-dam -dem -do -do^r

&€., 259
damnas, 131
Dareus, D^us, 10
de, 251, 263, 277, 3*
de, deterior, detcmmusr

deabus, miabus, &c., ^

87
debeo, 56, 263, 4^
decem, 50. 152-153
decempeda, 570
decennis, 53
decenter, 257
decet.dedecet, 19a
decies, dedes centenar
&c. 156. 568-569
I decuria. 57

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

Latin Words.

595

dccuno, 964
decussis, 36
deesse, &c., M
defetigo (ddatigo), 36,

deflagratus, 160

deiero, 25, 39

dein, deinde, &c., 13, 46

deminuere, 548

demum, 259

denarius, 567-8

deni, 47

denique, 259

deiuio, 257

depedscor (depadsoor).

547

deram, dero, &c., 53

deses, 28

deus, divus, &c., 15, 33

dextans, 56

dexter, dexterior, dex-
timus, 42, 133

di (dei), dis (deis), 548

Diana, 15

die, due iac, fer, &c, 45

dicare, dicere, 115

dido, dicis, 15, 549

die crastini, 120, 400

dies, diu, &c., 15

digitus, 570

dignus, 15

diluvies, ^

diribeo, dirimo, 66

dis- dir-, 203, 265

dis (dives), 57

disco, 48 (note)

diu, hy day ; diu, longt
257

diumuSt 66

divisse, 55

dixti, 54

do (SkT dA), -do (Sk.
dh&). 206

doceo, 451

doctrina, 50

dodrans, 57

Dolabella, 51

doleo quod, 441

domi, 83, 120

domine, 26

domus, Z20

donee (domcum), 259,
461-463

dracuma, 29

dubito an, 327

duellum, 45

duloedo, 30

dulcis, 65

dum, 259; dum, donee,
quoad, whilst, 461-
463 ; until, 461-464

dum, dummodo, pro-
vided that, 479

dumtaxat, 259
dumus, 50
dupondius, 570
dux, duco, edtico, &c,i5

e, ex, 133. 251, 264, 301

ebur, eoor-, 21

ecce, en, 235, 259

eccum, ellum, ac., 140

ecquis, 141

edepol, epol, pel, 235

Mo, 189

gdus, &€., 12

ego, 61

eheu, heu, 235

d, 12, 13

eice, reice, 10

elephus, dephantus, 77

-endus, -undus, 548

enim, etenim, 259, 320

eo (v.), 189

eo (adv.), 229, 308

eo, quo, tanto, quanto,

&C., with compar., 399
epigiammatdn, 113
epistula, epistola, 548
Epona, 59 (note)
equester, 28
equidem, 259
equus, 59
erepsemus. 54
erga. 296
ergo, 320
ems, era (heraa^ hera),

17, 62
&. 5a
esse, SI
et is, &C., 285
et, que, 259, ai6
et, neque, 3x0
etiam, quoque, 3x6
Etrusd, Tusd, 65
etsi. etiamsi, 479-482
cu. 12, 13
examen, 48
examussim, 106
excubiae, 79
exin, 46
existimo, ^9
exosus, iGo
exspecto, expecto, ezsul,

exul, &€., 550
exta, 52
exterior extremus^ 42*

133
extmxem, 54
extra, 296

faba, 63

£ac with Infin. Clause,
444

QQ

Cac (ut, ne), 337, 444

fades, 16

fEicio, x6

fado, effido, 448

£adt are. 35

facul, 46

£Eienum, 547

foginus, 29

Falisd, Falerii, 65

fallo, 45

famul, 46

fiEU', 42, 46

fan, 14, 191

faSk 16

fiEUeor, 16

fSLX, 16

faxo, fiEudm, fiudtur, 55

febris, so

fecundus, 23, 547

fel, 46, 6^

femina, 29, S47

fendo, 60

fenus, fener- fenor-,.

feneror, 25. S47. 54^
ferbui, fervi. 549
feriae, 6$

fero, 62, 184-5, 217
ferre, 51
fers, ^
fetialu, S49
fetus, S47
ftdes, fido, &C., IS
figlinus, 51
finis, 49
fio, 18S-6
firmus, 62
flagro, 62
flainen, 48
flamma, 41
fluo, fluvlus, &C., IS
foedus (s.). IS. 547
fomentum, 57
foras, 256
fore, 21
fore ut, futurum ut, with

Subjunctive^ 444
foris, 62
formosuSk 50
fors, forte, 259
forsitan, fortasse, 259
fossa, 41
frango, 16

fra(n)go, hi(n)go, &€., 19
frater, 62
frigo, 62
fr^gus frigor-, 2S
fhvolus, 22
•frugi, 131, 133
frustra, 39
fogio, 62
fui, 58 (note), 62
fulcrum, 28 (note)
fulgeo, 6a

Digitized byCjOOQlC

594

fulmen, 47

fumus. 63

fiindo, 63

funebris, 50

fungor, fruor, utor, ves-

cor, with AbL, 397
funus, fiiner-, 25
furfur, 40
Furius, 65

Gaius, 9, 13
gallus, gallina, 75
gaudeo, 52, 57
gaudeo, gratulor quod,

441
genitor, genetrix, 30, 547
gen-va, lo
Geoigiodn, 92
gero, 65
gigno, genus, &C..16, 40^

61
glacialis, 53
Gnaeus. 9
gnarus, &c., 16
gnasd, 44
gnatus, &c., 16
gnavus, &c., 16
gnosco, &c., 16, 44
gradior, 180
.gradus. 570
grando, 64
gratia, 394. 414
gmvor, 159

liabeo, with part perf.,

,499

If adria, 63, 549
Hammon (Ammon), 549
harena (arena), 63, 65,

549
hariolus, 549
hanindo (arundo), 62,

549
haruspex (aruspex), 62,

549
baud, haut, hau, 323, 549
haudquaquam, 324
baud scio an, 323
haurio, 65
hausdo, a6
have (ave), 191, 549
hebetudo, 54
hedera, 549

hei, vac, bem, 235, 390
beroina, 571-572
berciscere, 549
Hercules, 29
beredium, 569
bercs, 17, 6^, 158, 547
heri (here), 61, 257, 400,

548

Index 11.

bestemus, 65
Hiber (Iber), 549
bibemus, 44 (note)
bic 139, 144, 282
bic, Ule, 283
biemps, 61, 548, 549
bilans, bilariis, 31
billa, 50
birundo, 17, 64
birudo, 17
Hister (Ister), 549
bodiemus, 66
bolus (olus), 62, 549
homicida, 54
homo, 19, 69, 76
bomullus, 23
bonestus, 28
bomus, 57
borsum, 57
bortor, 442
buiusque, buiusce, 59
bumi, bumo, 83

iacio, 10

lanus, 45

ibi, illic, 228, 308

id aetatis, id temporis,

&c., 374
iddrco, ideo. propterea,

32a 4S8» 459
idem, 50, 284, 313
idQs, 572

iecur, iedner- iednor-,
. 59.548
igitur, 330
ignis, 30
ignosco, 50
ilicet, 359
ilico (iUico), 39
Ilithyia, is

ille, 36, 139, 144. 358,383
iUinc, 358

imberbus, imberbis, 31
immo, 357, 359, 330
impedio, 450
impero, 364, 450
impetrassere, 55
impubis, 1x5
imus, 56
in-, 363
in- (Pr.), 303, 351, 964,

, 304-305

ineo esse ut, &c., 453

inciens, 53 (note)

incitas, 130

inclutus (inclitus), 548

incohare, 549

induor, exuor, with Ac-

cus., 374, 5^9
industnus, 53 (note)
indutiae, 53
infimus, 43, 151

infitias ire, exaequias

Ire, 376
infra, 133, 997
inger. 45
in promptu, in prodncti^

130
inquam, 188
inquilinus, 34, 59
inquinare, 39, 59
instar, 130, 414
instigo, 17

inteU^o, 303, 364. 548
inter, 43, 365, 396-397
inter ipsos ; inter se, 495
interea lod, &c, 430
interdudo, &c, 364
interdius, interdiu, 957,

400
♦intereo, interemo, inter-

ficio, 36^
interest, refert, 193, 416-

417. 449
interior, mtimus, 43, 151
intra. 133, 151, 396
intus. 39, 136
invideo, 364,384
iocus, 15

ipse, 388-289, 494-495
iracundus, 30
ire, in, with supine, x86
is, i^ 383-«85
is, eiusmodi, taUs, &c.,

ut (qui), &C.. 453, 45S

&C.

iste, 140^ 383

ita, itaque, 358, 330

ita ut, 453

item, itidem, 358, 313^313

iterum, tertium, &&, 149

itur. 188

iubeo, 450

iucundus, 14

iudex, 50

iu^-, iungere, ifigum,

iQgis, &c, 14
iugerum, 157, 570-571
iumentum, 14* 48, 57
iunior, 133
luppiter. IS 4S 57
iuratus, 160
iurgor. 53
iuvat, 15, 193
iuvenis, 76
iuxta, 53, 397, 313

Kaeso, 9
Kalendae, 9, 597
Kalumnia, 9
Kartago, 9

Ifibare, Iftbi, 16
LabienuSk 34
lac 44. 46

Digitized byCjOOQlC

Latin Words,

595

fiicer, 64
lacrima, 65, 548
lama, 471
lamentum, 44

lana, 47

lanius, 47

laiuc. 45

lapiddinat 54

Lares, 65

latrodnium, 54

latus,4S

laus. 14, 44, 578

lavo» 14

Lemnria, 43

leo, lea, leaena, 64, 75

levir, 65

Ifivis, 48, 64. 578

levis, 64. 547

libella, 570

libera schola, 576

libet. lubet, 9, 15, 192.548

libido, 30

libra, 566, &c.

librarius, 57a

licet, 66, 19a, 441, 449

ligula, 572

lilium, 64

limax, 15

limus, 15

linere, 15

lingo, 6z

lingua, 65

linquo, 59, 64

Mquere, liquet, liquor.

17, 192
lis. 45
Mttera, IXtura, linea, 15.

549
btus, 550
locnples, 54
locus, 45

loquella (loquela), 549
luci, 83
luciifer, 31
ludnus, 29
hipus, 45

luscinia, 14, 44* 64
hue, IQceo, iQna, lilcema,

Ludna, 14, 64
lynx, 77

machina, 29

macte, macti, 131, 235

maerere, maestus, 547

mage, magis, 26, 42, 136

master. 25

maiestas, 28

maior, 13, 48

Mains, 13, 48

mala, 48

maleficus, malificus, 31

Mamers, 40

manceps, 50
mandpium. 79, 548
mane, mani, 257, 400
malo. 57. 186-187, 449
manibiae, 54
mansuetudo, 54
manus, x6
marp^o, marnn-, 29
mantimus (maritiunus),

548
marmor, 40
Maspiter, 35
matertera, 53
maximus, 42
meft. tufi, &c., 417
mecastor. mehercule,

medius fidius, 235
medicus, ^
meditor, 65
medius, 63
md, 46

melior, mdius, az
memini, 189,422
mensa, 16
mensis, 16
meridies, 65
m€tior, 16, 216
mSto. 16, 2SO
mi, 56
militiae. Romae, &c., 83.

mille.

dlle, millia (milia), 41,

152. 159
millia passuuro, 570
mina, 29
Minerva, 29, 66
minime, 324, 330
minister, 28
minor, minimus, 42
minus (snon), 324
mirum quantum, &c.,

280
misceo, 48 (note)
misereor. miseror, mis-

eret, 192, 423-423
misti, 54
modestus, 28
modium, medimntmi,

&c., 91
modius, 572
modo. 324

modo ... modo, 317
modo non. 324
modus, &c., 16
mdles, mOlestus, 48
momentum, 57
moneo, 451
monimentum, monu-

mentum. 548
monstro, monstrum, 44
morior. 180
mos, &c,, 16
mostellaria, 50

mostis, 57

mox. 259

mulsum. 24 *

multimodis, 50

murmiu*, 21, 40

nae (nS), nae tu. nae ille,

&c.. 235
nam, namque, 258, 320
nare, nfttare, &a, 16
naiis, nasus, &c., x6, 65
narrare, 44, 54
nascor, natio, &c, 16,

44* 548
nastiutium, 5a
nauci, 4x6
nausea, 33
nauta, 52, 57
navis, 61
-n6, 326
n§, 33^

nS prohibitive, 337-34*
ne in Pet. ObL, 44»-443,

446-451
ne in Fin. d, 457-458
ne . . . quidem. 335
nee, neque, 316, 335
nee (sne . . . quidem),

325
necdum, 323
necesse,36
necesse est, 441, 449
necne, 329
necnon, 3x6, 333
necubi, 333
nedum, 333, 335
nefias, ndfarius, 65
negassim, 55
neglego, 43, 548
negotium, 43
nemo, 56, 333
nemo unus, 368, 323
nemo non, &c., 324
nempe, 255
nepos, neptis, 52, 74
*nequam, X3X, 333
nequaquam, 324, 330
nequeo, 188
nequiquam, 324
nesdo quis, 290
neuter, 323
neutiquam, 323, 324
neve, 3x6, 323
nihil, nil,'34, 56, 323, 549
nihil dum, nullus diun.

&c., 324
nihil non. 324
nihil quicquam, 268
nimirum, 359
nimius, 34
ningo, ninguo, nix, 43,

548
nisi, 323, 475-477

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

596

Index I L

noli» 337 I

nolo, 54, 57, 186-187, 449
nomendator, 53
nomen LAtinum, 273
non, 256, 323, 330
non modo, non solum, 325
non modo non, 325
non quia, non quod, 460
nonae, 572
nonne, 323
nonnemo, 324
nonnihil, nonnullus, &c.,

324
non possum non, 324
nonus, 152
nos, 141
nosco, n6ta, ndmen, z6,

548
nostri, nostnmi, 141
novem, 20
nubes, 26, 63
nucleus, 52
nudius, 259
nullus, 142, 323
num. numne, 326, 328 \
numen, numin-, 29
Numerius, 65
nummus, 568
numquis, 141, 143
nunc, 57
nuncupo, 54
nundinae, 57
nunquam,&a,52.323, 324
nimtio, 57

nuo, numen, nutus,&c., 15
nuper, 57
nurus, 66

O, heu, pro, en, ecce,

&c., 379
ob, 203, 264, 297
obit, 58
«obIiquus, obscenus, 39,

a6^ 547
*(obs|, 203 (note), 264
olxjedire, 39, 547
*obscurus, 14, 39
*obsolesco, exoiesco, in^

solesco, 203, 266
obsoletus, x6o
obviam, 256
occulo, 16
occupo, 22, 266
ocior, odssimus, z6^ 134
octavus, 152
odi, 189
oi, oe, 12, 13
olere, 65
oUa. 50
omen, 50
omitto, 264
omnino, 2^

onustus, 28

opexae, 79

operio, 264

oportet. 192, 446, 449

optime, 331

optimus, 42

opto, 449

opus, usus, 197

orior, 180

oro, 449

6s, 46

*ostendo, 203, 264

ou, 12, 13

ovare, 191

ovis, 20, 21

pftdscor, pax, &c., 16
paelex, 547
Paelignus, 547
paenitet, 192, 548
paenula, 548

pal5i^ 48

palam, 256, 302

palma, 50

palmipes, 570

palmus, 570

palumbes, 59

palus, 48

^paver, 40

Papirii, 65

par, pariter, 312

Parilia. 43

parricida, 41

pars, portlo, 20

pars, plebs, &c., 362

partim, 105, 256

parum, 136, 256

parmlus, 22

paterfamilias, &c., 86

patior, 450

patridus, 549

patrocinium, 54

pauper, 54

pavo, 59, 77

pecu, 120

peiero, 25, 39

Peior, 35

penes, 297

penitus, 136

penna, 41

peperi, 25

per, 299

-per, 259

per-, 262, 299

♦pcrdo, peremo, pereo,54

(note). 160, 264
perendie, 257

P«go. 54
perinde ac, 312
perinde quam, 312
per mihi gratum est,

per mihi placet, 35
permitto, 450

perosus, 160

perperam, 256

perquam. 135

Perses, Perseus, 1x4

persona, 17

pertaesus, 160

pes, 157. 570

pes monetalis, 570

pessimus, 42

pessulus, 22

pessum, 130

pestis,so

INCUS, 15

pietas, 34

piget, 192

piia, 48

pignoris, pigneriSk pig-

neror, 548
Pinarii, 65
pinguis, 61
pinus, 47
pistrinum, 50
pladtus, 160
plaustrum, 43
plebs, 17, 63
plenus, 47
plerique, 131, 142
plerique omnes, 268
pluo, pluvia, &C., 14
plus, plurimus, 42, 136
po^matomm, poeniatis»

"3
poena, 547
pomeridianus, 46
pomoerium, 46^ 548
Pompdus, 13, 59
Pomponhis, &a, 59
pondo, 13Q, S7S
pone, 50^ 294
TOno, 50b 220
Pontius, &C., 59
popina,59
populare, 41
pOpulus (popoln^ vf,

21,40
pSpulus, 40
porro, 65
posco. 206
possum, 54, 184
post, 133, 151, 294
postea, postfaac, 296
posterior, postremua^

postumus, 42, X33
postquam, po8teaq[oaiii,

462
postridie; 257, 400
postulo, 45X

Potes.54 ^
potestas, 28
potior (v.), 186
potior,potius, 134, 136
potis, pote, 20^ 27. 31^
134. 184

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

Latin Words,

597

potus, x6o

pra«. 133. ^Sh a64» 3»-3
prad)eo, 56
praecep8» 97
praeoipio, 450
praedpue, 980
pracco, 54
praeda, 56
praefisdne, 330
Praeneste, 38, 79

praM.S7
praestigiae, Xfl8
praesto (adv.) 53
praeter. 251, 398
praetor, praetura, 34
praeterea, 356
praeut. 313
piansos, 160
preoe» procus, do
precor,448
]nrehendo, prendo, 5^

prelum, 548

pridie, 40^ 573

primairas* Z48

primarius, 148

primo, primum, 149

primum, deinde, &c., 3x7

prior, primiis, 43, 133

princeps, 43

prisUs, 44

prinsquam, 464

pro, prod-, 351, 365, 303

pro (inteij.), 335

pro eo ac, 313

procul, 399

prodeo, prodesae, 303

proelhim, 548

prohibeo. 443, 450

prohibessit, 55

proin, prcrind^ 13,53,483

proles, S3

promo, 53

prope, proplor, proxi-

mns, 43, 133, 398
propediem, 359
propter, 398
propterea. 458, 459
prosa, 50, 57
protenus (protums), 548
prout, 313
pradeiis» 57
pQbea^ X4
pubis, puber, 39
pub]icus,40b 43
p&det, X4, 193
puer, 14
puerpera,35
puertia,53
pulmo, 65
pulvis. 35.39
pQnio. p&nn; X4
pQpo. 14

lus, 14
pQsio, 14

piiter, pateo, pQs, 14
pttto, ptitus^ X4

quadmpes, 7^

quaero, quaeao, quae-

sivi, 6s
quaeso, X9X
qualis, 143, 145
qualis. quantua, &c.,

308, 368, 388
qualus^ 48, so
quam, how, 309
quam, tu, 314
quam, tkam, 3x5, 404
quamdiu, 46X, 463
quamdudum, quam-

pridem, 3x4
quamquam, utut, 479,

48X-483
quamvis, quamlibeC,

quantumvis, quamvis

hcet, 480, 493
quando, 309, 458
quandoque, 458
quandoquidem, 458
quantiUus, 51
quantus, 43. X43, X45,3o8
quantuscumque, quan-

tusquantus, 39X
quare, cur, 36, 309
quare, quamobi^, ftc,

320
quartanus, ST^Sl^
quasi, 50, 4837483
quatenus, 458,' 548
quattuor, 59
que, 59, 316
quemadmodum, quo*

modo, 308
queo, nequeo, x88
querimonia, 30, 69
querquetum, queit^um,

quiaut ego, ut tu, &c.
&c., 452; (consec.),

quicumque, 391
quidam, 391
quidem, 385
quies. 15

quin, 45, insobst sent,
^3. in adj. sent.. 455,

quina-vioenaria(lex), 148
quindecim, 54
quinetiam, 447
quinque, 36, 59
quippe, 399

qui, 44X

t«s.S9
quis, 59
quis, qui, X40-14X, 389*

quisnam, ntemam, 141
quispiam, 990-391
qubquam, 990-39X
quisque, 380, 39X, 369
quisquiliae, 130
quis^uis, soz
quiviSk quil&et, 391
quo, in order that, 458
quo, eo, &c, 308, 399
quoad, 46X, 463
quodrca, 49
quod, that, «a^ 44'
quod, qi^ oocauu, 459
quoimodi, 144
quom,S9

quominus, 443, 447
quoniam, 458
quoque, 316
quorsum, 930
quot, 308,368
quotannis, 155
quotiens (qnoties), 33,

461,549
quotus, 4^

quotusquisque^ 309-310
quousque, 930,306
quum \sticam, coij.)

radix, 45, 67
raeda, 548
ramentum, 49
rana, 47
raucus, 14
raudus, 14
re red-, 904, 965
reddi reoddi, &c., 54

recipio* 37» ^^

redprocus, 95X

recte, 399

recuperare (redp-), 548

recuso, 39

redivivus, 1$

refert, 193, 4x^17. 449

Xregio, 16
o, &c, 4X (note),

549
remus, 50

repente, sufaito, ftc., 466
repetundarum, 130

repP«ri. 25.550
res repetundae^ res Ro-
mana, res pdilica, 373
retro, 35X
rex, 16
rima, 48
rogo, 448
rosa.4S

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

598

Index I L

rostnun, 43

ruber, rabigo»rufus, 14,63
rttdis, 14
rttdo, rOmor, 14
rumpo, 64
rtunusculus, 34
niTsus, nirsuin, &c., 51
nis, rure, run, 375, 401,
403

saeculum, 548

saepe, 136, 356

saepes.S48

sal, 64

salix, 66

saltus, 571

saltern, saltim. 36. 356

salus, salve, salvos, 17,

Sammum, 43

sane, 339

sanequam, 314-315

sanguis. 50, 99

sanguisuga, 50

satis, abunde, &c., 419

satin? A5

scaena (scena), 548

scala, 50

scilicet, 359

socpulus, 33

scnpulum, 158, 571

scutum, 14

se- sed-, 304, 351, 366

se, 136

se, suus, 385-387, 489-

494
seco, 17
secundum, 398
secundus, 154
secus (s.|, 130
secus (adv.), 136, 356
sed. 319
sedeam, 48
sedi, vidi, veni. z8
seges. 37

Xentum, 43
A* 54
sella, AX
sembella, 570
semel, 153
seniestris, 50
semi, 66
semis, 53
semodius, 573
semper, 359
sempiteraus, 50
semunda, 158
senex, senior, 69, 133
seni, 48
septem, 36
sequester. 31
sequor. 59
serenus, 17

erOf series, ftc« vj, 66
sero,semen,&c., 16,40,65
serpo. 66
serum. 66
serus, 17
servasso. 55
sescenti, 154
sescunda, 158
sescuplus, &c., 148
sesqui. 54, 148
sesquialtera ratio, 158
sesquipes. 570
sestertius, sestertium, 48,

566-570
Sestius, 48
setius, 136, 549
sex, 66

sextarius, 571, 573
sextula, 158
si. 66. 467-475
sica. 17
sicilicus, 158
sicubi.siquando, &c,474
si dis placet, 475
silua, zo
sitva, 64, 66
similis. similiter ac, 313
si maxime, 474
si minus, 474
si mode, si tamen, si

vero. 475
simplex, 153
simul, 66, 153
simul, simul ac, 313, 463
singuli, 153, 153
sine, 303
'sinister (next the sinus),

38, 133
sinistimus, 43
si quis, &C., 474
sine, 450

si non, nisi, 475-^^77
si quaeris, siquaerimus,

SK^mdem, 474

sins, 57

Sirius. 17

sis, sultis, 57, 187, 337

sisto, 40

sive, seu, 318, 475

soboles, suboles, 34, 548

socer, 31, 34, 174

socors, 34

sodes, 335. 337

sol, 17, 31

soladum, 519

*soleo, 3X4, 366

soUers. 366, 550

soUemnis, 550

soUidtus, 366, 550

soUus, &c., 66, 366

solor, 17

solvendo esse^ 391

sohis, Z43

somnuleiitas, 33 (note)^

somnus, sopor, 17, 43

sonus, ftc, X7. 31

sorbeo, 65

soror, 31

spero, spes, 65

spolium, 59

sponsor, 76

sponte, 130

spurius, 65

stadium, 570

stare, statio, fta, 17

statim. 358

statim ubi, &c., 463

statuo, 448

Stella, 50

stercus, 59 (note)

stemo, &C., 17

sterquilinium, 59

stnus, 17, 548

stipendium, 54

sto, 3o6

strifilis, 64

studeo, studium, 59^

(note). 449
suadeo, persuadeo, 451
suavis, 49, 66
sub, SUS-, 303, 351, 36^

305—306
suDtemen, 48
subter, 351, 306
successor, 70
sudor, 66
su£f5oo, 39
sultis, 187
sum (esse), 58 (note), 167-

sumen, 48

suo, sQtor, subu]a.&c.,i4
supdlex, X05
super, 66. 351, 306
supersedeo, 365
supra, 133, 35X, 397
superior, supremus, sum*

mus, 43, X33, 35Z
suigo, 54
surpui, 54
surrexe, 55
sus (s.), 66
susumis, 3r, 40
suspitio (suspido), 34

(note), 549
suus, 66, 489-494

tabuleis publioeis, I3
taedet, 14, 193
talentum, 38
talis, 455
talpa.M,77
tam, adeo, sic 4P
tamen, 319, 479^^

Digitized by CjOOQ IC

Latin Words.

599

tametsi, tamenetsi, 480
tamquam (tanquam), 43,

48a
tantum, 453
tantum abesse ut, 453
tantus, 145
taurus, 45, 64
tego, 17, 45, 61
tegula. 17, 45
Teius, 13
tela, 48
temo, 47
temperi, tempori, tem-

perius, 25. 136
templum, 51
ten-via, 10
tenus, 304
teruncius, 570
tibicen tibicina, 53, 7^
timeo, raetuo, vereor (De,

ut), 443, 447
titulus4o
tollo, 317

-tor -trix (snbst.), 75
tormentum, 47
torqueo, 65
torus, 45, 129
tot, 145, 308
totus, 15

trans, 203, 251, 266, 295
traxe, 55
tres, ter, &c., 15, 65, 151,

154
tribunidus, 549
triginta, 54
trinundinum, 54
Troia, 13
Troius, 13
Tros, Troas, 75
truddo, 54
tuxn-cum, 456
tuber, 15
tugurium, 34
tumeo, &c., 15
turbassitur, 55
turns, 42
tiurtur, 40
Tydides, 13

uber, 63

ubi, vohen^ 461

ubi, unde, &c., 285,

308= Relative, 452
udus, 57
ui, 12

UUxes, 6s .
udus, 41, 51, 142
ubia, 64, 570
ulterior, ultimus, 42, 133
ultra, ultro, 251, 295
uhilo, 40

umere, umor, 62. 549

umenis, 549, 621

unda, 151, 566-572

unciarium fenus, 570

unde, 308

undedm, 54

imgere, imguere, &c.,
548

unguis, 61

unus, 150, 152, 153, 157

unus et alter, 364

uni, trini, &c., 15^

urbes, urbis, urbeiSi 13

urbs, urps, 549

uma, 571

upilio, 57

upupa, 22

uro, 65, 224

ursus, 48

usura, interest, 560

-us -a, &c. (subst.), 75

ut (that) in Subst. CL,
440-441 ; in Petitio
ObL , 442-451 ; in Con-
sec. CI., 452-454 ; in
Final CI., 457-458

ut, koWt 309,441

ut, as, 312-313

ut si, 482-^3

ut, when, since, 461-462

ut, granting that, 339,
480-482

utare. utaris. 19

utcumque, utut, 479

uter, 230, 259, 308

uterque, 141, 362

utervis, oiterlibet, 141

utinam, ut, 339

ut non, 440-441, 452-

455
utne, 442-451, 453, 457-

458
ut qui, utpotequii 461
ut quisque, 280
utrimque, 230
utrum, 328
uxor, 74

valde, 125
vale, 191
Valerii, ^$

valetudo (valitudo), 548
valliun, 17
vanus, 47
vapor, 44
vapulo, 160
-ve, 318
v6-, 262

vehemens, vemens, 56,
549

v^o, 6z

vd. 318

velle, 51

vello, 28

vdo, 17

vdox, 17

velut si, vdut, vduti, 482

vendo, venumdo, 54, 160

venefidiun, 54

veneo, 160

venere, venerunt, 19

venio, 18

ver, 66, 67

vere, vero, 329

verecundus, 30

vereor, ij, 443, 447

vermis, 64

vema, 66

versus, versum, vorsum,

399. 548 ,
verto (vorto), 548
venun, vero, «c., 319
verus, 17
vespera, 67
vesperi, vespere, 83, 91,

loa, 157, 400
Vesta, 67
vestis, 67

vestri, vestrum, 429
vetemus, 66
veto, 450
vetus, 118
Veturii, 65
via, 33
vicem, 256
vicesimus, 59
victima, 548
videlicet, 259
viden ? , 45
video, 447, 451
vidua, 63

viginti, 45, 541, 61, 15a
vilicus, 550
viUum, 50
viola, 67
violentus, 22
vir, 69
virus, 66
vis (s.), 65, 67
vis (v.), 52

vivere vitam, &c., 373
vivo, 45, 222
vix, vixdum, 324
voco, vox, 17, 21, 59, 67
volgus, vulgus, 22
volnus, vulnus, 20, 21
volo, nolo, malo, 64,

186-7,449
volucris, 109
volvo, &j
vomer, vomis, 25
vomo, 67

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