PUBLIC SCHOOL
PENMANSHIP
A HANDBOOK FOR TEACHERS
BY
ALBERT W. CLARK
Gm^ AND COMPANY
BOSTON • NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON
L.
'J
COPYKIGHT, 1909
By albert W. CLARK
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Cbe iatftengum H^rtiti
GINN AND COMPANY • PRO-
PRIETORS • BOSTON • U.S.A.
L-C.
PREFACE
It is probable that most teachers understand less about
the fundamental principles of chirography than they do
about any other study in the grade curriculum. Because of
this lack of knowledge the majority of the public school
profession realize their inability to teach writing properly.
They will correctly give it as the most important reason why
the class-room penmanship is no better.
This book has a triple purpose : first, to unfold enough of
the theory of penmanship to educate any one in that part of
the subject ; secondly, to suggest what to teach in penmanship ;
and thirdly, to explain how penmanship should be taught in
public schools. Were it not for the explanation of the theory
the book would be of small assistance. It is of little use to
repeat what should be done to teach writing unless at the
same time the teacher acquires a better preparation for her
work. To this end, therefore, the instruction here given is
definite, progressive, and constructive.
The last part of the book contains a suggestive course of
study in public school penmanship. As stated in that chapter,
for various reasons no arbitrary plan can be followed with the
greatest success. The directions there given will, in many
cases, serve as a basal outline for the teaching indicated, while
iv PREFACE
in other instances they should be conformed to very closely.
It is in keenly perceiving when to give certain instruction that
the teacher will prove her ability to judge the present status
of the pupil's work. This work must show constant improve-
ment. Actual attainment, therefore, is the sole foundation on
which to build the next more advanced practice.
Finally, what is here set forth will prove of no value unless
the teacher reads it carefully, and intelligently makes its state-
ments a part of her instruction to the pupils. If she does
this, her individuality in teaching will be ideally demon-
strated. Too much should not be attempted at any time.
It is better to read a little and assimilate it. Teach that,
and develop such a process gradually. If this is done, the
teacher can stand before her class with that confidence
which is born of definite knowledge. Such assurance, coupled
with enthusiasm, that indispensable factor in teaching, will
cause successful results to be the outcome of every writing
^®^®°^- ALBERT W. CLARK
Melrose Highlands. Massachusetts
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I
Preparation for Writing
PAGE
Three reasons why the pupil should maintain a good body position ,
1. To preserve good eyesight
2. To preserve good health
3. To secure convenience in writing
Three important suggestions offered to assist the teacher in this work
1. Explain the benefits accruing from a good body position . . 2
2. See that the pupils maintain a hygienic body position during
all desk work 2
3. Give frequent periods of respite 2
The correct or hygienic position of the body 3
1. Sitting near the desk 3
2. Placing the feet squarely on the floor 3
3. Sitting erect 4
4. Arm rest 4
How to steady the paper 5
Position of the paper while writing 5
Penholding 6
Correct penholding described 7
How to teach correct penholding 10
1. Teach one detail at a time 10
2. Use some exercise to assist in this detailed study .... 10
How to teach the upright position of the hand 11
How to tea?ch the third and fourth finger-nail rest 13
How to teach the elevation of the wrist 13
How to teach the crossing point of the penholder on the first finger , 14
How the penholder is held against the second finger nail .... 14
How to correct a conical position of the first finger . . . . . . 15
How to correct an undue curvature of the first two fingers and thumb 15
vi PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
PAGE
Summary of correct penholding 16
1. Place your right hand flat on the desk ........ 17
2. Half close your hand 18
3. Extend your first and second fingers and thumb .... 18
4. Take your pen or pencil 18
How to teach pen-and-ink work . 19
The making of a penwiper 20
Pen-and-ink work should be taught the latter part of the second
year 20
How to use the blotter 20
CHAPTER II
The Study of the Script
During the process of writing any style of script, its downstrokes
will coincide with the writer's line of vision 21
How the line of vision will help the teacher 22
Obtaining the line of vision 22
Application of the line of vision to get the correct position of the book 24
Application of the line of vision to get the correct position of the paper 25
Application of the line of vision to the slant of the script .... 26
How to record the line of vision 26
How to help the pupil establish the axis line in his mind .... 27
How to draw parallel lines which represent the slant of a particular
script 27
A study of parallelism 28
A test for the accuracy of parallelism 28
The axis-line parallelism applied to written work 29
How to teach the axis line and its application in first and second
grades 30
Place a sheet of paper ruled with axis lines under the paper on which
the pupil writes, to assist him in acquiring slant 31
Angle to keep paper in proper position 31
Blackboard writing 32
Directions for writing on the board 33
Teaching forms of letters 36
An observed lesson in penmanship 36
The teacher should thoroughly acquaint herself with the technique
which she is to teach 37
CONTENTS vii
PAGE
Four things to teach in the forms of capitals and small letters . . 38
1. Teaching from basal form or principle 38
2. Emphasizing the similarity of form throughout any given
class of letters 38
3. Giving definite and specific instruction about the letter . . 38
4. Ascertaining the proportions of any character by comparison 38
Letters should be taught from basal forms or principles 39
The basal forms or principles and the letters made from them . . 39
Memory lesson 39
Similarity in forms of letters 40
Primary group based on w 40
Secondary group based on n 40
Definitely teaching script forms . 41
Model lesson on capital D 42
Study and comparison of work by pupils 43
This lesson supposed to have been given in middle or upper grades . 46
Instruction should be modified for first and second grades .... 46
Teaching script by measurement and comparison 46
Chart showing the capitals, small letters, and figures, measured in
height and width 47
The unit for measuring the width of letters 48
The unit for measuring the height of letters .48
Construction of scVipt 49
1. The oblique line 49
2. The basal ellipse 49
3. The curves of the letters 49
4. The angles of the letters 50
Script, to be written rapidly, must be made largely of separated lines 50
Supervision of first-grade work 51
Desk work for first-grade pupils 51
How to teach the scale of script . 51
How to teach the length of parts of letters extending below the base
line 53
Code of rules summarized from the instruction on scale of script . . 54
When to teach the scale of script 55
Teaching the numerals 55
Measurements of the figures 56
1. In length ; 56
2. In width 56
Important details of form to teach in the capital letters 56
viii PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
PAGE
The evolution of the capital letters from the basal ellipse .... 57
iV explained 57
Jlf explained 58
V explained 59
U explained 59
TF explained 60
F explained 60
X explained 61
Z explained . 61
Q explained 62
if explained 63
JT explained 63
P explained 64
B explained 65
B explained 65
r explained 66
I'' explained 66
S explained 67
L explained 67
explained 68
C explained 68
E explained 69
D explained 41-43
A explained 69
G explained 70
1 explained 70
/explained . 71
cfe explained 71
How to correct angular script 72
What to do with left-handed pupils 74
CHAPTER III
Movement
The importance of movement 76
Simplified pedagogy 77
1. Movement explained 77
2. Applied movement 78
3. Technical application of movement to geometrical forms . . 79
CONTENTS ix
PAGE
4. Practical application of movement to written forms ... 79
5. Practical application of movement to written words ... 80
Three things in movement learned by the pupil 80
1. What is meant by movement 80
2. That every letter or word has its own particular movement . 80
3. That writing is applied movement 80
The teacher should emphasize two facts 80
1. That continued drill on any individual movement will make
its execution automatic 80
2. If the pupil follows these suggestions, he will write and not
"carve" his words 80
Class-room conference to elucidate elementary movement .... 80
The ideal writing motion 81
Studying the movements of the muscles 82
1. Feeling the muscle and its vibratory motion 82
2. Comparing this muscle to soft rubber 83
3. Rolling the hand on a cylindrical form 83
The mechanics of movement 84
How the technical exercises should be practiced ....... 84
1. The lateral slide 84
Five things about the hand to be observed during movement practice 85
2. The e exercise 86
3. The connected ellipses 87
A light touch of the pen necessary 88
4. The repeated ellipses . *. 89
5. The continuous ellipse 90
The successful making of any elliptical exercise depends upon the
perfect elliptical revolution of the hand 90
6. The push-and-pull exercise 92
The direction of motion in downstroke of push-and-pull exercise . . 92
7. How these separate movements are combined into the " writing
motion" 93
8. The i exercise 94
9. The i exercise inverted 94
10. The n exercise 95
The basal-movement exercises few in number 96
X PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
CHAPTER IV
Application of Movement
PAGE
How to use the tracing process to explain the transmission of motion 98
The tracing process applied to making the ellipse 98
Four important things to observe when teaching transmission of
motion 99
The tracing process applied to letter writing 99
The tracing process applied to word writing 100
The tracing process applied to writing capital letters ..... 101
How to help the pupil always to use applied movement in writing 102
Alternating a technical exercise with written work 102
Object of so doing 102
Alternating a technical exercise with word writing 103
Alternating a technical exercise in sentence writing 103
Application of the spacing plan across the entire width of the paper
for words of two letters 103
During first work of applied movement use words containing only
unit letters 105
Why a word of but two letters should be written during first work
of applied movement 105
Application of the spacing plan across the entire width of the paper
for words of three letters 105
While studying applied movement by the spacing plan it may be
helpful to first develop the word according to the tracing process 105
In all applied-movement practice legibility must be maintained as
facility of execution increases 106
The spacing plan for applied movement in writing words of four,
five, six, seven, and eight unit letters 106
Five directions for teaching applied movement 107
The spacing plan for word writing across one half the width of paper 107
The spacing plan for word writing across one quarter the width of
paper 110
Deficient pupils should first practice applied movement on the board 110
The spacing plan applied to movement in sentence writing . . . 110
Sentences of three words, each containing three letters .... 112
Applied-movement sentence writing without mechanical aid . . . 113
The spacing plan applied to movement in writing sentences con-
taining words of unequal length ' 114
CONTENTS xi
PAGE
Application of the spacing plan to the written work of the school . 114
1. The movement applied in writing geography 114
Lessening the lateral spacing of these words 116
2. The movement applied in writing history 117
3. The movement applied in writing spelling 119
4. The movement applied in making figures 120
Counting 121
The speed used in counting 121
How to count 122
Counting for a writing lesson and a piano lesson the same in prin-
ciple 123
When to count 125
Speed work 125
The speed must be governed by three things 126
1. The pupil must use applied movement 126
2. He must write easily and smoothly 126
3. He must form his letters with great legibility 126
CHAPTER V
Course of Study
First year's work 129
Second year's work 138
Third year's work 141
Fourth year's work 145
Fifth year's work 148
Sixth year's work 153
Seventh and eighth year's work 157
A final word to teachers . . 160
PUBLIC SCHOOL PE^MA^SHIP
CHAPTEE I
PREPARATION FOR WRITING
Position of the Body while Writing
There are three important reasons why the pupil should
maintain a good body position when sitting at the desk to
write :
1. To preserve good eyesight. No pupil can continually
keep his eyes close to the paper without tending to become
nearsighted.
2. To preserve good health. No pupil can constantly sit
bent over the edge of the desk, with his chest hollowed in,
and at the same time breathe freely and deeply. Such a
posture would be detrimental to good health.
3. To secure convenience in writing. No pupil can sit in
a cramped or stooped position and find it conducive to ease
and convenience during protracted periods of written work.
When the teacher asks her pupils to sit properly at their
desks, they think she wishes the general appearance of the
room to be thereby improved. Such a thought does not
always inspire the stimulus necessary to accomplish the
desired end.
, These very important suggestions are offered for the as-
sistance of the teacher in this particular work:
2 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
1. Talk V ilk the pupils and explain the benefits accruing
from a good body position. ,
When developing this or any new line of study, the teacher
should try to help them to see the end from the beginning, and
just how such instruction and training will affect them indi-
vidually. Taking the pupils into the teacher's confidence will
first, oftentimes, cause them to think ; secondly, it will furnish
them an incentive to work; and thirdly, it will frequently
give them more courage in the difficult task of application.
2. See that the pupils maintain a hygienic body position
during all desk work.
To make sure of a good body posture during the writing
lesson the teacher should insist upon a hygienic position
of the pupil during all the other hours of the school day.
Remarkable as it is, an unhygienic attitude is infrequently
noticed until the writing period occurs. Then the teacher
will say to the class : " Why, children, what would the super-
intendent say if he should come in now ? He would think that
you were writing with your noses. Do sit up." The reference
to this much-beloved school official, as well as the pleading
tone of the voice, have their effect in straightening up the
pupils for a while ; then they lapse and bend over their desks
as if they had been afflicted with chronic rheumatism from
birth. On the other hand, if pupils maintam the hygienic
position in which they should sit during their regular seat
work, the result will be a wonderful improvement of the
body posture during the writing hour.
3. Give frequent periods of respite.
As a means of obtaining a better body position nothing
is of greater value than frequent periods of rest between
recitations. A change of air in the room and a few exercises
PREPARATION FOR WRITING
3
in physical culture will not consume more than sixty seconds.
The air, exercise, and change of thought will so revive the
pupils as to cause the teacher to feel that she has a different
class in the room.
The correct or hygienic position of the body
The hygienic
position of the
body while writ-
ing calls for four
things :
1. Sitting near
the desk. The
pupil should face
the desk and be
near it withpiit
leaning against it.
In deciding how
near it to sit, have
him turn his right
hand so that the
back of it forms a
right angle with
the top surface of
the desk. In this
position he should
be able to move ^^^' 1
his hand up and down between the front edge of the desk
and his clothing without touching either.
2. Placing the feet squarely on the floor. Both feet should
be placed squarely on the floor under the desk. The child
4 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
should not be required to sit with his heels together in mili-
tary precision. This restrains and irritates him. If he keeps
his feet flat on the floor under the desk, he should be allowed
to change their position. Such a change is restful, especially
to one who is inclined to be nervous.
3. Sitting erect. The pupil should sit upright, with his
shoulders thrown well back. If it is necessary for him to
incline forward because of nonadjustable school furniture
or for other reasons, he should bend the body at the hips
so that he may properly focus his eyes on the writing. A
good rule, the statement of which sometimes amuses the
children, is to sit so that the end of the nose is two pen-
holders' length from the paper. Unless it is noticed that
there are unusually short noses in the class or that too
many luncheons have been taken from the tops of the pen-
holders, this rule should be strictly followed.
4. Arm rest. Both forearms should rest lightly on the
desk. To assist the pupil in doing this properly, instruct
him as follows:
a. Ask him to drop his arms at his sides. His hands will
naturally half close, as is the case when one is standing.
h. The hands thus partially closed, instruct him to place
his elbows on top of the desk. The right elbow should be
near the lower right-hand corner of the desk, and the left
elbow should be near the lower left-hand corner. The hands
should point upwards with their hacks toward the pupil.
c. Ask him to drop his forearms to the desk, allowing the
hands to rest near each other.
If he has followed the directions correctly, it wiU be
noticed first that, the muscle of each forearm is properly
placed for the arm rest. Note particularly that the right
PREPARATION FOR WRITING 5
forearm muscle is now resting upon a flat surface and not
oscillating over the edge of the desk. Secondly, it will be
seen that the right hand is placed in a convenient position
to receive the pen, while the left hand is placed in a favorable
position to keep the paper from moving.
How to steady the paper
The paper should be held in position with the tips of
the fingers of the left hand. Pupils frequently place the
whole of this hand upon the paper, — a habit that should
be corrected. The oil in the perspiration will easily be trans-
ferred to the paper, and, when the pupil tries to write over
the place where his hand has rested, the paper will not absorb
the ink, which cannot penetrate this oil. It is because of
this fact that a boy will often say, " My pen ain't no good."
In many cases the difficulty is not with the pen but with
the paper, as above explained.
Position of the paper while writing
The position of the paper while writing will be considered
in greater detail later on, in connection with other matters.
For this reason all that it is necessary to say here can be
stated in a few words.
If a script slanting 25° to the right of vertical is desired,
turn the paper so that its top edge will tilt toward the left
until its bottom edge forms an angle of 25° with the front
edge of the desk, or an imaginary line running parallel to it.
How this exact position may be taught and acquired, whether
for the purpose of reproducing a script of this slant or simply
for the purpose of approximating it as a standard, will be ex-
plained, beginning on page 25 of this book.
6 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
Penholding
There is no part of the work which the teacher of penman-
ship dreads more than teaching penholding. This is so par-
ticularly in the middle and upper grades, unless the pupil has
acquired a good manner of holding the pen in the classes
below. In any grade above the first the dread of teaching
this subject is probably due to a mistake of the child's first
teacher. Such an error may bring long-continued misfortune
to a child as well as to his future teachers, and may cause
them to believe that it is impossible for public school chil-
dren to learn how to hold the pen correctly.
In order to ascertain how the mistake may be made, the
essentials of a first writing lesson, such as in some instances
is given to a young pupil, may be interesting to review.
Teacher. (Item No. 1) "Johnny, you are going to write.
You will sit just so " (properly placing him before his desk).
(Item No. 2) " Johnny, you are to keep your paper on the
desk just so" (properly placing the paper). (Item No. 3)
" Johnny, you are to hold your pencil just so. Won't that
be splendid ? " (properly placing the pencil in Johnny's hand).
Thus far the little fellow has been taught (?) three things:
the first of these, the body position, involves four details, and
the last, penholding, includes seven details about which to be
careful. All of this important instruction has probably been
given within five minutes. The teacher then turns to the
board and makes and teaches either small i or some short
word, which comprises the fourth item of instruction. Which
one of the four things taught will engage the special interest
of the child ? Writing his copy. Where was the mistake ?
In teaching too much for the first lesson, and particularly in
PREPARATION FOR WRITING 7
asking him to write, without first taking sufficient time to
help him fix in liis mind the details of the writing process.
Many a teacher has said: "The boy writes, if he does not
hold his pen correctly. Kesults are what we want. Wliy,
then, is it necessary to teach him the correct position of the
liand ? " The fallacy of such reasoning may be aptly illus-
trated by the following incident from the author's life. When
a boy in school he was given an example to perform. He did
his work, looked in the back of the arithmetic, and found he
had the correct answer to the problem. He remembers well
how proudly he walked to the teacher's desk, expecting some
word of approval. To his utter dismay, the problem was pro-
nounced wrong. By some juggling of figures he had attained
the right answer, but the work was wrong because the process
was wrong. Every teacher who is reading this book has had
similar experiences in the class room. In connection with
the above incident no one would argue, as in the matter of
penholding: "The boy got his correct answer. Results are
what we want. Why teach him a different process ? " When
one considers the education of the child such reasoning is
absurd in either case.
Good penholding can be acquired by public school chil-
dren, and become so much of a haint that they will hold both
pen and pencil in the same position for all written work.
Correct penholding
The pen should be held between the first and second fin-
gers and the thumb.
1. It should cross the second finger at the corner of
the nail.
2. It should cross the first finger close to the middle joint.
8
PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
3. The thumb should bend outward at its first joint, and
the end of it should touch the penholder opposite the first
joint of the first finger.
4. The forearm should rest lightly on its muscle, as has
been shown in describing the body position on page 4.
Fig. 2
5. The wrist should be raised slightly above the desk.
6. The hand should rest on the tips of the third and
fourth finger nails.
7. The top of the penholder should point in a line up the
forearm and over the elbow, or between the elbow and the
shoulder.
PREPARATION FOR WRITING ^ 9
Fig. 2 illustrates the details of correct penholding as seen from
the right side of the hand. The following points should be noticed:
the natural curvature of the first two fingers, where the penholder
rests at the corner of the second finger nail, where the penholder
crosses the first finger, where the second and third fingers separate,
the third and fourth finger-nail hand rest, the elevated wrist, and
the fact that the top of the wrist is nearly level. It should also be
noticed that the muscle of the forearm rests on the desk and that
the elbow is near the front edge of the desk.
An explanation must be made. To bring out clearly the details
just mentioned it was necessary to point the camera at right angles
10 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
to the riglit side of the hand. In so doing it makes tlie top of the
boy's penholder point to his chin. The teacher, however, must not
be misled in this particular, for this penholder actually pointed the
same for this picture as is shown in Fig. 1, page 3, and as is also shown
in the cut next following. The direction in which the penholder should
point properly could not be correctly delineated and the other details
emphasized in the same picture.
Fig. 3 illustrates the top and the left side of the hand and wrist
as the writer looks down upon them. In studying this picture it
should be noticed that the boy sat near to the desk, but his cloth-
ing did not touch it ; that the right forearm is at right angles to the
writing lines; that the forearm is resting on the muscle near the
elbow ; that the pencil crosses the first finger between the knuckle
and the middle joint; that the first finger, from the middle joint to
the end, rests on the pencil (which precludes the possibility of a
conical position of the first finger); that the thumb bends outward
at its first joint, while the end of the thumb touches the pencil
opposite and a little under the first joint of the first finger ; that the
top of the pencil points to the arm a little above the elbow, and that
the top of the wrist is nearly level.
The angle of the paper should also be noticed. This paper is placed
properly for writing a script which slants 25° to the right of vertical.
The tips of the fingers of the left hand should properly hold this
paper in position on the desk.
How to teach correct penholding
To teach correct penholding successfully two tilings should
be done :
1. In the pupil's study the seven details noted above should
be developed one at a time.
2. Some exercise should be used to assist in this detailed
development of study.
Note. It is suggested that the seven details of correct penhold-
ing be taught in the order of their importance, and the following
instruction is given from that point of view.
PREPARATION FOR WRITING 11
The upright position of the hand. The position of the hand
is determined by the direction in which the top of the "pen-
holder points. Explain to the child that the desired direction
is represented by an imaginary line which would extend up
the forearm and over the elbow, or between the elbow and the
shoulder. To teach tliis detail it is sometimes well to let the
pupil hold a twelve-inch ruler in his hand as he would a pen.
Such a ruler is commonly supplied for drawing; it is thin
and narrow, and the thin edge can be easily held between the
thumb and fingers. Because of the extra length of the ruler,
the pupil can get a much better idea of exactly how the top
of the penholder should point, than he would from beginning
his practice by holding either penholder or pencil.
a. When this explanation is understood and the child
holds the penholder or pencil accordingly, ask him to lift
his forearm on his ell)ow in the direction in wliicli the pen-
holder points, until the top of the penholder is vertically over
the elbow or between the elbow and the shoulder. Then ask
liim to drop his hand again to the desk. Have him continue
this practice briskly for ten or fifteen seconds.
h. Place the pupil's hand in the proper upright position at
the left edge of the paper and ask him to move it halfway
across the page. Assuming that the hand is still in the cor-
rect upright position, ask him to practice lifting his arm on
his elbow as above described.
c. Ask the pupil to write a part or the whole of a line on his
paper. During this exercise teach him to study the upright
position of his hand rather than the letters which he is making.
d. When the line is written ask him to hold his hand still
in the exact position it was in when it readied the right-hand
side of the paper. Ask him to lift his arm on the elbow in
12 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
whatever direction the penholder may then point. In this
way he can learn whether his hand has rolled over on its side
while he was writing.
Fig. 4 represents the exercise of Hfting and lowering the hand
in the direction indicated by the top of the penholder. The right
forearm is placed properly for writing, as explained in paragraph 4,
Fig. 4
page 4. The hand is then lifted through the middle position to the
highest position shown in the illustration, and the forearm rests on
the elbow at the front edge of the desk. If a vertical line should be
drawn downward from the top of the penholder in the hand highest
from the desk, this line would touch the right arm just above the
elbow. This is the place to which the top of the penholder or pencil
should always point during the exercise of lifting and lowering the
hand. The exercise should be practiced briskly.
PREPARATION FOR WRITING 13
e. Continue such practice until it is natural for the pupil
not only to move his right hand in the upright position across
the paper, but to write in the same manner. This drill results
in training him in this detail of correct penholding so that it
becomes a habit for him to hold his hand upright whenever
he takes his pen or pencil to write.
The third and fourth finger-nail rest. Next in order of
importance teach the third and fourth finger-nail rest for the
hand. Use the following exercise.
a. Have the pupil place his right hand flat on the desk.
See Fig. 8, page 17.
h. Ask him to half close this hand so that the tips of all
four finger nails touch the desk. See Fig. 9, page 17.
c. Have him extend the first two fingers and the thumb as
they would be extended when holding the pen. This leaves
the third and fourth finger nails touching the desk in posi-
tion for the desired hand rest. See Fig. 10, page 18.
Repeat these exercises until the pupil fully understands
where the hand rest is and can use it whenever he writes.
Elevation of the wrist. Next the elevated wrist should be
taught. If this matter has not been emphasized and the pupil
is asked to lift his wrist while writing, he will almost always
take his elbow off the desk in order to do so. Show him, by
using the following exercise, that there is no need of remov-
ing his elbow.
a. Ask him to hold his hand in the upright position, rest-
ing it on the finger nails as above described.
h. If the wrist touches the desk, he should practice raising
and dropping the wrist, all the time keeping the muscle rest
of the arm in its proper place on the desk. When the pupil
finds that he can lift the wrist without taking his whole arm
14
PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
from the desk, it will be an easy matter for liim to apply this
detail of correct penholding.
In Fig. 5 the correct position is shown by the solid hand. If the
pupil incorrectly lowers his wrist or the under part of the hand to
the desk, as represented by the shadow, he should practice lifting
and dropping the wrist, as indicated by the bottom of it in the solid
hand and the top of it in the shadow. This will train him to keep
his wrist above the paper while writing, as well as to keep it flexible.
Fig. 5
The crossing point of the penholder on the first fi^nger.
The proper crossmg point of the penholder on the first finger
should now be taught. Ask the pupil to place the first finger
of his left hand on the first finger of his right hand, back of
the penholder and in front of the knuckle. Thus the pupil
will assure himself that the penholder crosses his first finger
where it should. See Fig. 6.
How the penholder is held against the second finger nail.
The pen must not be held against the end of the finger.
To illustrate how the penholder is kept in position against
PREPARATION FOR WRITING
15
the corner of the second finger nail, ask the pupil to hold his
pen correctly between the first and second fingers and the
thumb. Then ask him to raise his first finger from the pen-
holder. As he does so, he realizes that it is a slight pressure
of the thumb on the opposite side of the penholder which
keeps it in position against the corner of the second finger
nail. This exercise is intended to offset the usual unnecessary
grip of the first and second fingers and the thumb (see Fig. 7).
How to correct a conical position of the first finger. To
correct such an error, show the pupil that the first finger,
from its middle joint to the end, should rest on the pen-
holder. Drill on this point. If it be necessary, place for a
short time a small elastic band around both penholder and
first finger, between the first and the middle joint.
How to correct an undue curvature of the first two fingers
and thumb. To correct this error be certain that the pen
16
PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
point is at least three quarters of an inch below the end of
the second finger. If there should be less space between
these points, the pupil would naturally curve his fingers to
keep them from dragging on the paper.. To avoid such a
necessity he should push his penholder farther down and at the
same time curve his fingers as is illustrated in Fig. 2, page 8.
Fig. 7
Both pencil and pen must be held in the same manner. In
developing the different parts of correct penholding, as previ-
ously explained, it is well, in grades where both are used, to
alternate in practice, first using the pencil and then the pen.
This interchangeable drill will train pupils to hold each
correctly.
Summary of correct penholding
In order to sum up the instruction on correct penholding,
it is suggested that the teacher use tlie following scheme :
PREPARATION FOR WRITING
17
Fig. 8
1. Place your right hand flat on the desk.
a. The back of the hand will now face the
ceiling, laying the foundation for the
desired upright position.
h. If the hand is flat, the wrist is certain to
be slightly raised. It is impossible to
have the hand flat and the wrist touch
the desk at the same time. Thus is
laid the foundation for a raised wrist
while writing^.
Results
Accomplished
Fig. 9
18
PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
2. Half close your hand so that the tips of all four finger
nails shall touch the desk, and at the same time raise the
wrist slightly.
a. The back of the hand still faces tlie ceil-
ing, assuring an upright position of the
Eesults J hand.
Accomplished | b. The wrist is raised.
c. The third and fourth finger nails are in
the correct position to form a hand rest.
Fig. Ill
3. Extend your first and second fingers and the thumb,
thus 'placing them in position to receive either pen or pencil.
a. The hand is in an upright position.
b. The wrist is elevated.
Results g. The third and fourth finger nails are in
Accomplished I the correct position to form a hand rest.
d. The first two fingers and thumb are in
position to receive the pen.
4. Take your pen or pencil.
PREPARATION FOR WRITING 19
How to teach pen-and-ink work
The average teacher hesitates to attempt pen-and-ink work
because she fears the usual baptism of ink for the pupil.
Both the fear and the immersion are unnecessary if the follow-
ing directions are carried out :
1. Sketch a pen on the board and call attention to the hole
in it. For young pupils it may be well to name this the
"window" of the pen. Ask them to hold it up and look
through it.
2. In the picture of a pen on the board, draw a horizontal
line across the bottom of the " window " and tell the chil-
dren they are to dip the pen point into the liquid only to
the depth that is represented by this line.
3. Let the pupils practice this last suggestion. Go around
the room with a small bottle of clear water, asking each child
to dip his pen into it several times, as far as the bottom of
its " window."
4. After each dip give him time to look at his pen to
assure himself that he has not put it down too far into the
water.
5. Having learned in this way how to dip his pen, the
pupil should next dip it in his ink-well and write. It may,
however, require several lessons on the work above out-
lined before the teacher considers it safe to let the young
pupil use ink.
6. Before this lesson is given, each pupil must be supplied
with a penwiper, and he should wipe his pen after each in-
spection called for in paragraph 4. The proper care of the pen
should be taught at the same time instruction is given in the
use of ink.
20 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
Note. A penwiper should never be made of the inside of an old
kid glove. The glove has absorbed perspiration, which contains oil.
When the pen is wiped this oil is transferred to it and prevents the
ink from staying on the point in a whole drop. It also prevents the
ink from flowing freely from the pen (during the writing). For a
similar reason a piece of chamois skin should not be used. Neither
cotton nor woolen cloth is suitable, because the fibers of these cloths
often get caught between the points of the pen and trail the ink
along in a broad line. The very best penwiper is a piece of soft tissue
paper or a moistened sponge, but these are not practical for general
use in the schoolroom. The next best is a piece of clean silk, and
from this penwipers should be made. The pen should never be put
between the lips.
Note. The question may be asked as to the proper time to teach
pen-and-ink work. In some places it is taught during the first year,
but the author prefers the latter part of the second year.
How to use the blotter
The use of the blotter is an exceedingly simple matter
and can easily be taught. The teacher should insist upon
the pupil's using it correctly. If a freshly written line needs
to be dried, instruct the child to place the left-hand side of
his blotter on the paper he is using, parallel to that side of
it, at the same time allowing the entire blotter to rest lightly
over the moisture. While holding the left side of the blotter
firmly, he should brush the right hand across it with a steady,
gentle pressure. This will absorb the ink and the blotter will
not move.
A common mistake in using the blotter is to take it in
one hand and with a series of quick slaps upon the paper
attempt to absorb the excess of ink, which will almost always
blur the ink lines.
CHAPTEE II
THE STUDY OF THE SCRIPT
To teach the letter forms and their slant is often difficult
for the teacher. In order to answer the question, "How shall
. I teach slant ? " it will be necessary to explain some of the
construction of script.
During the process of writing any style of script its down
lines will coincide with the writer's line of vision ; that is, the
direction in which he is looking.
In Fig. 11 the rectangle represents the top of a desk or
table on which three pieces of paper are lying, each in a
different position. The one marked A is so placed that the
bottom of it is parallel to the front edge of the desk. It should
be in this position for the writing of vertical script. The
paper marked B is turned so that its top edge is tilted toward
the left. Such a position of the paper is used by the right-
handed person who writes slant script. The paper marked C
is turned so that its top is tilted toward the right. This is
the common position of the paper for a left-handed person,
who usually writes backhand script. Each of the small circles
represents a writer, who sits exactly facing the desk. In each
instance the vertical dotted line represents the writer's line
of vision, that is, the direction in which he is lookmg.
On each paper a small / is written, and in every case the
back or downstroke of the letter coincides with the writer's
line of vision. It is evident that three styles of writing are
represented m the illustration : paper A, the vertical ; paper B,
21
22 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
slant to the right of vertical ; and paper C, backhand script.
In each case the position of the writer at the desk and the
direction in which he is looking are the same. The three
kinds of writing therefore depend (1) upon the position of the
paper, and (2) upon making the downstrokes of the letters
coincide with the line of vision. This last suggestion is neces-
sary because it is essential to establish the proper relation
between the eyes and the downstrokes of the script. As pre-
viously explained, the writer should (1) face his desk, (2) sit
erect, and (3) look directly ahead of him. In so doing he
will look straight up the downstrokes of liis writing. A pupil
sometimes cants his head to one side, and when asked why
he does so, replies, " I can see better." The real reason lies in
the fact that he has tilted his paper so far that he cannot see
straight up tlie downstrokes of the letters. Instead of canting
his head to one side, he should tilt his paper less.
Help to the teacher
If the teacher thoroughly understands Fig. 11 and its
explanation, its application in three ways will be very help-
ful. First, it will assist her to place the book in the correct
writing position on the desk ; second, it will assist her to
place the paper in the correct writing position; and third,
it win assist in obtaining the exact slant of the script which
she is teaching.
To make the applications, follow these directions very
carefully.
Obtaining the line of vision
1. Ask the pupil to sit facing his desk.
2. Give him an ordinary twelve-inch ruler. Ask him to
place it on the desk so that the end of it is even with the
THE STUDY OF THE SCRIPT
23
Fig. 11 represents the different positions of the paper for writing
as well as for reading written work. The paper marked A illustrates
the position of the paper for writing and reading vertical script. The
paper marked B (dotted-line rectangle) shows the position for writ-
ing slant script. When this paper is moved in the direction of the
arrow until its four corners agree with those of the paper marked D,
it is in the position for reading script. The downstroke of /, which
coincided with the line of vision during the process of writing, be-
comes slant script when the same paper is held squarely before one
O
o
Fig. 11
O
to read wTiting. In a similar manner the paper marked C (dotted-
line rectangle) shows the position for writing backhand script. When
this paper is moved in the direction of the arrow until its four corners
agree with those of the paper marked E, it is then in the position for
reading script. The downstroke of the /, which coincided with the
line of vision during the jwocess of ivriting, becomes backhand script
when the same paper is held squarely before one to j-ead writing.
Backhand writing is scientifically correct for the left-handed person,
for, when compared with the right-handed person, he uses the oppo-
site process for writing, and therefore he gets the opposite product.
24 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
front edge of the desk. When he has done so, explain to him
that the ruler thus placed represents his line of vision, that
is, the direction in which he is looking.
Application of the line of vision to get the correct position
of the book
Put the writing book on the desk and place the ruler as
described in paragraph 2, page 22, resting it on the open page
Fig. 12
of the book. Tilt the top of the book toward the left until
the downstrokes of the letters in the printed copy are par-
allel to the long edge of the ruler. The pupil, facing his
desk, can now look up the downstrokes of these printed let-
ters ; they coincide witli his line of vision. This proves that
the book is in the correct position for writing. See Fig. 13.
THE STUDY OF THE SCRIPT
25
Application of the line of vision to get the correct position
of the paper
1. Eepeat the instruction given in the preceding paragraph.
2. Place a sheet of paper on the page of the open book so
that its bottom edge will be even with the bottom edge of the
book. Let the top of the paper overlap the top of the book.
In Fig. 13 it should be noticed that the teacher is standing at
the back of the desk, facing the pupil ; that the bottom of the rule
Fig. 13
is parallel to the front edge of the desk ; that the rule represents
the line of vision ; that the downstroke of g is parallel to the rule,
hence the book is in the correct position for writing ; that the bot-
tom of the paper is parallel to the bottom of the book ; that the
teacher is preparing to remove the rule and book with his left hand
while the tips of the fingers of the right hand are holding the paper
where it overlaps the top of the writing book. This will leave the
paper lying on the desk in the correct position. The long line on the
paper which is parallel to the ruler represents the slant of the script.
26 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
3. Hold the paper firmly where it overlaps the book.
4. Kemove the book. It will be seen that the paper is left
lying on the desk in the same position which the book occu-
pied. Eead about the "Angle to keep the paper m proper
position," described on page 31.
Note. The pupil should repeat this process until he can visualize
the top of his desk with the paper lying on it in the correct position.
Application of the line of vision to the slant of script
With the book placed in the position described above, ask
the pupil to make all the downstrokes of his writing so that
he can look up these particular Hues. The result will be
that when he turns the book from the tilted writing position
to one in which the bottom of the book is parallel to the
front edge of his desk (the reading position), he will find that
the downstrokes of his script, which coincided with his line
of vision when he wrote them, have now become lines slant-
ing to the right of vertical. In other words, he has been
writing slant.
How to record the line of vision
If a hue representing the slant of the script is desired on the
practice paper, while it is in the position called for in para-
graph 4, place the ruler in the position described in paragraph
2, page 22. When this is done, draw one line and remove
the ruler. Turn the paper squarely before the pupil and this
line will coincide with the slant of his script.
It is easy to understand how this axis line will assist the
pupil to keep his paper correctly placed for writing. At all
times it should be in such a position that, as he looks straight
ahead, he will look along the entire length of this line.
THE STUDY OF THE SCRIPT 27
For a first-grade and second-grade pupil it is well to make
an arrowhead on the end of this line farthest from the child.
Tell him always to keep the arrow pointing so that it would
shoot straight from the front of his body.
How to help the pupil establish the axis line in his mind
Having led the pupil to develop this line, the teacher's
effort should next be directed toward helping him to fix it
in his mind by vizualizing it. This can be accomplished (1)
by repeating for several lessons the instruction which deals
with the line of vision ; (2) by a study of parallelism, a
process which will now be explained.
How to draw parallel lines which represent the slant of a
particular script
When the pupil has one axis line on his paper, as described
above in the first paragraph under " How to record the line of
vision," ask him to draw a series of lines parallel to this one,
following these instructions :
1. When he has drawn the axis line against the left edge
of his ruler, have him draw one beside the right edge of
the ruler.
2. Ask him to slide his ruler to the right until the last
line he drew is against the left side of his ruler. Then have
him draw a line against the right side of the ruler.
3. Continue this operation until he has a series of parallel
lines drawn the entire length of the paper, slanting as does
the script he wishes to write, the space between any two lines
being equal to the width of the ruler. Seeing the paper thus
ruled is of inestimable assistance to the pupil in fixing the
' direction of this line in his mind.
28 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
A study of parallelism
Having established this line in the pupil's mind, the teacher
should conduct a study of paralleHsm between it and the down-
strokes of the letters. She will find this plan a good one :
1. Have the pupil rule one side of a sheet of paper with
parallel lines, as above described.
2. Ask him to make a small / between any two of the
ruled axis lines, near the top of the paper. When he writes
this letter be sure that he makes the downstrohe of it par-
allel to the axis lines. Let him continue making /'s in tliis
fashion until he has fixed this parallelism in his mind and
can make letters accordingly.
A test for the accuracy of parallelism
As a test for the accuracy of parallelism, use the following
suggestions :
1. After the pupil has written several /'s, as above in-
structed, ask him to turn his paper over to the clean side.
2. Instruct him to hold it between his eyes and the place
where the strongest light enters the room. As he looks
through the clean side to the opposite side of the paper he
can see plainly whether the downstrokes of these /'s are
parallel to the lines which he ruled.
Note. It is necessary to rule these long lines and carry forward
the study of parallelism above described, because the downstrokes in
the letters printed at the top of the copy-book page are far too short
for the pupil to determine their slant. On his practice paper, when
he makes the downstroke of a letter parallel to the long axis line
previously drawn, the effect of the long line is to lengthen that of
his copy and thus assist him to see the slant of his script.
THE STUDY OF THE SCRIPT 29
The axis-line parallelism applied to written work
1. Ask the pupil to turn his paper over to the clean side,
placing it in the proper writing position, but not to draw any
axis lines.
2. He may, however, place the ruler as described in para-
graph 2, page 22, for the purpose of determining his line of
vision.
3. Have him place the first finger of his right hand against
the right side of the ruler at its top.
4. Ask him to move his finger downward beside this edge
of the ruler. This shows him the direction of movement
which would produce the axis line should he draw it.
5. Let liim discard the ruler, but continue to have him
move his finger down the paper just as he did when moving
it beside the ruler.
6. Show him that this direction of motion means the direc-
tion of line in every downstroke of any letter he writes.
7. Ask him to make some small /'s, depending entirely on
his visualization of this axis line and the direction of motion
required to make it.
8. In a similar manner have the pupil write the long let-
ters which have the loops above and below the writing line.
Follow this by having him write shorter letters, as well
as words. All such work of application should be carried
forward in the manner above described. First should come
the study of parallelism with the ruled axis lines, and im-
mediately following such practice the pupil should write
the same letter on the opposite side of the paper without
ruling axis lines. This aids in changing vertical to slant
writing.
30 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
How to teach the axis line and its application in
first and second grades
A modification of the foregoing instructions should be made
in order to adapt them to first-grade and second-grade pupils.
Since these young children are often unable to use the ruler
in drawing the lines, — work which the older pupils can do
well, — the axis line must be taught in a very elementary
manner.
1. Give each pupil a piece of unruled manila paper. On
this the teacher should draw one axis line the entire length
of the paper. This might be drawn free-hand, but it would
be much better to use a ruler.
2. Have the pupil invert his pencil and move it up and
down heside the entire length of the teacher's line. Such a
movement will train his eye to recognize the direction of this
line, and will train his hand to draw the line properly.
3. Ask the pupil to turn his pencil so that the point touches
the paper, and draw one line free-hand, thus paralleling the
teacher's for its entire length.
4. The pupil should continue to make such lines, at spaces
of perhaps one inch apart, until his paper is filled. Eepeat this
lesson until the children have obtained a good idea of the
direction of such a line and can make it either by parallehng
that which the teacher drew or from their thought of it.
5. Following this, use single-line ruled paper having at
least an inch of space between any two writing lines. Help
the pupil to make axis lines in this space, using one third of
its height for a unit letter and two thirds of it for a capital.
The upper third is for any letter extending downward from
the upper writing line.
THE STUDY OF THE SCRIPT 31
6. As soon as such lines can be made well, assist the
pupils to convert them into the downstrokes of letters or
short words. Thus will they make application of the axis
line and properly slant their script.
Place a sheet of paper ruled with axis lines under the paper on which
the pupil writes, to assist him in acquiring slant
In acquiring slant the pupil will sometimes find it helpful
to rule in ink a sheet of paper full of axis lines, according
to the directions given in paragraphs 1, 2, and 3, on page 27.
Ink will insure a much sharper line than a pencil. If a paper
thus ruled be placed under the one on which the pupil writes,
these ink lines will be seen through it distinctly and he will
constantly see before him the proper slant, parallel to which
he is to make the downstrokes of his letters.
Let such a scheme assist him to attain slant in his writ-
ing, but do not allow it to be used so long that he will
depend upon it.
Angle to keep paper in proper position
As an aid in keeping the paper properly placed upon the
desk while writing, cut an angle from a piece of stiff drawing
paper. This should be made to correspond with the slant of
the script which the pupil is studying. Cutting this angle is
a very simple matter.
1. Take a page from a discarded copy of the writing book
in present use.
2. Place the ruler to represent the line of vision, as de-
scribed in paragraph 2, page 22.
3. Place the page from the writing book under the ruler
and tilt the top of it toward the left, using care about two
32 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
things : First, be sure to have the lower left-hand corner of
the page touch the front edge of the desk ; second, tilt the
top of the page to the left until the down lines of the letters
are parallel to the side of the ruler. The angle thus formed
by the bottom of this page and the front edge of the desk
will be the exact pattern desired. See angle formed by the
bottom of the paper and the white dotted line in Fig. 12.
4. Cut as many angles from this pattern as may be needed
to supply certain pupils. It may not be necessary for every
pupil to have one.
5. Paste this angle on the desk top so that the bottom
edge will be parallel to the front edge of the desk. Against
the obHque side of the angle the bottom of the book or paper
should rest. If preferred, paste the angle so that its horizon-
tal edge will be parallel to the right side of the desk. Against
the slanting edge rest the side of the book or paper.
Note. Pasting this angle upon the desk will in no way injure
school furniture. The device should be used long enough to help
those who need it to visualize the desk top with either paper or book
lying upon it in the correct position.
Blackboard writing
Nothing will contribute so greatly to the successful teach-
ing of penmanship as excellent penmanship put on the board
by the teacher. Not only should the technical writing les-
son be painstaking, but whenever she has occasion to put
written work there for the pupils, it should be carefully
done. It must be remembered that the model teacher has
the least teaching to do, because the children imitate almost
every detail of her schoolroom procedure. They catch her
expressions, talk as she does, reproduce her mannerisms, and,
THE STUDY OF THE SCRIPT 33
above all, copy her style of writing. They face her written
work many more hours of the school day than they look
at the correct model in a copy book. Just as the camera's
plate reflects the object to which it is exposed, just so surely
will the teacher's style of penmanship be reflected in that
of her pupils. Fortunately it is much easier to write well
upon the board than upon paper, and a little practice each
day will help a teacher to improve her own writing. It is
sometimes said that teachers do not earn their salaries. If
the reader has the least suspicion that this is in any sense
true of her, then a twofold opportunity is suggested; first,
if she should practice writing on the blackboard ten -minutes
a day for one month, she would greatly improve her tech-
nique ; and second, she might (?) draw her next check with
a somewhat relieved conscience.
Directions for writing on the board
1. Stand with the left side turned toward the board. In
doing so you will look up obliquely across its surface. See
Fig. 14.
2. Draw all the downstrokes of the letters in this direc-
tion, toward the eyes. This insures correct slant.
Note. It will be seen that when one turns his body and writes
on the board, the axis Hne of the script will coincide with this oblique
line of vision, just as the axis line of the scrii)t coincides with the
line of vision when one faces his desk, looks straight in front of him,
and tilts the paper. In each case the eyes have the same relation
to the downstrokes of the script, — they are directly in front of
them. The blackboard cannot be tilted ; hence the necessity for
standing with the left side turned toward it to give the writing the
proper slant.
34 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
3. As an exercise for practice it is well to make long ob-
lique lines on the board, thus training both eye and hand to
the line of vision.
4. While practicing the last suggestion one should train
herself to step along as she writes. If she stands still and
tries to form letters consecutively by reaching to the right,
Fig. 14
her script will go " downhill." To correct this tendency,
make the first two lines of small n and repeat them for a
space of six or eight feet across the board, stepping along as
you continue making the exercise (see exercise, page 95).
6. During the writing lesson, when it is desired to write
a word or sentence straight upon the board, cultivate the
ability to center the script with an imaginary line at the
level of the eye. See dotted line in Fig. 14.
THE STUDY OF THE SCRIPT 35
It will be uoticed that the tops of the highest letters in
the illustration are as far above tliis imaginary line as the
bottoms of the longest letters are below it.
6. When teaching a subject letter it is exceedingly help-
ful to draw on the board a " writing staff." This consists of
four horizontal lines which are named top, head, base, and
bottom. When the staff is used for first-grade and second-
grade children, the space between any two of these lines
should be at least three or four inches.
Note. One mistake commonly made by teachers is to write the
letter for the lessqn too small on the blackboard. Because of this it
is impossible to point out in it the details which are to be taught.
In a room containing fifty pupils the author once saw on the board
a capital A which measured scarcely three inches in height. Com-
ment on this is unnecessary. Sometimes the teachers dislike to have
the pupils see them draw the writing staff and write within it. They
believe the children will think that the teacher ought to be able to
write without such aid. This false idea should be forgotten. Many
professors who have taught penmanship in public schools for years
invariably draw such guide lines on the board and write between
them. The grade teacher certainly should not hesitate to use them,
but if she does not wish the lines to be visible to the pupils, she may
draw them with a slate pencil.
7. When writing on the board take the crayon between
the first and second fingers and the thumb. It should point
backward toward the palm of the hand and not be held
against the side of the first finger, as the penholder would be.
- 8. The crayon should come in contact with the board at
an acute angle. If it touches at a right angle, it sometimes
" whistles." Pupils should be taught how to use the crayon
correctly.
9. Since continuous use of the crayon wears it away to
a blunt, rounded point, which makes thick and oftentimes
36 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
ragged lines, it is well occasionally to snap off the end.
The keen edge thus obtained will give a sharp line.
10. These suggestions are offered with particular refer-
ence to the writing lesson. With two exceptions, however,
they should be used for general blackboard writing. If
twenty questions in history are to be put on the board, the
rules just given for writing on the eye level cannot be fol-
lowed, nor can that for the writing staff.
Teaching forms of letters
What is often referred to as good writing is not wholly
the product of imitative art. Unfortunately for the pupil he
is too often depended upon to learn to write in this fashion.
The author recently observed a lesson (?) in penmanship
given to a class in a grammar grade. " June is the month
of roses " had been written on the board before school. Con-
sequently the pupils gained no help from watching the
teacher write the copy.
The Lesson (?)
Teacher. Children, the copy is on the board. Can you all
see it ?
Class. Yes'm.
Teacher. Has each one of you a pen ?
Class. Yes'm.
Teacher. Has each one some practice paper ?
Class. Yes'm.
Teacher. Then you may write.
And write they did. During the entire period not a halt
was called for comparison of the pupils' work with the
teacher's copy. Neither was there any criticism by them of
THE STUDY OF THE SCRIPT 37
their own writing. The author retired from that class room
convinced that the teacher would not suffer from nervous
exhaustion during the day because of her stFenuous efforts
to teach the morning lesson in penmanship.
If any study in the curriculum demands the application
of psychology in its teaching, it is the one under considera-
tion. For a perfect working foundation in learning how to
write, the pupil must first possess a clear mental concept of
the letter or word which he wishes to make. He cannot be
expected to write pleasing forms on paper if he has only an
incorrect and ill-defined imagery in his mind. To be sure, it
is possible for one to have a good mental concept without the
executive ability to write it well upon paper, but such cases
are rare. The teacher should help the pupil visualize every
conventional character he has to acquire, just as she would
assist him to read a picture in the study of drawing ; and she
should teach him to join the characters so that they shall
form words. The ability of the child to imitate is not the
primary, but the secondary, part of the process in acquiring
a legible handwriting.
The teacher should thoroughly acquaint herself with the technique
It follows that the teacher must thoroughly acquaint her-
self with the technique which she is teaching, — a simple
matter, but one of inestimable importance if successful re-
sults are desired. Not only must she be fitted to help the
pupil build in his mind the correct concept of any letter
form, but she must also be able to give the suggestion which
will help him to correct any mistake he has made in writ-
ing it. How can the teacher expect to meet these require-
ments unless she has in her own mind perfect ideals of the
38 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
characters she has to teach? One of the best reasons why
penmanship in the public schools is poor, is the fact that it
is not taught. If better results are to be secured, it must he
taught.
It is hoped that the teacher will profit by the instruction
next given before it reaches her pupils.
Four things to teach in the forms of capitals and small letters
Any one, or all four, of the following suggestions may be
adopted: first, teaching from the basal form or principle;
second, emphasizing the similarity of form throughout any
given class of letters ; third, giving definite and specific instruc-
tion about the letter ; fourth, ascertaining the proportions of
any character by comparison.
Notes. 1. It is not intended to ask the teacher, in using the above
suggestions, to return to the minutiae of analysis which were in vogue
when the old slant script was taught.
2. Many good teachers disagree as to the method to follow when
script forms are first taught the young pupil. Some believe that he
should learn how to make a few individual letters and combine them
so as to form words ; that he should then study one new letter at a
time, immediately using it in a word ; and that he should next be
taught a few capitals, as /, 5',- or 3/, any one of which he may use
in beginning the sentence which he may form from words that he
has already written.
In building up this foundation list of words, many teachers follow
the development of words in the primer or first reader from which
the child reads. Thus is he taught to recognize a concept not only
for the purpose of reading it, but also for the purpose of writing it.
3. Other teachers believe that the young pupil should first be
taught a word as a whole, and then study its component letters
individually.
4. Still others believe that the young pupil should first write a
short sentence and then study the single letter, — a method frequently
THE STUDY OF THE SCRIPT 39
followed in the first grade when the child writes stories in connection
with language work as a means of expression of thought.
5. Since it is not within the scope of this book to discuss theory,
these methods are merely stated. The instruction given teachers will
follow the plan first mentioned, but a teacher who uses either of the
other schemes will receive assistance from the following suggestions
for teaching letter formation.
Letters should he taught from hasal forms or principles.
There are two reasons why letters should be taught from
basal forms or principles : first, in order that the alphabet
may be divided into groups or classes of letters ; second, for
the purpose of systematizing instruction. The following code
of basal forms will be found convenient for use :
Basal forms or principles.
Basal Forms Letters made from Basal Forms
1. i , i, u, w, and t.
2. n (primary group n, m, v, and x).
(secondary " p, h, y, and z).
3. 0, c, e, s, and r.
4. a a, d, g, and q.
5. / Z, &, h, h, and /.
6. j j, y, g, and z.
7. (the ellipse). Most of the capitals are made from
an ellipse. See Fig. 21, page 57.
Memory lesson. It is recommended that pupils in the
middle and upper grades be asked to memorize this Hst of
principles, as the teacher develops each one in regular order
of instruction. Without overtaxing them in any way, this
will give them very definite ideas of the origin of letter forms.
The pupils should name each group of letters studied by the
first one of its class. Thus, those based on the first basal form
40 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
should be known as the i letters ; those based on the second
are the n letters; those growing out of the third principle
are the o letters ; those based on the fourth are the a letters ;
and so on through the list.
Similarity of form. As an example of using this method
of teaching, consider its application to the second group above
noted.
Primary group. Small n is the basal form, and the first
letter of this class to be studied. When the second letter is
taught, show that the first two lines of n, prefixed to n,
will form m. The first two lines of v are exactly like those
of n, while the last two lines are the same as the corre-
sponding ones of w and h. The first three lines of x are
identical with the last three of n. The oblique cross line
should be made the last stroke of the letter, with an upward
or downward motion, according to the teacher's preference.
Secondary group. The lower parts of p and h are identical
with the last three lines of n and the first three Hues of y.
The first two lines of z are the same as those of n. This last
comparison is very helpful to the pupil, as he is apt to make
the first down line of small z like that of capital Z. Instead
of such a curve, he should make a straight line Hke the first
downstroke of n.
Such a study of similarity of form shows at once what a
close relation the basal form of small n bears to every letter
of this group.
Note. Although it is a fact that;? is a semi-extended letter and
h and y belong to the loop class, nevertheless it has been found help-
ful to point out that parts of these letters are identical with a similar
part of the basal n. In the same manner g has been included in the
fourth group because of its similarity to a, notwithstanding the fact
that it belongs to the loops, and is so taught.
THE STUDY OF THE SCIUPT 41
It may be helpful at this time to refer to the teaching of the fourth
group of letters noted on page 39. The basal form for these is the
small a. This is not made round, like the ellipse of small o, although
many pupils incorrectly make it so. The first part of small a is sharply
pointed at its upper right-hand side. To teach this form successfully,
emphasize its resemblance to an apple or squash seed, which is pointed
at one end and curved at the opposite end. To differentiate between
the and the a group, teach the pupils to call the latter class the
" apple-seed ' ' letters.
Definitely teaching script forms
Every written character should at some time be definitely
and specifically taught. An example of such teaching in the
instance of capital D is given as an illustration.
1. First draw the writing staff (described on page 35, para-
graph 6) on the board. Have the unit space at least three
inches high.
2. Make a basal ellipse the proportions and slant of that
required for the script which you are teaching.
3. From tliis develop capital 0, which has already been
taught, and convert the into D. This can easily be done :
first, by shortening the left side of to three quarters of the
height of the letter ; second, by changing the remaining part
of this left side into a slightly reversed curve ; and third, by
adding the loop at the lower left-hand part of capital D. Such
modifications will show the similarity of form between and
D, and what a large part of the letter D capital forms.
4. Having developed the D in this manner, write another
beside it, making the complete letter as the pupil should write
it. Thus the child will see the manner in which the D should
always be written, and will in no way confuse this with the
technical development of it.
42 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
The letter should now be definitely and specifically taught.
As each step in the following instruction is developed, number
and write it on the hoard. The pupil should learn and recite
these things. If necessary, however, he may read them from
the board in order that he may work understandingly for
the results which he is trying to gain.
In Fig. 15 the following things should be noted : that these letters
are made within the writing staff mentioned in paragraph 1 ; that the
^_ ^ basal ellipse men-
tioned in paragraph
2 is made in dotted
lines ; that is de-
veloped by adding
,the final curve of
YiG. 15 that letter to this
ellipse ; that the
thus formed is next converted into I) by adding the solid lines and
erasing the dotted line on the left side of 0, as mentioned in para-
graph 3 ; and that the complete D mentioned in paragraph 4 is
afterward made as the pupil would write it. In this description of
Fig. 15 the paragraphs mentioned are all on page 41.
1. Teach the class that the letter begins at three quarters
of its height above the base line.
2. Teach the class that the first downstroke of Z> is a
slightly reversed curve.
3. Teach the class that the loop of D extends upward one
quarter of the letter's height above the base line.
4. Compare the axis of this loop with the axes of the loops
in capitals L and Q. Note that these axes are horizontal, while
that of the loop of D is practically like the slant of that letter.
5. Teach the class that the space between the point where
this loop and the body of the letter touch the base line is
equal to the height of small i.
THE STUDY OF THE SCRIPT 43
6. Measure the width of D at one half of its height. Show
that the final curve, as it passes down through the letter at
that point, divides it in such a manner that about two thirds
of the width of D is at the right of this curve and one third
at the left of it.
7. Teach the class that the final curve of D passes out
through the right-hand side of the letter at about one quarter
of the letter's height above the base line.
8. Teach the class that D is twice as high as small i.
9. Teach the class that the body of D is two thirds as wide
as it is liigh.
Practice in making capital D. Ask the pupils to write
carefully ten D's on one line of practice paper. When these
are made, have every child place his pen quietly in the groove
at the top of his desk. This is important. If the pens are
not thus laid down, some boy will probably busy himself by
drawing grotesque faces on his finger nails, while another will
inscribe his initials on the back of his hand.
Study and comparison of work by pupils
When the ten i>'s are written they must be compared
most carefully with the detailed instruction and copy which
are on the board.
Teacher. What is the first thing that you learned about
capital D ? Read from the board, Paul.
Paul. I learned that capital D begins at three quarters of
its height above the base line.
Teacher to class. Study every letter that you have made,
and examine it for this one thing. How many are correct ?
Has any one begun D either too low or too high ? Please
44 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
decide just what you will do to correct this mistake in the
next D's that you make.
Teacher. What is the second thing that you learned about
capital D ? You may read from the board, Euth.
BiUh. I learned that the first downstroke of Z> is a
slightly reversed curve.
Teacher to class. Look at your letters. Is this part of them
correctly formed ? Did any one make these curves too deep ?
Did any one make this line a simple curve ? Did any one make
it a straight line ? How many have decided just where they
will correct this first line when they make capital Z> again ?
Teacher. What is the third thing that you learned about
capital D, Donald ? Why, that is your capital, isn't it ? So
it is yours, Doris. Now, all listen carefully.
Donald (reading from the board). I learned that the loop
of D extends upward one quarter of the letter's height above
the base line.
Teacher to class. How many scholars have made this loop
perfectly ? If no one, how many have already found their
mistake? Decide precisely how you will correct it when
you write again.
Teacher. What is the fourth thing that you learned about
capital D ? You may read from the board, Marion.
Marion. I learned that the axis of this loop stands nearly
the same as the main part of the letter, and not like the loops
of capitals L and Q, for these are horizontal.
Teacher to class. Compare your D loops with the copy.
How many find them the same? Those who have made
a mistake please remember what must be done to correct it.
Teacher. What is the fifth thing that you learned about
capital D ? Please read from the board, Frederic.
THE STUDY OF THE SCRIPT 45
Frederic. I learned that the space between the point where
the loop and the body of the letter touch the base line is
equal to the height of small i.
Teacher to class. I wish you would be very particular
about this one thing. If any of you has made a mistake, he
should mark it on some letter so that he will be sure to cor-
rect it when we make more D's.
Teacher. What is the sixth thing that you learned about
capital Z>, Gladys ?
Gladys. I learned something about the width of capital
D (reading from the board).
Teacher to class. Place some small dots on the edge of
your practice paper. With these measure the width of your
Z>'s and see if it is the same as the width called for on the
board. Measuring these letters will help you to judge more
accurately the width of the next D's that you make.
Teacher. What is the seventh thing that you learned
about this letter? You may read from the board, Philip.
(Philip reads the instruction noted.)
Continuing this lesson is unnecessary. It is hoped that
the above outline will show the teacher just what is meant
by teaching and studying a letter definitely and specifically.
If such is the instruction, how can any normal pupil fail to
learn something of the origin of the letter studied or to form
a clear-cut mental concept of it ? Then, with thoughtful
practice, what is there to prevent his constant improvement
in letter formation ?
In your class is such a pupil's present progress satisfactory ?
Applying to the above lesson the suggestions on page 38
for teaching the forms of the capital and small letters, it
should be noticed that (1) capital D was taught from the
46 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
basal form (see " Definitely teaching script forms," paragraph 2,
page 41) ; (2) that the similarity of form was shown (see para-
graph 3, page 41) ; (3) that the letter was definitely and spe-
cifically taught (see paragraphs 1-9 inclusive, pages 42-43 ) ;
and (4) that both height and width of capital Z> were measured
(see paragraphs 8 and 9, page 43).
Note. Regarding the lesson just described, two things should be
noted : first, it is supposed to have been given in the middle or upper
grades, where the pupils are thoroughly able to receive and profit by
such instruction ; secondly, although this has all been embodied in
one writing lesson, it may or may not be so given by the teacher.
If in her judgment there is too much material for one writing period,
she should divide it among as many writing lessons as she thinks
best. It has been the aim of the author to present in one place com-
plete instruction about capital D as a model for teaching and study-
ing any written character.
Instruction should be modified for first and second grades
It should be remembered that writing will have to be
taught to first-grade and second-grade pupils in a much more
elementary manner than that used in the middle and upper
classes. Although primary children have to learn to write
more largely from imitation, and the instruction given them
cannot be so detailed as that given to older pupils, yet it will
not do to depend entirely upon their power of imitation for
good letter formation. Writing must be taught to these chil-
dren, and it calls for fine discrimination on the teacher's part
to know just what, how much, and when to teach.
Teaching script by measurement and comparison
If the teacher shows the normal child the proper way to
develop any technique, as a rule the child enjoys the study.
In such teaching her inventive power and her tact enable
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48 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
her to make the most difficult subject popular. The disgust
for and the deplorable results obtained in the writing period
are largely due to the facts that imitating a copy soon grows
monotonous, and that the cliild sees nothing in the study for
which to work. One potent remedy, therefore, lies in giving
him something to do.
To make any written character symmetrical in form, cer-
tain measurements and proportions must be observed. In-
stead of disliking to ascertain these, the pupils find such
work very interesting.
Unit for measuring width. The unit for determining width
is found in the space between the downstrokes of small u,
measured at right angles to the main slant of the letter.
Letters, or parts of them, of equal width to this unit are in-
dicated in the following list: the unit u, between the first
two lines of w, the two downstrokes of n^ the three down-
strokes of m, the first and second downstrokes of a, d, g, q,
and h, from the first downstroke of k, measured horizontally
to the right-hand side of the oval in the last part of the let-
ter, and between the two downstrokes of y.
The following parts of small letters are two thirds of this
width: between the third and fourth lines of w, the second
and third of v, across the oval of o, the pointed ovals of a, d,
g, and q, the bottom of s, and the lower part of h.
The following loops are one third as wide as the unit u :
the loop in e, h, k, I, h, j, y, g, z, each of the loops in /,
and that in the lower part of capitals J, Y, G, and Z are all
the same in width.
For measurements in width for the capital letters, see
Fig. 16, page 47, also description of letters, pages 57-71.
The small i is the unit for measuring the height of letters.
THE STUDY OF THE SCRIPT 49
Construction of script
In the middle and upper grades it will be found both in-
teresting and instructive if the pupil is frequently reminded
from what the letters and figures are made. These parts are,
first, a straight oblique line, which forms the greater number
of the downstrokes of the small letters ; second, some curved
figure, usually an ellipse, from which the curvature at the tops
and bottoms of the letters is taken. Some of the letters, as
has been shown, are made almost wholly from this figure.
The ellipse. A change in the ^-^
proportions of the ellipse causes I ^ jH /~1[ /r\ A /~\
a corresponding change in the
curvature of the script. The
curves in the let-
ters vary according
to the proportions
of the basal ellipse. „ , ^
^ • Fig. 18
If this happens to
be wide in comparison with its height, then the curves in and
between the letters will be broad. If the ellipse is narrow
when compared with its height, then the curves of the script
will be narrow. For an example of wide curves instance the
vertical writing (see Fig. 17). This was fashioned from very
wide ellipses and oftentimes from circles. The old slant writ-
ing gives examples of narrow curves (see Fig. 18). These
were taken from basal forms, frequently but one quarter or
one third as wide as their height.
The curves of the letters. Each curve at the top or bottom
of any unit letter, as small n, usually forms about one fourth
of its height. In this letter, therefore, the straight oblique
.L-X
Fig. 19
50 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
line forms three fourths the length of its first downstroke.
In the right-hand part of % the curves at top and bottom
each take one fourth, while the straight oblique line which
^N y^ \ J~ separates them takes the
/'/'' / / other two fourths neces-
sary to complete the height
" of that part of the letter.
See Fig. 19.
Angles. It is well for the pupil to try to make angles
where certain lines meet at the tops and bottoms of some of
the letters. In this particular notice the difference between
the two letters written below.
Pure script has always been made with many of its lines
separated. For this reason it can be written rapidly. Much
vertical writing was made so that many of its upstrokes re-
traced its downstrokes. This was done that the vertical might
resemble printed letters, but it reacted on its speed of execu-
tion. The tendency will be the same if the m is similarly
formed, even though its axis is a slant line. In this case
should the pupil try to write it rapidly, he would probably
make loops when he attempted to trace the downstrokes with
the upstrokes of the letter. This / r / L/ represents script
made of separated lines and angles. This I I L/ represents
retraced lines and can only be "carved."
Thus it will be seen that if a script is to be written with
facility, it should be constructed largely of separated lines.
Hence the importance of emphazing the study of angles. If the
oblique line, ellipse, curvature, and angles are gradually made
plain to the pupils, such instruction will prove of inestimable
value to them in interpreting the construction of script.
THE STUDY OF THE SCRIPT 51
Supervision of first-grade work
It is strongly urged that pupils of the first grade should
be allowed to write only under' the direction of the teacher.
If they write by themselves for desk work, the errors into
which they fall can hardly be overestimated, either in num-
ber or importance. For similar reasons it is unwise to allow
the very young pupils to trace a copy previously written by
the teacher, unless she can watch them at their work.
Desk work for first-grade pupils
It may be asked what first-grade pupils will do for desk
work if they cannot write. The author has studied this ques-
tion in many cities. To summarize his observations briefly,
he finds that word and sentence building with alphabet cards
is favored. Industrial and other work is carried forward with
both colored splints and pegs. Story work is elaborated. Cut-
ting leaves, birds, animals, etc., from paper (after which such
objects are mounted on cardboard) is approved. There is no
doubt that sufficient work to occupy the child's mind can be
arranged, to take the place of writing. The sooner penman-
ship is prohibited in the first grade, unless it is done under
supervision, the sooner will the good effect of such prohibi-
tion be noted in every class thereafter.
How to teach the scale of script
The term " space," so commonly used by teachers, is a very
abstract and meaningless unit to pupils. Some concrete plan,
therefore, is desirable by which they can develop every detail
in the process of determining the height or relative heights
52 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENlVLVNSHir
of letters. That which is suggested below has been found to
be easily understood and applied by pupils, and has met every
requirement in point of detail
1. Give each scholar a piece of single-line ruled practice
paper.
2. Ask the children to trisect the space between any two
lines by making two equidistant dots. These should be made
with a fine-pointed pencil or with a pen.
3. When all tlie children can do this accurately, ask them
to make a small n (or some other letter of unit height) in
each trisection. These three letters should just fill the space
Fig. 20
between the two writing lines, the lower one resting on one
line and the top of the highest one just touching the upper
of the two lines between which they are written.
4. Begin the work of application. For example, ask that
a small o of equal height be made to the right of and beside
the lowest n in the column. Let the pupils learn and recite
that is one n high.
5. Continue this practice. Next ask them to write the
word "on" eight or ten times on one line across the paper.
At intervals ask the pupils to repeat between these words
the work called for in paragraphs 2 and 3 of this section.
Tlius will they keep constantly before them the unit of
THE STUDY OF THE SCRIPT 53
measurement by which they may judge the height of any
other letter which they are studying.
6. In the same manner have them write such letters as it,
w, m, V, X, 0, a, e, and c, and words made from these. Thus
will the pupils learn how high to make the unit letters be-
tween any two writing lines.
7. Eepeat the work called for in paragraphs 2 and 3 of this
section. Beside these spacing letters ask the pupils to make
a small I as high as two of the n's. This will lead them to
see not only that I is as high as two n's written one above
the other, but also how much space it occupies between two
writing lines.
8. In the same manner study h, h, k, and /, if thought
best. It may be better to defer the study of this last letter
until the list of those which extend below the base line is
developed. Next combine these letters into words. This work
should be carried forward in a similar manner to that described
in paragraph 5 for the word "on." At intervals trisect the
space between two writing lines and make tlie three n's by
which to judge the height of these letters.
9. Follow this by studying the height of the capital letters
above the base line. Repeat the work called for in paragraph 3
of this section. Ask the pupils to make an beside the lower
two n's. By such work they will see (1) that this capital is as
high as two ?i's ; (2) that it is equal in height to all of the
loops just studied; and (3) how much of the space between
any two writing lines a capital letter should occupy.
10. Apply to word writing the suggestions given for loop-
letter practice.
ITow to teach the length of parts of letters extending helow
the base line. The instruction thus far has demonstrated for
54 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
what the lower two thirds of the space between any two lines
on single-line ruled paper is used. There remains the upper
third of this space (that occupied by the upper n) to consider
in studying the scale of script.
1. Repeat the instruction called for in paragraphs 2 and 3,
page 52. Ask the pupils to write a g, making the loop extend
below the base line just the length of the space occupied by
the upper n next under this line on which j is written.
2. In the same manner teach p, q, g, y, and z ; also J, G, Y,
and Z. Apply the same in word writing which involves these
letters. Carry forward this work in connection with the occa-
sional writing of three w's between two writing lines. Thus
the pupils will constantly keep their writing unit before them
by which to judge the lengtli of any extension below the
base line.
3. After the pupil has fixed the height or length of any
letter in his mind by working with the three n'^, let him
write on a fresh piece of paper the individual letter studied,
— this time from a visualization of its correct measurement.
Code of rules summarized from the instruction on scale of
script, a. On single-line ruled paper all unit letters occupy
one third the space above the base line between any two
writing lines.
h. Any loop or capital occupies two thirds of this space
above the base line.
c. Every extension below the base line extends downward
one third of the space between any two lines on single-line
ruled paper.
d. Between any two lines on single-ruled paper, if letters of
extreme length happen over each other (as a g occurring just
above a B), they may touch, but should never pass each other.
THE STUDY OF THE SCRIPT 55
When to teach the scale of script. It is not intended to
suggest that the teacher make a continued effort to teach the
scale of the script until every letter of each class shall have
been studied with reference to this one thing. It is better to
determine the height or length of each new letter as above
described whenever such a form is for the first time taught
or directly reviewed.
While it was necessary to classify this instruction to teachers
so that the details might be consecutively developed, it is hoped
that no teacher will be misled as to the manner in which this
work should be taught.
Teaching the numerals
In teaching penmanship the numerals are often thought to
be of small consequence ; hence little attention is given to them,
if, indeed, they are not entirely omitted. This is a serious mis-
take. A prominent merchant once said that in considering ap-
plicants for a position as bookkeeper in his office, if the first
person who applied could write well, but made figures poorly,
he would give preference to a second who made his figures
well, although his writing might be poorer than that of the
first applicant. The merchant's idea was that in ordinary
business transactions the figures are often the most important
part of the record, and therefore must be made so that they
may never be questioned.
Whether or not this incident represents the consensus of
opinion among business men, the fact is they are continually
attaching greater importance to correctly formed figures. Com-
mercial colleges recognize this tendency, and the making of
figures legibly and rapidly forms no small part of the penman-
ship practice in these institutions. It is hoped that teachers
b6 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
will realize the emphasis given to this matter, and constantly
increase their efforts to teach and require better-formed
numerals.
Measurements of the figures. In length. All of the figures
excepting 6 above the base line are one and one-quarter times
the height of i. The figure 6 is one and one-half times the
height of this letter, while 7 and 9 extend below the base line
one quarter of the length of the unit i.
In width. The figure 2, measured from the extreme left
end of its loop to a point where it touches the base line at
the right ; the widest part of 3, measured from its terminat-
ing point horizontally to the right-hand side of the figure ;
the 4, measured from the lower left-hand angle horizontally
to the right where the final curve crosses this hne ; the 5,
measured across its lower part, as in the case of 3 above de-
scribed ; and the a part of figure 9, are all the same in width,
— that is, equal to the u unit of width described on page 48
The cipher, as well as the lower part of 6, is two thirds of
this width, and the lower part of 8 is one half of it.
If the pupil thoroughly learns these measurements, they
will assist him materially in forming definite concepts of the
forms of the figures.
Important details of form in the capital letters
As helps in teaching the capital letters definitely and
specifically, the following important matters are presented.
They should be emphasized when any one of these letters
is made the subject of a writing lesson. In this descriptive
outline of letters, these items of instruction are merely noted
under some characters, while in the case of other letters such
instruction is embodied in (questions.
THE STUDY OF THE SCRH^T
57
Note 1 . The measurements for these letters which follow may
not be mathematically exact, but without question are sufficiently
accurate to use in teaching.
Note 2. It must be remembered that the instruction which fol-
lows is based on the capital letters given in the Medial Writing
Books. Similar important points should be emphasized in the teach-
ing of any capital letters.
Note 3. Fig. 21 shows the evolution of the capital letters from
the basal ellipse. See basal form No, 7, page 39. Every capital ex-
cepting X is in Fig. 21. In the upper line, at the extreme left, are
and -D ; next E and C ; next A and G ; next I and / ; next T, jP,
/S, and L. In the lower line, at the extreme left, are P, i?, and B, ;
next -ff and K ; next M and N ; next Z and Q ; next F, Z7, F, and W.
The X is omitted because its two downstrokes are straight oblique
lines and cannot be taken from the side of an ellipse. When teach-
ing any capital letter so evolved it is both interesting and instructive
to show its relation to the elliptical basal figure.
1. Its beginning point. One and three-quarters times the
height of i above the base line.
2. The height of the first part of the letter. Twice as
high as i.
58 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
3. The height of the second part of the letter. One and
one-half times the height of i.
4. The width of the letter at half height, measured at right
angles to the main slant of the letter. It is two thirds the
width of the unit u.
5. The terminating point. When N is made for individual
letter practice, it ends at one half of the height of i above the
base line.
6. The first downstroke of iV is a curve.
7. The second downstroke of iV is a straight oblique line.
8. The first down and up strokes separate at mid-height.
1. Its beginning point. The same as that of N.
2. The height of the first part of the letter. The same as
the first part of N.
3. The height of the second pa,rt of the letter. One and
three-quarters times the height of i above the base line.
4. The height of the third part of the letter. The same as
that of the second part of N.
5. The width between the downstrokes at half height meas-
ured at right angles to the main slant. It is the same width
as between the two downstrokes of N.
6. Its terminating poiiit. For individual letter practice it
is one half the height of i above the base line.
7. The first downstroke is a curve. The pen may be Hfted
between the first and second lines if desired.
8. The second and third downstrokes are straight obhque
lines.
THE STUDY OF THE SCRIPT 59
9. The first two lines of the letter separate at mid-height.
10. The third and fourth lines of the letter separate a little
below mid-height.
1. Its beginning point. The same as in iV.
2. The height of the first part of the letter. The same as
that of N.
3. The height of the second part of the letter. It is one and
one-half times as high as i.
4. The width of the letter at half height, measured at right
angles to the main slant of the letter. It is two thirds as wide as
the unit it. It is a little narrower at the top than at this point.
5. The terminating curve. It is horizontal and is as long
as the letter's width at half height, noted in paragraph 4.
6. Its terminating point. It is one and one-half times the
height of i above the base line.
Note. Do not make the first downstroke curve too much.
tMt
1. Its beginning point. The same as that of N.
2. The height of the first part of the letter. The same as
that of iV:
3. The height of the second part of the letter. The same
as the second part of iV, the third part of M, and the second
part of V.
4. The width between the two downstrokes. It is the same
as u.
60 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
5. The terminating point. When made for individual let-
ter practice, it is one half the height of i above the base line.
6. In the middle of the letter the upward curve and down-
ward straight oblique line separate at mid-height of the letter.
Note. Do not make the first downstroke curve too much.
1. The beginning point of the letter. It is the same as
that of N.
2. The height of the first part of the letter. It is the same
as that of J^.
3. The height of the second and third parts of W. They
are the same, and are one and one-half times the height of i.
See paragraph 3 under U, page 59.
4. The width between the two downstrokes. It is the same
as that in U or the unit u.
5. The width hetiveen the two upward curves. It is the
same as the unit u.
6. The terminating curve It is the same as that in V.
7. The two lines forming the middle of the letter separate
at mid-height of the letter.
Note. Do not curve the first downstroke too much. The bottoms
of W are curves.
The first parts of U and Y are identical. Omit the terminat-
ing line of U and in its place make the j loop. For details of
instruction on the upper part of Y consult that given for U.
THE STUDY OF THE SCRIPT 61
1. Tlie beginning point of the letter. The same as that of N.
2. Its main downward line. Make this a little nearer ver-
tical than the main slant of the script. Be careful not to curve
this line.
3. The oblique cross line. This is straight. It is usually
made downward. It crosses the main line of the letter at
one half its height.
4. The width of the opening at the very top aiid at the very
bottom of the letter. It is the same in each case. The dis-
tance from the center of the beginning curve at the top,
measured horizontally, to the beginning of the oblique cross
line, and from the bottom of this cross line, measured hori-
zontally to the right, to the center of the curve touching the
base line, in each instance is equal to one and one-quarter
times the width of the unit u.
1. The beginning point of the letter. It is the same as
that of N.
2. The first downwai^d line. It is a curve.
3. The small loop connecting the upper and lower parts
of z.
a. It slants ; it is not horizontal as is the loop in Q.
b. It is one quarter as high as i.
62 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
c. Make this loop narrovj.
d. The space between the point where this loop touches
the base line, measured toward the right to the crossing point
of the lower loop of Z on the base line, is two thirds as wide
as the unit u.
4. The loop heloiv the base line is as long as i. It is one
third as wide as the unit u. It crosses on the base line.
Note. In making this letter three things must be carefully
observed.
a. Its slant.
h. The instruction given above in paragraph d.
c. The length of the letter below the base line.
If these instructions are followed faithfully, the pupil will
be able to make all his Z's vertically under each other in his
writing book without their interfering with one another.
1. Its beginning point. The same as that of K.
2. The first down line is curved well to the left in its
lower half.
3. The small loop is horizontal. It is as long as the unit u
is wide. The crossing of this loop is almost vertically under
the beginning pomt of Q. The loop is as high as one quarter
of the height of i.
4. When Q is made for individual letter practice, it ter-
minates one half the height of i above the base line.
Do not make the final curve extend too far to the right of
the letter.
THE STUDY OF THE SCRIPT 63
1. Tlie beginning point of the letter. It is twice as high as
the unit i above the base line.
2. The first downstroke curves slightly to the right of a
vertical line.
3. How wide is the space between the two parts of H at the
top ? It is twice as wide as the unit u.
4. The second downward line of H. The upper half of it
curves well to the left. The lower half of it is almost a
straight oblique line.
5. How wide is this letter at the bottom ? It is one and a
quarter times the width of the unit u.
6. The crossing of H. It is a loop.
7. How high is this loop ? It is one half the height of H.
This loop does not quite touch the first downstroke of the letter.
8. How wide is this loop ? It is two thirds as wide as the
unit u.
Note. The upward stroke of this loop traces the second down-
ward line of H only as high as one quarter of /.
9. For single-letter practice the final curve ends above the
base line one half the height of i.
LllL
1. Tlie beginning of the letter. It is twice as high as i above
the base line.
2. The first downstroke of K. It curves slightly to the
right of a vertical line.
64 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
3. How wide is K at the top ? It is twice as wide as the
unit u.
Note. Up to this point If and K are identically the same.
4. The upper part of the second downward line. It is a
reversed curve.
5. Where is the small loop located ? At one half the
height of K. Its left end just touches the first line of the
letter.
6. Is this horizontal ? No. It slants at a right angle to
the main slant of the whole letter. Make this loop small.
7. Compare the width of the upper and loiver parts of K.
The lower part is one half as wide as the upper part, meas-
ured at a point one and one-half times the height of i above
the base line.
8. How wide is K on the base line ? From the point where
the first downstroke touches the base line, to the center of
the final curve next to the right, it is one and one-quarter
times as wide as the unit u.
/ ,/
1. The first downward line. It is exactly like that of H.
2. Where do the downward and upward lijies of the letter
separate ? At a point one and one-half times the height of
i above the base line.
3. How wide is the oval part of P ? It is equal to the
height of i, which is a little greater than the width of the
unit u. Measure this at right angles to the main slant of
the letter.
THE STUDY OF THE SCRIPT 65
4. How near to the base line is the bottom of this oval part
of F / The distance is three quarters the height of i.
5. Do not have the final point of F quite touch the first
down curve of the letter.
1. The first downward line. It is exactly like that of IT.
2. Where do the downward and upward lines separate?
At the same point at which these lines separate in F. See
paragraph 2 under that letter.
3. ITow 'wide are the upper and lower parts of B / They
are equal in width to the oval part of F. See paragraph 3
under that letter.
4. Where is the small loop which connects the upper and
loiver parts of B? It is at half the height of the letter.
5. What is the axis of this loop ? It is horizontal.
6. Hovj far is the left-hand end of this loop from the first
downstroke of the letter ? This distance is equal to two thirds
of the unit u.
7. Where is the terminating point of B? It is at a point
one quarter as high as i above the base line, and the same
distance to the right of the first downstroke of B.
^
1. For the first downward line, the point of separation
between the first two lines, and the width of the oral part of
the letter at the top, the same instruction should be given as
occurs under F, paragraphs 1, 2, and 3.
66 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
2. The small loop connecting the upper and lower parts of
the letter.
a. It occurs at half-height.
h. Its axis is not horizontal as iu B. Its slant is at right
angles to the main slant of the letter.
c. This loop is ve7^y small. Compare it with the loops of
H, Q, and D.
3. How does the width of the lower part of B compare
with that of the upper part ? It is one half as wide. See
paragraph 7 under K, page 64.
4. What is the width of this letter on the base line ? The
same as in K. See instruction in paragraph 8 under that
letter.
1. The beginning point of the letter. It is the same as in N.
2. ffow wide is the horizontal top of T ? It is one and one-
quarter times as wide as the unit u. It is a reversed curve.
3. What kind of a line is the downstroke of the letter ? It
is a slightly reversed curve.
4. Where is the terminating point of T? It is at a point
one and one-half times the width of the unit u to the left of
the downward stroke of T, and one third the height of i above
the base line.
The same instruction given in T should be repeated for
Fy up to the horizontal crossing Hne. This is called the
"characteristic mark," for it is that which differentiates F
from T. This mark consists of a horizontal curve as wide
THE STUDY OF THE SCRIPT 67
as the unit u, joined in a very acute angle to a short down-
ward line which curves to the left of vertical. The " charac-
teristic mark " occurs at half the height of F.
1. The beginning point of this letter. It is on the base
line. This is one of three capital letters which so begin.
The other two are / and J.
2. What kind of a line is the downstroke ? It is a re-
versed curve.
3. Where is the crossing of S ? It is at one half the height
of the letter.
4. ITow wide is the loop of S ? It is one third as wide as
the unit u.
Notice that the lower part of S is quite similar in form to
that of s.
5. Where is the terminating point of S ? It is slightly
above the first upward line of the letter. In other details
the instruction given for the terminating point of T should
be repeated for S. See paragraph 4 under T.
1. The beginning point of the letter. It is one quarter the
height of i below the top of L.
2. What kind of a line is the downstroke of the letter ? It
is a reversed curve.
3. Where does the change in direction of this curve occur ?
At one half the height of the letter.
68 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
4. Describe the loop of L. It is horizontal and like that
of ^.
5. Where is the terminating point of the letter ? It is at a
point one half the height of i above the base line, and one
and a quarter times the width of the unit ti to the right of
the downstroke of the letter.
1. The beginning point of the letter. It is twice the height
of i above the base line.
2. What is the general shape of ? It is that of an ellipse,
two thirds as wide as it is high.
3. is opened a very little at the top.
4. The terminating curve passes down through the letter,
so that it nearly divides its width into thirds. Two thirds of
this width is at the right of the final curve and one third at
the left of it. This is the same in D.
1. Its beginning point. It is one half the height of i below
the top of the letter.
2. What hind of a line is the first of C ? It is an upward
curve to the left.
Note. This should be emphasized. A common mistake in form-
ing C is to make its top too indistinct because of a short Une.
3. What is the general shape of C ? It is that of an ellipse
of the proportions of 0.
THE STUDY OF THE SCRIPT 69
4. Compare the hottom of this letter with its top. The bot-
tom is ivider. If it were made as narrow as the top, it would
cause the small letter, with which C might be joined, to be too
near the capital letter.
1. The beginning point of the letter. The same as in C.
2. What kind of a line is the first of E ? It is an upward
curve to the left. This is important for the reason stated in
paragraph 2 under C.
Z. At what part of the letter is the small loop / It is a
little above the mid-height of E.
4. Hoio does this divide the letter ? Two fifths of its height
is above the loop and three fifths below it. These measure-
ments are to be taken on the axis line of the letter. The
loop should be made small.
5. The bottom of E, as in C, should be wider than the top
of the letter and for the same reason.
Since this letter was explained in the model lesson on
teaching a letter definitely and specifically, the instruction
on it may be found on pages 41-43.
1. The beginning point of the letter. It is the same as in iV.
2. The first line of the letter. It is an upward curve to the
left, but not so long a line as in C and E. This is important.
See paragraph 2 under C.
70 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
3. How high is the second 'part of A ? It is one and one-
half times the height of i above the base line.
4. How wide is the opening near the top of A / It is equal
to one quarter of the height of i.
5. What kind of a line is the second downstroJce of A?
It is a straight oblique line.
6. Where does this line separate from the upivard curve
connected with it ? At one half the height of the letter.
This is identical with U, W, Y, and G.
7. How wide is the oval part of A ? It is one and one-
quarter times the width of the unit u, measured at right
angles to the main slant of A.
8. The terminatiiig point. When made for individual
practice, this is at one half the height of i above the base
line and as far to the right of the downward oblique line as
the unit u.
This letter is the same as A to the point where the oblique
line touches the base line. To complete G add such a loop
as was taught in Y.
J-U
1. The beginning point of the letter. It is on the base line.
2. What kind of a line is the first of line I ? It is an up-
ward curve to the left.
Note. The instruction in these two paragraphs is extremely im-
portant. A great many children will begin I at what should be its
terminating point. In teaching this letter be sure to correct such a
mistake, even if it be in an upper grade.
THE STUDY OF THE SCRIPT 71
3. Where is the crossing point of the lower part of I ? It
is at a point equal to one quarter the height of i above the
base Hne.
4. How wide is the upper part of I ? It is two thirds as
wide as the unit u.
5. Its terminating point is identical with that of T, F,
and S.
1. The beginning point and first upward stroke are iden-
tical with those of /.
2. The hack of the letter. It is a straight oblique line for
the greater part of its length.
3. Where do all the lines of the letter cross / At the base
line.
Note. The best way to teach this letter is to make a dot on the
base line. Have the first upward stroke begin at this dot and the
downward and second upward lines pass through it.
4. How wide is the upper part of J ? As wide as that of
I, ' — two thirds of the unit u.
5. How wide is the loop below the base line ? One half as
wide as the upper part of J.
1. Its beginning point. It is one and one-half times the
height of i above the base line.
2. What kind of a line is the first of & I It is a reversed
curve made downward.
72 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
3. WJiat kind of a line is the second stroke of & ? It is an
upward reversed curve to the full height of the character.
4 ITow is the letter completed ? Make a downward curve
to the left and end it at a point equal to one half the height
of i above the base line. This is very similar to the last
curve of and D.
5. How wide is & between its downward and upward re-
versed curves ? It is two thirds the width of the unit u.
6. How wide is the oval part of & ? It is as wide as the
unit u.
How to correct angular script
In the examination of written work from an entire class
it is occasionally noticed that several of the pupils are writ-
ing too angularly. Almost every teacher has at some time
asked the question of a pupil, "What is that,— a it or an
n ? " There is probably no one thing which will do more
to make script illegible than making angles at the tops and
bottoms of letters in certain instances where there should be
curves. Hence the importance of correcting such a style of
writing is obvious. This will prove to be a simple matter if
sufficient practice in the following instruction is given to those
who need it.
1. Write the word "Acadia " on the board in good-sized
letters, and assist the pupils to form a mental concept of it
as a whole.
2. Erase the tops of the letters in the entire word to a
point one fourth of the height of i above the base line. There
will remain only the curves at the bottoms of the letters.
3. To emphasize more strongly that these are curves, it is
well to explain from where they came. To do this, make a
THE STUDY OF THE SCRIPT 73
series of ellipses in place of the upper parts of the letters
erased, and fit the bottoms of these ellipses into the curves
of the letters which were left upon the board. Thus the
pupil is led to see that the bases of these letters are identi-
cal with the curves at the bottoms of the ellipses.
CUxZ^iiAyOU
Fig. 22
Still another way in which this lesson in curvature may
be taught is first to make on the board a series of ^'s. The
more accurately these are made, the more uniform and sym-
metrical will be the curves between the letters. Emphasize
this symmetry.
4. From these ^''s develop the word "adjudicated" as shown
in Fig. 23. Explain to the pupil that the curves in and be-
tween the letters of this word are the same, when perfectly
(J Fig. 23
made, as those between a series of i's. These would be the
same as the curve at the bottom of an ellipse.
5. To simplify this matter for a grade in wliich scholars
could not understand such a word as that given in para-
graph 4, make six f s in a chain, and from
these develop the word "add." See Fig. 24. [yfy^yjjyj/
.'-/-. 6. If further simplification is de-
^^ sired, make a u. Place a dot over
Fig. 2o ^^ ^^^^ downstroke of this letter, thus converting it
into an i, and make a t out of the second downstroke of the n.
Thus the word " it " will be developed.
74 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
7. Reference to the ellipse has been made in the foregoing
instruction. If pupils do not understand this figure, use o in
teaching instead of the eUipse. Show that the curvature
of the letters comes from the top and the bottom of this
character.
8. The curves at the tops of the small letters, as n, m, &c.,
are made from the top of an eUipse. This can be demon-
strated as easily as to show the origin of the curves at the
bottoms of the letters.
What to do with left-handed pupils
The question is frequently asked, " Shall we teach the
left-handed child to use his right hand in writing ? " In reply
it may be said that in the majority of cases it is both possi-
ble and desirable to change the use of the pen from the left
to the right hand.
If this is attempted, two things should be done. First,
every Httle child when he enters school should be observed,
and if any one is found to be left-handed, he should be taught
how to use the pencil in the right hand. Second, the teacher
should secure the cooperation of the parent to help and en-
courage the child in liis work.
The author once talked about this matter with a very
capable principal m a western city of 100,000 population.
She said that her first-grade teachers were instructed not to
allow any left-handed pupils to use the pencil excepting in
the right hand. In one instance the teacher had begun such
work with a little boy. His mother came with him to school
the next morning and asked indignantly why he was being
taught to use his right hand. After the principal had given
her reasons for this change, she asked the mother if, for the
THE STUDY OF THE SCRIPT 75
next ten days, she would be kind enough not to oppose the
teacher's work in any way when the child was at home. It
was agreed that if at the end of that time the boy did not use
his right hand in writing, the teacher would discontinue her
efforts in that direction. When this story was told, more
than one year had passed, and the principal said that she had
not seen the mother in the meantime and that the boy wrote
with his right hand.
CHAPTEE III
MOVEMENT
The work of teaching penmanship is twofold. First, the
teacher must help the pupil form his concepts of the letters
which he has to make. This is mental. Second, she must
assist him to acquire the ability to move his arm and hand
across the paper as he writes those forms. This is the maifi-
ual part of the process. If a pupil " carves " passably good
letters on his paper, the average teacher feels that her work
is finished. She will say of some boy, " Why, John writes
like copperplate. What more is needed ? " In her idea of
the boy's final product, and in her notion that her efforts to
teach him should cease, she makes a great mistake. Penman-
ship is not now taught as an art, but is taught for its utility.
The writing of to-day must be legible and rapid, and any script
which lacks either of these essentials fails to meet the uni-
versal requirements. If a child slowly "carves" his letters,
he is drawing script characters instead of geometrical forms.
The importance of movement
A principal of a school in a large city was once asked by
a business man to recommend a grammar-school graduate to
write in his office. The "copperplate" boy was sent, and
after working one day was discharged. Tlie principal was
surprised beyond expression, and asked the gentleman why
the boy was dismissed. The reply was : " The day that boy
76
MOVEMENT 77
came to me I had one hundred entries to make in my day-
book. He wrote one and I wrote ninety-nine."
Every year the demand for rapid penmanship in the pub-
lic schools grows greater and more insistent. The only way
of satisfying this requirement is to teach applied movement.
Furthermore, this work must show actual results, such as are
now looked for from the successful teaching of geography,
reading, history, or any other study in the grade curriculum.
If a teacher thinks herself incapable of giving this instruc-
tion, there is but one thing to do, and that is to fit herself for
it. In so doing, however, she will not be expected to become
a specialist in penmanship, any more than she would be ex-
pected to do so in the subjects of music or drawing, which
she teaches. To-day, in towns where there are no specialists
in these subjects, the results obtained in teaching them are
far more excellent than those gained in teaching penmanship
by the same grade teachers. It is hoped, therefore, that the
teacher will regard the following instruction as lessons for
her to master, in order that she may teach them properly to
her pupils.
Simplified pedagogy
Simplified pedagogy may be expressed as follows : first, ex-
plain to the pupil the work required of him ; second, explain
the process by which it is to be performed ; third, drill him in
this process ; fourth, such drill results in training him in that
particular technique ; and fifth, continued training results in
the education of the child. No better outline than this can be
suggested for the teaching of movement and its application,
1. Movement explained. Explain to the pupils what is
meant by movement in writing, — the new thing they are to
study. To do so, compare the finger motion, which they use
78 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
in forming letters, with the larger movement of the arm as it
rests upon the muscle. Name the first the finger motion, and
the second the arm or muscular movement. To be exact, all
motion is movement, but to differentiate in this case it will
be sufficiently correct to have the pupils name and know
these as termed above. Then ask the pupils to place the
right arm on the desk, as described on page 4, paragraph c.
When they have done so, help each one to move his forearm
on its muscular rest in two directions : first, laterally, as one
does when writing across the paper ; second, in a push-and-
pull fashion in and out of the sleeve. Such a movement an
adult would use to a greater or less extent in forming the up-
strokes and downstrokes of the letters.
More completely stated, the purpose of this work is to train
the forearm to move continuously, so that the letters may be
formed consecutively as the hand glides across the page.
From such elucidation and exercises the pupils form their
first idea of "movement."
2. Applied movement. Explain to the class that every line
corresponds exactly to the movement used in making it.
Illustrate this instruction by making a horizontal line on
the board with one sweep of the arm. Ask the pupils, "How
did I make that line ? " It is probable that almost every one
will answer, " The crayon made it." Although this is in part
correct, carry the questioning further. Hold the crayon still
and allow the end of it to touch the board. Ask the class if
the crayon is making a line. The answer will be " No." Ask
them to look again. They will say that the crayon is making
no line. With a sweep of the arm draw another horizontal
line on the board. Repeat the question, " How did I make
that line?" Then every pupil will see that the line was
MOVEMENT 79
made because the crayon touched the board and the arm
moved. Thus the pupils are led to see applied movement in
its simplest form.
3. Technical application of movement to geometrical forms.
Explain a technical application of movement. To do so, show
that every geometrical form corresponds exactly to the move-
ment used in making it. The truer the circular movement
which the arm describes, the more perfect will be the circle
drawn. In a similar manner show that the hand must move
along the four equal sides of a square, or the three sides of a
triangle, in order to draw either of these figures. To emphasize
this, show the class that it would be impossible to move the
arm in a circular motion and draw a square in doing so. Thus
the pupils not only see a technical application of movement,
but they also learn that the figure made must, in every de-
tail, correspond with the particular movement used in draw-
ing it. Assist them to reason from this method of teaching
drawing, which they know to be correct, to a similar appli-
cation of movement when writing letter forms.
4. Practical application of movement to written forms. To
illustrate this point explain that every capital, small letter,
and figure corresponds exactly to the movement which makes
any one of them. As an example, develop n as follows : Say
to the class, " First, I think of n ; second, I will move my
arm just as I think every line of the letter; and third, I
will let the crayon touch the board and make n just as I
think it, and exactly as my arm has moved to represent every
line of the letter." Thus the teacher writes (not "carves")
the n. Call this the n letter movement. In a similar way the
pupils should name every particular movement for the letter
it forms, as the /, z, s, or capital H letter movements. For
80 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
example, show that it is impossible to make an I with a z let-
ter movement, for any letter corresponds in every detail to the
movement used in making it, just as any geometrical figure
would correspond to the movement used in shaping it.
5. Practical application of movement to written words. Show
that every written word corresponds exactly to the move-
ment used in writing it. Name every particular movement
for the word it produces, as the " it," " did," '' come," word
movements. To emphasize, show the class that it is impossible
to write the word "come " with the "did" word movement,
for any word corresponds in every detail to the movement
used in writing it. Through the development of these succes-
sive explanatory steps the pupils are led to see these things :
Three thhigs in movement learned hy the pupil. 1. What
is meant by " movement " when writing.
2. That every letter or word has its own particular move-
ment.
3. That writing is applied movement. *
The teacher should strongly emphasize these facts :
1. That continued drill on any individual movement will
make its execution automatic.
2. If the pupil follows these suggestions, he will write and
not " carve " his letters and words.
Class-room conference to elucidate elementary movement
Note. The foregoing suggestions for the ehicidation of ele-
mentary movement work are designed for class-room conference. The
teacher, however, must not feel obliged to develop in one talk what
has been outhned in the last five paragraphs. She should take the time
of several writing lessons to do so. It is foundation work, and the suc-
cessful results hoped for in teaching it will depend largely on how
clearly defined it is in the mind of the pupil.
MOVEMENT 81
The ideal writing motion
Before giving definite and specific instructions in teaching
movement and its application, it will be necessary to explain
exactly what constitutes the writing motion.
The origin of the so-called " muscular movement " used in
writing lies in the muscles which move the shoulder forward
and backward. The center of this writing motion lies in the
fleshy part of the forearm just in front of the elbow. This is
the arm rest described on page 4.
The question is sometimes asked, " Should the fingers move
in forming the letters ? " The answer is, that finger movement
should never be taught. The young child, however, uses his
fingers to some extent when shaping letters. To assist him
to acquire an easier process for such work he should be
helped to make large letters. This should first be done on
the blackboard, and then at his desk on unruled paper with
a large, soft crayon pencil. The exaggerated size of script will
induce a movement of the forearm when writing on paper,
for his little fingers cannot shape it. The first unit letters
made on unruled paper should not be less than one inch high.
Such induced movement should be emphasized through the
early school life of the pupil and applied as the letters are
reduced in size. Thus will be laid the foundation for teach-
ing technical movement, — work which our best educators
agree ought to begin in the third or fourth grade.
Notwithstanding the procedure outlined above, the proba-
bility is that some of the young pupils will move their fingers
a little in letter formation, and may not wholly forget to use
them in after years. Therefore the forearm movement must
be practiced, which will help them to overcome the finger
82 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
motion to a great extent. Such of it as they may retain will
not be the result of conscious effort.
A teacher who had had phenomenal success in teaching
muscular movement in grade work was once asked if all her
pupils used it at all times and never moved their fingers when
forming letters. Her very significant reply was, "I never saw
a class that attained one hundred per cent in any study."
Many adults have trained themselves to always use the
muscular movement. There are great differences, however,
between an adult and a public school pupil, both in the actu-
ating motives and in the existing conditions under which each
performs his work.
What gives speed to writing is the ability to glide the hand
along the paper to keep pace with the formation of letters.
Compare such an easy, graceful movement with the constant
change of hand rest which the average pupil employs in mov-
ing his hand across the page.
From the foregoing it may be deduced that the ideal writ-
ing motion is one in which the muscular movement is the
dominating power. If, however, a person unconsciously uses
his fingers in the partial formation of certain letters or words,
it is not objectionable, providing his hand glides rapidly along
the paper as he continues the process of writing.
Studying the movements of the muscles
Three suggestions are given to help in teaching the pupil
to understand the movements of the muscles in the shoulder
and arm.
1. Feeling the muscle and its vibratory motion, a. Ask the
pupil to hold his left arm up before him. Tliis hand sliould be in
front of his body and turned so that its palm faces the ceiling.
MOVEMENT 83
h. Ask him to place the muscular rest of the right arm in
the flattened palm of the left hand.
c. Ask him to close the fingers of his left hand on the
right-arm muscle and grasp it tightly. Thus he will feel
this muscle.
d. Ask him to push and pull this muscle as he grasps it,
allowing it to move (not slide) on the palm of the left hand.
e. Eelease the right-arm muscle from the left hand and
place it properly for writing. As it rests on the desk, con-
tinue the vibratory motion practiced in the left hand (par-
agraph d). The pupil should thoroughly understand this
muscular action, having felt it in the palm of his hand.
/. Ask him to repeat the work called for in paragraph e.
As he does so have him put his left hand on his right shoul-
der, and he will feel the forward and backward movement
which causes the forearm to move in the same directions
on its muscular rest.
2. Comparing this muscle to soft rubber. A second method
of teaching the vibratory action of the muscle is to ask the
pupil to imagine that the fleshy part of his right arm, in front
of the elbow, is a piece of soft rubber. Should he push on this,
the hand would move out of his sleeve, while a slight reverse
motion would cause the hand to return to its original position.
He should practice these two movements briskly and thus
cause the hand to move rapidly in and out of his sleeve.
See suggestions for teaching the " push and pull " exercise
on page 92. This exercise exemplifies the muscular movement.
3. Boiling the hand on a cylindrical form. A third method
sometimes used is to have the pupil place his right forearm
and hand on the desk, as illustrated in Fig. 8, on page 17.
Under the palm of the hand may be placed a pencil, straight
8^ PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
penholder, small spool, or a small model cylinder used in
teaching drawing. As the pupil pushes and pulls on the
muscular rest of the forearm, the cylindrical form will roll
under the hand, which will make easier the process of acquir-
ing muscular movement.
The mechanics of movement
In the development of training in any technique certain
mechanics are necessary. If these are properly unfolded to
the pupil, and intelligently practiced by him, they cannot
fail to become automatic. This means applied edttcation for
the student. In the mechanics of teaching movement one
should first note the technical exercises which are intended
to help the pupil gain control of his forearm while writing,
^very teacher is acquainted with the forms of exercises rep-
resenting the lateral sweep across the page, the push-and-puU
muscular movement, the ellipses, — both horizontal and on
the main slant of writing, — and others of similar nature.
An attempt will be made to suggest how to teach these ex-
ercises, as well as how to apply the movement which they
are intended to help the pupil gain.
How the technical exercises should be practiced
.SLIDE RIGHT, LEFT
Fig. 26
1. The use of every movement exercise must be given to the
pupils, and they should state how it will help them to prac-
tice it. For this slide see explanation of movement, page 78.
This exercise should finally be made at a speed of one hun-
dred and sixty single slides per minute.
MOVEMENT 85
a. This is the simplest of all exercises. It should first be
taught by asking the pupil to " form " his hand ready to re-
ceive the pen. Follow the instructions given under " Sum-
mary of penholding," on pages 17 and 18, as far as 4. The
pupil should not hold either pen or pencil.
&. While the pupils are so practicing this or any other
exercise, they should always be giv^n a piece of paper to
place under the right hand. They will then think of mom-
ment and its relation to the paper, whether a line is written
or whether the mechanics for it are practiced.
Note. A mistake is often made in not so supplying paper.
For example, when first Reaching the lateral slide exercise, some
teachers allow their pupils to move the arm from the left to the
right side of the desk. Thus, in the first place, the pupils form no
intelligent idea of the use of such movement, and, secondly, they
fall into either a careless or a perfunctory manner of executing
the movement.
c. Train the pupil to move his right hand entirely across
the paper, letting the hand slide on the third and fourth finger-
nail rest. Be sure of these things :
(1) That the right hand is upright.
(2) That the wrist is elevated.
(3) That no part of the hand touches the paper excepting
the jinger nails mentioned in " Summary of penholding."
(4) That the first two fingers and thumb have no inde-
pendent action.
(5) That these two fingers and thumb are held tip from
the paper.
It is not beyond the power of the average child to do
these things.
d. Following the instruction in paragraph a, direct the
pupil to take his pen or pencil and invert it. Thus holding
86 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
it, he should continue the lateral-slide practice called for in
paragraph c.
e. Next direct the pupil to take ink, to let the pen point
touch the paper, and to continue the lateral slide as above
practiced, and the line will be recorded.
Note. It will be noticed that the above instruction calls for the
same movement to be practiced under three conditions : first, with
the hand formed ready to receive the pen or pencil ; second, with an
inverted pen or pencil; and third, with the purpose of recording the
line. This progressive action is advised for two reasons. First, move-
ment is the important thing studied, and the pupil should have prac-
tice in this alone, that he may understand thoroughly and fasten in
his mind the mechanics of the exercise ; second, if from the begin-
ning of the study of any exercise he takes ink and records the line,
he will become interested in ivhat he is making and not in the process
by which it is made. Hence he will "carve " it slowly and thus de-
feat the freedom of execution which he should acquire.
All technical exercises should be practiced according to
the above instructions and particularly as called for in para-
graph c, page 85.
2. The e exercise. The reason for practicing this exercise
is to demonstrate the fact that the purpose of the lateral slide
is to train the forearm to move as the letters are formed.
Fig. 27
a. The next exercise taught, therefore, should be a chain
of small e's, and should be made to extend across the page.
This is very easy to execute because it requires a continuous
movement in curves. At first direct the pupil to make six let-
ters in a chain, thus providing for open spaces between them.
b. Ask the pupil to write his first exercises with a pencil.
Unruled manila paper may be used for such work.
MOVEMENT 87
Note. During the initial execution of any exercise it oftentimes
proves easier to obtain the desired results if the pupil uses a pencil.
Thus he will learn what to do when he finally takes his pen and white
paper for such work. Make sixteen lines of e's per minute.
G. The loops of the e's in this exercise should be equidistant.
Note. Two things must be understood by the teacher. First,
teaching movement and giving speed tests in writing are very different.
During the first practice a pupil should move his forearm at a medium
rate of speed. There is a difference between doing this and slowly
drawing an exercise. It is only after the medium speed is acquired
that the pupil should accelerate this motion. Too frequently both
teacher and pupil work under a misapprehension that a high rate of
speed is necessary from the very beginning of the study of movement,
— a mistake sure to bring disastrous results.
Second, the teacher must not think that when movement is first
studied it will be better to devote all the writing lesson to that and
no time to letter formation. This idea is pure fallacy. From the
moment it is attempted the pupil's writing will constantly deterio-
rate. There is only one way to study movement properly, and that
is to combine it with the study of the script. Thus legibility is
maintained and facility of execution is attaiyied.
3. Connected ellipses. Elliptical exercises are practiced for
three reasons : first, because they help one gain control of
the forearm; second, because many capitals and some of the
Fig. 28
small letters are made from the ellipse ; and third, because
such practice helps the pupil to make curves at the tops and
bottoms of the small letters.
The next technical exercise studied should be connected
ellipses. Since it is most natural for the hand to move in
88 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
curves, this exercise will be but little more difficult for a
young or inexperienced pupil than the simple chain of e's.
a. Direct that six ellipses be joined in a chain across the
page. Making these will require continuous motion.
h. Instruct the pupil to make these entirely of light lines.
Allow no shading. Close ellipses at the top.
c. These ellipses should be made as large as at first,
but must gradually be made smaller during continued prac-
tice until they are the size of o.
d. Such progressive diminution in size must not be forced,
but should naturally follow the pupil's proficiency in doing
Fig. 29
the exercise. This will depend upon the degree of control he
has of the forearm movement.
e. The teacher, at her discretion, may direct more than six
ellipses to form any chain.
Note. In teaching movement and its application, the importance
of a light touch of the pen upon the paper must not be underesti-
mated. The points of a pen are never to be used as a plowshare.
Special practice in this particular must he airanged for the pupil.
Emphasize it in this exercise and later in cross-line exercises. See
Fig. 29.
MOVEMENT 89
4. Repeated ellipses. The reason for practicing this exer-
cise is given at the bottom of page 87. When teaching it,
follow the instructions under " How to use the tracing proc-
ess," page 98, in connection with the suggestions here given.
Fig. 80
a. This refers to forming a basal figure and repeating the
movement, thus making several ellipses to cover the first one
made. It will be well for the pupil never to make more than
twelve revolutions on any ellipse. He should be able to make
these without depositing too much ink on the paper or scratch-
ing its surface. Direct the pupil to make eight ellipses to be
joined in a chain across the page. See Fig. 30.
h. To count for this exercise the teacher should read the
instructions on the lower half of page 124.
c. It will be easier to do this exercise first with pencil and
paper. Make the ellipses larger (the teacher's judgment should
determine the size) during the initial practice. As greater
control of the forearm is gained, the figure should be reduced
in size. This reduction may be gradual in a single exercise
as it is made across the page, or, as successive lessons are
given on the repeated ellipse, each set of eight ellipses may
be made smaller until they are the size of o.
d. Make these ellipses separate figures at first, and after-
ward connect them as in the illustration.
e. These ellipses should be made in two directions : first,
the pupil should begin at the upper left-hand side of the
figure and move downward ; and secondly. Fig. 30 should be
90 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
inverted and this motion reversed as shown in Fig. 37. See
arrows of indication.
5. Continuous ellipses. The reason for practicing this exer-
cise is given at the bottom of page 87.
Fig. 31
This exercise should also be inverted and made with a reversed
motion. See arrows of indication
a. This is the most difficult of the elliptical exercises, but
pupils who have been trained according to the foregoing out-
line of technical movement will have little trouble in per-
forming it. Perfection of execution will be gained through
practice.
h. So gradual should be the lateral slide across the page
that the pupil should use at least four minutes to make one
line of this exercise. Hence, at a speed of two hundred revo-
lutions of the hand per minute he would make eight hundred
ellipses on each line of practice.
c. During first practice this exercise should be made at a
speed of one hundred revolutions of the hand per minute, which
should be gradually increased to twice this speed. The teacher
must first acquire this rate in her own practice by counting as
she looks at her watch. It is only after such experience that
she will be able to count correctly to assist the pupil.
Note. The successful making of any elliptical exercise depends
upon the perfect elliptical revolution of the hand. It follows, there-
fore, that it will be exceedingly helpful if the pupil carefully prac-
tices and studies such a movement with an inverted pen or pencil.
91
92 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
6. Push-and-pull exercise. The reason for its use is stated
in the second paragraph under " Application of movement,"
UP, DOWN page 97. This exercise must be made con-
tinuously across the page.
a. This refers to the vibratory action of
the muscular rest of the arm. This funda-
mental movement is described on page 82
under " Studying the movements of the
muscles." It is important because it trains the arm to move
along the axis line of the script, which determines the slant
in writing.
h. The teacher must assure herself that the pupil has a
thorough understanding of that particular motion.
c. The pupil must execute this exercise at the rate of one
hundred downstrokes a minute at first, so that the teacher
can see he is working out the required details of the move-
ment. This speed should finally be increased to two hundred
downstrokes a minute.
d. The teach.er should be sure that the pupil does not
pause at either end of the vibratory motion. Smoothness of
execution is of absolute importance in this practice. If a
pupil stops at the top or at the bottom of any stroke of the
pen, he will do so at the tops and bottoms of his letters, thus
many times making angles where there should be curves.
Note. The direction in which the vibratory motion noted in
paragraph a is made is of inestimable importance. It should be
parallel to the right or left side of the desk, which would make it
coincide with the line of vision. To assist the pupil to acquire this
direction place the ruler as is illustrated in Fig. 12, page 24. Ask
him to place the side of the pen or pencil point against the right
side of the ruler and practice the push-and-puU motion. The ruler
will guide the pen along the line of vision. By way of application
MOVEMENT 93
alternate such work by having him practice this exercise without the
aid of the ruler.
7. Combined motions. The pupil has so far been trained
in three specific movements, and, to some extent, in a com-
bination of them. This work of combining these separate
movements into what may properly be called the "writing
motion" must now be emphasized by practicing exercises
which can easily be developed into basal letter forms.
The particular movements above noted are :
First, the lateral slide across the page — which is neces-
sary for facility in writing.
Second, the elliptical motion — by which the curvature of
writing is formed, as well as many of the capital letters.
Third, the push-and-pull vibratory movement — by which
the up-and-down strokes of the letters are largely formed.
To assist in shaping certain basal letters use the follow-
ing plan:
a. Direct the pupil to make the elliptical exercise in
Fig. 30, page 89.
b. He must make but eight revolutions to each ellipse, and
these with a light touch of the pen.
c. When this exercise is completed the pupil may move
his hand back to the left side of the paper and do the i
Fig. 34
exercise to combine with the bottoms of these ellipses across
the page. See Fig. 34.
94
PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
d. Repeat the i exercise three times, covering the first
one made.
8. The i exercise, a. The pupil should now practice the i
exercise independently of the ellipse. He should make the
I's in the repeated fashion.
Fig. 35
h. These may be made large at first and gradually reduced,
without repeating, to the final size of one third the space
between two blue lines on the single-line ruling which the
pupil is using.
Fig. 36
c. It will be observed that this is the basal exercise for
Uy w, and t. These may be made in chains across the page,
like the i's.
Fig. 37
9. The i exercise inverted, a. First direct the pupil to make
the elliptical exercise in Fig. 37. He should make but eight
revolutions of each figure with a light touch of the pen.
MOVEMENT
95
h. Ask him to move Ms right hand back to the left side of
the page and make the first two lines of n combine with the
tops of these ellipses across the paper. See Fig. 38.
Fig. 38
He may repeat this three times, covering the first one
made.
See Fig. 38.
Fig. :59
d. Following this he should do exercises in Figs. 39
and 40.
Fig. 40
10. The n exercise. The pupil may now practice the n,
m, or any other letter based on n in an individual letter
exercise. It is much better, however, to combine such sub-
ject letters into words, as too much technical practice is un-
interesting to the pupil.
The above outline shows three progressively graded steps
in technical-movement practice: (1) the specific movements
themselves ; (2) their combination into what may be called
the " writing motion " ; (3) the technical application of this
" motion " to writing individual basal letter forms.
96 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
The pupil should now go on with the " tracing process " as
applied to letter writing on page 99, and to word writing on
page 100.
Note. It is well known that the basal-movement exercises above
referred to are few in number. A pupil will sometimes tire of mak-
ing them, notwithstanding their educational value. The teacher may
wish, therefore, to form different designs from these single exercises
by combining any two or three of them. The advantage of such
combinations is that frequently the pupil's interest in movement-
exercise work is stimulated by having a new conventional figure
to practice, although the same end is sought, — control of the fore-
arm. If the teacher carries forward this kind of work, as a reward
for special excellence in it, it is well to ask the pupils to make origi-
nal designs and fill them in as movement exercises. These should
be preserved as specimens of their work, which, of course, will be
pleasing to the children.
CHAPTER IV
APPLICATION OF MOVEMENT
The pupil has now demonstrated four things: first, that
the muscle of the right forearm is identical with the muscu-
lar arm rest ; second, that he can make this muscle extend
and contract ; third, that such a vibratory motion will cause
his right hand to move in and out of his sleeve ; and fourth,
he has developed and made a few basal letters, using this
vibratory motion to do so.
Next, the pupil must be informed that he is required to
practice this movement because, so far as he can, he is to
make every upstroke of any letter with the outward push
of his arm on its muscle, instead of extending his lingers
upward. In a similar manner, so far as he can, he must
make every downstroke of any letter by a slight inward pull
of this muscle, instead of using a downward movement of
his fingers.
From this point onward, every advanced step in teaching
must deal more and more closely with applied movement.
Furthermore, the pupils should make a practical application
of it in all the written work of the class room. The script
so formed will look crude at first, but as greater control of
the forearm is gained by continued application, the writing
will become a more graceful and finished product. This will
be the final result of an automatic reproduction of the mental
concept. To this end it will be found helpful to use what
may be termed the tracing process.
97
' 98 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
How to use the tracing process to explain the transmission
of motion
1. For example, have each pupil draw for himself on prac-
tice paper several ellipses. These should be at least three
quarters of an inch high and one half an inch wide. They
should be on a line at least one third the way down from
the top of a sheet of paper of letter or composition size.
2. Ask the pupil to take the proper writing position of
body, paper, and hand, without holding pen or pencil.
3. Have him place the third finger nail of the right hand
on one of the ellipses previously drawn, and trace the figure
several times with this nail.
4. As he traces the figure with the finger nail the forearm
rolls on its muscular rest. There is also a slight outward
push and inward pull of the muscle in tracing the right and
left sides of the figure.
5. During all this tracing keep the first and second fingers
and thumb from moving independently up and down. They
should move only as the hand carries them.
6. See that the pupil concentrates his study on the process
of tracing. Have him continue such work until he thoroughly
understands the mechanics of this motion.
7. To make full application of the foregoing instruction,
ask the pupil to continue the proper writing position, holding
a pencil and letting the point of it touch the paper. Be sure
that he follows the instruction given in paragraphs 3, 4, and 5
of this section. At first do not let him look at the figure
which the pencil is recording, but see that he gives strict
attention to the elliptical formative movement. As this is,
so the shape of the figure must be. Thus he will see that
APPLICATION OF MOVEMENT 99
because there was no independent finger action, the vibratory
muscular motion was transmitted to the point of the pencil,
which, guided by the third finger as it traced the ellipse,
caused the elliptical form to be recorded.
Note. In the development of this instruction great emphasis
must be laid on the thoroughness of both teaching and practice. On
these will depend successful results of applied movement. In all
such work (1) the pupil must have a very definite mental concept
of the form he is asked to make or write ; (2) he must understand
fully the mechanics of motion necessary to shape this form, — a mat-
ter which can best be learned by the tracing process just described ;
(3) he must apply these mechanics of motion in making the desired
form ; and (4) he must practice the movement necessary to write
that particular form until the process becomes automatic. When the
pupil has accomplished these things he will write easily and rapidly.
At first these successive steps must be developed slowly,
in every new letter which the pupil studies. Do not think
of teaching several new letters or words during any one
writing lesson, but devote several lessons to each. The time
will come when the pupil will be able to advance more rap-
idly, when it will not be necessary to spend so much time to
learn how to write (not "carve") a single mental concept
on paper. The principle of making haste slowly is the only
one by which to be safely guided.
Tracing process applied to letter writing. In a similar
manner have the pupils make an n.
1. Ask the pupil to make on paper several n's. These
should be at least half an inch high, and should be written
separately on a line at least one third of the way down from
the top of a sheet of paper of letter or composition size.
2. The pupil should take the proper writing position of
body, paper, and hand, but must not take pen or pencil.
100 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
3. Ask the pupil to trace every line of an n with the third
finger nail. He must keep the first two fingers free from any
independent up-and-down action. Every upward motion (and
line of letter) must be made by pushing slightly on the fore-
arm muscular rest. Every downward motion (and line of
letter) must be made by a slight reverse movement of this
muscle.
4. When he understands thoroughly the mechanics of
motion necessary to write an n, let him hold his pencil or
pen and allow the point to touch the paper. Ask him to
follow the instructions given in paragraphs 1, 2, and 3 above,
without looking at what is being recorded. When he stops
this practice he will find that because there was no independ-
ent finger action the vibratory muscular motion was trans-
mitted to the point of his pen or pencil, wliich, guided by
the third finger as it traced the %, caused the same letter to
be recorded or written.
5. The pupil should practice the foregoing exercise until
he can make the n automatically.
Assist the pupil to develop other letters, first teaching the
individual movement necessary to write each one. Name each
movement for the letter it writes. See page 79, paragraph 4.
The tracing process applied to word writing. 1. Help the
pupil write a word. Ask him to write " see " several times
on his practice paper, making the letters half an inch high
and on a line about one third the way down from the top of
a sheet of paper of letter or composition size.
2. Ask him to take the proper writing position of body,
paper, and hand, but not to take either pen or pencil.
3. Have him trace the word " see " with the third finger
nail, observing that every up-and-down stroke of the letters
APPLICATION OF MOVEMENT" ' 101
is made by the vibratory motion of the muscle at the hr^'
arm rest. The fingers must not move to shape the letters.
Notice that the arm slides slightly along the desk toward
the right, to keep pace with the continuous formation of the
letters.
4. When he understands the mechanics of motion neces-
sary to write " see," ask him to hold his pen or pencil and
let the point touch the paper. Let him continue the tracing
process asked for in paragraph 3 above. When he stops this
practice he will find that because there was no independent
finger action the vibratory muscular motion was transmitted
to the point of his pen or pencil, which, guided by the third
finger as it traced the word " see," caused that same word to
be recorded or written.
5. The pupil must continue the practice until he can write
" see " automatically. Then let him practice other words in
the same manner. Name each movement for the word it
writes. See page 80, paragraph 5.
The tracing process applied to writing capital letter's.
1. The pupil should now study a capital, first using the
tracing process until he fully understands the mechanics of
movement necessary to write any particular capital letter
and can make it accordingly. Such practice should be con-
tinued until he can reproduce that mental concept auto-
matically on paper.
2.' In grades where applied movement is studied, any new
small letter, word, or capital given as a lesson in the copy
book should be practiced according to the " tracing process."
The pupil should name each movement for the form which
it writes. This assists him to use applied movement in his
copy book.
102 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
How to help the pupil always to use applied movement
in writing
During the first work of teaching applied movement it is
occasionally noticed that pupils will use such motion during
the writing lesson but do not use it in all the written work
of the class room. This difficulty and its remedy will be con-
sidered carefully on later pages of this book. For immediate
purposes the following suggestions will be found helpful.
Alternating a technical exercise with written work. 1. At
the left side of the paper the pupil should begin the usual
push-and-pull exercise, making it for a little distance along
the line to the right.
Without lifting the pen or pencil he should connect with
a chain of small n's, or with any other individual letter which
the teacher wishes him to practice. After making these
for a httle distance he should merge into the push-and-pull
exercise, and then make the letters again. Alternation of ex-
ercise and letter should be practiced across several lines of
the practice paper, the pupil keeping his pen on the paper
during the writing of each entire line. This trains him in
continuous movement. See Fig. 41.
Fig. 41
Note. The object of the above work is to generate t\iQ power of
writing by practicing a technical exercise. This power is immedi-
ately used in making the n's. Before the pupil has time to lag in
this application of motion, he is making a new technical exercise,
thus generating more power. This he applies to letter writing, and
so the process continues. . It will be seen that he is constantly generat-
ing a supply of " writing power " equal to the demand of application.
APPLICATION OF MOVEMENT
103
2. In a similar manner alternate an exercise with word
writing. See Fig. 42.
Fig. 42
3. Assist the pupil to practice sentence writing in the
same fashion.
4. Vary this by connecting several sentences written down
the page. See Fig. 43.
/A
Fig. 43
Application of spacing plan across the entire width of the paper
for words of two letters
This is a thoroughly practical scheme, which can be adapted
to a wide range of appHcations. It is so simple that it can
be introduced in any grade where applied movement is taught.
1. Train the pupils in the lateral-movement exercise across
the entire width of the paper. See Fig. 26, page 84.
2. W^hen all the children can do that, ask them to modify
the exercise by making one downstroke in the middle of the
Fig. 44
paper. In this way they will form one i while the hand
moves across the page. See Fig. 44.
3. Then ask the class to make two -i's as the hand moves
across the paper. The two downstrokes of these letters should
104
PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
trisect its entire width. It may be helpful at first for the
pupil to place two trisecting dots on the line above that on
which he is to write, showing where the downstrokes of the
*'s are to be made.
4. When all can do this work, ask them to substitute an
n for the second of the i's called for in paragraph 3. Thus
will they write the word " in," placing the i under the first i
of the exercise and the n under the second i. The word will
be written across the paper while moving the hand, as in
the two-letter i exercise; hence movement is applied to
word writing. See Fig. 45.
Fig. 45
Arrange for the pupil to write other words of two letters
according to the plan outlined in paragraph 4. For example,
change the i of the word " in " to an o, writing " on." Then
reverse these letters and write " no." See Fig. 46.
Fig. 46
5. When the pupil's eye is adjusted and his hand trained
to write a two-letter word across the paper, ask him to turn
the paper to the clean side and place it in the writing
position. Do not allow liim to make the two i's trisect the
line. Ask him to write the words called for in paragraphs
3 and 4 from his thought of those spacing-off letters and
APPLICATION OF MOVEMENT 105
the automatic word movement which his hand has acquired
from their use.
NoTK 1. During the first work of applied movement use words
containing only unit letters, after which use the loops and capitals.
Note 2. The question may be asked,." Why write a word of but
two letters? " It has been demonstrated that when the pupil begins
the work of applied movement, it is necessary to write a word hav-
ing few letters, and those openly spaced. Just as soon, however, as he
understands the requirements of this work and can write a word of
two letters as called for above, he must be trained to write longer
words, the letters of which are more closely spaced. To make such
work gradually progressive, one letter at a time is added to each new
exercise, which is written across the entire width of the paper. This
process will now be developed.
Application of the spacing plan across the entire width of the paper
for words of three letters
1. Ask the pupil to equally divide a line of the paper by
placing three dots at necessary intervals. Under these dots
write an exercise of three ^'s or e's across the paper. Be
sure that every child makes his first, second, and third letters
in regular order under the corresponding dot. Make each
letter no larger than ordinary writing. Practice until this
can be done correctly and rapidly, even should it require
several writing lessons to accomplish these results.
2. Under such an exercise ask the pupil to write some
word of three unit letters; for example, the word "ice."
Place the first letter of the word under the first letter of the
exercise, the second and third under corresponding exercise
letters. See Fig. 47.
Note 1. While studying applied movement by the spacing plan,
it may be found helpful to begin by developing the word according to
the tracing process. For example, this word " ice "may first be studied
106
PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
according to the instruction given for the word "see " on page 100.
In this case the letters of " ice " should be at least one half an inch
high and placed under those of the exercise given in paragraph 1,
==£.
Fig. 47
page 105. Now let the pupil trace. After that, develop immediately
the instructions for writing "ice " given in paragraphs 1 and 2 above.
Note 2. In all the applied-movement practice remind the pupil
continually that legibility must be maintained as facility of execu-
tion increases. Keep the standard high. Kapidity in writing, with-
out legibility, is mere scribbling. Neither can be sacrificed at the
expense of the other. A well-balanced penmanship demands equal
proficiency in each of these essentials.
3. Continue tliis plan, using words in consecutive order
which contain four, five, six, seven, and eight unit letters,
according to the grade in which the plan is taught.
Fig. 48
^^ .^>i ^^^inn^^^nm ^ ^^
Fkj. 50
APPLICATION OF MOVEMENT lOY
* ^ ^ ^ ^^' ^^ ^^
^ ^ ^-r ^^ ^
Fig. 51
^ ^ ^' ^ ^ ^ ^
Fig. 52
Each word must be written across the entire width of the
paper. Keep the following directions constantly in mind.
Five directions for teaching applied movement
1. Be sure that the pupil has the correct mental concept
of the word to be written.
2. Be sure that he understands the mechanics of move-
ment required to write that particular concept.
3. Be sure that he practices these mechanics of movement
until they become automatic.
4. Be sure that every word is first written on one side of the
paper under a spacing-off exercise of an equal number of i's
or e's. After this, from his thought of such an exercise, have
the pupil write the same word on the clean side of the paper.
5. Be sure that the pupil is equally proficient in legibility
and in rapidity of execution.
The spacing plan for word writing across one half
the width of paper
When the pupil is able to write words from two to eight
letters in length across his paper, according to the pro-
gressive plan outlined above, the same scheme should be
108
PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
developed across one half the width of the page. Ask him
to bisect his paper by drawing one line down its entire length.
.^=:^2 ^rri.
=-^
^^,-^77
^ ^ . ^^ ^ ^ ^^ ^-^
^^
-=-1
^^^W^^f ^^.^^,.^.
^^^ ^^^.^^r^.^^ — 71
^ ^ ^^ ^^ -^ ^^ ^^ ^
^ -^.-^r . ^ ^'.^^-—e ,
^^^yf^^^^^
^^ ^ .^ ^ ^ ^r^O-^
Fig. 53
Then train him to move his hand in a lateral-slide exercise
across one half of his paper. Next have him make one i
APPLICATION OF MOVEMENT
109
while he moves his hand, then two ^'s and a word of two
letters, then three *'s and words of three letters, and so on
V ^
^' ^^\^^
^'.^-^n ^^
^' ^' ^ ^
t
^"^-r^^^.^
^ ^ ^ ^ ^
.^yi ^'..^n jp^
^' yi ^' ^' ^'^
yi yi'y^^~ey}^
J^'yiJyi^^
/Cya/yi/n/m^
^'^'jj'jyiJ^
AJX-jJyn/^y
j^'JJJjJjy
^^AAj^AAxYfy
Fig. 54
until eight ^'s and words of that length (according to the
grade being taught) are written across one half the paper.
110 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
The reason for doing this work in that width is that it assists
the child to lessen gradually the spacing between letters as
he continues to apply movement to word writing.
The spacing plan for word writing across one quarter
the width of paper
To lessen still further the space between any two letters
of a word, ask the pupil to draw on his paper three down-
ward lines, which will divide it into four equal parts. In
one of these sections so made train him to the lateral slide
across that space ; then have him make one i in it, then two
i's and words of two letters, then three i's and words of three
letters. Continue until a column of that width has been
spaced successively with four, five, six, seven, and eight let-
ters, and with words of equal length. As to how many
letters a word shall contain, the teacher must be governed
by the grade of school in which the plan is used. See Fig. 54.
Deficient pupils should first practice applied movement
on the board
Note. If it is difficult for any pupil to understand applied move-
ment, it will be exceedingly helpful to mark off a space on the black-
board to represent a sheet of paper. In this space the pupil should
develop every step of the spacing plan before he attempts such work
on his paper. The lateral sweep which he uses at the board assists
him to gain greater freedom when he writes at his desk.
The spacing plan applied to movement in sentence writing
The pupil is now ready to apply movement to sentence
writing. To assist in this process use the spacing plan.
1. Ask the pupil to divide his paper into three equal parts
by drawing two lines connecting trisecting dots at the top
and the bottom of the page. See Fig. 55.
APPLICATION OF MOVEMENT
111
2. Begin with sentences of three words, each word con-
taining two letters. To facilitate the application of movement,
^^ =-:£.
=^^:^ ==^:£_
=^
^^ ^^ -^
^^
^^^^ ^^
JL
J. ^
.^--r>--r/ /
^ ,^
^^ ^-f ^^ ^
^^. ^ ^^^^.
,=^2L
..^ ^.^^m ^.
.^ o-ryi ^^ ^ .
^.^.^^^.
^^^^^^^-1.
^ ^ ^ ^ ^.
^^^^y} ^.
^^
^^^yi ^.
^--^^
^^ ^ ^ ^ ^
^ ^^ ^ ^ ^ .
^ ^^ ^ ^^
^^j/m/m J? Ji
Jm^\
^ yTl .
'^^^ ^yi^^-r^yiym
JlJ/^.
^ ^ ^ ^ ^^
£.
j^^^yn/^^
^^'ynyCjpJij^^
yi ^ ^ yflJ' yrJ '^
CJlJj ! ^A jP/T}/ ^j^AyCAyJyf j^
fJ^y
^yJyCytyfAA^Ay .
Fig. 55
have him space off each column with two ^''s or ^'s, so
placing these that in each instance they will divide the
column into equal parts.
112 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
3. Develop the sentence, " So do we." Under the first i in
the first column have the pupil write the S\ and under the
second, o. Under the first i in the second column have him
write d\ and under the second, o. Under the first i in the
third column have him write w\ and under the second, e.
Thus the pupil will write a sentence of six letters across the
paper, but the spacing will be very open.
4. Continue this practice until the mechanics of motion
required to write this sentence becomes automatic. Mamtain
legibility as rapidity increases.
Note. When the pupil's eye is adjusted and his hand trained to
write a sentence as above, ask him to turn his paper to the clean
side and place it in the writing position. Do not allow him either to
trisect it or to write the six spacing-off letters. Ask him, however,
to write the same sentence, from his thought of the mechanical
process, on the first side of his paper, and with the automatic move-
ment he acquired from its use.
Sentences of three words, each containing three letters
5. Ask the pupil to trisect his paper as described m para-
graph 1. After this let him space off each column evenly
with three *'s. Have him develop the sentence, " See our
cow," by writing one word in each column across the page
and by placing the first, second, and third letters of the word
under the corresponding letters of the exercise. Thus he
will write across the page a sentence of nine letters, which
will be more closely spaced than the sentence of six letters
which he wrote under paragraph 3.
6. When this is done according to the instruction given
in paragraph 4, use in this connection the suggestion given
in the note under that paragraph.
APPLICATION OF MOVEMENT 113
7. Then have the pupil write sentences containing three
words in three columns on the paper, each word progressively
containing four, five, six, seven, and eight letters. In so doing
he will write twelve, fifteen, eighteen, twenty-one, up to twenty-
four letters across the page. It will be seen that as the number
of letters increases, the spacing between any two of them de-
creases. Thus the pupil's hand becomes adjusted to the usual
spacing of script, and he maintains apphed movement as he
writes. See Fig. 55.
8. Eead again the five important directions given on
pages 85 and 107, and apply them to sentence writing.
Applied-movement sentence writing without mechanical aid
Note. It may safely be assumed that the pupil's eye is adjusted
and his hand trained to write a sentence containing a certain number
of letters. On the dean side of his paper have him write sentences of
an equal number of letters. This should be done without the mechani-
cal aids of the three columns or the spacing i or e exercise. For ex-
ample, perhaps the sentence " Haste makes waste " has been developed
according to the instruction in paragraph 5, page 112, modified to
space with five letters instead of three. Then ask the pupil to turn
to the second side of his j)aper and write this sentence from the auto-
matic motion gained from his practice on the first side of the paper.
Follow this immediately with other sentences of equal length ; as,
A^ ^.^^^.'-mx?^ ^ ^^ ^jz-r:^ ^^ ^^.
Ijfy^ ^' ^ ^^ ^^ jp ^ ^^^jz-n-^^^A.
7l y^^-p yi ^ ^jrr:^ ^J'^^y^mxy ^ j?^^.
Fig. 56
114 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
Such should be the final step in applied movement sentence writing,
regardless of how many letters the copy may contain. For this pur-
pose the teacher must have at her command several other sentences
equal in length to the one taught and developed.
The spacing plan applied to movement in writing sentences
containing words of unequal length
It is possible that some person may say that the pupil
would rarely have to write sentences which are constructed
of three words, each having an equal number of letters. This
is true, but the fact remains that if the pupil's hand can be
trained to write, as above, a sentence of fifteen letters, it will
be but a slight step in advance to train him to write as many
other letters across the page in words of unequal length.
The important things are, first, he can easily move his hand
along one line of his paper ; and second, he can write fifteen
letters as he does so.
Application of the spacing plan to the written work
of the school
1. Geography. Many teachers believe that it is almost im-
possible for pupils to use applied movement when writing
the various papers of the class room. The same pupils who
gain excellent results in the technical-movement practice of
the writing lesson afterward lapse into a cramped-finger mo-
tion. There is no good reason why this should be so. For
example, if a pupil can write — not " carve " — a continuous
chain of twelve small e's across one line of paper in a tech-
nical exercise, it is but a little step in advance for him to
write twelve different letters under the same movement con-
dition. Thus he might write the word " Pennsylvania." The
APPLICATION OF MOVEMENT 115
e's would be slightly easier to make because of a simpler
rhythmic motion, since the same letter is repeated ; yet the
essential movement required in writing both exercise and
word is the same. In demonstrating this to the pupils, first
make it clear to them by explanation, and secondly, lead
them to prove it by their own work.
a. For example, ask them to make a chain of twelve e's,
equidistant, across one line of paper. Under these, letter for
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^J> ^ ^ ^ ■ ^ _ ^ .
^
^^^^,-^n ^^j — -f .r ^ / — -g ^^^n ^ ^ ^^ <^ ^
P^ ^' ^^-^^ ^r/ ^ ^ ^yh ^ ^'^^
7n^ ^ ^^^ v^
?y/ jp ^ ^^mn ^^ry-^ ^ ^.^-g .^^n^.
1 /J' ^ ^ ^ ^^' .^^ .^nnn ^ ^ .^O — A ^^
Fig. 57
letter, ask them to write " Pennsylvania," using the same
gliding motion that they used in the exercise. On the next
line have them write the e exercise, and underneath that the
word. See plan of alternating exercise and word writing on
page 102; also page 103, paragraph 2. See also Fig. 57.
h. After the pupil's eye is adjusted and his hand trained
to the above spacing and word, give him practice immediately
in writing other geographical words of twelve letters.
116
PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
c. Next ask him to write all these words on the clean side
of his paper, without first spacing with the e exercise. He
should, however, write one word to a line, having the same
space between any two letters of each word that he had on
the first side of the paper.
Lessening the lateral spacing of these words
a. Direct the pupil to space off 07ie half or one third of
the width of the paper (as the teacher may wish) with twelve
J?JPJ?JP^J>JJ>J>J>J> Jpj
f{^/)n/>nyi^yfj^yi/-a/)nyf'^ay
/
/^j>y}0/}nyi0yL/^/r2/yiyi'.i^y
J^jJ^ydj'J^yhJi^'.^y
7nyf:^/i^x2J^J^Jxyi/ry}y
UJ'jp^J'ymxy} jpJli^ynnx/y
IJUjJjyaymyJixy} J'^
Fig. 58
g's. Under these ask him to write " Pennsylvania." This is
for the purpose of lessening the distance between the letters,
making it more like the usual spacing of the word.
h. See that the pupil maintains good legibility and move-
ment. See second note on page 87, also note on page 106.
c. For application, ask the pupil to turn to the clean
side of his paper, and, without the aid of the spacing-letter
APPLICATION OF MOVEMENT 117
exercise, to write the word in one half or one third of the
width of the paper.
d. At first this work should be done during the writing
lesson. When such instruction is given, select for practice
words the names of cities, counties, states, rivers, lakes, and
mountains. Use any topic word connected with the present
study of geography. First let the pupil space for it with an
equal number of letters, following the suggestions given above ;
afterward have him write it for application without the aid
of any mechanical exercise.
e. Next weave these words into sentences, and let the
pupil practice them under the applied-movement plan during
the writing hour.
The result will be that when he comes to write a paper on
geography the text will be of similar character and the pen-
manship the same as that which he has practiced during the
writing lesson. If he can do it in one instance, he can in the
other. Why not ? Continued practice of this character will
soon become an automatic process.
2. History. In a similar manner give practice in historical
copies. To give interest to this work, select topics about
which the class is at present studying. For example, make
short sentences about the abolition of slavery, as, "Slavery
was abolished in 1865." This sentence is composed of
twenty-five letters and figures, and the period. There are
also four open spaces between the words. Conduct the
practice in writing this sentence according to the follow-
ing plan:
a. Ask the pupil to trisect his paper as in paragraph 1,
page 110.
h. Ask him to write ten t's or e's across each column.
118 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
c. Under the first seven of these, letter for letter, have
him write the word " Slavery." Skip the eighth letter, thus
leaving an open space between the first and second words.
Under the next three letters write "was." Skip the next,
which is the twelfth letter, for the space between the second
and third words. Under the next nine letters write the word
" abolished." Skip the twenty-second letter for the space be-
tween the third and fourth words. Under the next two let-
ters write the word " in." Skip the twenty-fifth letter for the
space between the fourth word and the date. Under the next
four letters write the figures "1865." Under the last i or e
make the period. See Fig. 59.
J^^yl^JJyfJj,
lA^A^A^d^A^yLyUUL
Ld^A^^A^A^yLAJy
JJya/}H>A/i4^^yirry:A//a Jm-fy!yiJijp. ^yj/)ny / }r /n.^
Fig. 59
d. After the pupil's eye is adjusted and his hand trained
to write this sentence across the page, using the mechanics
above described, ask him to turn his paper to the clean side
and write it without the assistance of a spacing-letter exer-
cise, directing him to work from his thought of that device.
Continue such practice until he can write this sentence auto-
matically, with great legibility and facility of motion. See
second note on page 87, also note on page 106.
e.'Ii during the writing lesson the pupil thus applies
movement to writing historical data and masters such ap-
plication as he should, he can do the same work when
asked to write a paper on that subject during the history
lesson. Why not?
APPLICATION OF MOVEMENT 119
Note. If the teacher thinks that writing thirty letters on one
line across the page causes unsatisfactory lateral spacing, she should
have them written across such a part of the width of the paper as
she wishes to produce the desired distance between any two letters
of either exercise or word.
3. Spelling, It is assumed that the pupils write their
spelling words in a column. If the sentence method is used,
previous instruction for applied movement in sentence writ-
ing should be followed.
a. Ask the pupil to space the top Hue of the column in
which he is to write his spelling with as many *'s as there
are letters in the longest word of the lesson. For example,
suppose that word has eight letters.
h. If the first word which the teacher gives contains but
five letters, the pupil should write these, letter for letter,
under the first five ^'s of the exercise. If the next word con-
tains three letters, he should write these, letter for letter,
under the first three immediately
above. If the next word contains
six letters, he should write these,
letter for letter, as far as the first
six exercise letters extend across
the paper. If the next word has
eight letters, he should write these,
letter for letter, so that the letters
of the word will be spaced like
^^^ ^ ^ ^ .
J^^^^^ zJl yf^
^^^,Arr^ydy
^y^j>y}^^'Jij.
those of the i exercise. ^^'
If this plan is followed, three things will be observed :
first, that the pupil will know just where any given letter of
every word is to be placed, that is, the first, second, third,
etc., under corresponding letters of the exercise ; second, that
120 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
knowing the location of every letter will help him move his
hand while writing each word ; and third, that almost the
same lateral spacing will be between two letters of any word
written.
For a practical application of this mechanical scheme ask
the pupil to write the same words in a spelling column of
equal width. Do not allow him to write the spacing exercise
on the first line, but compel him to work from his thought
of it. Thus will the mechanical help him to acquire the auto-
matic movement of the arm.
If such a drill is carried forward during the writing lesson
and completely mastered, there is no reason why the pupil
will not use applied movement from habit when writing the
regular spelling lesson in the class room.
4. Making figures. In this connection attention should be
called to rapid figure practice. Commercial colleges devote
considerable time to such an exercise, and it should be em-
phasized in the applied-movement work of the public schools.
a. Ask the pupil to make a chain of ten is across the paper.
These letters should be equidistant. Under these have him
write the ten numerals, placing 1 under the first, 4 under the
fourth, 7 under the seventh, and under the tenth i. In this
manner have him fill each line on the paper with figures.
h. In such practice four things are studied :
1. Excellence of figure formation ;
2. Smoothness of motion ;
3. Speed of execution ;
4. Alignment of figures in columns.
This last is exceedingly important in tlie figure-column work
of the counting room. It also means much in schoolroom
computations. It is both restful and educational to the pupils
APPLICATION OF MOVEMENT 121
if such study is occasionally arranged in place of any other
lesson in penmanship. Diversity of work, when not carried
to the extreme, with but superficial training of the pupil,
is good.
Counting
All music — band, orchestra, or chorus — has movement.
So has writing. It is for the teacher to help the pupil to
acquire this rhythmic motion. Counting has reference to
such assistance as she may be able to render him in this
particular. That counting can be used to great advantage,
or abused to the detriment of the pupil's education, is
obvious. The author once observed a lesson given in the
simple lateral-sweep exercise across the page. Between the
teacher's count of "one" (intended for the pupils to move
the hand from the left to the right side of the paper) and
"two" (for the return motion) the author leisurely counted
to himself forty-five. This slow movement kept the class
from acquiring the very freedom for which they were drill-
ing. The same exercise has been counted for by the teacher
at a rate of speed so high that it could not be attained by
the pupils.
Speed used in counting. The speed which the teacher sets
for her class should be governed by two things :
1. By the amount of work involved in the exercise.
2. By the length of time the exercise has been practiced.
a. These will determine how well acquainted the pupil is
with the exercise.
h. It should very largely determine his proficiency in
executing it.
Every member of the class must work in the rhythmic
motion represented by the teacher's count, as perfectly as
122 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
if she were conducting the same class in a singing lesson.
Hence she must use the most acute judgment in determin-
ing the ability of her pupils to follow her commands, which
should not only guide but control the movement of every
pen in the class. The teacher should remember that a grad-
ual increase in speed is desirable, but that it must always be
accompanied by smoothness of execution and constant im-
provement in legibility. These results require both patience
and time.
How to count. The proper way to count is to call every
letter in the word to be written. In so doing two results are
accomplished : first, the pupil is trained in a smooth writing
motion ; second, sufficient time will be allowed for the mak-
ing of every letter. Suppose the word " dime " is to be counted.
It will require more time to write d than to write i, and m
will take more time than any other letter in tlie word. The
teacher should hold her hand up before the children and move
it for writing these letters and their connecting curves just
as she would were she actually writing them on paper. In
such practice she should call the letters, giving the necessary
length of time to the formation of each one. Then pupils and
teacher should call every letter of the word as the teacher's
upheld hand makes the motion to write it. This naming of
the letters in unison is of inestimable help to the class in
understanding and acquiring the automatic movement which
they will finally use in writing the word.
Next ask the pupils to take their pens and write this word
across one third of their paper, naming each letter aloud as
they do so.
For further application of the above instruction ask the
class to write this word three times. While doing so both
APPLICATION OF MOVEMENT 123
teacher and pupils should call the letters silently with the
same speed and rhythm they used in concert work. First,
give the command, " Write." After the first word is written
the teacher and pupils should say aloud " One," during which
count the hands should move from the final point of the first
word back to the left, to the beginning of the second word.
When tliis is written, say aloud " One," while the hands
move from the final point of the second word back to the
beginning of the third word. When that is written, teacher
and pupils should say "Stop" on the terminating stroke of
the third word. Since both teacher and pupil have main-
tained the same rhythmic count silently which they simulta-
neously gave aloud when they wrote, and since during the
count of " one " every hand moved to the beginning of a new
word, there is no reason why every hand should not stop at
the teacher's final command to do so.
Write six or twelve words following this silent plan for
work. Thus will the pupils gain the automatic motion re-
quired to write any word which they may so practice.
This same plan may be extended to writing short sentences
across the paper. It is one of the simplest and best methods
to follow in helping pupils to acquire applied movement in
written work. Because of the detailed instruction above given
it is unnecessary to develop a lesson on sentence writing
according to this plan.
Note. This counting- exercise is no different in principle from a
piano lesson. In that case, when the teacher gives a new exercise for
the inexperienced pupil, she first counts the time aloud. Then she
asks him to count aloud (perhaps wdth her) as he plays. Finally
the pupil counts to himself as he practices, and comes to play the
exercise automat icdUij.
124 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
The question may be asked, " Why not count for every up-
stroke and every downstroke of the letter ? " It is better not
to do so for three reasons. First, it is too mechanical. The
pupils will maintain the movement as long as such support is
given by the teacher. When this ceases, their application of
movement stops. Second, if a count is given for every line of
the letter, the pupil will often pause at the top and at the
bottom of it. This keeps the child from acquiring smoothness
of execution. Third, it is an unnecessary tax on the teacher's
throat. It is better to conserve her energy and distribute it
more generally throughout the writing lesson.
Suggestions have been given for counting letters and words.
In counting for an elliptical exercise, at first count " One "
for each entire revolution of the hand. If an exercise re-
quiring a dozen revolutions is given for practice, instead of
counting from one to twelve in separate counts, say "One,
two, three, four," and repeat this twice. Thus twelve will
be counted in three fours, which are easier to speak than so
many different numbers.
The author once listened to a teacher who was counting
for an elliptical exercise. Her method was to accelerate the
count, which, by the way, was carried to twenty. The rapidity
with which she spoke the highest numbers may better be
imagined than described. The author suggested that it would
be easier for her to count four five times, than to speak
twenty different numbers so rapidly. She turned, looked him
squarely in the eye, and with considerable emphasis said, " I
think I can talk about as fast as any one." The author tacitly
agreed that this statement was correct (as doubtless a good
many young men had previously decided), and no argument
followed.
APPLICATION OF MOVEMENT 125
After the class has become acquainted with this exercise
the teacher should count aloud " one " for every four revolu-
tions of the hand. This is not only easier for the teacher's
throat, but it is a positive help to the pupils. They depend
upon themselves for the other three revolutions, which they,
as well as the teacher, count silently.
When to count. In the first place it is necessary to count
for every new technical exercise, word, or sentence, because
the pupils must get the rhythmic motion and speed of exe-
cution which the teacher wishes them to use in the particular
thing studied. Secondly, if at any time during the silent count
the pupils lag in their work, the teacher must count aloud
with them in order to bring them to her speed of writing,
just as she would either count or beat time if the class should
lag in a singing lesson.
Speed work
There is scarcely anything in the work of developing a good
handwriting which calls for such nice judgment on the part
of the instructor as teaching speed work. This includes three
things: first, good letter formation ; second, applied movement;
and third, rapidity of execution. The teacher must give the
poise of balance to this combination which represents the acme
of teaching effort, and which should produce ideal writing for
its result.
1. Assuming that the pupils can write sentences by using
applied movement, the first thing for the teacher to do is
to get every member of the class to write with the same
speed. It is better to make the speed moderate at first,
— perhaps on the average one letter a second, or sixty let-
ters per minute.
126 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
Note. In deciding what speed she should adopt as the standard
advised in paragraph 1, the teacher must be governed by three con-
siderations : first, that the pupil is actually using applied movement ;
second, that he writes easily and smoothly; and third, that he is
forming his letters with great legibility. If sixty letters per minute
proves too rapid for this combination, she should begin with forty-
five letters to the minute.
2. To help the pupils to acquire this uniform speed the
teacher must count (see pages 121-125), and while doing so
she should keep her eye on the second hand of her watch,
which should govern her counting and control the pupil's
writing motion.
3. Sentences should be used for copies. At first these
would better be short, containing not over fifteen letters. As
has been shown (pages 111-114), it is not a difficult matter
to construct sentences of almost any desired length. Should
one contain fifteen letters, this might be written four times
in one minute, if a speed of sixty letters is desired. Using
sentences for practice will cause many different letters to
be written.
Note. It is not an accurate test of speed to allow the pupils to
study some easy word, as "nine," which requires a simple rhythmic
motion to write, and after long practice to give the class two minutes
to write (more often scribble) this word as many times as they can,
and, when these copies are written, to divide the total number by two
and then claim that the pupils are able to write so many words per
minute. The basis on which speed writing should be computed
ought to include the writing of many different letters, as well as
marked legibility, with but little preliminary practice.
4. The teacher should call the letters in any sentence
several times in order that the pupils may (1) understand
what speed she desires, and (2) work together as a class.
After such work she should allow them to write for two or
APPLICATION OF MOVEMENT 127
three minutes, depending entirely upon themselves for their
speed of execution.
Note. When left to themselves to write, it will doubtless be
noticed that some pupils will write a little more rapidly than others.
This is a part of their individuality and is by no means objection-
able, providing the legibility of the script is not impaired. In one
town where the author was supervisor of penmanship there was a
ninth grade numbering more than fifty pupils. The average speed
of this class in writing was a little over one hundred and twenty-five
letters per minute. Not one of these scholars wrote less than one
hundred letters a minute, and the legibility of the script of the entire
class was highly satisfactory.
This is a vastly different process from that mentioned in the note
next above.
6. In the preliminary practice the teacher should acceler-
ate her call of the letters so gradually that the change will
be almost imperceptible to the pupils. With this help they
will find no difficulty in acquiring any slight increase in speed
without impairing the legibility of their script.
6. If a teacher can succeed in training her pupils to in-
crease their speed of execution ^'yg letters a minute per month,
while maintaining equal legihility, she is doing all that could
reasonably be asked in this particular. In such a case, at the
end of a school year of ten months her pupils will write fifty
letters per minute faster than at the beginning of the year.
CHAPTEE V
COURSE OF STUDY
It would be exceedingly difficult to specify exactly what
and how much to teach in penmanship in any one grade. In
the first place, the weekly time allowance for this study varies
greatly in different cities and towns, and secondly, the num-
ber of grades which study the subject differs in many places.
This matter is often determined by the age of the pupil when
he first enters school. Eecently some cities have raised the
age limit to five and one-half years, while others do not ad-
mit a child until he is six. In some places, therefore, writing
is studied in seven grades, in others in eight grades, and in
yet others it is studied during the entire nine years of grade
work. The third reason why it would be difficult to state
exactly the work of studying penmanship in any grade is
that the ability of the class must be considered. It is not
always possible for a teacher to do this year with her class
what she did last year, or what she may be able to accom-
plish with her next year's pupils. In teaching penmanship
thorough work is much more satisfactory than superficially
rushing through a lot of prescribed directions which a course
of study may stipulate.
The suggestions here given may well be used as a basis
in outlining the work of any particular grade, subject,
of course, to such modifications as local conditions may
necessitate.
128
COURSE OF STUDY 129
First year's work
Kead "Supervision of first-grade work," page 51, also
" Instruction should be modified for first and second grades,"
page 46.
Teach positions at board and desk before letter formation
1. Before the child makes a mark on the board teach him
how to stand there properly to write. To assist in this par-
ticular, the teacher should first mark off a section in which
each child is to work. This should be done with oblique lines
(representing the slant of the script to be taught) and not
with vertical lines. See Fig. 61.
2. Place a pupil at each section. Stand him with his left
side turned toward the board.
3. Make some dots at the top of the board. Teach him to
look up between the two oblique hues of his section to the
first dot at the left side of it. This represents his line of
vision when writing on the board. Then ask him to hold
his right hand up on the board toward the dot as high as he
can reach, and move it obliquely downward toward his eyes.
This practice will train his hand to make the downstrokes
of the letters on the proper slant. Have him step to the
right so that his body will be in the same relation to the
second dot that it was to the first dot. Ask him to continue
the practice called for in this paragraph. Then have him
move to the third dot and repeat the work.
4. Ask him to take a piece of crayon and make long,
straight, oblique lines under the dots, using the motion ac-
(juired in paragraph 3. Following this he should make letters,
using these oblique lines for their downstrokes. See Fig. 61.
130
PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
Fig. 61 represents first-grade pupils writing at the board. The
lighter oblique lines form the section in which the pupil writes. The
Fig. 61
white lines on the floor furnish another instance of the deception of
the camera. They should not be drawn so near a right angle to the
COURSE OF STUDY 131
wall but should form an angle of 25°-30° with it, depending on the
slant of script. When such an oblique crayon line is drawn on the
floor ask the pupil to stand with his toes touching it. In so doing he
will stand with his left side turned toward the board, which will place
him in the proper position to look up and down between the oblique
column lines as well as in the correct position to write slant script.
5. Next teach him as much about the desk positions as
he has been told about the board positions.
6. Teach him to sit properly at his desk. Follow instruc-
tions given on pages 3 and 4.
7. Teach him the correct position of the paper on the desk.
Make special use of the instructions on page 31, "Angle
to keep paper in proper position " ; also last part of " How to
record the line of vision," page 27. To make this arrow still
more effective make a white crayon dot on the desk just
above the pencil ledge. Tell the pupil to point the arrow
toward this dot while he is writing on the paper.
8. Teach the upright position of the hand in pencil hold-
ing. Follow the instructions beginning on page 11 and com-
pleted on pages 12 and 13.
9. Modify these suggestions, however, by eliminating the
written work called for in paragraphs c and d, page 11 (for
the child cannot yet form letters), and apply them to mak-
ing horizontal line slides across the paper.
If the teacher wishes, the pupil may at first hold a ruler
while practicing for the upright position of the hand. See
page 11. A word is necessary regarding the kind of pencil
which a first-grade pupil should use. This is much larger in
circumference than the ordinary pencil, and has a soft crayon
lead. It is usually known by a stock number. All pencil
makers have this kind, and undoubtedly would furnish sam-
ples to any school superintendent.
132 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
Fig. 2, page 8, shows correct penholding as seen from the right
side of the hand. Fig. 3, page 9, illustrates the top and left side of
the hand, while Fig. 62 gives a front view of it. It also gives a good
idea of the correct body position and of the correct position of the
Fig. 62
paper for writing script of 25° slant ; shows how the paper is held
by the tips of the fingers of the left hand ; how the ruler is placed
for the line of vision; that the boy is looking along that line
and that the downstrokes would be made parallel to this ruler,
hence he would write slant script. In order to delineate clearly so
COURSE OF STUDY 133
many details the camera was placed a little to the right, which made
the top of the pencil point toward the shoulder. The top of this pen-
cil actually pointed as is shown in Fig. 3, page 9. See a similar ex-
planation in description of Fig. 2, page 9.
10. Next teach the axis line of the script on paper. Fol-
low instructions given on page 30, paragraphs 1-5 ; also
paragraph 6, page 31. During this practice emphasize the
upright position of the hand, as in making the lateral slides
across the paper. See paragraph 9, page 131.
Now the pupil should know {a) how to stand at the black-
board; (h) what his line of vision is while writing there;
(c) how to make oblique straight lines to represent the slant
of the script ; and {d) how to make some letters having these
oblique lines for their downstrokes. He should also under-
stand (a) how to sit at his desk while writing; (b) how to
place his paper on the desk ; (c) how to move his arm across
the paper and back again, keeping his hand upright while he
does so; and {d) how to keep his hand upright and make on
his paper straight oblique lines to represent the slant of the
script. He is now doing parallel work on blackboard and
paper,
11. Give each pupil a piece of unruled manila number
paper. This is commonly cut 6x9 inches in size. Place the
paper with its length parallel to the front edge of the desk
and teach him to fold it three times. Do not crease it. Let
him use these folds as lines on which to write. Give him
sufficient assistance to enable him to do this work well.
12. For the first part of the next lesson send the pupils to
the board to make some axis or slant lines. These should be
at least three or four inches long. Repeat as much of the in-
struction given in paragraph 3, page 129, as may be necessary.
134 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
Note. During the early part of the first year every writing les-
son should begin on the blackboard. Following this, immediate ap-
plication should be made by the pupil on unruled paper at his desk.
Such application must be made after a few minutes' practice at the
board, for two reasons : first, the teacher's instruction is fresh in
the pupil's mind, and to some extent fastened there by his black-
board practice, and hence he will receive the greatest benefit from
its use ; second, writing on the board is a different process (the arm
swings from the shoulder) from writing at the desk (where the arm
rests on the muscle in front of the elbow), and the pupil should
accustom himself to the desk conditions. Such alternation of board
and paper practice is highly beneficial.
Teaching the script
Read notes 1-4, page 38 ; and note 5, page 39.
1. When the axis lines are made well, assist the pupils to
convert them into i's by adding a final curve at the bottom
and placing a dot over the top of each one.
2. After a few moments of such practice send the pupils
to their desks. Eepeat the board lesson on paper. .First, ask
them to make axis or slant lines. These should be at least
half an inch apart, and the base of any line should not quite
touch the "fold" in the paper which they use as a writ-
ing line.
3. When these lines are made well, assist the pupils to
convert them into t's by adding a final curve at the bottom
(which should rest on the fold) and placing a dot over the top
of each slant line.
4. For the next lesson give practice in making i as a
whole form without developing it as specified above. These
letters are first to be made on the board, and then on paper.
On paper they must be made so large that the pupil cannot
write them with his fingers. This will induce his forearm to
COURSE OF STUDY 135
move when he forms them. See page 81. For the present
omit teaching the u and w. No word can be made from
the i, u, and w alone. Next teach n. Study this letter as a
whole form.
5. The teacher should make one n in each oblique section
on the board, as a copy for the pupils. This should be at
least three inches high and of proportionate width.
6. When the pupils take their places to write, have them
stand a little way from the board, with the left side turned
toward it. Ask them to lift the right arm, holding the crayon
in the hand, and to make motions to trace the teacher's n for
their copy.
7. After the tracing ask them to write n on the board,
using the same motion which they used in tracing.
8. After a little practice on the board ask the pupils to
go to their desks and make ti's on the unruled manila paper.
They should use the folds for writing lines. For the first
paper practice the teacher should write one letter as a copy
for each pupil. Make these letters large, to induce forearm
movement. The first unit letters should be one inch high
and of proportionate width.
9. For the next lesson develop the word " in." Follow the
plan of teaching first on the board and then on paper at the
desk. Make large letters on paper and help the child to move
his forearm when writing.
10. For the next lesson teach o.
11. For the next lesson teach the word "no."
12. For the next lesson reverse these letters and teach "on."
13. For the next lesson join these two words, thus writ-
ing "noon."
14. For the next lesson develop e from o.
136 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
15. For the next lesson add e to the word "on," thus
writing " one." Next write " none " and " nine."
Following this detailed work, teach one new letter at a
time, and then use it in writing words. In so doing re-
member three suggestions :
1. Use as the base of each new word the whole or a part
of a word previously written. With this use the last letter
studied.
2. Construct short words.
3. See that each word is perfectly understood by the
young pupil.
Develop the suggestions given below :
Teach c and "ice," "mice," "once."
Teach m and "me," "men," "mine," "mice," "come," "moo,"
"moon."
Teach w and "we," "new," "mew," "now," "cow," "own."
Teach t and "it," " mit," " net," " met," " wet," " not," " tin,"
"time," "tie," "to," "toe," "ten," "tent," "cent," "went."
Teach s and "is," "soon," "see," "sun," "seem," "set,"
"some," "sown," "snow," "sent," "sew."
Teach a and "an," "can," "man," "am," "at," "cat," "mat,"
"sat," "saw," "as," "was."
When these words have been taught, sentence formation
is a very simple process. First teach /, the period, and the
interrogation point. Select from the above list such words
as may be desired for sentences. The pupils can write every
one, and constructing sentences is a matter of arrangement
and review of these words ; for example :
I see a cow. I can come soon.
I own a tent. Is it a new tie ?
I see some snow. I see a nice man.
COURSE OF STUDY 137
It is a cat. I saw a new cent.
It can mew. It is a net.
It was sent to me. I met a man.
It is not noon. It is a tin can.
Is it wet ? It is time to sew.
It is a new moon. I saw nine mice.
I saw it set. I sat on a mat.
I see ten toes. It is mine.
Thus it will be seen that as a result of teaching ten
different small letters, one capital, and a little punctuation,
a variety of words and sentences can be written.
If it is desired to duplicate a hst of words which the pupil
is learning in his primer or reader, in a similar manner a few
necessary letters should be taught and combined into the
same words and sentences which the child is reading (see
page 38, note 2. Or one may begin by teaching the word or
sentence as an expression of thought, and afterward teach-
ing the most difficult letters contained in it (see page 38,
paragraph 4.
Thus the work of teaching writing in the first grade should
be begun. As the year advances other capitals and small
letters must be taught and words and sentences written. The
script may also be somewhat reduced in height. The teacher
should assist the pupil to move his forearm as he writes (see
paragraph 9, page 143). About the middle of this year the
single-Hne ruled paper (with a wide space between any two
lines) should be introduced and used in all written work.
The unit letters should be one third as high as this space,
and the length of other letters should be made accordingly.
If any lesson proves difficult for the children to master on
this kind of ruled paper, the teacher should give it first on
138 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
the blackboard and on unruled paper, and then on the single-
line ruled paper.
At the end of the first year's work the pupil should
be able
1. To stand properly at the board and write on the correct
slant.
2. To sit properly at his desk.
3. To place the paper on the desk properly.
4. To hold the hand upright wliile writing, as this partic-
ular detail of correct penholding has been acquired.
5. To write letters and words with an induced movement
of the forearm.
6. To write legibly on wide-spaced, single-lined paper.
7. To make the script a little smaller than the unit letters
which he made the first of this year.
Second year's work
1. The first month of the second year should be spent in
reviewing the work of the first year. The pupils' mental con-
cepts of the letter forms are imperfect and need to be im-
proved. The children also need practice for the purpose of
acquiring more accurate execution. If necessary, begin the
year's lessons on the board and on unruled manila paper.
Soon the pupils will be able to do all their written work on
single-line ruling. This ruling should have less space between
any two writing lines than that wliich was used the first year,
because the writing should be a little smaller. For height of
letters follow the "Code of rules on scale of script," page 54.
Note. One thing which especially injures the appearance of
writing in the second and third grades is the difference in space
between any two base lines of the various rulings. Sometimes a
COURSE OF STUDY 139
guide-line paper is used ; this marks one unit of height. Then
a single-line paper is given the pupil on which to write his school
exercises ; this demands a different size of script. To add to this evil,
the ruled pad which the pupil uses causes him to write still another
size, and his copy book differs from" them all. The result is a con-
stant adjustment of the pupil's handwriting to meet the require-
ments of these rulings. If this adjustment is not made, the script
on the various papers looks worse than a misfit coat on a man's back.
This matter can be controlled to a great extent. If a guide-line
paper is used, be sure that the unit space is one third of that be-
tween any two lines on the single-line pajier, or the page of the
copy book, which the pupil uses. The base lines of all three should
exactly agree.
2. All writing on paper should be done with a pencil dur-
ing the greater part of this year. This may be the one com-
monly used, and not the crayon pencil. The teacher should
begin early enough in the year to teach work with pen and
ink (see page 19) to be sure that the pupils will understand
their use and be able to write neatly with ink before they
enter the third grade.
3. After the first month's review it is well to use a copy
book. First, teach the ruling of the book, so that the pupil
will write on the proper line. Have the copies written across
the page and not in columns. Keep the pupils together while
they are writing any line. This should be book number one.
When the book is begun the teacher should count the
number of copies in it. She should also ascertain the number
of weeks remaining in the school year. Then she can easily
compute the average number of copies to be written each
week in order to complete the book.
4. The teacher must be especially particular about accept-
ing written papers from the class. She should take no work
which has been carelessly done. There is no better time to
140 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
impress the need of neatness and general excellence than
when the pupil is young. The same is true of the care of
the pen (see note at top of page 20) and the use of the blotter
(see page 20).
5. During this year two more details of correct penhold-
ing should be taught, and mastered by the pupil : first, the
third and fourth finger-nail rest for the hand (see page 13) ;
and second, the elevated wrist (see page 13). It is much
easier to do this work before the pupil becomes confirmed in
poor penholding than it is to break that habit.
6. When writing a word for the pupil to copy, the teacher
should purposely place the letters farther apart than usual.
This will induce a lateral sliding movement of the hand.
The results which should be accomplished at the end of
the second year's work in penmanship are:
1. He has acquired the proper body position at the board
and ability to write on the correct slant.
2. He has acquired the proper body position at the desk.
3. He understands the proper paper or book position on
the desk.
4. He has acquired three details of correct penholding :
(a) The upright position of the hand.
(h) The third and fourth finger-nail rest.
(c) The elevated wrist.
5. He has acquired a more uniform size of script because
of more uniform rulings of paper, and greater ability to write
well because of extended practice. The script is a little smaller
than the pupil wrote last year.
6. His script is much improved because of following the
models in a copy book in addition to tlie teacher's in-
struction.
COURSE OF STUDY 141
7. He has mastered pen-and-ink work.
8. He has completed copy book number one.
9. He uses the forearm movement, which was induced by
the size of letter and open lateral spacing between the
letters in the teacher's copy.
Third year's work
The pupils' writing during the third year must pattern
closely after the style of script they study, and should be con-
spicuous for its excellence. To begin with, the pupils are
more mature and are capable of modifying to a great degree
their mental concepts of the letters. Such change may be
necessary to perfect both concept and letter. Another reason
why the pupils are able to show better mechanical execution
is the result of a longer period of proper training. Finally,
this is the last school year which will be devoted wholly to
the study of letter formation. Next year the pupils will be-
gin the study of technical movement, and the time for the
writing lesson will have to be divided between that and letter
formation.
It may therefore reasonably be expected of the third-grade
teacher that her instruction in penmanship shall be reflected
in the general excellence of her pupils' written work.
Application of this perfection of letter formation
While the above should be true of the copy book, it must
be preeminently so of the written exercise of the class room.
To teach writing for the prime purpose of making a hand-
some page is not the correct use but is the abuse of a copy
l)ook. Do not make the mistake of using the entire writing
period for technical teaching and practice. A part of this
142 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
time should invariably be used for the direct application of
what is taught and practiced to the regular written exer-
cises of the class room. This is the twofold purpose of every
writing lesson.
1. To assist in such application the following plan may be
used. First, write the copy on the board and teach it (see
model lesson, pages 41-43). Develop this instruction slowly.
Second, direct the pupil to write a few practice lines on paper.
Third, have him write the copy in his copy book. These three
things have helped him to visualize the model taught. Now
direct the pupil to close his book. Next give each child a
piece of single-line paper and ask him to write a good many
lines of the copy from memory. This work must be super-
vised. If the teacher feels that an occasional reference to the
printed copy will be helpful, it may be allowed. It will be far
better, however, to have the pupil learn to visualize the copy
and to work from that. Such work of application is the most
important that can be suggested. The copy book is not the
end but the means to the end, — the ability of the child to
write well at all times. The last practice in any penmanship
lesson should be upon paper and not in the writing book.
2. Another method of application is, after teaching a copy,
to ask the pupil to write three or four lines of it as well as
he possibly can. In so doing he sets his own standard of ex-
cellence. As soon as this is done, dictate some text which
pertains to a school study, or ask him to write a short memory
gem. This work must be written as well as the repeated copy
at the top of the page.
3. Still another plan is to have the pupils understand that
once in two or four weeks a set of papers representing some
regular written exercise of the class room is to be put away
COURSE OF STUDY 143
by the teacher. The pupils are not to be told what set it is
to be. Such specimens will be preserved, and will form the
basis for each scholar's mark in penmanship for the year's
work. The possibility that any set may be selected for this
purpose should serve to call forth the pupils' best efforts.
4. This is the grade in which to begin the definite and
specific study of a letter (see note, page 46). Do not give
too much instruction, however, at any one lesson.
5. During this year the plan for teaching the scale of script
may be used to some extent. The pupils are old enough to
begin such work, and it will be helpful in making the writ-
ing uniform in size. See instructions, pages 51-55.
6. The pupil should begin to learn the basal forms of the
letters, as suggested in "Memory lesson" on page 39.
7. Add one or two details of correct penholding and have
the pupil master them.
8. Copy book number two should be completed this year.
Write this with pen and ink.
9. The teacher should make continued effort to have the
pupil use the forearm movement when writing. While he
holds the pen, she should cover his hand with hers and move
it across the paper as he forms the letters. If the copy word
is first written with open spacing (see first paragraph 6, page
140), such movement will be facilitated.
10. Have each pupil make the application of movement
work just noted, without assistance from the teacher in mov-
ing his hand.
The status of the pupil in penmanship at the end of the
third year in school may be expressed as follows :
1. He has acquired the proper body position at the board
and the ability to write well on correct slant.
144 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
2. He has acquired the proper body position at the desk.
3. He understands the proper paper or book position on
the desk.
4. The three details of correct penholding mastered by the
pupil during the first and second years are still retained, and
one or two new ones have been added this year. Those taught
this year have been left for the teacher to choose.
5. There is a closer resemblance of the pupil's writing to
that of the style of script taught. This is a little smaller than
he wrote last year.
6. The writing is the most perfect the pupil has done
during the three years of school life, and has a marked
degree of excellence when compared with the work of his
first two years.
7. He should apply this kind of script in writing class-
room exercises.
8. The work of definitely and specifically teaching and
studying letter forms has been begun. The teacher depends
less upon the imitative faculty of the pupil to reproduce the
copy in the book, and more upon his definite knowledge of
letter forms.
9. The pupil has begun to learn the basal forms of letters,
and, as far as these are developed, he knows the letters of
any class evolved from them.
10. Copy book number two has been written in ink. The
teacher has emphasized the forms of the figures in both copy
book and number work.
11. The pupil uses an induced movement of the fore-
arm when writing. This he acquired from the open lateral
spacing of his copies and the help he received when the
teacher moved his hand.
COURSE OF STUDY 145
Fourth year's work
1. The pupil should now have a good foundation for ad-
vanced work. After the usual review, which should be car-
ried forward the first month of every school year, he should
begin the study of technical movement. The exercises and
suggestions for teaching theni are found on pages 84-96.
Follow this detailed instruction carefully and develop slowly
during the year as much as the pupil can profitably use.
2. There are two reasons why movement ought to be so
studied at this time. First, to gain control of the forearm.
If the pupil intelligently practices and masters a few basal
exercises, such work will greatly assist him in this particular.
Second, during this practice he will learn for what movement
in writing is used. See "Movement explained," pages 77-80.
3. One half of the writing lesson is to be used for the
movement study called for in paragraph 2 (see note, page 86).
The other half of the lesson period is for studying letter
formation and its application (see page 141, "Application of
this perfection of letter formation," paragraphs 1, 2, and 3). If
each lesson cannot conveniently be so divided, then two les-
sons in movement and three in letter formation should be
given one week, while this order should be reversed the next
week. Thus every two weeks five lessons would be given
in each study.
4. But little application of movement should be attempted
this year. It is more important to give the pupil a good
foundation in technical and theoretical work, as will be
proved in future years.
5. Good penholding, if not already a habit, must become
so at once. There is nothing which will defeat successful
146 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
results in movement practice to a greater extent than poor
penholding. If a pupil has attended school where penhold-
ing has been systematically taught for three years, there is
no reason why the fourth year should not see it perfected.
6. During the initial work of teaching movement, if it is
difficult for any pupil to follow the teacher's directions on
paper, she should make a column on the board by drawing
obhque lines (see page 129, paragraph 1). She should direct
the pupil to carry forward his first movement practice within
this column, and then to make immediate application on
paper. In this transition she must not fail to show him the
difference between the whole arm movement at the board
and the forearm movement at the desk.
7. The copy book to be written this year is number three.
When this is begun, the teacher should compute the average
number of pages to be written each week. In doing so she
must not forget that one half of each lesson is to be move-
ment work.
Note. For the benefit of a rural teacher, or one who has an
ungraded class, the following suggestion is given regarding what
copy book should be used.
If there are four grades in one room, use one average num-
ber of a book in which all can write. If there are eight
grades, divide these into two classes and use one book for
each class. Thus will the teacher be able to concentrate her
efforts in teaching and to do more individual work.
If necessary, in an eighth- grade room, give writing lessons
to these two classes on alternating days ; or, select the same
capital letter for practice in each book, being guided in the
development of such study by one book. Thus, one class
would write the pages of their book consecutively, while the
COURSE OF STUDY 147
other class might have to select certain pages in their book
where the same capital letter occurred. This would not be
objectionable, provided the teacher found it imperative to
make one class of the eight grades. The class containing
the younger four grades, however, would better be the one
to write their book continuously.
8. The pupil should continue to memorize the principles
and the several classes of letters made from them, as well as
the individual letters of each division (see "Memory lesson,"
page 39). He should also be able to state clearly the im-
portant details of form of any written character that he has
been taught. When teaching letter formation, such mental
education and oral description cannot be unduly emphasized.
See " Study and comparison of work by pupils " in model
lesson, pages 43-45.
9. The scale of script should be carefully studied this year,
so that the final work in the heights and lengths of the let-
ters may be put upon the pupil's writing (see instruction
on pages 51-55).
10. Specimen work should be kept, and should consist, first,
of the technical-movement exercises practiced, and secondly, of
the regular written papers of the class room. If it seems to
the teacher that the pupils' penmanship is somewhat better
when they do not need to think of the subject-matter, a sec-
ond set of written papers should be laid aside. These should
represent the result of direct teaching and practice during
any writing lesson, or they should be copied work of some
kind. When this writing is compared with any written school
exercise, there should be but slight difference noted.
The status of the pupil in his study of penmanship at the
end of the fourth year may be stated as follows :
148 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
In addition to the details noted at the close of any pre-
vious year's work (for first year, see page 138 ; for second
year, see page 140 ; for third year, see page 143),
1. He should understand what is meant by movement in
writing.
2. He should understand for what this movement is used.
3. He should be able to execute a number of the ten
progressive movement exercises noted on pages 84-96.
4. Practicing these exercises ought to have helped him
to gain good control of his arm.
5. He should have perfected his manner of penholding.
6. In his study of. letter formation he should have com-
pleted copy book number three.
7. He should have memorized the basal principles of the
letters.
8. He should know the individual letters of each class.
9. He should be able to state clearly the most important
details of form in any letter he has studied.
10. His written work should show notable uniformity in
general size and length of letters, because he has studied,
practiced, and applied every detail of the scale of script.
11. His specimens of penmanship, as well as the written
exercises of the class room which have been laid aside at
different times during the year, should progressively show
improvement in the particulars above noted.
Fifth year's work
1. Durmg the fifth year the pupil should study and prac-
tice the application of movement to letters and words. Be-
cause of this new work any writing period should be divided
into three parts. First, the study of technical movement
COURSE OF STUDY 149
should be carried forward and the pupil should practice con-
ventional exercises as he did during the fourth year; thus
better control of the forearm will be secured. Secondly, the
study of letter formation should be continued in order that
legibility may be not only retained but greatly improved.
Thirdly, movement should be applied to writing letters and
words so that the pupil may be trained to write and not to
carve script forms.
A few suggestions as to the teaching of these things may
be helpful.
2. Certain technical exercises, such as the lateral slide,
the push-and-pull vibratory muscular movement, the ellipses,
and any of these arranged in combination, should be con-
tinued. In addition the ellipses and "figure eight" with hori-
zontal axes, as well as the figure eight with a main slant axis,
should be practiced. Any of these last mentioned should be
made in combination, or in combination with any exercise
first mentioned in this paragraph. These various designs will
prove restful to the pupil while he is practicing technical
movement to gain control of his arm. See note, bottom of
page 96. The teacher should assist in making these origi-
nal figures.
3. The study of letter formation this year should include
several details :
a. If any pupil's writing tends to become angular, the tend-
ency should be corrected (see instructions on pages 72-74).
h. The varied, and especially the more difficult, combina-
tions of letters in the writing-book copies should be carefully
studied. Some horizontal joinings, as h, v, or iv with e, h
with y, with o, d, v, and s, are combinations which will
furnish material for special practice.
150 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
c. This will lead to studying the space between any two
letters of a word, — the lateral spacing of penmanship.
4. When writing copies in the book or repeating a copy
several times on paper, it is difficult for some pupils to write
each succeeding sentence exactly under the first at the top of
the page. Hence the copies grow shorter each time one is
written. To correct this tendency ask the pupil to place the
upper edge of his practice paper immediately under the printed
copy at the top of the page. The left side of this paper should
be vertically under the capital letter with which the sen-
tence begins. Ask him to make a dot on the upper edge of
this paper, halfway between any two words of the sentence,
and one to represent the period. Direct him to place this
dotted edge of the paper just under every line on which he
writes that particular copy. This will show him the exact
lateral spacing of it, as well as the proper position for every
period. Hence the copies will be of equal length across
the page.
This placing the paper under the pupil's hand will also
assist in keeping the page of the book clean.
5. Copy book number four should be completed. The
teacher should remember that one third of the time
allowed for the writing lesson this year is to be devoted to
the study of letter formation and to writing in the book. It
will be well for her to estimate the number of pages which
must be written each week to accomplish this work.
6. Suggestions for the application of movement to letter
and word writing are given in great detail, beginning on
page 98. The teacher is advised to make extended use of
the " tracing process " explained on that page : first, in mak-
ing ellipses ; secondly, in making the letter n, as described
COURSE OF STUDY 151
on pages 99 and 100 ; and thirdly, in writing the word " see "
as instructed at the bottom of page 100.
7. The teacher should arrange for similar practice by ap-
plying the "tracing process" to other letters than n. She
should ask the pupil to learn each movement and to name
it for the letter which it forms. See " Practical application
of movement to written forms," page 79.
8. The " tracing process " should be extended to the writ-
ing of other words than " see." The teacher should ask the
pupil to learn each movement and to name it for the word
which it writes. See " Practical application of movement to
written words," page 80.
9. To assist the pupil to use movement continuously in
written work, the teacher should make use of the instruc-
tion given under "Alternating a technical exercise with written
work," page 102.
10. Following the suggestions noted above, the teacher
should begin the plan of " Application of spacing across the
entire width of the paper for words of two letters," on
page 103. She should read carefully the notes on pages 105
and 106. She should extend this plan by applying it to
words of three, four, five, six, seven, and eight letters, ac-
cording to the grade or ability of the pupils taught. In all
this work she should remember the five directions for teach-
ing application of movement given on pages 85 and 107.
11. She should apply this plan by asking the pupil to write
consecutively words of from two to eight letters in length
across one half of the width of his paper, as instructed on
page 107.
12. To diminish further the space between any two letters
of a word, she should ask the pupil to write words of from
152 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
two to eight letters in length across one quarter of the width
of his practice paper, as instructed on page 110.
13. In aU this work of application of movement there is
one very important way in which the teacher should help
the pupil. She should count for him. For her instruction in
this particular she should read with great care pages 121-125
of this book. Especial emphasis is placed upon '^How to
count," on page 122.
14. The teacher is not advised to attempt to teach applied
movement to sentence writing this year (see exception noted
in the next paragraph). The pupil will have ample practice
in applied movement in the variety of letters and words
selected by the teacher (see paragraphs 7-13 above). This
work in movement is to be developed very slowly.
15. The pupil should be encouraged to use movement in
aU his written work. If, as a result, he forms the habit of
moving his forearm to some extent, it will be easier to make
the direct application of movement to sentence writing during
the sixth year.
The status of the pupil in his study of penmanship at the
end of the fifth year may be summed up as follows :
In addition to the details noted at the close of any pre-
vious year's work (for first year, see page 138 ; for second
year, see page 140 ; for third year, see page 143 ; for fourth
year, see page 148),
1. He should be able to do various teclmical-movement
exercises : first, those he studied last year ; second, original
combinations (hence designs) of his own ; and third, those
suggested by his teacher.
2. The practice just noted should have helped him to gain
a great control of his forearm.
COURSE OF STUDY 153
3. His script should represent proper curvature from his
particular study of that subject.
4. He should understand how letters are joined in words,
and particularly the most difficult combinations of letters.
5. He should understand something about the lateral
spacing of penmanship.
6. He should be able to write a series of repeated copies
directly under each other.
7. He should have completed copy book number four.
8. He should be able to apply movement to writing letters
and words.
9. The application of movement to words should first be
made across the entire page.
10. To lessen somewhat the space between any two letters
of a word, he is able to write it across one half of his practice
paper.
11. To lessen still further the space between any two letters
of a word, he is able to write the word across one quarter of
his practice paper. He should follow the order of practice
developed in paragraphs 10, 11, and 12, page 151, when first
applying movement to the writing of any word.
12. As a general application of movement to written work
he should be able to move his hand to some extent when
writing any text.
Sixth year's work
The new work to be studied and practiced during the sixth
year is the application of movement to writing sentences.
The writing period may be divided, as last year, into three
parts : first should come the practice of a technical-movement
exercise ; second, the study of letter formation, — some part
154 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
of the copy in the book or its special application; third,
the application of movement to sentence writing.
If the teacher prefers, she may give lessons in these sub-
jects on alternating days. In this way five lessons in each
would be given every three weeks, if a writing lesson is
arranged for every school day.
1. The same suggestions given for technical-movement
exercise practice in the fifth year are appUcable to similar
work this year. The teacher should continue to design new
exercises or review old ones.
Note. It is necessary for the pupil to carry forward this technical
practice so that he may gain greater control of his forearm, and in
this way acquire more power of execution in writing. Such work is
as important as it is for an accomplished pianist to practice contin-
ually the scales and other technique.
2. In studying letter formation copy book number five
ought to be completed this year.
3. As the pupil gains greater ability to write sentences
by using applied movement, he should write the copies
in his writing book in the same manner. This will give
him confidence in his power of execution. See paragraph 2,
page 101.
If the pupil uses applied movement during his technical
practice, and " carves " his script when he writes in his copy
book, he would be as inconsistent as if he used correct Eng-
lish during the recitation in grammar and spoke without any
regard to that correctness at all other times.
4. It will prove both interesting and educative for pupils
of this grade to study the construction of script which is
explained on pages 49 and 50. Such instruction should be
developed slowly, and not necessarily in consecutive lessons.
COURSE OF STUDY 155
5. The letters should be studied with reference to their
similarity of form. Suggestions noted on page 40 and at the
top of page 41 will prove helpful in this particular. Although
these deal only with the small letters, similar work should
be done with the capitals.
6. "Teaching script by measurement and comparison,"
page 46, should be applied to letter formation this year. As
each character is so studied, the pupil should memorize its
particular proportions.
7. Blackboard writing. Unfortunately, blackboard writ-
ing is rarely taught to grade pupils, and it is a mistake not
to do so. To see the result of this neglect it is only necessary
to visit the average schoolroom and look at the boards after an
exercise in language, geography, or arithmetic has been written
there by the pupils. Such poor work is too commonly seen
to need any description. It is this character of writing on the
boards which often leads to the same quality on paper.
If there is any one instance in which slovenly writing
should never be allowed, or accepted from the pupil, this is
the instance. The one remedy is to teach pupils how to write
properly on the board, and to tolerate nothing which is in the
least degree untidy, carelessly executed, or poorly arranged.
They should be taught to take as much pride in the general
appearance of the blackboards as they would in the walls of
the parlor in their own homes.
Complete instructions for blackboard writing begin on
page 33.
8. It is of great importance to teach the numerals. Eead
how this should be done, on pages 55 and 56.
9. The instruction for applying movement to sentence
writing will be found in progressive detail on pages 110
156 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
to 114 This should not be forced, and advanced practice
should be given only as the proficiency of the pupils in their
present practice warrants.
10. The teacher must not forget the highly important
suggestion given" in note on page 106.
The status of the pupil in his study of penmanship at the
end of the sixth year may be summed up as follows :
In addition to the details noted at the close of any pre-
vious year's work (for first year, see page 138 ; for second
year, see page 140 ; for third year, see page 143 ; for fourth
year, see page 148 ; for fifth year, see page 152),
1. His technical-movement exercise practice should have
given him so much greater power of execution that his script
has lost much of its former crude appearance and looks more
mature as a finished product.
2. While writing copy book number five he should have
written the copies in the book by using applied movement,
since he is studying its application to sentence writing.
3. The pupil's knowledge of penmanship has been extended
to include more of its technical construction. This is of much
assistance to him in forming the letters with a greater degree
of correctness as he applies movement in writing them.
4. The pupil can group the letters according to their
similar formation.
5. The pupil knows more about the proportions of the
letters which he has studied. These last two details are valu-
able acquisitions, for each is of great importance in the study
of applied movement.
6. The pupil's blackboard writing should have shown
much improvement this year because of special study in
that particular.
COURSE OF STUDY 157
7. The pupil should be able to form the figures accurately
because of his special study of them during the year.
8. The pupil should be able to write (not "carve") sen-
tences, continuing at least twenty-four letters across the
paper. It must be remembered that during the first work of
applied movement, open lateral spacing is necessary.
9. The legibility of the pupil's writing is maintained as he
writes with applied movement.
\ Seventh and eighth year's work
The suggestions which follow should be used in teaching
penmanship in the seventh and eighth grades. The years are
combined for two reasons, — the work to be done in each year
is very similar, and it frequently occurs that less time is de-
voted to this study in these grades because of a crowded
curriculum. In this last case the regular teacher will be
more competent to say just how her work should be ar-
ranged to include such writing lessons as it may be desir-
able to give than any prescribed course of study.
Undoubtedly regular lessons can be given during the
seventh year ; hence the amount of instruction and the con-
sequent practice will be greater than in the eighth year.
Nevertheless, it is strongly urged that whatever lessons are
planned for this last year's work shall be given as consecu-
tively as possible, although the time devoted to each one
may be limited. This is far better than to have a longer
lesson with a greater interval of time between any two
writing periods.
Some of the most important matters to be emphasized are
noted below:
158 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
1. Continue the technical-movement exercise practice. It
may not be necessary to do so to such an extent as in the
fourth, fifth, and sixth years, for the pupil now has control
of his arm in writing. Hence such exercise practice may be
subordinated to other work next mentioned, but it should
not be discontinued.
2. Continue to have the pupil use applied movement when
he writes sentences. For technical practice the teacher should
have these sentences contain as many letters as are necessary
to gain the lateral spacing she desires between any two in
the sentence.
3. One important matter which should be developed in
practical application is the use of applied movement in writ-
ing the various papers of the class room. The teacher should
thoroughly acquaint herself with the plan suggested for such
work, and practice it sufficiently to be able to assist that par-
ticular pupil for whom the work may be difficult. The plan
is simple and its execution not beyond the ability of any
teacher. For instructions see " Geography," page 114 ; "His-
tory," page 117; "Spelling," page 119.
Similar work should be arranged by the teacher for the
use of applied movement in writing language lessons, topic
and memory gem books.
4. The second important subject to be studied is " Speed
work" (for instructions in this see pages 125-127).
5. In connection with speed work, and for its application,
there is nothing better to practice than the numerals (see
"Making figures," page 120 ; see also pages 55 and 56).
6. Blackboard writing is important in the seventh year, and
even more so during the eighth year, because copy-book prac-
tice is sometimes intermittent during this last year. If this is
COURSE OF STUDY 159
the case, there is no better way of maintaining the excellence
of letter formation than by means of the pupil's blackboard
writing. Such work will help him to write better on paper.
7. The copy book usually written during the seventh or
eighth year contains business and social forms and commer-
cial correspondence. It is well to refer to these forms for
their intrinsic educational value, but, above all, the technical
application should be the insistence that similar papers must
be written legibly and rapidly. To this end practice on such
models should be given first in connection with the study of
language, and secondly in arithmetic or bookkeeping. Em-
phasize that high standard during the writing hour, and ac-
cept nothing below that standard in such written exercises
of the class room.
8. Technical review work. It is well known by teachers that
occasionally pupils develop in their work something which is
entirely foreign to what they were long ago taught and had
mastered. In this respect the study of penmanship is no ex-
ception. If anything of such a character is noticed during
these years, it should be corrected. The best way to do this
is to study again the fundamental principles on which that
thing in which they failed, is based. The teacher should not
think it beneath her dignity or that of high-grade pupils to
do such review work. She should be governed only by the
need of the class.
9. To make further application of the study of letter for-
mation, extend the plan mentioned on page 142, paragraphs 1,
2, and 3, in the following manner :
Write a copy on the board, teach it, and under careful
supervision have the class write it three times on paper.
Then, for example, ask a series of questions in geography:
160 PUBLIC SCHOOL PENMANSHIP
" Wliatis the capital of this state?"; "Name six counties in
the state " ; " Give the location of three of the largest cities
in this state." The answers to these questions and others of
like character are to be written as well as the standard in
penmanship which the pupil has set for himself in writing
the repeated copy of the writing lesson at the top of the page.
A final word to teachers
It should be remembered that there are but fifty-two letter
forms, with their different combinations, and ten figures to
learn how to make. Almost every pupil has an opportunity to
acquire these by means of writing lessons extending through
seven or eight years of school life, — an ample amount of time.
There is nothing suggested in this book which the teacher
cannot teach, or which is too difficult for the average pupil
to acquire. Success will depend on having a definite plan
by which to teach, and on developing that plan slowly and
gradually and requiring the pupil to master each successive
step. In this way his writing will improve, and continual
attainment will become the ever-broadening foundation upon
which he builds. Nothing less than all this can be called
teaching peninanship.
Be thorough. Educational history contains many an ex-
ample of a boy who has been taught much less than another,
but who has applied every detail of that instruction and step
by step built up for himself a practical education which he
knew how to use.
The second boy was given superficial work in many studies
and was not properly trained in any one. This experience was
to him what might be called an educational escalator, to help
him up through the successive grades of school. When years
COURSE OF STUDY 161
had elapsed a vacant brain and inability to apply demon-
strated his mediocre education at the tremendous price of
wasted time. Penmanship has too commonly been taught (?)
in this manner, and the result is everywhere apparent.
Be clear in stating your instruction, and persistent in teach-
ing. If the pupil fails to grasp the instruction when it is
first presented, instead of thinking him an idiot, remember
that there is more than one way of teaching a thing. Try to
discover why he failed the first time, then teach this subject
in a little different manner, and doubtless success will follow.
It is well to impress the pupil with the fact that writing
as well as history is in the course of study ; that although
he wants to earn 100 per cent, or E, in his written exercise
in history, there is little glory in winning this at the expense
of lowering his standard in penmanship ; hence it is also im-
portant to get an equal rank in penmanship. He should be
reminded that if he writes poorly, the teacher may make a
mistake in correcting his composition, in which case the fault
would be his and in no manner would she be responsible.
He must also understand that if he should write any school
exercise poorly, the teacher would consider it little less than
an inexcusable imposition. The school committee employ her
to correct the subject-matter of any such paper, and do not
require her to spend extra hours in deciphering scribbled
penmanship before she can do so.
If the pupil is required to govern himself by these sug-
gestions, the written papers of the class room will be immeas-
urably improved.
Finally, give some time to the study and practice of pen-
manship, plan your writing lessons for the pupils, then
TEACH from your experience and plan.
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BIdg. 400, Richmond Field Station
University of California
Richmond, CA 94804-4698
ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS
• 2-month loans may be renewed by calling
(510)642-6753
• 1-year loans may be recharged by bringing
books to NRLF
• Renewals and recharges may be made
4 days prior to due date
DUE AS STAMPED BELOW
OCT 8 2005
MAY 09 2008
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U.C.BERKELEY LIBRARIES
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