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I UNIVERSITY OF
1 CALIFORNIA
SlfflW o
HISTORY
OF THE
PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM
OF
CALIFORNIA.
BY
JOHN SWETT.
I.I BRARY
II
i UN 1VKKKITY OF
CALIFORNIA.
SAN FRANCISCO:
A. L. BANCROFT AND COMPANY.
1876.
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1876,
BY JOHN SWETT,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
// £ JO
A. L. BANCROFT & CO.,
PRINTERS.
PREFACE.
THIS history contains an outline of school legislation, school
reports, and educational conventions, from 1850 to 1876, and a
statement of the leading facts connected with the organization
of the school system of California.
This Centennial year seems a fitting time to gather up the
scattered and fragmentary records of the beginnings of our
schools, and to trace the development of our system of public
instruction during the first quarter of a century of our history
as a State.
I have undertaken the work, because I felt that it ought to be
done, and no one else seemed ready to do it. I have endeav
ored to make it accurate and impartial. It is published on my
own responsibility solely, and at my own expense.
Only a limited number of copies has been printed ; it is not
stereotyped, and the type is distributed. It is submitted to
the pioneer teachers and school officers of California, with the
hope that this record of the history they helped to make may
not be wholly devoid of interest.
J. S.
SAN FBANCISCO,
August, 1876.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PART I.
PAGE.
1. Foundation
2. School Legislation, 1849-50 12
3. First Free School
4. Pioneer Schools 13
5. School Legislation, 1851 14
Division of School Moneys 15
6. Schools in San Francisco, 1852
7._First State Report— Marvin
islation, 1852 19
9 . Second Report— Marvin 20
U,10. Legislation, 1853 21
Division of School Moneys 22
11. Third Report— Hubbs 22
M2. Legislation, 1854 22
. 13. Fourth Report, 1854-Hubbs 23
r* 14. Legislation, 1855
Secular Schools 23
15. Fifth Report, 1855— Hubbs < 24
16. Sixth Report, 1856— Hubbs 24
17. Seventh Report, 1857— Moulder 24
State University 26
VIS. Legislation, 1858 27
19. Eighth Report, 1858-Moulder 28
./SO. Ninth Report, 1859— Moulder 29
21. Legislation, 1860 : 29
, 22. Tenth Report, 1860— Moulder 30
**- 23. Legislation, 1861
Division of School Moneys 31
Speech of John Conness ;":'. 32
24. Eleventh Report, 1861— Moulder 35
1^25. Legislation, 1H62 35
State Normal School , 36
26. Twelfth Report, 1862— Moulder 36
4^27. Legislation, 18.63 36
Teachers'. Certificates 37
School Fund 37
28. Thirteenth Report, 1863— Swett 38
State Tax 39
U 29. Legislation, 1864 43
State Tax 44
30. First Biennial Report— Swett 44
Topics treated of 45
31. Second Report— Swett >'. 47
Revised School: Law 48
Salaries .. T 50
Libraries. . . ,,c. ., 51
Religious Exercises 51
» Examination of Teachers 53
Progress 56
6 CONTENTS.
J
^
L
/
H
J
32. Legislation, 1869 58
State University . . 58
33. Third Report— Fitzgerald : 58
34. Legislation, 1870 59
California School Law 59
35. Fourth Report — Fitzgerald 60
Increase of State Tax 60
Leading Topics 62
Conclusion 63
36. Legislation, 1872 .' 63
37. Fifth Report— Bolander 63
Compulsory Education 64
38. Legislation, 1874 65
1. Increase of State Tax 65
2. Compulsory Education 65
Sixth Report, 1875— Bolauder 246
Text Books 67
Trained Teachers 67
Normal Institutes 68
40. Legislation, 1876 - 69
State Series of Text Books 69
41. List of State Superintendents 70
SPECIAL HISTORY OF 'SAN FRANCISCO.
1. First School Reports , 71, 76
2. Miscellaneous Historical Items 77
1. Buildings 77
2. Grading 77
N 3. Salaries 77
4. Certificates 77
5. Annual Elections 78
6. Examinations 78
7. Secular Schools 7£
8. Politics aud Schools 7£
9. Music and Drawing 7£
- 10. Changes of Text Books 78
11. Co-education 7fr
12. Normal Schools 78
13. Hobbies 7£
14. Merits and Defects 7£
15. Address of President Davis 7£
16. Veteran Teachers 7^
17. Ten Years' Teaching 7£
3. List of City Superintendents 9C
4. List of Presidents of Boards 9C
5. List of Principals of Schools 91
6. Statistical Table, Historical 94
7. Special Statistics 9£
PART II.
I. CONVENTIONS AND INSTITUTES.
11. First Convention, 1854 9(
2. Second Convention, 1856 91
First Institute, 1861 91
4. Second Institute, 1862 &
\ 5. Third Institute, 1863 91
Circular 10(
State Tax 105
Text Books 10!
" California Teacher " 10*
State Examinations 10;
Results 10^
CONTENTS.
6. Fourth Institute, 1865 1C
7. Fifth and Sixth, 1867-68 10
8. Seventh and Eighth, 1870-71 10
9. State Association, 1875 10
II. INSTITUTE ADDRESSES.
1. Industrial Education — Carr 1C
V2. Duties of the State to Public Schools— Swett 1C
3. Methods of Teaching — Minus 15
4. Common Sense in Teaching — Swett . . .rr 14
5. Dedication Address — Starr King 14
6. Moral Instruction — Minns 1£
7. Physical Training— Swett rf. K
III. STATE UNIVERSITY.
1. Foundation 1(
2. First Regents 1C
3. First Faculty 1G
4. Regents, 1876 1C
.5. Faculty, 1876 1C
7. Endowment .. .16
IV. STATE NORMAL SCHOOL.
1. Foundation 1C
2. Teachers 1C
3. Numbers . . 17
c
V. STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION.
1. First Board 17
.2. Other Boards . . . lr.
VI. TEACHERS' CERTIFICATES AND BOARDS OF EXAMINATION.
1. District Trustees 1 7
2. First State Board 17
3. Superintendent Swett's Report 17
4. Revised Law lr
5. Swett's Address T: 17
6. Set of Questions, 1876 18
7. List of Holders of Life Diplomas 19
8. List of Holders of State Educational Diplomas 19
9. Prominent Teachers 19
10. State Educational Society 20
11. State Series of Text-Books 20
12. Education of Colored Children 20
13. Course of Study 20i
14. The California Teacher 21<
15. Historical Statistical Tables 211"
1 . Expenditures 21'
2. School Taxation 21(
3. School Statistics ai'
16. Historical List of County Superintendents 21!
CONTENTS.
PART III.
PRESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM.
PAGE.
I. School Supervision - 223
i. State Superintendent.. - 223
ii. State Board of Education 223
in. State Board of Examination 223
iv. County Superintendents 224
v. City Superintendents 224
vi. City Boards 224
vn. School Trustees 224
viii. County Boards of Examination 224
ix. University Regents , 225
x. Normal School Trustees 225
II. School Kevenue 227
i. State School Fund 227
n. State Tax 227
m. County Tax 227
iv. City Tax 227
v. District Tax 227
III. General Provisions 228
1. Schools 228
2. Pupils 229
3. Teachers 229
4. District Libraries 231
IV. Classification of Schools 231
i. State University 231
n. State Normal School 232
in. High Schools 232
V. Summary of Statistics, 1875 - 233
1. Census Children 233
2 Classification 233
3. Schools and Teachers 233
4. Holders of Certificates 233
5. Salaries 233
6. Financial 234
7. Valuation 234
VI. School Statistics by Counties, 1875 2S5
VII. Resume of the Condition of the Schools 230
1. Buildings ' 2H6
2. Length of School '. 2;'6
3. Teachers 2J;6
4. Instruction 2c6
5. Libraries 2S6
6. Secular Instruction 236
7. Defects 237
8. Expenses 237
9. What we Need.. 237
LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF
V.ALlKOiiNIA.
THE
PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM OF CALIFORNIA.
PART I.
i. FOUNDATION.
THE foundation of the public school system of California was
laid in the Constitutional Convention held in Monterey, Sep
tember, 1849.
The Select Committee on the State Constitution reported,
in Committee of the Whole, in favor of appropriating the five
hundred thousand acres of land granted by Congress to new
States for the purpose of internal improvements, to constitute
a perpetual School Fund, with a proviso, however, that the
Legislature might appropriate the revenue so derived to other
purposes if the exigencies of the State required it. An ani
mated debate occurred on this proviso, in which Mr. Sherwood
of Sacramento, and Mr. Jones of San Joaquin, were the prin
cipal speakers in favor of it; and Mr. Semple of Sonoma, and
Mr. McCarver, opposed to it. The proviso was stricken out by
the close vote of eighteen ayes to seventeen noes, thus secur
ing an inviolable fund for school purposes. In the progress of
the debate Mr. Semple spoke as follows :
" This is a subject upon which I have thought probably more
than upon any other subject that has ever engrossed my attention.
I regard it as a subject of peculiar importance here in California,
from our location and the circumstances under which we are placed,
the immense value of our lands, and the extent and wealth of the
country. I think that here, above all places in the Union, we
1
SCHOOL LEGISLATION
should have, and we possess the resources to have, a well-regulated
system of education.
f: It is the duty of members of this House to unite together and
secure that reputation, character and ability in our public teachers
which can only be obtained by a liberal and permanent fund. It is
the basis of a well-regulated school system that it shall be uniform
throughout the State; that any surplus funds collected in one dis
trict shall not be appropriated in that district, but that the aggre
gate fund from all the districts shall be appropriated strictly to
school purposes, and distributed equally throughout the State.
#**##*#*
"We should therefore carefully provide that this fund shall be
used for no other purpose."
A section providing that a school should be kept in each dis
trict at least three months in each year, in order to secure any
fehare of the State Fund, was adopted; an amendment by Mr.
Hastings, to insert "six "months instead of "three/' having
been rejected.
SIXTEENTH AND THIRTY- SIXTH SECTIONS.
Mr. Semple, of Sonoma, whose opinions on school matters
seem to have been remarkably clear and correct, moved, as a
substitute for a rejected section relating to collecting and dis
bursing the proceeds of fines for breach of penal laws, Jiliat all
funds collected from any source, including, of course, \the pro
ceeds from the sales of the sixteenth and thirty-sixth sections
of township school lands, be paid into a common fund, to be
apportioned according to the number of children. \
William M. Gwin and Henry W. Halleck, both of San Fran
cisco, spoke against the measure; and Mr. Semple defended it
in an able -speech. It was rejected, however, and the way was
left open for a great deal of cumbersome legislation in vain
attempts to form township school funds. Finally, after fifty
thousand acres had been sold by various townships, the pro
ceeds of which have never been heard of since, in 1861 a law
was passed consolidating the proceeds into one common State
School Fund, as proposed by Mr. Semple in 1849.
THE TEST VOTE.
WThen Article IX, on education, came up for final adoption
in the Convention, there was a lengthy debate on the policy of
concurring with the action in Committee of the W7hole in strik-
iuj out the proviso in section second before mentioned. The
NIVEKSITY
AND SCHOOL REPORTS. 13
free public school in the State. The ordinance was crude, it is
true, but it was the germ of all succeeding city ordinances.
The following is a copy of the ordinance:
" 1st. Be it ordained by the Common Council of San Francisco, That
from and after the passage of this act, it shall be the duty of J. C.
Pelton, who has been employed by the Council as a public teacher,
to open a school in the Baptist Chapel.
" 2d. Said school shall be opened from half-past eight o'clock
A. M. to twelve o'clock M., and from two o'clock p. M. until tive o'clock
p. M., and shall continue open from Monday until Friday at five
o'clock P. M.
" 3d. The number of scholars shall not exceed the number of one
hundred; and no scholar shall be admitted under the age of four or
over the age of sixteen.
"4th. All persons desirous of having their children instructed in
said school shall first obtain an order from the Chairman of the Com
mittee on Education, and all children obtaining said order shall be
instructed in said school free of charge.
" 5th. It shall be the duty of said Pelton to report to the Council
on the first of each and every month the number of scholars and the
progress of said school.
"H. C. MURRAY.
"F. TlLFORD."
4. THE PIONEER SQHOOLS.
On October 11, 1847, a committee of the Town Council
contracted for the erection of a small' schoolhouse of one roo*m,
on the southwest corner of the Plaza, at the corner of Clay
Street and Brenharn Place.
On February 23, 1848, a small number of voters assembled
and elected a Board of School Trustees, consisting of Dr. Town-
send, Dr. Fourgeaud, C. L. Boss, Wm. H. Davis and J. Serine.
This board elected Thomas Douglass as teacher, at a salary of
one thousand dollars a year, and the school opened on the 3d
of April, 1848, with 6 pupils. This was in fact a fofffiofL school
under public auspices, it being free only to wdigeiit pupils.
The Town Council agreed to make up any deficiency in the
salary of the teacher, to the extent of four hundred dollars. The
estimated population of the town, April 1, 1848, was one
thousand, with 60 children of school age. In May the school
numbered 37 pupils.
On May 13, 1848, a new election of Trustees was ordered,
and. after a spirited contest the old board was re-elected. Soon
after gold was discovered, the school dwindled to 8 pupils, and
Schoolmaster Douglass closed his doors and started for the
mines.
14 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
Prior to the opening of this qi i as i public school, Mr. Marston,
a Mormon, opened a private school, April, 1847, and soon had
20 pupils in attendance. Schoolmaster Marston also became a
miner when the stampede for the "diggings" took place.
In April, 1849, Rev. Albert Williams opened a private school
of about 25 pupils, and continued it until the September fol
lowing.
On the llth of October, 1849, John C. Pelton and wife arrived
from Boston, with school furniture, books, etc., for the purpose
of establishing a school on the New England plan. He opened
school December, 1849, with three pupils. This school \vas to
be supported by voluntary contributions, but was free to indi
gent children. This school was made a free public school soon
after.
The school so established soon numbered 150 pupils, and in
addition to Mr. Pelton and his wife, two assistants had to be
employed. At one time the school numbered 300 pupils. The
salary of Mr. and Mrs. Pelton was $500 a month.
This school was continued until September 25, 1851, when it
was suspended by the adoption of a new school ordinance,
under which T. J. Nevins became Superintendent, new teachers
were elected, and Mr. Pelton temporarily retired from school.
5. SCHOOL LEGISLATION, ,1850-1851.
The Chairman of the Senate Committee on Education, Mr
Heydenfelt, early in the second session of the Legislature, at
San Jose,' 1850-51, reported a bill "Concerning common
schools," which dragged slowly along, was indefinitely post
poned in the Assembly, submitted to a Committee of Conference,
and finally passed on the very last day of the session, May 1,
1851.
The original bill was mainly drawn by Hon. George B.
Tingley, a member of the Legislature. John G. Marvin, Super
intendent of Public Instruction, and John C. Pelton, teacher of
the public school in Sari Francisco, under a local school ordi
nance, assisted in preparing and perfecting the bill, and in
securing its passage. David C. Broderick, then a member of
the Legislature, was an active supporter of the bill.
THE FIRST SCHOOL LAW.
The school law of 1851 was cumbersome and imperfect in many
of its provisions. It provided for the survey and sale of school
AND SCHOOL REPORTS. 11
opinion prevailed in the Convention that tins grant would be of
immense value; that the lands would be located in mineral
regions, and sold for fabulous sums; that the fund derived would
be the most munificent in the world; and the argument was
used in favor of the proviso, that the fund would be more thanj
sufficient to educate the children, and would prove a source of
corruption and speculation. Hence the question was made an
important one, which brought out the full strength of the friends
of free schools.
"W. M. Stewart and Messrs. Sherwood and Vermeule, spoke
in favor of retaining the proviso, and Messrs. Gwin, Halleck,
Botts, Hoppe, Semple, and McDougal, in favor of striking it out.
After various amendments offered and rejected, the proviso
was stricken out by the following vote:
AYES. — Messrs. Aram, Botts, Brown, Covarrubias, Gwin,
Hanks, Hill, Hoppe, Halleck, Hastings, Hollingsworth, Larkin,
Lippitt, Lippincott, McCarver, McDougal, Ord, Price, Eeid,
Sutter, Stearns, Sansevaine, Tefft, Vermeule, Walker, and Pres
ident Semple — 26.
NOES. — Messrs. Dimmick, Dominguez, Foster, Gilbert, Hob-
son, Norton, Pico, Sherwood and Wozencraft — 10.
And so ivas laid the foundation of oar School Fund and School
System.
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS.
Article IX of the Constitution, as adopted, was as follows:
" ARTICLE IX. — Education.
" SECTION 1. The Legislature shall provide for the election by
the people of a Superintendent of Public Instruction, who shall,
hold his office for three years, and whose duties shall be prescribed
by law, and who shall receive such compensation as the Legisla
ture may direct.*
" SEC. 2. The Legislature shall encourage by all suitable means
the promotion of intellectual, scientific, moral and agricultural im
provement. The proceeds of all land that may be granted by the
United States to this State for the support of schools which ma}* be
sold or disposed of, and the five hundred thousand acres of^land
granted to the 'new States, under an act of Congress distributing
the proceeds of the public lands among the several States of the
Union, approved A. D. 1841, such per cent, as may be granted by
Congress on the sale of lands in this State shall be and remain a
* Amended in 1862 so as to provide for the election of State Superintendent at /
the Special^ Judicial Election, for a term of four years.
12 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
perpetual fund, the interest of which, together with all the rents of
the unsold lands, and such other means as the Legislature may
provide, shall be inviolably appropriated to the support of common
schools throughout the State.
" SEC. 3. The Legislature shall provide for a system of common
schools, by which a school shall be kept up and supported in each
district at least three months in every year; and any district neg
lecting to keep and support such a school, may be deprived of its
proportion of the interest of the public fund during such neglect.
" SEC. 4. The Legislature shall take measures for the protection,
improvement, or other disposition of such lands as have been or may
hereafter be reserved or granted by the United States, or any person
or persons, to the State, for the use of a universit}7; and the funds
accruing from the rents or sale of such lands, or from any other
source, for the purpose aforesaid, shall be and remain a permanent
fund, the interest of which shall be applied to the support of said
university, with such branches as the public convenience may de
mand, for the promotion of literature, the arts and sciences, as may
be authorized by the terms of such grant. And it shall be the duty
of the Legislature, as soon as may be, to provide effectual means for
the improvement and permanent security of the funds of said uni
versity/'
2. SCHOOL LEGISLATION, 1849-50.
Near the close of the first session of the Legislature, 1849-50,
held in the city of San Jose, Mr. Corey, from the Committee on
Education, reported that the taxes laid on the people for State,
county, and municipal purposes, were so heavy the committee did
not consider it advisable to report a bill to tax the people still
further for the support of public schools, and, accordingly, the
school bill, of which no record remains, was indefinitely post
poned. But while the school bill, thus defeated, has been -for
gotten, the reason advanced by Mr. Corey has been the stand
ing argument urged against every school bill which has con-
•tained any provision for maintaining by taxation a system of
public schools.
3. THE FIRST FREE PUBLIC SCHOOL.
A solid foundation for a school system was laid by the framers
of the State Constitution, but San Francisco was the first place
in the State to organize, independent of State law, by her Com
mon Council, a, free public school.
The Ayuntamiento, or City Council, adopted, April 8, 1850,
the following ordinance, drawn by H. C. Murray, which was the
first public school ordinance of any kind passed in California, and
consequently made the school taught by Mr. Pel ton the first
\
AND SCHOOL REPORTS. 15
lands in so impracticable a manner that no lands were ever sold
under its operation. The Governor was to order a survey; the
surveyor was to lay off the land in lots not exceeding eighty
acres, nor less than forty, and to furnish the State Superintend
ent with a schedule of the same; the lands were to be sold at
auction, on an order from the Court of Sessions — the purchaser
to pay one third down, and ten per cent, per annum interest on
the remainder; the County Treasurer to give a certificate of
payment, and report to the State Superintendent; the State
Superintendent to direct the District Attorney to make out a
deed; the County Recorder to report annually to the State
Superintendent.
It provided for the apportionment of the interest of the State
School Fund to the counties, on the basis of the number of
children between seven and eighteen years of age; but the
County Treasurers were to apportion to districts according to
the number actually attending school; no district was to receive
its share of State money unless school was maintained three
months, and unless it raised a sum equal to at least one half its
share of the State Fund. It denned the duties of the Superin- /
tendent of Public Instruction; provided for a "Superintending I
School Committee " of three, elected annually, with power to
examine and appoint teachers, disburse the School Fund, build
schoolhouses, and report annually to the State Superintendent.
It divided schools into primary, intermediate and grammar,
specifying the studies in each, and provided for the establish
ment of high schools.
DIVISION OF THE SCHOOL MONEYS.
It also provided for the distribution of the School Fund
among religious and sectarian schools, in the following sections:
" SEC. 10. If a school be formed by the enterprise of a religious
society, in which all the educational branches of the district schools /
shall be taught, and which, from its private and public examination,
the committee will it to be well conducted, such school shall be
allowed a compensation from the Public School Fund in proportion
to the number of its pupils, in the same manner as provided for
district schools by this act.
" SEC. 11. Schools established under charitable auspices, orphan
asylums, schools for blind, almshouse schools, etc., such as shall be
subject to the general supervision of laws on education, but under
the immediate management of their respective trustees, managers,
or directors; and said schools shall participate in the apportionment
of the school moneys in the same manner as other common schools."
16 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
6. SCHOOLS IN SAN FRANCISCO, 1851-52.
The first school ordinance passed under the State school law
I of 1851 was that of San Francisco, adopted in September, 1851,
which made provision for a City Board of Education, composed
of seven members, and for a City Superintendent, and appro
priated $35,000 for tlie support of schools. Thomas J. Nevins,
who mainly prepared the ordinance, was elected Superintendent
of Schools, and proceeded to organize the department. The
first schools organized under this ordinance were the Happy
Valley School, of which Mr. James Denman was elected the first
teacher, and the Powell Street School, of which Mr. Joel Tracy
was appointed teacher.
Both schools opened on the 17th of December, 1851.
The Washington Grammar School opened December 22, Mr.
F. E. Jones, Principal.
During 1852 the following new schools were organized: Rin-
con School, January 28, Silas Weston, Principal; Spring Valley
Grammar, February 9, Asa W. Cole, Principal; Union Gram
mar, June, Ahira Holmes, Principal; Mission Grammar, May,
Alfred Rix, Principal.
The average daily attendance in all the schools for 1852 was
445; in 1853, 703 pupils.
Among the teachers elected in 1853 were Ellis H. Holmes,
Principal of the Washington School, March 1; John Swett,
Principal Rincon School, December 4; Joseph C. Morrill,
Principal Spring- Valley School, October 1.
The salary of Principals of Grammar Schools in 1853 was
$1500 a year.
7. FIRST STATE SCHOOL REPORT, 1851.
John G. Marvin, the first Superintendent of Public Instruc
tion, made his first annual report to the third Legislature on the
5th of January, 1852. He recommended that a carefully pre
pared school law should be passed, as that of the previous year
was meagre in its provisions; that an appropriation of $50,000
should be immediately made, and that next year a State scliuol
tax of five cents on a hundred dollars should be levied until
some revenue could be derived from the State School Fund; that
the office of County Superintendent be created; that provision
AND SCHOOL BEPORTS. 17
be made for school libraries; and that the proceeds of the 'sales
of tule lands be applied to the School Fund. He estimated the
total amount of State school land, including the 16th and 36th
sections, and the 500,000 acre grant, to be 6,380,320 acres, which
would yield a prospective School Fund of $7,975,400, and says
of this estimate: "This would be truly a magnificent bequest,
and one worthy of the El Dorado State."
In an appendix to his report, Mr. Marvin gave extracts from
letters of inquiry addressed by him to various county officers
and to postmasters. A few extracts from these will show the
educational condition of the State at that tirne^kButte County
had 50 children, but no school; Calaveras County, 100 children,
and no school; Colusa, 75 children, with some prospect of a
school next year; El Dorado County, 100 children, but no
school; Contra Costa County had some 400 children. Postmas
ter Coffin, of Martinez, wrote: "There are nearly 150 here.
There is but just the breath of life existing in the apology for a
school in the town. I presume it will be defunct ere one month
passes away." Marin County had 60 children, and a mission
school at San Kafael; Mariposa County, 100 children, "no
school organized;" Mendocino County, 70 children, and a school
,- of 20 pupils on Eussian River: Monterey County, 500 children
1 — two schools of 40 pupils each in the city — 179 at San Juan,
and no school; " morality and society in a desperate condition ;"
Napa County had 100 children, and three schools in the county,
one of which was at Napa City, and numbered 25 scholars; Ne
vada County had 250, and four schools, two of which were at
Nevada City, one at Grass Valley, and one at Rough and Ready ;
Placer County had 100 children, and one small school at Auburn;
San Joaquin County had 250 children, and two schools, both
at Stockton. Mr. Rogers, the teacher of a private school at
Sacramento, reported that there were 400 children in that county,
and no schools except two primary and one academy, a high-
school in the city of Sacramento, all private. He says: "This
city has never spent a cent for elementary instruction. My
sympathies are with the public free schools, but in their ab
sence, I started a private school."
Santa Cruz County had 200 children, and two schools, both
in the town, numbering 65 scholars.
Santa Clara, County had 300 children. The Young Ladies'
Seminary, at San Jose, in charge of the Sisters of Charity, had
18 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
90 pupils; and the San Jose Academy, Keverend E. Bannister,
Principal, had 60 pupils. Through the exertions of Hon.
George B. Tingley, a subscription of $5000 was raised for the
benefit of this academy. There were two primary schools at
Santa Clara, with 64 scholars, and two other schools in the town
ship, numbering 35 scholars.
Santa Barbara County had 400 children, and one public school
in the town, under supervision of the Common Council, who
paid the two teachers together seventy dollars per month. There
was also a small school at Santa Inez.
SAN FKAN CISCO SCHOOLS.
Concerning San Francisco, it is reported: "In May last, the";
Common Council, under authority of the charter, authorized
the raising of $35,000 as a School Fund for the present year.
In September, 1851, the same body passed the present excel
lent school ordinance, and appointed Aldermen Koss, Atwell,
John Wilson and Henry E. Lincoln, to form the Board of Edu
cation. These gentlemen chose T. J. Kevins Superintendent."
Three public schools were organized at that time — Happy
Valley School, No. 1, 163 scholars, James Denman, Principal;
District No. 2, Dupont Street School, 150 pupils, Mr. Jones,
Principal; Powell Street School, No. 3, 60 pupils, Joel Tracy,
Principal.
Among the private schools, the principal were as follows:
San Francisco Academy, Kev. F. E. Prevaux, 31 pupils; Epis
copal Parish School of Grace Church, 40 scholars, Dr. Ver
Mehr; Wesleyan Chapel Select School, 3:i scholars, Mr.
Osborne, Instructor; St. Patrick's School, 150 children, Father
McGinnis, Principal; Church of St. Francis School, 150 pupils,
Father Langlois, Principal.
Sonoma County had 5 small schools, and 250 children; Solano
County 200 children and one school, at Benicia, half public and
half private; Trinity County 125 children, and one school of
50 pupils, at Uuiontown; Tuolumne County 150 children, and
no school; Yolo County 75 children, and no school; Yuba
County had 150 children, and one school hi Marysville, of 30
scholars, taught by Tyler Thatcher and his wife.
From these rough materials Mr. Marvin estimated the num
ber of children in the State between 4 and 18 years of age to
be about 6000. There was then no organized State school sys-
AND SCHOOL KEPORTS. 10
tern, and most of the schools mentioned in the preceding items
were private schools supported by tuition.
8. SCHOOL LEGISLATION, 1852.
At the third session of the Legislature, held in Vallejo and
Sacramento, 1852, Hon. Frank Soule, Chairman of the Senate
Committee on Education, made an able report in favor of com
mon schools, and introduced a revised school law much more
complete than the law of 1851.
Hon. Paul K. Habbs, of the Senate, afterwards Superintend
ent of Public Instruction, State Superintendent Marvin and
Mr. Pelton, assisted Mr. Soul4 in framing the bill.
A select committee of the Assembly on the Senate bill (Mr.
Boggs, Chairman) reported strongly against many features of
the bill; thought that parents could take care of their own
children; that the State and the counties were in debt; that taxa
tion ought not to be increased— the standing argument of Mr.
Corey — and therefore recommended that the bill be postponed
one year, and yet had the unblushing impudence to wind up
their report by "declaring themselves faithful friends of com
mon schools and loyal lovers of children!" Finally a commit
tee of conference was appointed, on which appear the names of
J. M. Estell, Henry A. Crabb and A. 0. Peachy, who reported
in favor of the bill with the sections relating to the sale of
school lands stricken out, to be amended and passed as a sepa
rate bill. It was proposed by Mr. Soule and others who as
sisted in framing the bill, that the 500,000 acres of school lands
should be located by the State Board of Education, and held
until the land should sell for a reasonable price.
But there was a big land speculation in the eyes of some
members of the Legislature; and so the policy prevailed of dis
posing of these lands at $2.25 per acre, payable in depreciated
State script. The total amount finally realized from this mag
nificent land grant was only about $600,000. It might have
been made two or three millions.
FIRST STATE SCHOOL TAX.
The bill rcas .passad, and a provision was inserted- in the rev
enue" law levying a State school lax of five, cents on each one hnn-
•Jredjj^^ This school Ia\v
made provision for a State Board of Education, consisting of
20 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
the Governor, Surveyor-General and Superintendent of Public
Instruction; made County Assessors ex-qfficlo County Superin
tendents; three School Commissioners in each district, elected
for one year; constables to be School Census Marshals; the
school year to end October 31; State School Fund to be ap
portioned to districts according to the number of census chil
dren between five and eighteen years of age; State School Fund
to be used exclusively for teachers' salaries, and fifty per cen^/
of County Fund for the same purpose; that no books of a de
nominational or sectarian character should be used in any com
mon schools; defined the duties of County Superintendents,
and of the State Superintendent and School Commissioners;
authorized the Common Council in incorporated towns to raise
a school tax not to exceed three cents on a hundred dollars; to
provide for examination of teachers; to make rules and regula
tions for government of schools; authorized counties to levy a
school tax not exceeding three cents on a hundred dollars; pro
vided that no school should receive any apportionment of public
money, unless free from all denominational and sectarian bias, con
trol or influence ivhatever; and closed by giving permission to
teachers to assemble at Sacramento, once a year, on the call
of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, to discuss and
recommend improvements in teaching. Approved May 3, 1S§2.
L
9. SECOND STATE SCHOOL REPORT, 1852.
In his second annual report, Mr. Marvin stated that the num
ber of children between four and eighteen years of age was
17,821; that by a blunder of the Enrolling Clerk, the section
creating the office of County Superintendent was omitted, and
the duties were specified without creating the oifice, and in
consequence thereof the State Board of Education had not
been able to apportion the State Fund, which at that time
amounted to $18,289, of which $14,874 was received from the
five cent revenue tax; that the sales of school lands had
amounted to 150,000 acres, yielding $300,000, on interest at the
rate of seven per cent, per annum. He recommended that the
County Assessors be made ex-cfficio County Superintendents;
that Trustees be required to report to the State Superintendent
as well as to County Superintendents; that the Catholic schools
be allowed their mo rata of the public fund; that no necessity ex-
i BRAKY
i; K 1 V K U S i T V (
AND SCHOOL REPORTS. 21 {
isted for a normal school, as the supply of4£ac^ers was greater
than the demand; that the number of organized public schools !
was 20, the number of children attending public school 3314, <
and the total expenditure as reported, $28,000.
The report embraced twelve mission and church schools in
various parts of the State, including 579 children in attendance.
10. SCHOOL LEGISLATION, 1853.
SALE OF SCHOOL LANDS.
The law regulating the sale of 500,000 acres of school lands,
passed May 3, 1852, authorized the Governor to issue land
warrants of not less than 1GO acres, nor more than 320 acres;
the State Treasurer was authorized to sell said lands at two dollars
^per acre, and to receive in payment Controller's warrants drawn
' upon the General Fund, or the bonds of the civil debt of the
State; and to convert all moneys and all State three per cent,
bonds or Controller's warrants so received by him into bonds
of the civil funded debt of the State, bearing interest at seven
per cent, per annum, and to keep such bonds as a special
deposit, marked " School Fund," to the credit of said School
Fund.
Under this provision the sales of land in 1852 amounted to
150,000 acres, yielding $300,000.
AMENDMENTS.
At the fourth session of the Legislature, 1853, the school law
was amended by the following provisions: That Controller's
warrants, received for school lands, should draw interest at
seven per cent., the same rate as civil bonds; that the State
Treasurer should keep a separate and distinct account of the
Common School Fund, and of the interest and income thereof,
and that no portion should be devoted to any other purpose;
that County Assessors should be made ex-qfficio County Super
intendents; that all county school officers should be paid such
compensation as allowed by County Supervisors; that cities
! should have power to raise by tax whatever amount of money
was necessary for school purposes; that counties should have
power to levy a school tax not exceeding five cents on a hundred :
dollars; that religious and sectarian schools should receive a
\pro rata share of the School Fund.
22 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
The provision allowing the Catholic schools a share of the
School Fund was as follows :
"SEC. 7. Article five of said act (1852) is hereby amended by
adding- after section two the following additional sections:
" ' Section Three. The County Superintendent may and is hereby
empowered, in incorporated cities, to appoint three School Commis
sioners for any common school or district, upon petition of the
inhabitants thereof requesting the same.
" ' Section Four. Such schools shall be and are hereby entitled
to all the rights and privileges of any other city or common school,
in the pro rata division of school money raised by taxation, and shall
receive its proportion of money from the State School Fund in the
annual distribution; provided, they are conducted in accordance with
the requirements of this act.";
This provision gave rise to the formation of the so-called
" ward schools" of San Francisco.
ii. THIRD ANNUAL SCHOOL REPORT, 1853.
Paul K. Hubbs, who had been a member of the last previous
Legislature, was elected as successor to John G. Marvin, and
took office on the first of January, 1S54. In his very brief
annual report, January 24, 1854, he stated that the School Fund,
from the sale of school lands, amounted to $463,000, on which
the annual interest was $32,000; that the sale of school lands
had entirely ceased, andT that there remained unsold 2G8,000
acres of the 500,000 acre grant. He dwelt on the necessity of
reserving all sales of the sixteenth and thirty-sixth sections for
township funds exclusively. Mr. Hubbs further recommended
that the School Fund be apportioned according to the average
attendance on school, instead of the number of census children,
and urged the establishment of a State university.
No tabular statistics whatever were published with this report.
12. SCHOOL LEGISLATION, 1854.
In the fifth session of the Legislature, 1854, it was provided
in the Revenue Act that fifteen per cent, of the State poll taxes
should be paid into the School Fund. A well-prepared school
law was introduced by Hon. D. E. Ashley, which, among other
things, repealed the sections allowing sectarian schools a pro rata
share of the School Fund. It met with strong opposition,
finally passed to engrossment, but was buried in the rubbish of
unfinished business at the end of the session.
AND SCHOOL BEPOKTS. 23
13. FOURTH ANNUAL SCHOOL REPORT, 1854.
Superintendent Hubbs opened his second report with tLe
statement, "that, though the average attendance on school had
increased from 2000 in 1853 to 5751 in 1854, the report never
theless exhibited the lamentable fact that the children of our
State are growing up devoid of learning to read and write." He
recommended the establishment of a State Industrial School;
that School Commissioners be elected for three years, one
annually; that the office of County Superintendent be abolished,
as tending to unnecessary expense; that Township Treasurers
be elected, to report to the State Superintendent; argued in
favor of Township School Funds; stated that no income had
ever been derived from "escheated estates," though it had been
estimated that millions belonged of right to that fund; and urged
a State university. A crude and confused tabular statement
was attached to this report.
14. SCHOOL LEGISLATION, 1855.
During the sixth session of the Legislature, 1855, Hon. D. R.
Ashley introduced a school bill which was in substance the
same as that defeated at the last previous session. After some
opposition, with a few amendments it became a law, approved
May 3, 1855.
This revised law enlarged the pOAvers of School Trustees; pro- /
vided for the election of County Superintendents, and defined
their duties; and empowered the Common Councils of incor
porated cities to raise a school tax not exceeding twenty-five
cents on a hundred dollars; to collect and disburse school
moneys; to establish school districts; to provide by election or
by appointment for City Boards of Education, and City Super
intendents; to establish schools on petition of fifty heads of f
families, provided that no sectarian doctrines should, be taught
therein, and that such schools be under the same supervision as
other schools.
SECULAR SCHOOLS.
It provided that no school should be entitled to any share of
the public fund that had not been taught by teachers duly ex
amined and approved by legal authority, and that no sectarian
books should be used, and no sectarian doctrines should be
24 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
taught in any public school under penalty of forfeiting the pub
lic funds. The stringent provision settled then, and probably
forever, the question of an American system of public schools
in this State, free from the bitterness of sectarian strife and the
intolerance of religious bigotry. The public schools are free to
the children of the people, and free from the influence of church
or sect.
This law of 1855 also provided that Controller's warrants paid
into the Treasury for school lands should draw the same rate of
interest as civil bonds, and that the State Treasurer should in
dorse on such warrants, "Common School Fund," and that no
portion of such securities should be sold or exchanged, except
by special act of the Legislature; it authorized counties to raise
a school tax not exceeding ten cents on a hundred dollars, to
apportion the same on the same basis as the State Fund, and to
appropriate the moneys so derived for building houses, pur
chasing libraries, or for salaries. This law contained many ex
cellent provisions, and was a very great advance on all previous
school bills. Its main features are retained in the school law of
the present day.
15. FIFTH ANNUAL SCHOOL REPORT, 1856.
Superintendent Hubbs renewed his recommendations for the
sale of school lands, and put in a special plea for Township
Funds; recommended that all school lands and School Funds
be placed under the control of the State Board of Education;
asked a direct appropriation of $100,000; considered the new
school law behind the age; recommended that the office of County
Superintendent be abolished, and that the district township
system be adopted; that the School Fund be apportioned ac
cording to the average daily attendance.
This report was accompanied by inaccurate statistical tables.
16. SIXTH ANNUAL SCHOOL REPORT, 1856.
The last report of Superintendent Hubbs was a brief one,
without any statistical table whatever — not even the number*of
census children in the State.
He urged all his previous recommendations concerning school
lands, and township lands in particular, the establishment
of a grand university, with an agricultural department, and
AND SCHOOL REPORTS. 25
a military school; a legislative requirement that a uniform series
of elementary boo/cs be used in all the public schools; entered his
protest against certain " partisan and sectional " text-books sent
him from the East; and closed by a eulogy on the English lan
guage and the Anglo-Saxon race.
17. SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL SCHOOL REPORT, 1857.
Paul K. Hubbs was succeeded in office, in 1857, by Andrew
J. Moulder.
Mr. Moulder's first report opened as follows :
The number of schools has increased, in four years, from 53 to
367 — nearly sevenfold; the number of teachers, from 50 to 486 —
nearly ninefold; the number of children reported by census, from
11,242 to 35,722 — more than threefold; whilst the semi-annual con
tribution, by the State has dwindled from $53,511.11 to $28,342.16,
or nearly one half; and the average paid each teacher, from $955 to
$58.32 — that is to say, to less than one sixteenth of the average
under the first apportionment.
I will not waste words on such an exhibit. If it be not con
vincing that the support derived from the State is altogether in
sufficient, and ought to be augmented, no appeal of mine could en
force it.
But this I may be permitted to say, that we have no such thing
as public schools, in the full acceptation of the term — that is to say,
schools at which all the children of the State may be educated, free
of expense. That $9.72 per month, to each teacher, contributed by
the State, never can maintain a public school; that the contribu
tions by parents and guardians to keep up the schools are onerous,
oftentimes unequal, and must, in time, damp their ardor in the cause
of education; that our 367 schools are comparatively in their infancy,
and now, above all other times, should b'e cherished and encouraged
by the State. Lacking such fostering care and encouragement, it is to
be feared they will languish, and gradually lose their hold upon the
popular favor. Is it not worth more than an ordinary effort to avert
such a calamity ?
He recommended that the maximum rate of county school
tax be increased from ten cents to twenty cents on a hundred
dollars; that no warrants should be issued by Trustees on the
District Funds, unless there was cash in the Treasury to pay
them; and that all funds coming into the Treasury during one
school year should be used exclusively for the payment of ex
penses of that year; asked an appropriation of $3000 for Teach
ers' Institutes; favored the establishment of a State Industrial
School; recommended that all school lands be placed under the
2
26 • SCHOOL LEGISLATION
j o'f the State Board of Education, with power
to locate and sell at "one dollar and twenty-five cents per acre;
that the proceeds of the sales of the 16th and 36th sections of
township lands be consolidated into one general school fund,
and that a State Military Institute be established.
The following extract will illustrate his views on a State
University :
Ours is eminently a practical age. We want no pale and sickly
scholars, profound in their knowledge of the dead or other lan
guages and customs. We need energetic citizens, skilled in the
arts of the living, and capable of instructing their less favored fel
lows in the pursuits that contribute to the material prosperity of
our State. For what useful occupation are the graduates of most
of our old colleges fit? and not of ours alone, but of the time-
honored universities of England. Many of them are bright schol
ars, ornaments to their alma mater — they are perhaps all that the
system under which they have been instructed could make them ;
they are learned in the antiquities of nations long since gone ; they
are eloquent in Latin ; they may write a dissertation on the Greek
particle; be masters of the rules of logic and the dogmas of ethics
— all valuable acquirements, it is true; but when, after years of
toil, they have received their diploma, their education for practical
life has just commenced. They have still to study for a profession
— are still dependent upon their parents.
This may do for old settled communities, but it will never
answer for California. A young man at seventeen, eighteen, or
twenty years of age, in this State, must expect to start in life for
himself. He must have some occupation that will maintain him.
Longer dependence is not to be tolerated or expected.
To fit our youth for such occupations, to end this dependence,
must be the object of our university.
I would, therefore, urge that such professorships only shall be
established at first as will turn out practical and scientific civil
engineers; mining engineers; survej^ors; metallurgists; smelters;
assayers; geologists, or scientific prospectors; chemists, both manu
facturing and agricultural; architects; builders; and last, but not
least, school teachers.
Let me call your attention, however, to the necessity of edu
cating a class of our young men iu mining engineering.
The character of mining has undergone great changes since
eighteen hundred and forty-nine and eighteen hundred and fifty.
Enterprises are now conducted on an extensive scale. Tunnels of
greai* magnitude, with labyrinthine galleries, are run into the
mountains; deep shafts, with far-stretching drifts, are sunk; quartz
\vorks and mills are multiplying. In all these enterprises a skillful
engineer would be a valuable acquisition; and, as they progress in
magnitude, his services would become indispensable. It is from
the want of such directing intelligence that we so often hear of
accidents in the mines. Our State has scarcely started in the work
of internal improvements. None offers more inducements — in
LIBRARY
t'NIVKHSITV OF
AND SCHOOL EEPOETS. 27
<''AUFOK\r\
none will more be needed. For these we s%ll require civil engi
neers and surveyors, and all such will, in a few years, find employ
ment.
The statistical tables accompanying the report were very
brief, embracing only the number of census children and the
average daily attendance.
18. SCHOOL LEGISLATION, 1858.
The Legislatures of 1856 and 1857 did not trouble them
selves about the school law, and no amendments worth men
tioning were made.
The Legislature of 1858 made an advance in school legisla
tion by providing that school districts, by a vote of the people,
could levy a district tax for the support of schools or for build
ing schoolhouses, under the restrictions that the district must
have maintained a school four months; that the public money
must be insufficient to defray one half the expense of another
term; that a tax for supporting a school and for building a
schoolhouse could not both be levied the same year, and that
the trustees considered the tax advisable. This law was not
well drawn, and great difficulty was experienced in collecting
the taxes voted under it, the heavy taxpayers who chose to
resist it generally escaping without payment. As a necessary
result, comparatively few taxes were voted under it, and not
till 1863 was a liberal and effective law passed whose provisions
were as binding as those regulating the collection of State or
county taxes.
The Legislature of 1856 passed a concurrent resolution in
structing their representatives in Congress to use their influence
to secure the surveys of the 16th and 36th sections of township
school lands, and also to secure a law authorizing townships
in the mineral districts to locate two sections in lieu thereof on
the agricultural lands of the State.
The Legislature of 1858 passed a similar concurrent resolu
tion.
A law was passed providing for the sale of the remainder of
the 500,000 acre grant, and the 72 sections for a State univer
sity, which provided that the Governor should appoint a land
locating agent in each land district of the State, who should
locate in tracts not exceeding 320 acres; that purchasers should
28 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
pay $1.25 per acre, or, if they preferred, twenty per cent, down,
and interest on the remainder at ten per cent, per annum, in
advance; that said agents should also locate lands in lieu oi
occupied 16th and 36th sections, at the request of the County
Supervisors; that the State Board of Examiners, whenever il
should appear that more than $10,000 had been received by the
State Treasurer as purchase-money for such lands, should pur
chase bonds of the civil funded debt of the State, after adver
tising, at their lowest values; that such bonds should be marked
''School Fund," and held in custody of the State Treasurer
that at the expiration of one year the State Board of Examiners
should take and use $57,600 of any money belonging to the
School Fund and purchase bonds, which should be marked
" Seminary Fund," and that all interest on said fund should alsc
be invested in bonds.
An act was also passed repealing that of 1855, and providing
for the sale of the 16th and 36th sections of township lands b}
the Boards of Supervisors.
19. EIGHTH ANNUAL SCHOOL REPORT, 1858.
This was one of the longest and ablest of Mr. Moulder's re
ports. He opened with the statement that the schools of Cali
fornia were not creditable to the State, and showed the neces
sity of an immediate appropriation by the State of $100,000
Concerning this, he goes on to say:
A classification and analysis of the reports of, full 2000 schoo
officers to this department show that there are 40,530 children ir
the State between 4 and 18 years of age; that the whole numbe]
attending school during the year 1858 was 19,822, and that the dairj
average attendance was but 11,183. It follows that 20,708 childrei
have not been inside of a public schoolhouse, and that 29,347 have
in effect, received no instruction during the year.
If this state of things is "very good for California/3 and we dc
not take instant and effective means to remedy it, these 29,341
neglected children will grow up into 29,347 benighted men anc
women; a number nearly sufficient, at ordinary times, to contro
the vote of the State, and, in consequence, to shape its legislatioi
and its destiny !
Damning as the record is, it is yet lamentably true, that during
the last five years the State of California has paid $754,193.80 fo]
the support of criminals, and but $284,183.69 for the education o:
the young!
In other words, she has paid nearly three times as much for th<
I UNIVERSITY
OF
RW^X
AND SCHOOL REPORTS. 29
support of an average of four hundred criminals as for the training
and culture of thirty thousand children.
To make the point more forcible, the figures show that she has
expended $1,885 on every criminal, and $9 on every child!
He recommended that districts should be required to main
tain a school six months, instead of three, to entitle them to
apportionment; that the authority of examining teachers should
be transferred from Trustees to a County Board; that the maxi
mum county tax should be raised to twenty cents on a hundred
dollars; that County Treasurers should not be allowed a per
centage for disbursing State school moneys; that County Super
intendents, Marshals, and Trustees, should be paid Out of the
County General Fund ; and that Negroes, Mongolians, and In-
dians, should not be allowed to attend the schools for white
children, under penalty of the forfeiture of the public school
money by districts admitting such children into school.
He reported that he had prepared a volume of "Commenta
ries on the School Law," containing suggestions on school archi
tecture and extracts from the best authors on education. He
argued at length the policy of consolidating the proceeds of the
sales of the 16th and 36th sections into a State Fund.
This report closed by urging a Military Institute, and attached
to the tabular statements, which were better arranged than those
of any preceding report, were the reports of County Superin
tendents.
20. NINTH ANNUAL SCHOOL REPORT, 1859.
In this report Mr. Moulder renewed several of the recom
mendations of his previous report; recommended the establish
ment of a State Normal School ; the organization of State and
County Boards for examining teachers; the increase of the maxi
mum county school tax to twenty-five cents on a hundred dol
lars; an appropriation for paying the expenses of State Insti
tutes ; an appropriation for traveling expenses to enable the
State Superintendent to deliver lectures and visit schools
throughout the State; that the Township School Funds should
be consolidated into one common fund, which question he ar
gued conclusively, supporting his position by letters from Land
Commissioners at Washington, and from various State Super
intendents, and concluded by an elaborate argument in favor of
a Military Institute to be established at Monterey.
30 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
21. SCHOOL LEGISLATION, 1860.
Several important amendments were made to the school law
by the Legislature of 1860. The maximum rate of county school
tax was raised from ten cents to twenty-five cents on a hundred
dollars; the State Superintendent was authorized to hold a State
Teachers' Institute annually, and an appropriation of $3000 was
made for payment of expenses ; the State Superintendent was
authorized to appoint a State Board of Examination, with power
to grant State teachers' certificates, valid for two years, and the
School Funds of any one year were required to be used exclu
sively for that year ; County Superintendents were authorized
to appoint County Boards of Examination, consisting exclu
sively of teachers, with power to grant teachers' certificates,
valid for one year ; the State Board of Education was author
ized to adopt a State series of text-books, and to compel their
adoption, under penalty of forfeiting the public school moneys,
to go into effect in November, 1861; and an appropriation oi
$30,000 made for building a State Beform School at Marysville.
22. TENTH ANNUAL SCHOOL REPORT, 1860.
This report opened as follows:
It is apparent, from an inspection of these statistics, that the
amount contributed by the State to the cause of education is wretch
edly insufficient. It is a pittance almost beneath contempt. II
amounts to about one dollar and forty cents per annum for the
education of each schoolable child in the State.
With all the aid derived from local taxes, rate bills, and private
subscription, it pays only an average of sixty-six dollars and seventy-
two cents per month to each teacher in the State.
A first-class bootblack obtains almost as much.
I am almost disposed to believe that no teacher at all is bettei
than an ignorant or unlettered one; but how can we expect tc
secure the services of highly educated and accomplished teachers
for the pittance of sixty-six dollars and seventy-two cents pei
month ?
He further urged a State Normal School, and a direct State
appropriation for common schools; again argued in favor o:
consolidating Township Funds, and closed by stating that he
had already exhausted argument in favor of a Military Institute
AND SCHOOL REPORTS . 31
23. SCHOOL LEGISLATION, 1861.
Early in the session of 1861, Hon. John Conness introduced
a bill in the House, which was passed, providing for the sale
of the sixteenth and thirty-sixth sections of school lands, and
that the proceeds should be paid into the State School Fund.
Thus, after many years of impracticable legislation, in which
each successive Legislature tinkered on a township land bill, a
plain and practicable law was passed, under the provisions of
which, in less than a year, nearly 200,000 acres were sold, and
the proceeds applied to the State School Fund.
DIVISION OF THE SCHOOL MONEYS.
During this session Mr. Montgomery introduced a bill pro
viding —
That every school numbering thirty pupils, established by the
parents or guardians of such pupils, should have the right on ap
plication to be enrolled as a public school ; that the common school
branches should be taught five hours a day, with religious instruc
tions and catechism as an extra, at the will of the parents; that the
parents or guardians should elect the trustees of such school, with
full powers to control; and that the State Fund should be appor
tioned according to the number of children attending school.
This bill was accompanied by a petition extensively signed;
and, at one time, there was some danger of its passage. Hon.
John Conness defended secular public schools, and the follow
ing extracts from his speech are worthy of a place in school
history :
A quarter of a century ago I landed from the deck of an emigrant
ship, upon the shores of America. I was deposited there as a single
grain of sand upon the sea shore by a wave of the ocean. Soon
after my arrival I found my way to a free school, where I soon
learned that my anticipations and fears were not realized. I found
there, in lieu of intercourse with strangers, the greatest friendship
that I have ever yet experienced at the hands of mankind. I was
received into an institution established by the intelligence, the
wisdom, the patriotism, and at the expense of a great and free
people. I soon learned to appreciate the advantages that were
placed before me. During the short period of seven months, being
the interim between my arrival and my being placed, from the
necessities that surrounded me, as an apprentice to a mechanic's
trade, I enjoyed the opportunities for the acquirement of information
and knowledge that was furnished by that common free school.
Day by day, for I never missed a single da}', nor fractional part of
a day in my attendance, I experienced at the hands of the teachers
32 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
appointed over me by the people, the most marked consideration
and kindness. The very fact that I was a stranger seemed but to
invite the attention and even the caresses of the noble man who
stood at the head of that school. More than once — and I shall
remember it to the last hour of my existence — I was desired to
remain after the other children were dismissed from the school, to
be spoken to, to be encouraged, to be led onward in the paths of
education by my teacher. More than once he has placed his hand
kindly upon my head, and familiarly, because not in the presence
of other children, addressed me, saying, ' John, you must make
effort in this and in that particular direction — you are wanting in
these particular parts — if you will only bring yourself up in these,
you will occupy a foremost position in this school.' He marked my
attempts at progress, and to me as well as to others he always
reached out the encouraging hand of kindness, and spoke the word
that led to emulation and ambition in the acquirement of knowledge.
For me to have found an institution like that was a great acquisition
and a great wonder. I could scarcely understand it then, although
I believe I fully appreciated it, as I do to-day. Up to the period of
my advent into that school I had not been favored with great or
any considerable advantages in the way of education. I had never
attended other than the village schoolhouse, where the commonest
branches of education were taught, perhaps in the commonest way;
and for the two years preceding my arrival I had been deprived of
even these poor advantages by circumstances that I will not under
take to detail here. And to have found not only the means so
abundant placed before me, but agents so kind and at the same time
so able in administering the benefits and advantages of that institu
tion, sustained and supported at the public expense, commanded
then, as I repeat will always command, my profoundest admiration
and regard. To that school, and to the beneficent people who
established it, am I indebted, in great part, to say the least, for all
that I am, be it little or much, to-day. Hence, sir, when the ques- '
tion of public schools — of free schools — in which the children of all
may be educated without price, without distinction of class, of
wealth, or of politics or religious opinions, is involved, it is no
wonder that I should feel a deep interest in that question. Next to
the unity and the continued and happy prosperity of this glorious
country that we live in and are all common citizens of — next to its
continued and prosperous existence, I owe all allegiance, all love,
all admiration, and all effort, to the public schools of our country.
******
I am aware that those who advocate this measure profess that
they have no purpose in view but the perfection, completeness and
extension of educational conditions and advantages; but I would
recommend those persons to begin in another way. I object to the
manner in which they propose to begin to carry out such an end.
Some of them say that the schools of California, or those of a por
tion of the State, are dens of infamy, are pestiferous in their
character, are but sowing the seeds of immorality and death where
they exist. But, as a remedy for these great abuses, for this great
curse in our land, if it exists, do they propose to rene,w their efforts
AND SCHOOL EEPOETS. 33
to obtain the passage of such laws or enforce such restrictions as
will bring about a better condition of things ? I think not. What,
then, do they propose? If I understand them, and I think I do,
they propose to withdraw a portion of the children of the State from
what are now known as the common schools of the State. The
proposition or purpose in view is better stated to me outside of this
hall by citizens of distinction, who are interested in passing this act
which we are now discussing, than by the gentlemen who have
discussed it here. Their proposition to me is plainly stated — so
plainly that he who runs may read and understand it. They say1,
first, that the schools are now unfit for the reception of their children,
or the children of their people. They say they are common contrib
utors to the funds that are consumed in the support of the schools,
and that as the schools are unfit for their children, therefore they
have a right to withdraw their children from those schools. That?
part of the proposition I admit, but I deny that it follows as a|
necessity, in common honesty and fairness, that they should also be '
entitled to receive a pro rata proportion of the common school
moneys of the State, to be used under their direction for the support
of such schools as they may establish. They say that this right/
exists in nature. Who, they ask, is so well entitled to the care,
custody and training of a child as its natural parent ? They invoke
the social faculties of mankind to aid them in this argument, because
they draw a contrast between the system they propose and the one
that now exists, by showing you that on the one hand the govern
ment of the State claims the control and jurisdiction of the children
of the State, for the purpose of public education, while on the other
hand they assert that no such relation should be permitted or
authorized while the parent lives who gave existence to his offspring,
and whose greatest care is for his advancement and happiness.
We are here with common objects, and the only question that
is presented in connection with this bill now before us is plainly
this: Shall we continue, by and through the agency of the State
to support and carry out a system of public education in the State,
or shall we not? For one, I am in favor of the affirmative of this
proposition; I am in favor of renewing effort; of bringing up the
standard of education, and the moral condition of our schools,
until they shall not only be fit for the reception of the children of
our people, but shall also by their superior excellence attract to our
State parents and children from other lands. Adopt the proposi
tion that is made in this bill; let every private school that may be
established by the parents of children or by their religions teachers,
or for profit by teachers, have a pro rata share of the school money,
and what will be the result ? In a very short time the State of Cal
ifornia will be engaged in the interesting business of collecting
moneys from various sources for the purpose of education, and dis
bursing and distributing those moneys amongst private parties, to
be by them applied in such a way as they see fit for the purposes
of education. Inaugurate this system, drive home this wedge that
is now pointed at your common school system, and you will have
34 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
schools exclusively under the control and direction of sects and
parties, as well as by persons engaged as educators for profit.
* * * * * *
I have heard nothing to convince me that this bill should pass,
and that our system of education should be changed. I have heard
no argument within this chamber, because I do not recognize as
argument on that point all that is said about the condition of the
schools as they now exist. Our public school system in the United
States of America is one of the proudest evidences of the greatness
of our people, as it furnishes the basis and substratum of our insti
tutions. Let religionists, of whatever class or kind, teach their
doctrines and dogmas. They have their organizations for that
especial purpose, and they contribute their means, and judiciously
and carefully apply them to these ends. liris our business, by law
and constitutional sanction, to preserve each in its own particular
career, without interference from its neighboring organization. It
is that preservation and defense against assault upon any, by either,
that has marked our land and made it what it proudly is — the
asylum of freedom in the world. No greater means of its continu
ance, no surer or more certain mode for its preservation can be
found, I assert, than in the preservation of our common school
system. While we denominate our schools public and common
schools, let that not, as is the case now in the interior of our State,
be a misnomer any longer. Let them be free, and furnish the
means of education to the poor of the land. Your future members
of the legislature, congressmen, governors, and presidents, are to
be found among these classes, for nature has baptized the child of
poverty with the blessing of energy. All the history of our country
and of every free country conclusively proves this proposition, for
the great men of every free land have sprung from the common
people. Education is particularly for them; it is due to them from/
our hands and the hands of the great body of the people. I would
gladly vote for a law that would compel the attendance of all
children of a certain age at some school, for a certain length of
time each year; but let us first furnish the means before we under
take to apply such a restriction. *
I have heard it intimated more than once that this question
was to be made a political question; that the position that men
would take here would be carefully written down and noted, and
that their political status hereafter would be determined by the
position they took. I have regretted this exceedingly; but if there
were any reason why I should speak at all upon this subject, so as
to be incapable of being misunderstood, the latter would furnish
the strongest one. Whenever any portion of the people of this
State, or my fellow-citizens, see fit to object to me, because of the
opinions I entertain, or the efforts I make in the line and direction
of duty, let them object, and let them act. I ask no favors.
Whenever any portion of the people cannot find in my acts some
thing to approve, let them condemn; it may be that I can do as
well without them as they can without me. I have no high ad
miration for that class popularly denominated politicians — those
whose opinions hang loosely about them; those changelings, who
AND SCHOOL REPORTS. 35
simply seek office that they may get bread. Our country has been
cursed; its lamentable throes to-day are the legitimate and logical
sequence of the action of these detestable creatures. My doctrine
and instincts alike demand that upon any and all occasions I
should speak out, and let what I say be tried upon its merits. I
have no fear though, that this question will be made a political one.
I do not think that there are within the, limits of this State a suffi
cient number of men vain and foolish enough -to undertake to erect
as a standard of political action any form of ^supposed religious
opinions. I do not believe there are any considerable number of
men who will make it a condition of their suffrages hereafter, that
the vote to be cast here shall be cast in a particular direction. I
trust in God, sir, that we will be spared such a condition of things.
But if it should come, and there must be a war of opinions, all I
have to say is, that I am prepared to bear my part in it. I would
not, to-day, for the concentration of all the offices in the country
into one, and my enjoyment of that one, sacrifice the opinions that
I have, or the action that my conscience demands of me in connec
tion with this subject.
24. ELEVENTH ANNUAL REPORT, 1861.
In this report Mr. Moulder argued the necessity of more
money to make the schools effective; asked for an appropriation
of $5000 for a State Normal School, and published the report
of the Committee on Normal Schools, appointed by the State
Institute, of May, 1861; reported that the State Institute had
been largely attended; that the transfer of the power of exam
ining teachers from Trustees to State and County Boards of Ex
amination was driving the quacks out of the occupation; touched
upon the subject of schoolhouses; stated that the law author
izing the adoption of a State series of text-books had been sud
denly repealed near the close of the session of the Legislature
of 1861, and asked for the passage of another; asked the Legis
lature to make some provision for school libraries; stated that
within eight months after the passage of the act of April 22,
1861, 165,463 acres of township lands had been, or were about
to be sold; and closed by referring to his previous reports re
lating to a State Military Institute.
25. SCHOOL LEGISLATION, 1862.
The Legislature of this session passed an act establishing a
State Normal School in the city of San Francisco, and made an
appropriation for that purpose of $3000. The State Normal
36 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
School was subsequently opened during the same year, and
Mr. Aliira Holmes was appointed principal.
26. TWELFTH ANNUAL REPORT, 1862.
In his last report, Mr. Mooilder recommended a plan for
funding the indebtedness of the State to the School Fund ;
that Trustees be required to report the amount of interest,
if any, which they received from Township School Funds;
that power be conferred on Trustees to collect rate bills by law;
that the State Board of Education be empowered to adopt a
uniform series of text-books; stated that the State Normal
School had been successfully organized, and asked an appro
priation of $6000; alluded to a State Agricultural School under
the act of Congress granting lands to the same; and closed by
publishing his correspondence with State Controller Warren,
who had declined to pay the semi-annual interest on the State
indebtedness to the School Fund.
27. SCHOOL LEGISLATION, 1863.
During this session of the Legislature, the Senate Committee
on Education referred the subject of revising and codifying the
school laws to the Superintendent of Public Instruction, John
Swett.
-^ Public opinion was not yet sufficiently awakened to secure any
very liberal taxation for support of schools, but some good pro
visions were incorporated into the law.
The following are some of the leading provisions :
1. A provision requiring the Superintendent, at the expense
of the State, to furnish a State school register to each school.
2. Requiring the State Superintendent to visit schools, to
attend County Institutes, and to address public assemblies on
subjects relating to public schools, and providing for the pay
ment of actual traveling expenses, not to exceed $1000.
3. Provision for the annual appropriation of $150 out of the
County General Fund for the County Teachers' Institute.
4. Making the term of office of School Trustees three years,
instead of one, and providing for the election of one Trustee
annually.
5. Providing a stringent law for the assessment and collec-
AND SCHOOL EEPOETS. 37
tion of district taxes for building purposes, or for the support
of free schools.
6. Providing for the assessment and collection of rate bills.
7. Authorizing the State Board of Examination to issue State
educational diplomas, valid for six years; State certificates of
the first grade, valid for four years ; and second and third grade
certificates, valid for two years.
An act, framed and introduced by Hon. E. F. Dunne, was
passed requiring all teachers, under penalty of being illegally
employed, and of forfeiting their salaries, to take an oath of
allegiance.
SCHOOL FUND.
An act, prepared by Governor Low and Hon. D. E. Ashley,
was passed providing for the gradual funding of the indebted
ness of the State to the School Fund, which amounted at that
time to $475,520.
Under authority of an act, approved May 3, 1852, providing
for the disposal of the 500,000 acres granted to this State by
act of Congress for the purpose of internal improvements, and
reserved by the State Constitution for school purposes, it was
made the duty of the State Treasurer to convert the proceeds
"into bonds of the civil funded debt of the State, .bearing seven
per cent, interest per annum, and to keep such bonds as a special
deposit in his custody, marked * School Fund,' to the credit of
said School Fund."
This provision was never complied with, for payments were
made in depreciated scrip, or Controller's warrants ; the scrip
paid in was canceled, and to this extent the School Fund was
used by the State to defray the ordinary expenses of govern
ment. The State, therefore, owed to the School Fund the sum
of $475,520, derived from the sale of 237,760 acres of land, sold
prior to April 23, 1858.
The State had always recognized this debt by appropriating
annually for school purposes a sum equal to the interest at seven
per cent, per annum upon the amount of this indebtedness.
But the school department was placed completely at the mercy
of the annual general appropriation bill, and if no appropriation
was made, as was the case in 1861 and 1862, there was no redress.
This act, approved April 14, 1863, provided for the gradual
funding of this unfunded debt to the School Fund, by requiring
that whenever State bonds were redeemed, such bonds to such
'
38
SCHOOL LEGISLATION
amount as should thus be redeemed with the sum of $475,520
should not be canceled, but should be kept as a special deposit
in the custody of the Treasurer, marked "School Fund," in the
same manner and for the same purposes as are the bonds di
rectly purchased for said School Fund.
This was an important measure. Under its provisions the
entire indebtedness of the State to the School Fund has been
converted into State bonds at seven per cent.
28. THIRTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT, 1863.
The constitutional amendments adopted in 1862, provided
for the election of the Superintendent of Public Instruction
at the Special Judicial Election, instead of at the general elec
tion, and for a term of four years. Superintendent Swett's
first term of office — three years — was thus cut short to a term
of eleven months. He was renominated and re-elected in Octo
ber, 1863.
The following are some of the main topics treated of in Mr.
Swett's first report.
Receipts and Expenditures;
Schools;
School Children;
Attendance;
Terifners' Wages;
Change of Teachers;
County Institutes;
Errors in Reports of County Superin
tendents;
Reports of Teachers and Trustees;
District School Trustees;
Proceedings of State Teachers' Insti
tute;
Convention of County Superintendents;
State Board of Examination;
State Certificates and Diplomas;
State Educational Society;
County Teachers' Certificates;
Reports and Blanks;
School Registers;
Order Books;
State Normal School;
The California Teacher;
District School Libraries;
Schoolhouses and School Architecture;
State Agricultural School;
University Fund;
Condition of the School Fund;
Department of Public Instruction;
State School Tax;
The Schools and the State;
Public Schools and Patriotism;
Military Drill in School.
The following is an extract from the argument in favor of a
State School Tax :
The most important measure which demands the attention of
legislators, is that of a State school tax for the better maintenance
of public schools. I believe the time has arrived in the history of
our State when the absolute necessity of such action can be fully
demonstrated, and when the efficiency of the schools cannot be
greatly increased without it. Whenever the question of increased
taxation is agitated, it is due to taxpayers and property-holders
that good and sufficient reasons should be explicitly set forth, and
AND SCHOOL REPORTS. 39
that it should be clearly shown that the public good requires it.
The condition of the public schools, as exhibited by the statistical
returns, will be to many minds conclusive evidence of the necessity
of a State school tax ; but the importance of the question demands
that argument should be added to the weight of facts and figures.
Our American system of free schools is based upon two funda
mental principles or axioms:
First. That it is the duty of a republicans or representative gov
ernment, as an act of self-preservation, to provide for the education
of every child.
Second. That the property of the State should be taxed to pay
for that education.
Simple propositions they seem; yet they have been recognized
and acted upon in no other country but our own. Other nations,
it is true, have their national systems of instruction partially sup
ported by Government, and under Government control; but no na
tion in the history of the world has ever organized a system of
schools like ours, controlled directly by the people, supported by
taxation; free to all, without distinction of rank, wealth, or class;
and training all children alike, whether foreign or native-born, to
an intelligent comprehension of the duties, rights, privileges, and
honors of American citizens.
In the minds of the hard-fisted, iron-willed settlers of Massa
chusetts Bay, where, under the wintry sky of suffering, want, and
war, the germs of our American school system struggled into exist
ence, common schools and taxation were as inseparably connected
as were taxation and representation.
A few extracts from the old colonial laws will show how early
our free school system sprang into existence. A section of the
Massachusetts Colony laws of 1642 reads as follows:
"Forasmuch as the good education of children is of singular
behoof and benefit to any commonwealth ; and whereas, many pa
rents and masters are too indulgent and negligent of their duty in
that kind; it is ordered that the Selectmen of every town shall have
a vigilant eye over their brethren and neighbors, to see, first: that
none of them shall suffer so much barbarism in any of their families
as not to teach, by themselves, or others, their children and apprentices
so much learning as may enable them perfectly to read the English
tongue, upon penalty of twenty ^hillings for each neglect therein."
In 1647 this law was followed by another, to the end, in the
words of the statute, " that learning may not be buried in the graves of
our fathers in the Church and the Commonwealth t" which required
every town of fifty families to provide a teacher to instruct all the
children of the town in reading and writing, and every town of a
hundred families to set up a grammar school, with a teacher com
petent to fit young men for the university ; the expense of these
schools to be borne by the town, or by the parents, as the town
should determine.
In 1692 the law provided that these schools should be supported
exclusively by lax levied on all the properly of the town.
In 1785, an ordinance respecting the disposition of the public
lands was introduced into the old Congress, referred to a committee,
40 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
and passed on the 20th of May, which provided that the sixteenth
section of every township should be reserved "for the maintenance
of public schools."
The celebrated ordinance of 1787, which confirmed the provisions
of the land ordinance of 1785, further declared, that "general moral
ity and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness
of mankind, schools, and the means of education, shall be forever
encouraged." *
As the results of this noble policy, more than fifty millions of
acres of the public lands have been set apart for the purposes of
education.
******
It is said — leave the question of taxation to the citizens of each
district ? The fact that only eighteen districts voted a tax last year
is good evidence that the districts will fail to do their duty. If it is
argued that the Boards of Supervisors of the different counties will
assess a county tax sufficient to maintain good schools, the statistical
exhibit of the condition of the schools proves the contrary. Only
four counties in the State assess the maximum rate allowed by law.
Shall we rely on the interest of the School Fund for the support
of our public schools? Our School Fund amounts to less than a
million of dollars, and it will not be largely increased for many
years to come. The annual apportionment from that source amounts
to only one dollar per child; is that sufficient to properly educate
the children?
Can it be said, in view of facts, that California is doing her full
duty in maintaining public schools ? She raises by taxation only
$4.42 per child, and the total amount raised from all sources, rate
bills included, is only $7. Massachusetts raised by tax, last year,
$6.44 per child; and as the cost of educating in California is at least
four times as great as in that State, to make as liberal a provision we
ought to raise $25 per child. The cost of educating a child in the
public schools for ten months in the year, in San Francisco, where
it is made economical in consequence of classification and the con
centration of large nutnbers, is $21 per year. Is an average of $7 per
child sufficient for the State at large? San Francisco derives from
all sources an average of $13.70 per child; and yet, with this liberal
provision, the public schools are crowded to their utmost capacity,
and one thousand children more would attend were room provided.
Is it wise for legislators to fold their arms in apathetic indiffer
ence, when twenty thousand children of school age, or twenty-five
and one half per cent., are reported as "not attending any school?"
Is this recognizing the principle "that it is the bounden duty of
Government to provide for the instruction of all youth?" When
the average length of time school is continued is only six months in
the year, is it probable that the children will be more than half
educated? "When the percentage of daily attendance on the public
schools is only twenty-five per cent, of the whole number of children
in the State of school age, and the percentage of attendance on the
whole number enrolled is only fifty five per cent , can the State be
said to educate her children ?
When California has only 219 free schools out of 754 public
AND SCHOOL EEPORTS. 41
schools, can she boast of her liberality in the presence of the other
loyal States, whose schools are all free schools?
If one State in the Union needs a system of free schools more
than any other, that State is California. Her population is drawn
from all nations. The next generation will be a composite one,
made up of the heterogeneous atoms of all nationalities. Nothing-
can Americanize these chaotic elements and breathe into them the
spirit of our institutions but the public schools.
STATE TAX.
As the first step towards the organization of a system of free
schools, and the better maintenance of the public schools, a special
State school tax of half a mill on the dollar ought to be levied on
the assessable property of the State. This would yield a revenue of
at least $75,000, or about one dollar per child — and two dollars per
child on the number enrolled in the public schools. True, this
would not make the schools free, neither would it continue them ten
months in the year; but it would give a fresh stimulus to county
and district taxation, and, in four years, would, I believe, give the
State a system of schools virtually free.
The public opinion of the State is in advance of legislation.
After traveling extensively through the State, addressing public
tissemblies, with every facility for careful observation, it is my opinion
ihat the people would indorse this measure, were it submitted to a
popular vote, by an overwhelming majority.
The fallowing petition, prepared by the State Superintendent,
has been extensively circulated in the various school districts
throughout the State: VAjJ&^^MJrt
xiv***
" PETITION FOR STATE SCHOOL TAX.
' ' To the Honorable the Members of the
Legislature of the State of California :
f< WHEREAS, "We believe that it is the duty of a representative gov
ernment to maintain public schools as an act of self-preservation,
and that the property of the State should be taxed to educate the
children of the State; I and whereas, the present School Fund is
wholly inadequate to sustain a system of FREE SCHOOLS; we, the un
dersigned, qualified electors of the State of California, respectfully
ask your honorable body to levy a SPECIAL STATE TAX of half a mill on
the dollar, during the fiscal years eighteen hundred and sixty -four
and eighteen hundred and sixty-five, the proceeds of the same to be
disbursed in the same manner as the present State School Fund."
All these petitions have not yet been returned to the Depart
ment of Public Instruction, and it is impossible to estimate the
number of signatures obtained.
In the districts where they have been circulated, teachers and
school officers report that it was a rare exception to find a man de
clining to sign them, and that the only objection raised was that the
petition did not ask for a higher tax.
The names attached to this petition will be entitled to the seri-
3
42 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
ous consideration of legislators. They will represent the substan
tial citizens of the State; men of families, men of property, men
who, in attaching their names, consider it equivalent to voting the
tax and paying it.
A State tax of half a mill on the dollar was levied last year and
is to be levied annually for carrying on the work of building the
State Capitol; shall the work of building schoolhouses cease? By
the time the Capitol is finished, it will have cost as much as all the
schoolhouses in the State built up to that time. Is it not quite as
essential that houses should be erected for educating a hundred
thousand electors as that a costly pile should be built for the accom
modation of a hundred and fifty legislators ?
Are we taxed more heavily than the States which have borne the
burden of the war ? Are we so tax-ridden and so poor that we can
not raise one-fourth as much for educating our children as Illinois
or Michigan or Massachusetts ? California stands to-day the most
peaceful and the most prosperous State in the Union. When the
people of other States, staggering under taxation, their sources of
prosperity dried up, their able-bodied laborers more than decimated
by the calls of the army — when they declare that not a dollar less
shall be raised for schools, that not a schoolhouse shall be closed —
shall California, of all the States, alone shrink back from the duty
of educating her children ? Shall all our inexhaustible resources of
mineral wealth be expended on " feet/' and the brains of the chil
dren be left undeveloped? Shall millions be expended in con
structing a Pacific Railroad, and the State fail to lay the solid founda
tions of character and intelligence on which rest the permanent
prosperity of the generation which will reap the benefits of that
great highway of the world? Shall we make every sacrifice of men
and money to maintain the Union, for a generation unfitted, through
want of education, to appreciate either our sacrifices or the value of
the inheritance we leave them?
The real wealth of the State lies not in mines of silver, or gold,
or copper; not in productive fields and fertile valleys, but in her edu
cated men and intelligent free laborers. Educated mind has made
the world rich by its creative power. The intelligent minds which
have invented the hundreds of labor-saving machines in every de
partment of industry, have created a wealth greater than the total
product of the mines of Mexico, California and Australia combined.
All these inventions were once dim ideas in the busy brains of edu
cated men; ignorance found out none of them.
How many dollars is the electric telegraph worth ? How many
cattle and horses and copper mines the invention of sewing ma
chines ? What influence is so mighty in developing this creative
power of society as the intelligence imparted in the public schools ?
Go to the Patent Office, and find out how many inventions come
from the land of common schools, and how many from the States
that have failed to establish them.
The machinery brought into use since eighteen hundred and
sixteen is estimated to be equal to the labor of five hundred millions
of men.
Ignorance never invented a machine to save the labor of a single
man.
AND SCHOOL REPORTS. 43
The life of the nation lies not in a few great men, not in a few
brilliant minds, but is made up of the men who drive the plow,
who build the ships, who run the mills, and fill the machine-shops,
who build the locomotives and steam engines, who construct the
railroads, who delve in the mines, who cast the cannon, who man
the ironclads and gunboats, who shoulder the musket, and who do
the fighting; these constitute the life and strength of the nation;
and it is with all these men that the public schools have done and
are now doing their beneficent work. The nation will not be saved
by any one " great man;" the bone and muscle of intelligent labor
ing men must work out its salvation. Blundering statesmen may
mar the fortunes of the war; general after general may show up
his own incompetence; the concentrated and consolidated intelli
gence of the workingmen and fighting men will, in the end, prove
victorious. When the bayonet has done its work, the ballot-box
must protect the freedom won on the battle-field. When every
ballot represents an idea, and falls electrified with intelligence to
"execute a freeman's will," the States will revolve harmoniously
around the central sun of a consolidated Union; no star will shoot
off in eccentric orbit into the chaos of disunion, or the cometary
darkness and desolation of secession.
29. SCHOOL LEGISLATION, 1864.
The supplementary and amendatory bill prepared by the
Superintendent of Public Insu^lRana introduced by the1
Committee on Education in the Assembly, Mr. J. J. Owen,
Chairman, contained the following provisions :
1. Levying an anniial State school tax of five cents on each
$100 of taxable property in the State, to be apportioned in the
same manner as the interest of the State School Fund.
2. Requiring each county to levy a minimum county school
tax equal to two dollars for each child between 4 and 18 years
of age.
8. Raising the maximum rate of county tax allowed by law
from twenty-five cents to thirty cents on each $100.
4. Making it the imperative duty of Public School Trustees
to levy a direct property tax sufficient to maintain a public
school five months in each year, whenever the State and county
school money shall be insufficient for that purpose.
5. Authorizing County Superintendents to subscribe for a
sufficient number of copies of some State educational journal
to furnish each Board of School Trustees in the State with one
copy, at an expense not exceeding one dollar a year.
6. Allowing County Superintendents a sum for postage and
expressage equal to two dollars for each school district.
44 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
7. Kequiring history of the United States, and physiology
and hygiene, to be studied in all the schools above the grade/
of primary.
This bill passed the Assembly without opposition, bat in the
Senate a determined fight was made to defeat it. The follow
ing is the Senate vote on this bill, which was one of the great
est advances ever made in school legislation in the State :
AYES — Benton, Burnell, Crane, Cunningham, Foulke, Hall,
Haswell, Kutz, Maddox, McMurtry, Moyle, Porter, Roberts,
Shepard, Tuttle, and Wright-— 18.
NOES — Buckley, Dodge, Evans, Freeman, Gaskill, Hamilton,
Hawes, Montgomery, Pearce, Bedington, Rush, and Shafter
-12.
30. FIRST BIENNIAL REPORT, 1864-65.
The change of the sessions of the Legislature from annual to
biennial required biennial school reports instead of annual.
The First Biennial Report was the most elaborate of Mr.
Swett's reports. It opened as follows :
At the opening of this report,/! take pleasure in stating that the
criticisms of 1863 no longer applyTb our school system, and that the
hope expressed in 1864 has been more than realized.
Notwithstanding the school year closed before the bountiful
harvests of the autumn were gathered, and while the State was still
suffering from its previous financial prostration, the statistical re
turns exhibit an educational progress of which all Californians may
well be proud.
While the increase of taxable property in the State from 1863
to 1864 was only three and seven-tenths per cent., the increase of
school money raised by taxation alone, of 1865 over 1864, on the
assessment-roll of 1864, was ninety-one and seven-tenths per cent.
The average length of schools has been increased, since 1863,
nearly one month. While the number of teachers has increased
.only fifteen per cent, during the last year, the amount paid for
teachers' salaries has increased sixty per cent.
The amount of school revenue from all sources has been in
creased, since 1863, $2.58 per census child.
The amount expended for schoolhouses shows an increase over
1863 of $164,000.
While the number of children between 4 and 18 years of age
has increased 26 per cent, since 1863, the average number belong
ing to public schools has increased in the same time 46 per cent.
During the last year the increase of census children was 9J per
cent., and of public school attendance 16 per cent.
The number of free schools has been increased seventy-eight in
two years, and more than half the public school children are now
AND SCHOOL REPORTS.
45
relieved from rate bills, while the remainder pay an average tuition }
fee of twenty-five cents a month.
A careful examination of the full statistical tables submitted in
this report, will show a great advance in all that relates to the ma
terial progress of the schools.
But there is a vital and intangible aspect which no statistics can
exhibit.
The stronger hold which the schools have taken on public opinA
ion; the greater skill, earnestness, and ability of teachers; the im
provement in methods of instruction and classification; the greater
interest and enthusiasm of pupils, consequent upon the introduction
of better books; the greater interest of parents; the civilizing agency
of well-conducted schools in all the little communities of the State—
these cannot be expressed in figures nor conveyed in words.
California has taken her place in the front rank with those States t
whose material prosperity has been the result of public schools; and
it is the duty of every legislator and every statesman to strengthen
and perfect a system of schools which shall educate a race of men
,and women for the next generation that shall inherit, with the
boundless resources of the Golden State, something of the energy,
enterprise, talent, character and intelligence which have settled and
civilized it.
The following are some of the main topics treated of in this
report:
"What our Public Schools have Cost.
School Property.
Comparative Cost of Public and Private
Schools.
Comparison with other States.
Cities and Rural Districts.
School Children.
Length of Schools.
Teachers' Wages.
Amendments to the School Law.
Course of Study.
Boards of Examination.
School Libraries.
Teachers and Trustees.
National Bureau of Education.
State Agricultural College.
County School Tax.
County Institutes.
School Visits.
State Institutes.
Methods of Teaching^
Course of Study for Ungraded Schools.
Common Sense in Teaching.
Physical Training.
Moral Training. _ — -
The Bible in the Schools.
School Discipline.
Corporal Punishment.
State Normal School.
Public Schools and Taxation.
This report closed as follows :
I am reluctant to close this long and complicated report of details
and statistics, necessary to be made, and yet from their character,
tiresome to most except school officers and teachers, without a final
appeal to the legislators who will be called upon to act on its sug
gestions and recommendations.
Previous to the lessons taught us by the great war just closed —
in suffering, and doubt, and blood, and tears — the great fundamental
truths of our school system had grown to be glittering generalities
for gracing- political speeches or governors' messages. These truths
are now felt as a solid reality by the States on the other side of the
continent; and under all the burdens of their debts, incurred in
46 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
saving the nation, they are striving to make their public schools
more effective by more liberal provisions for their support. I am
painfully conscious that our schools, while accomplishing something,
fall far short of the great work which is pressing upon them. They
need both judicious legislation for their government and liberal tax- "
ation for their support. It is a matter of deep regret to all thinking
men, that some of our citizens who represent the greatest wealth of
the community are engaged in a crusade against taxation for the
support of schools, and are waging their warfare under the hue and
cry of extravagance, for the purpose of exciting the prejudices of
the people.
LIBERALITY IS ECONOMY.
Liberality in educating the people is the true economy of States.
What would be extravagance in one individual, whose life is limited
to a few years, is economy in the life of a State or nation; what
would be economy in a single man, is meanness in a State. This
generation is not living for itself alone, but for future generations
and for the future greatness of the nation. We have those among
us who, to save from each dollar they call their own, a tax of one .
one-hundredth of one per cent., would make serfs of the next gen
eration by leaving the children to grow up in ignorance; who think
intelligence, cultivation, refinement, honor, integrity, morality,
religion and patriotism among common people — the working classes
— are myths; that the only thing tangible is real estate, and the
great object of life is to escape taxation. Public schools are
synonymous with taxation; they represent taxation, and the sooner
the "common people" understand this democratic-republican doc
trine the better for the State, the better for property, the better for
mankind, the better for the nation. There is altogether too much
of this whining about taxation for the support of schools. Where
would the nation have been to-day but for public schools ? "Who •
fought our battles in the last war, but the men who were drilled
into patriots in public schools supported by taxation ? Last 37ear
the nation paid $22,000,000 for the support of schools; what true
statesman wishes it had been less? The public schools are the
educators of the working men and women of the nation, and they
are the producers of all the wealth which is protected by law. The
schools mold the characters of the men whose will, expressed
through the ballot-box, makes and unmakes constitutions, and '"'
breathes life into all laws.
I appeal to legislators, when the school bill comes before them,
to bear in mind that in providing for schools, a liberal expenditure
is, in the end, the truest economy; and when the cry of taxation is
urged against any reasonable and necessary appropriations, to
remember this great truth, so well expressed by Horace Mann: " In
our country and in our times no man is worthy the honored name
of statesman who does not include the highest practicable education
of the people in all his plans of administration. He may have
eloquence, he may have a knowledge of all history, diplomacy,
jurisprudence — and by these he might claim in . other countries the
elevated rank of statesman; but, unless he speaks, plans and labors,
AND SCHOOL REPORTS. 47, .
at all times and in all places, for the culture and edification of the
whole people, he is not, he cannot be, an American statesman.
31. SECOND BIENNIAL REPORT, 1866-67.
/This report opens with the following statement of progress: /
The school year ending June 30, 1867, marks the transition
"/period of California from rate-bill common schools to an American
/free school system.
V For the first time in the history of the State, every public school
was made entirely free for every child to enter.
In the smaller districts, having less than 100 children and less /
than $200,000 taxable property, free schools were maintained three
months; in the larger districts, having more than 100 children and
$200,000 taxable property, free schools were kept open Jive months S
More than 21,000 pupils attended freg schools during the entire
school year of ten months.
FREE SCHOOLS AT LAST.
I am glad that in this, my last official report, I can say that
a system of free schools, supported by taxation, is an accomplished
fact.
When I assumed the duties of this office, five years ago,J[ saw
J clearly that it was useless to expect to improve the character of the
Legislature
the School Law, and a State school tax of five cents on the hundred
dollars, which gave an additional revenue to the State Fund of
$75,000 a year. A bill was also passed providing for the gradual
funding of the indebtedness of the State to the School Depart
ment, then amounting to $600,000. At the next session, in 1864,
an additional school revenue was secured by providing that the
minimum county school tax should be equal to $2 per census child.
This little clause gave an additional county school revenue of
$75,000.
In 1866, by the passage of the " Eevised School Law," the State ,
school tax was raised to eight cents on the hundred dollars, and ;
the minimum county tax was raised equal to $3 per census child,
both provisions together increasing the school revenue by at least
$125,000 a year. I need not say that to secure an additional school
revenue of $300,000 per annum, in the face of the high county,
State, and National taxation, during a period of civil war, was no
holiday task.
During each successive session of the Legislature I became a
persistent member of the "Third House," arguing, soliciting, meet
ing committees, and patiently waiting, with a determination to
secure for every child in California a right guaranteed by law to an v
education in a system of free schools based upon the proposition
that the property of the State ought to be taxed to educate the /
children of the State. ( /
V
SCHOOL LEGISLATION
I saw clearly at the outset that even after the revenue was pro
vided, the schools would be to some extent a failure, unless pro
tected from incompetent teachers by a thorough system of State
examinations and certificates, for the schools cannot rise higher
than the teachers.
PROFESSIONAL TEACHERS.
The second leading object of my administration has been to se
cure a corps of professional teacLc-±t>, and to elevate the occupation
of teaching. How far this has been accomplished, the list of pro
fessional teachers, and the graduates of the Normal School, foundx
in this report, will show.
One third of the teachers in the State hold State diplomas and
certificates, and one twelfth of the teachers are graduates of the
California State Normal School.
A State Board of Education, of Examination, of Normal School
Trustees; a uniform series of text-books, a course of study, rules
and regulations, an educational journal — all constitute a system of
education, in place of the irregular and unsysteinatized half public
and half rate-bill schools of five years ago.
•v.
THE REVISED SCHOOL LAW.
Early in the session of 1865-66, the State Superintendent sub
mitted a series of amendments to the Senate Committee on Edu
cation.
The amendments were so extensive that the committee referral
the entire law to the Superintendent for revision. The law, ,• ?
drafted Uv- ? v. . , was submitted to the committee and adopted, with
a few slight changes.
The more important improvements effected in the School Law by
the first revision in 1863, and the second revision in 1865, may be
/briefly summed up as follows:
.
1. Organizing a State Board of Education of nine members.
2. Organizing a Board of State Normal School Trustees of eight
.members.
3. Authorizing the State Board of Education to adopt rules and
regulations and a course of study for public schools.
„ 4. Authorizing the State Board to adopt a uniform State series of
text-books.
5. Providing each school with a State School Eegister.
6. Providing for the binding and preservation of school docu
ments in the State and county departments of instruction.
7. Providing that the Legislature shall furnish the State Superin
tendent with at least two thousand copies of each biennial report
for distribution among school officers and libraries.
8. Requiring the State Superintendent of Public Instruction to
visit schools and lecture at least three months each year, and pro
viding for the payment of actual traveling expenses.
9. Establishing County Teachers' Institutes, and providing for the
payment of necessary expenses out of the County School Fund.
10. Funding the debt of the State to the School Fund.
AND SCHOOL REPORTS. 49
11. Enlarging the powers and duties of County Superintendents, f
in details too numerous to mention.
12. Payment of County Boards of Examination.
'13. Postage and Expressage Fund for County Superintendents.
— 14. Increasing the salaries of County Superintendents.
15. Authorizing County Superintendents to equalize district
boundaries. ,
16. The election of Trustees for a term of three years instead of f
one.
17. Eequiring the District Clerk to furnish the schools with
pens, ink, stationery, and school incidentals, at the expense of the
district.
18. The establishment of graded schools.
19. Providing for the legal establishment of separate schools for
children other than white children.
20. Limiting the school time of children under eight years of age
to four hours a day, exclusive of intermissions.
21. Establishing a system of school libraries by the reservation
of ten per cent, of the State School Apportionment.
22. Authorizing a State subscription for an educational journal —
two copies for each school district, one for the District Clerk, and
one for the school library.
23. Life diplomas for teachers.
24. State educational diplomas, valid for six years; and first,
second and third grade State certificates.
25. Establishing City Boards of Examination.
26. Authorizing the State Board to issue State certificates on
county examinations with the State series of questions.
27. Authorizing the State Board to recognize the Normal School
diplomas of other States.
28. Requiring all Boards of Examination, whether State, city or
county, to be composed exclusively of professional teachers who
are holders of State diplomas, or first grade city or county cer
tificates.
29. A State tax of eight cents on each $100 of taxable property.
30. Requiring a minimum county school tax of $3 per census child,
and increasing the maximum tax to 35 cents on each $100.
31. Authorizing and requiring School Trustees to levy a district
school tax sufficient to keep a free school five months in a year.
32. Changing the school year to correspond with the State fiscal
year, July 1 to June 30. /
AVERAGE LENGTH OF SCHOOLS.
^ The average length of time during which public schools are main
tained during the year is 7.2 months. Last year, for the first time
in the history of the State, all the schools were kept free to all
pupils for a period of from 3 to 5 months, according to the num
ber of children and the taxable property in the district.
It marks an epoch in the school history of the State. Had rate;
bills been levied as before, during the entire year, the average
length of the term of tuition in the schools would doubtless have :
been increased. I
50 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
The death-blow to rate, bills has been given, and they will soon
be among the things of the past.
Last year 21,200 pupils attended schools which were kept open
and entirely free for 9 and 10 months in the year.
10,000 more attended schools which were entirely free, but were
kept open less than 9 months.
The number of schools maintained from 3 to 6 months was 387;
from 6 to 9 months, 281; and from 9 to 10 months, including San
Francisco as 208 schools of 60 children each, 422.
SALARIES OF TEACHEES. 'l
The average monthly salaries of males teachers is $77; of female
teachers, $64.
As the average length of schools is 7.2 months, the average an
nual salary of male teachers is $554; of female teachers, $460.
Even if teachers were employed for the whole school year of 10
months, which is the case only in the city schools, the average an
nual salary of a male teacher would be only $770 a year, from which
deduct $300 for twelve months' board at $25 per month, and there
would remain only $470 as the net proceeds of a year's work. De
duct from this $100 for clothing, and the salary stands at $370.
Trustees in some parts of the State who complain that the salaries
of teachers are too high, and that school expenditures are extrava
gant, will do well to consider these figures.
The admission of teachers into the occupation is virtually in the
hands of the teachers in this State now engaged in teaching. Ele
vate the standard of admission, and the occupation will soon become
a respectable business. It will soon be better paid than brute
labor. No occupation is more laborious; none wears out muscle and
brain faster. It is only in the vigor of early manhood that a man
can follow his profession. Shall he, then, be paid no more than
the mechanic, or the day-laborer who shovels sand on the streets?
The brain labor of the skillful teacher ought to be as well paid as
the brain labor of the lawyer, the physician, the clergyman, the
editor. He ought to dress as well and live as well. His profession
ought to cost him, and often does, as much time and money as
other professions. He ought to be paid a salary sufficient to enable
him to supply himself with a library, and the periodical literature
of the day. He should have a salary sufficient to enable him to live
respectably, dress neatly, and move in the intelligent circles of so
ciety like other educated men. He should be paid enough to sup
port a family. Teachers well paid can devote all their time and
energies to the schools. They are not greater philanthropists than"
their neighbors whose children they educate. None of them teach
from pure love of teaching. They do their duty, and expect their
pay for it; it is the way in which they earn their living./ They
ought not to be expected to break mental bread to the children of
others and feed their own with stones. Good teachers are not
to be estimated by their daily salary of five dollars. Persons
enough could be found in the State at half the present rates, but
the people would be the losers. It is the teachers who give char-'
acter and efficiency to the schools. The State may legislate, the
AND SCHOOL REPORTS. 51
people may vote taxes, and build schoolhouses, but the teachers
build schools, and mold character, and act on mind. High sala
ries will attract talent and skill, and hold them both in the schools.
Low wages will fill the schools with bunglers, and waste the public
money. If the people of California desire to lay well the founda
tions of the State for all future time, they must employ skilled
master-masons to hew the corner-stones.
SCHOOL LIBRARIES.
The school library system provided by the School Law of 1866
is in successful operation.
It was established in accordance with my recommendation in the
biennial report for 1865, as follows:
After studying the plans of other States, and considering the
subject in every possible relation, I have come to the conclusion
that the following plan is the most practicable one which can at
present be carried into effect in this State :
It should be made the duty of the County Superintendent in
each county to annually set apart ten per cent, of the State appor
tionment of school moneys to each district, provided ten per cent,
does not exceed fifty dollars, and to cause it to be held by the
County Treasurer, as a District School Library Fund; and it should
be the duty of Trustees to expend this fund for library books, pro
vided that when the amount is less than ten dollars the sum may
remain in the treasury until, together with subsequent apportion
ments, it shall amount to that sum.
It should be made the duty of the State Board of Education to
prepare an extended list of books suitable for school libraries, and
from the published list Trustees should make all their selections
for purchase. Such a provision would protect the libraries from
trash literature and useless books. The Trustees should be made
librarians, with power to make the teacher a deputy.
RELIGIOUS EXERCISES IN SCHOOL. '
The report treats at length on the vexed question of religious
exercises, and Bible-reading in school. A few items read as
follows :
The Constitution of California (Art. 1, Sec. 4) provides that " the
free exercise and enjoyment of religious profession and worship,
without discrimination or preference, shall forever be allowed in
this State."
Section 60 of the Revised School Law, reads as follows:
"No books, tracts, papers, catechisms, or other publications of a
sectarian or denominational character, shall be used or distributed
in any school, or shall be made a part of any school library; neither
shall any sectarian or denominational doctrine be taught therein;
and any school district, towii or city, the officers of which shall
knowingly allow any schools to be taught in violation of these pro
visions, shall forfeit all right to any State or county apportionment
of school moneys; and upon satisfactory evidence of such violation,
52 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
the State Superintendent and County Superintendent shall with
hold both State and county apportionment."
Section 70 reads as follows :
"It shall be the duty of teachers to endeavor to impress on the
minds of their pupils the principles of morality, truth, justice, and
patriotism; to teach them to avoid idleness, profanity, and false
hood; to instruct them in the principles of a free government, and
to train them up to a true comprehension of the rights, duties, and
dignity of American citizenship."
The School Law, then, is silent as to whether or not a public
school shall be opened by the reading of the Bible or by prayer. It
does not exclude the Bible; it does not make the use of it compul
sory; it does not forbid the teacher from opening school with prayer;,
it does not compel him to do it. It leaves the whole question to be
decided by Boards of Education, Trustees, teachers, and the people,
as their judgment may dictate.
The present is an age of the largest and broadest personal liberty
of religious opinion; the children of all classes are found in the com
mon schools; and school officers and teachers should manifest a ten
der regard for the religious scruples of both Jew and Gentile, Prot
estant and Catholic, and hold the schools free from any violation of
the great principles guaranteed by the National and State Constitu
tions, that every man be left free to worship God as he pleases, and
to teach his children his own religious faith.
The great purpose of the common school is intellectual culture,
as a foundation of moral and religious education; for without intel
ligence, religion degenerates into bigotry. It is left for the home,
the Sunday-school, and the church, to teach forms of religious faith
and worship. If each does its work without interference with the
other, the result will be harmonious. If the church attempts to
make the public school both a church school and a Sunday school,
the result will be disastrous.
CO-EDUCATION OF THE SEXES.
I believe that the presence of boys and girls in the same school,
far from being injurious to either sex, exerts a mutually beneficial
influence. My belief is based on many years' experience in public
school teaching, on an extended observation of schools, and on the
opinion of the most enlightened and progressive educators.
CONCLUSION.
Since 1863, our public schools have been quietly and peacefully
revolutionized. In the grand events of national history, in the
building of cities, the construction of roads, the settlement of land
titles, and the excitement of life incident to a new State, the prog
ress of schools is hardly noticed except by those who are most di
rectly interested in them. Then, we had little to be proud of in
our educational record; now, California will not suffer by compari
son with the most progressive educational States in the Union.
Then, the annual amount of money raised for public schools was
$480,000; now, it is $1,287,000, or nearly three times as much.
*
/ AND SCHOOL REPORTS. 53
TJien, there was no direct State tax for the support of schools;
now, the State tax is 8 cents on the $10^ giving an annual revenue
from this source alone of $120,000. ^
Then, the State apportionment was $130,000; now, it is $260,000.
Then, the amount raised by county and city school taxes was
$294,000; now, it is nearly $600,000.
Then, the amount raised by district taxes, voted by the people,
was $7000 ; last year the amount was $73,000, or more than ten
imes the amount raised in 1862.
Then, the maximum county school tax allowed by law was 25
cents, and the minimum required to be levied, nothing at all; now,
the maximum tax is 35 cents, and the minimum tax must be equal
to $3 per census child, which in many counties requires the maxi
mum rate of 35 cents.
Then, the amount raised by rate bills of tuition was $130,000 ;
now, it is only $79,000, showing a rapid approximation to a free
school system. Three-fourths of the pupils now attend free schools
during the year, and all are secured by law the right of a free school,
either for three months or five months, in proportion to the size of
district, v
Then, the total expenditure for schools amounted to a percentage
on the assessment-roll of the State, of 30 cents on each $100; now,
it amounts to 58^ cents on the $100.
In 1862 the amount expended per census child was $6.15; last
year it was $12.61.
In 1862 the amount expended for schoolhouses was $49,000; in
1865 it was $257,000.
v Then, the average length of the schools was less than six months
in the year; now, it is seven and four-tenths months — an average
length of schools which is exceeded only/ by Massachusetts and
Nevada, of all the States in the Union. ^
Since then, while the number of census children has increased
twenty-six per cent., the average number attending the public
schools has increased more than fifty per cent.
The stronger hold which the schools have taken on public opinion,
the greater skill, earnestness and enthusiasm of teachers, the con
sequent improvement in methods of instruction and classification,
the use of better text-books, the deeper personal interest of parents,
the neater and more commodious houses — all these together con
stitute an advancement which cannot be expressed by a contrast of
statistics.
Then, we had no system of professional examinations, no educa
tional society, no organization, and little professional pride; in fact,
a man generally apologized for being forced to resort to teaching
until he could find something else to do.
/ EXAMINATION OF TEACHERS.
v Then, the "old schoolmasters" of San Francisco were examined '
every year by doctors, lawyers, dentists, contractors and business
men, to " see if they were fit to teach the common school " they had
been teaching years in succession. There was no standard of
qualification, except the caprice of " accidental boards." Through-
54 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
out the State, examinations were oral, and in most cases resulted in
issuing to everybody who applied a certificate "to teach school one
year; " now, a new order of things prevails. Every Board of Exam
ination, whether State, city or county, must be composed of
professional teachers exclusively; all examinations must be in
writing, and in certain specified studies; and certificates are issued
for life, or for & length of time proportioned to the grade of certifi
cate issued, v
California is the only State in the Union in which teachers have
gained the legal right to be examined exclusively by the members
of their own profession, and we have just cause to be proud of the
fact. It has already done much to make the occupation of teach
ing respectable. It has relieved good teachers from useless annoy
ance and humiliation; it has increased their self-respect, stimulated
their ambition, and guarded the schools against quacks and pre
tenders.
Our School Law is the only one in the United States which has
i taken broad, professional ground, by providing that the diplomas
of State Normal Schools in other States shall entitle the holders to
legal recognition as teachers in this State.
Strange to say, this new system of professional examinations was
violently opposed four years ago, and by none so vehemently as by
some common school teachers.
The world moves. Is there a single teacher here who would
desire to have the old order of things re-established? But I never
doubted that, once established, it would remain a part of our
school system as long as schools were maintained.
It was my sanguine hope, for many years, that in this new State
teaching might aspire to the dignity of a profession; that teachers
might learn to combine their strength, respect themselves, com
mand the respect of others, and honor their occupation. I have
lived already to see the promise of the future. It has been and is
my highest ambition to elevate the profession of teaching; for I
well know that in no other way can the public schools be made the
great educators of the State and the nation. If the citizens of this
State desire to have good schools, they must pay professionally
trained teachers high salaries.
It is only by raising the standard of attainments that the occupa
tion can become well paid and well respected. Set the standard
high, and high wages will follow; set the standard high, and good
schools will be the result; set the standard high, and teachers will
be content to remain in the schools.
Let all teachers who act on County, City or State Boards of Ex
amination, discharge their duty faithfully, without reference to the
pressure of friends, or the complaints of unsuccessful applicants,
ever bearing in mind the duty they owe to the schools, the people,
and the profession of teaching.
Professionally trained teachers, well paid for their work, will
bring the schools up to their fullest measure of usefulness, and will
secure from the people the most liberal support.
AND SCHOOL REPORTS. 55
STATISTICS AND EEPORTS.
Four years ago there was not a teachers' library in the State,
except a few odd volumes in San Francisco.
Now all the large counties have begun a central library, and
some of them have quite extensive ones. ,
We have a course of study, established by law, by means of which
teachers are enabled to pursue an intelligent system of instruction,
in spite of the prejudices of those parents who are too ignorant to
comprehend the purpose of a school.
We have judicious rules and regulations, established by law, to
aid teachers in enforcing discipline and order. In no other State is
the authority of the teacher so well established and defined by law.
Every district school in the State is placed under a judicious system
of general rules and regulations.
¥ Four years ago school statistics were notoriously unreliable; the
records were kept without system, in old blank books or on scraps
of paper, and often were not kept at all; now, every school is
supplied with a State School Register, so simple in its style of book
keeping that the most careless teacher can hardly fail to' keep a re
liable record.
Then, Trustees wrote their orders to County Superintendents on
scraps of paper, without much regard to business forms, and often
without keeping any accounts; now, the neat order-books, in the
style of bank check books, furnished by the Department of In
struction, allow of no excuse for failing to keep a financial record
of money paid out. \s
In 1862, 150 copies of the report of the Superintendent were
allowed to the office of the State Superintendent for distribution;
now, 4,000 copies are published, and the law requires that a copy
shall be sent to each Board of Trustees, each school library, each
County Superintendent, and that 250 copies shall be bound for dis
tribution to the School Departments of other States.
SCHOOL LIBRARIES.
Then, there were no school libraries; now, a library is begun in
every school district, and a liberal provision is made for their en
largement by a reservation of ten per cent, of the State School
Fund annually.
The influence of a library in school is second only to that of the
teacher; and, in many instances, the information self-gleaned by
the pupils from books, is the most valuable part of their common
school education. Books will give them a taste for reading, make
them alive to knowledge, and start them on a plan of self-culture
through life. A teacher may fail in the discharge of his duty, but
the influence of good books is sure and lasting.
Then, most of the county schools were destitute of maps, charts,
and globes; now, -most of them are supplied.
Then, all school incidentals, such as pens, pencils, ink, and sta
tionery, were furnished by the pupils themselves, and as a conse
quence, half of the children were generally without these indis
pensable articles; now, they are furnished by the district to the
pupils, free of expense.
56 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
PROGRESS.
When we consider* the generally depressed condition of business
in the State during the past four years; the heavy losses during
the mining stock mania; the losses by flood and drought; the
gradual working out of placer mines, and the consequent deprecia
tion of property in many places; the falling off in the trade of many
mining towns; the unsettled condition of land titles in many of the
agricultural sections, and consequently the unsettled condition of
the people; the slow increase of population from immigration, and
at times its actual decrease in consequence of attractive mines in
« neighboring territories, and the slow increase of taxable property —
we have reason to be proud of the unexampled progress of our
common schools.
In the great work of settling and civilizing a new State — in the
building of cities, the construction of railroads, the cultivation of
farms, the development of quartz mines, the beginning of manu
factures, and all the varied branches of industry — the influence of
schools is lost sight of in the figures of material statistics; and it is
only when we consider that the 50,000 children now in the schools,
during the next twenty years will take their place in society as the
workers and producers, that we begin to realize the latent power of
the schools. They are silently weaving the network of mental and
moral influences which underlie civilization; and when the children
shall become the masters of the material wealth of the State, the
influence of the schools will begin to be evident.
We are apt to consider immediate results rather than their re
mote causes; and hence the power of the public schools is seldom
fully realized.
Light, heat, and electricity build up the material life of the
globe out of inorganic matter, yet so slowly and silently that we
hardly observe the workings of their subtle agencies. So the
schools act upon society, and organize its life out of the atoms of
undeveloped humanity attracted to the schoolrooms.
A few weeks since I visited one of the great quartz mills in the
interior of the State. I descended -the deep shaft, where stalwart
men were blasting and delving in solid rock. Above, the magnifi
cent mill, with fifty stamps, like some gigantic monster, was crush
ing and tearing the white quartz with its iron teeth; and I saw the
immediate result of all this work in the heavy bars of pure gold,
all ready to be stamped with their commercial value, and to enter
into the great channels of trade. Then I entered a public school
a few rods distant, where a hundred children were sitting, silently
learning their lessons. I realized the relation of the mill and mine
to the material prosperity of the State; but the school, what did it
yield?
I rode over the line of the Central Pacific Eailroad from the
springtime of Sacramento into the snowy winter of the Sierra, and
I saw the beginning of the great commercial aorta of a continent.
On its cuts, and embankments, and rails, and locomotives, more
money had already been expended than has been paid for schools
since the history of our State began. I could see the tangible re-
AND SCHOOL REPORTS. 57
suits of the labor expended upon the road; but where should I
look for the value received to balance the cost of the schools?
After thundering down on its iron rails from the mountain sum
mits, I stepped into the Sacramento High School, and I thought to
myself: What are these boys and girls doing, compared with the
men who are paving the great highway of a nation ?
I go out into the streets of this great city; I hear everywhere the
hum of industry; I see great blocks of buildings going up under
the hands of busy mechanics; I see the smoke of the machine-shops
and foundries, where skillful artisans are constructing the marvelous
productions of inventive genius; I see the clipper ships discharging
their cargoes; drays are thundering over the pavement; the banks
are open, and keen-sighted capitalists are on 'Change; and when I
go to visit some little schoolroom, where a quiet woman is teaching
reading and spelling to the little children, the school seems to be
something distinct from the busy life outside.
A short time ago I saw that ocean leviathan, the "Colorado,"
swing majestically out into the stream, amid the shouts of thou
sands of assembled spectators, and glide off through the Golden
Gate, to weave a network of commercial interests between the Occi
dent and the Orient; and when, a' few days after, I stood in the
Lincoln Schoolhouse, where a thousand boys were reciting their
lessons, I asked: What are they doing for the city in return for
$125,000 invested in the house, and $20,000 a year paid to the
teachers? The steamship comes back with its passengers and
freight, and makes its monthly returns of net profits; but when
will the school show its balance-sheet?
But when I pause to remember that the steam engine was once
but a dim idea in the brain of a boy; that intelligence is the motive
power of trade and commerce; that the great city, with banks and
warehouses, and princely residences, has been built up by intelli
gent labor; that in the construction and navigation of the ocean
steamer SK) many of the principles of art and science must be
applied — I see in the public school, with its busy brains, an engine
mightier than one of steam; and the narrow aisles of the school
room broaden into the wide and thronged streets of the great city.
I know that the school-boys will soon become workers; that one
will command the steamship, and one will become the engineer;
one will be a director of the Central Pacific Railroad, and one will
ride over it to take his seat in the Senate of the United States; one
will own the quartz mill; another will build the machinery, and
another still W7ill invent some improved method of working its ores;
one will be the merchant who shall direct the channels of trade;
one will be the president of the bank, and another sha^l frame laws
for the protection of all those varied interests — and the teacher,
whose occupation seemed so disconnected from the progress of
human affairs, becomes a worker on mind which shall hold the
mastery over material things.
CONCLUSION.
58 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
If, when my present term of office expires, I fall back into the
ranks as a private, I shall feel proud of my profession, for I hold
none more honorable, and to it I expect to devote my life.
I love the State of my adoption; I am proud of her educational
record. I hope to see California as distinguished for her common
schools, her colleges, her institutions of learning, as she has been
for the enterprise of her people and the mineral wealth of her
mountains.
I feel that her future prosperity is closely related to the education
of her people, for the solid wealth of any State consists in educated
and industrious men and women ; and if the common schools are kept
up to the full measure of their usefulness, her future glory will be
not so much in her mines, her scenery, or her climate, as in the
intelligence, integrity, morality, and patriotism of a people that
shall make wealth a servant of science, art, literature, and religion.
32. SCHOOL LEGISLATION, 1868-69.
The only change made in the School Law at this session was
a slight increase in the maximum rate of district tax voted by
the people. The law requiring teachers to take the oath of
allegiance was repealed. A local bill was passed, providing
that the City Superintendent of Common Schools in Sail Fran
cisco should be appointed by the Supervisors and Board of
Education, instead of being elected by the -people, to take
effect in two years. A bill was passed to provide for organizing
a State University.
33. THIRD BIENNIAL REPORT, 1868-69. • + ".
Superintendent Fitzgerald's first report opened as follows :
"When I entered upon the duties of State Superintendent two
years ago, the situation was peculiar. It was just after an exciting
political canvass. The wildest surmises and most absurd apprehen
sions were indulged in on the one hand, and the most extravagant
expectations entertained on the other..
My first official utterance reaching the general public was in my
address before the State Teachers' Institute, held in San Francisco,
June, 1868. In that address I declared that I had no partisan, sec
tional or sectarian ends to accomplish; that our public schools
were not to be considered as either Democratic or Republican,
Northern or Southern, Protestant or Catholic; that all parties were
taxed alike for their support, and therefore had equal rights and
should be treated with equal respect.
This report touched upon the topics of " Objects of Educa
tion," "School Trustees," "Examinations," " State Normal
AND SCHOOL REPORTS. 59
School," "State and County Institutes," " Attendance," "Fe
male Teachers," "Evening Schools," "Politics in the Public
Schools," "San Francisco Industrial School," "Uniformity of
"Text-Books," " The California Teacher" "The Institution of
the Deaf and Dumb and Blind,7' "The State University," and
"Cosmopolitan Schools."
It closes as follows :
This exhibit cannot fail to inspire every good citizen with pride,
gratification, and hope. It gives assurance that, while our State is
evidently about to enter upon a fresh career of material development
and prosperity, we have abundant reason to hope that it is destined
to a progress equally rapid in the development of the higher inter
ests of education. For what has been done, I take no credit to my
self. I only claim that I have earnestly tried to do my duty.
34. SCHOOL LEGISLATION, 1870.
The first legislation of this session was the repeal of the law
passed in 1868-9, in relation to the appointment of the City
Superintendent of Public Schools in San Francisco. The bill
continued the former Superintendent, James Denman, in office
for one year, and then made the Superintendent elective at the
next general election. The original purpose of this law thus re
pealed was to take the office "out of politics."
The "Revised School Law" was re-enacted under the title of
the "California School Law," but was not changed in any of its
main features.
The sections relating to rate-bills were stricken out, being no
longer needed ; the State Normal School was taken from the
hands of the State Board of Education and placed un,der the
control of a Board of Normal School Trustees, appointed by
the Governor; and a provision was made authorizing the County
Superintendents to fix the rate of county school tax, which was
carried into effect in only three or four counties, and was after
wards pronounced unconstitutional by the Supreme Court.
TEXT-BOOKS.
The original provision for uniformity extended only to country
districts,. all incorporated cities and towns having special Boards
of Education being independent. The law was amended so as to
compel San Francisco and other cities *to adopt the State series
of text-books.
60 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
In 1869 the State Board of Education had made a sweeping
change of all the school-books in previous use.
The State tax was increased to 10 cents on each hundred
dollars. f
70 ' //
35. FOURTH BIENNIAL REPORT, 1871-72.
The last report of Superintendent Fitzgerald opened as fol
lows:
During no period in the history of California has more steady
and substantial progress been made in popular education than the
two years since the last biennial exhibit was made by the Depart
ment of Public Instruction. This progress has been realized in
spite of an unusual and general depression in business, resulting
from various exceptional causes, and a consequent temporary check
upon immigration and material prosperity.
freat educational enterprises have been successfully inaugurated,
abuses have been corrected, important and necessary reforms have
been made, antagonisms have been reconciled, and a course of
policy initiated that, with the united and earnest efforts of the true
friends of popular education, will at a very early day culminate in
the attainment of what every good citizen of California must desire
— a public school system that will furnish the fullest advantages u
of an English education to every child in the State. •
The State is growing, and its educational development keeps pace
with, its growth in wealth and population. The increase in the
number of public school children is more than 20 per cent, in two
years. The increase in the value of school property is about
20 per cent, for the same period.
This large increase in the number of children attending the
public schools is evidence of their growing popularity. A just and
liberal administration of public school affairs has won the confidence
and elicited the support of all classes to a gratifying extent. This
can be claimed by me in behalf of my co-officials in the Department
of Public Instruction throughout the State, without any reservation.
The friends of education have worked together in perfect harmony,
and rapid progress has been the result.
The enormous amount added to the value of school property, let
it be noted, is the result of voluntary taxation, voted directly by the v
people themselves. This fact furnishes the most conclusive proof
of the deep interest felt by the citizens of California in the educa
tion of their children, and affords a guarantee that they will cor
dially sustain any judicious measures that may be presented for the
further improvement of our school system.
AN INCREASE OF STATE SCHOOL TAX.
While in our centres of wealth and population the children have
the advantage of a full §chool year's instruction, with the best
facilities for learning, truth compels the confession that for the
more remote and sparsely settled districts of the State our present
AND SCHOOL REPORTS. 61
system is shamefully inadequate, and is but a pretense for popular
education. Under the present system, many districts can maintain
schools only from three to six months of the year. No one need be
told that such fragmentary bits of instruction are only a little better •
than none at all. During these short school terms, the pupils of
such schools only get fairly started in their studies to be turned out
for the greater part of the year, forgetting what little they had
learned, and then coming back after this long and ruinous in
terval to commence again at the former starting-place, at the foot
of the hill of knowledge, under a new teacher — the old one having
sought a new place rather than attempt to live on the hope of
another three €>r six months' school next year. This is but a sham,
a waste of the public money, and a flagrant injustice toward a por-,>,
tion of the children of the State. There are very many of these
schools thus revolving year after year on the axis of a defective sys
tem, making some motion, but scarcely any real progress. In a
&tate system of public instruction should not all .the -children of
the State be treated alike? As a good mother, she should dispense
the blessings of education with an equal hand. The remedy for
this great evil and injustice is obvious: Let all the property of the £
State be taxed to educate all the children of the State. This is the
chief point that should now engage the attention of those intrusted
with the management of our public schools. The public mind is
prepared to welcome legislation for this purpose. The people are
ready to sustain any practical measure that will give them a thor- L
ough instead of a partial public school system. The principle in
volved is already recognized in our present school law. The ten
per cent, ad valorem State school tax is an unequivocal recognition
of the principle that the property of the whole State may be taxed
for the benefit of all parts of the State. All that is needed, there
fore, is the extension of the practical application of the principle.
If it be objected that the taxation of all the property of the State
for all the children of the State would be attended with inequality,
some localities paying more than their proportion of taxes into the
general school fund, the answer is, that according to the theory
already adopted, the State is the educational unit, therefore it must
act as a whole, and not partially, in disregard of the avowed theory
on which our system is based. As a complete organism, the good u-
of each part is the good of the whole State. There is a fallacy in
the assumption that the benefits of education are confined to the
particular individuals or localities directly affected by the expendi
ture of the proceeds of local taxation. The benefits resulting from
the diffusion of intelligence by means of education in the public
schools affect the entire body politic. The dollar contributed by
San Francisco judiciously expended in Plumas for education is no
less a benefit to the former than to the latter. It is equally evident
that the evils resulting from the prevalence of ignorance and vice ^
in any neglected locality cannot be merely local evils. The virus
will spread through the whole organism, arid the results will be
seen in the criminal courts, jails, hospitals, and insane asylums
everywhere. If the State has the right to tax all her citizens equally
to maintain State prisons, institutions for the insane, the deaf,
62 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
dumb, and blind, and orphans, where is the wrong in imposing a
tax for education for the whole State, that will lessen all those bur
dens resulting so largely and so directly from crime consequent
upon ignorance ?
There is another aspect of this question that deserves considera
tion. The disabilities of the present system fall upon the frontier
and thinly settled districts of the State. The result is that our
hardy pioneers, who lead the march of American civilization, extend
the area of freedom, subdue the wilderness, and incur the hard
ships and dangers of frontier life, are, as the reward of their enter
prise, energy, and courage, compelled to pay the penalty of seeing
their children grow up in ignorance. Such disability may in some
cases be inevitable and invincible, but there are in California but
few of these children of the border who are beyond the reach of
the beneficent hand of the State. Justice and sound policy require
that the poorest barefoot boy of the humblest citizen in the poorest
district of the most impoverished county should have as abundant
facilities for a common school education as the son of the richest
citizen of the most opulent city in the State. The fundamental
purpose of a public school system is to insure the education of al
the children of the State. The chief recommendation of such a
system is that it secures the advantages of education to those who
can be reached in no other way. If it fail in this it fails essentially
to accomplish its highest end. Our system, then, is at present a
partial failure. It is not the part of wisdom to ignore such a fact,
looking only on the bright side of the picture. It is not honest.
While singing the usual pseans of praise to our public school sys
tem, and rejoicing, as we legitimately may, in its benefits, such
facts as these remind us that we still fall far short of a perfect
system, and that much work, wisely planned and earnestly exe
cuted, remains to be done.
The following are some of the leading topics of this report :
State Text-Book System. $
Drawing.
State and County Boards of Examina
tion.
County Teachers' Institutes.
State Normal School.
School District Libraries.
University of California.
Against Compulsory Education
School Discipline — a New Departure.
•
The following is the closing section of this report:
During my term of office this department has been happily free
from sectional animosities. I have uniformly deprecated the intro
duction of sectional prejudices into our public school literature and
exercises, and I think I can safely appeal to my late official asso
ciates to prove that my action has been consistent with my pro
fession. (A Southern man by birth and education, I would not be
I willing to put into our schools any book that would tend to excite
/ or perpetuate hatred or contempt towards the Southern people.
I An American in feeling and principle, I would not be willing to put
/ into our schools any book that did not inculcate love for our whole
country. I would as zealously protect from insult or disparage-
AND SCHOOL REPORTS. 63
inent any other portion of our land as that in which I happened to
be born and reared. My official relation to the teachers of Cali
fornia gave me a better acquaintance with the men and women from
different parts of our Republic, and the consequence has been a
broadening of my ideas and an enlargement of the circle of my
sympathies and attachments. I will never forget these lessons nor
lose these sympathies:
Knowing the teachers and school officers of California as 1 do, I
lay aside the responsibilities and arduous labors of State Superin
tendent with a firm belief that the educational interests of the
State are safe in their hands. Leaving all the various departments
of our educational work in vigorous operation and healthful devel
opment, I trust the next four years will bring uninterrupted prog
ress and increased prosperity.
36. SCHOOL LEGISLATION, 1872.
At this session there was no school legislation worth men
tioning.
The Code Commissioners reported the Codified Statutes, in
cluding, of course, the School Law. The main features of the
Revised School Law of 1866 remained intact, subject only to
rearrangement and changes of phraseology.
Among the minor changes was a provision excepting incorpo
rated cities from the action of "State uniformity" of text-books.
An appropriation of $300,000 was made for erecting build
ings for the State University.
37. FIFTH BIENNIAL REPORT, 1872-73,
Superintendent Bolander's Report opens with an argument
in favor of compulsory education, from which the following
points are taken:
To the question, "What is this remedy?" only one answer xjan
be given, or at least only one answer has thus far been found. /Ad
mitted that education forms the only secure foundation and bulwark
of a republican form of government, if not of every form of govern
ment; admitted that the universality of education becomes thus of
vital importance to the State ; and admitted that the exigencies of
the case not only empower but compel the State to provide all the
facilities necessary to enable every child to acquire at least a com
mon school education, and we are forced to the conclusion that it is
not only the privilege, but the duty of the State, to compel every
parent to bestow upon his children at least the education which the
State places within his reach.
Education is one of the primary conditions necessary to the ver
64: SCHOOL LEGISLATION
existence of a civilized government. This proposition is so well
established and universally acknowledged as to have become trite,
and any further consideration of it, beyond its mere enunciation, is
unnecessary. The extension and intensity of education in a nation
Will determine the degree of the nation's civilization, and the degree
Vvrm which a nation's government is a government " for the people
PT and by the people." This latter office of education has received the
, fullest recognition in the United States, and every State has de-
* clared its conviction that "knowledge and learning generally dif-
2 fused through a community are essential to the preservation of a
|ree government."
The fundamental idea of government is "the protection of society
and its members, the security of property and person, the adminis-
I tration of justice therefor, and the united efforts of society to fur
nish the means to authority to carry out these objects." The first
' means thus furnished to authority are the powers of prescribing and
a enforcing "rules of action" or laws, and to punish any infraction
these laws; that is, to punish crime. But a still higher power
than the mere defining and punishing of crime has been delegated
; by society to authority, namely, the power to prevent crime by di-
Wminishing, and, if possible, removing altogether the causes of crime.
|Fear of punishment helps to repress crime, but only as far as .detec-
iion is quick and sure, and punishment swift and certain. The re
pressing or removing of the motives or temptations to commit crime
not only represses crime, but prevents crime by making its commis
sion impossible from its unreasonableness.
"Illiteracy is incipient crime," or, as Dr. Lyman Beecher ex
presses it, " Uneducated mind is educated vice." Experience has
given this proposition the force of an axiom in sociology. But
there is not only a necessary direct relation between illiteracy and
crime ; there is also a necessary direct relation between illiteracy
and pauperism ; and as there is no less a necessary direct relation
between pauperism and crime, we have crime once more as a result
ant — crime as a direct result of illiteracy; crime as an indirect result
through the medium of pauperism, but no other ultimate result than
crime.
Hence, in every scheme of civilized government education has
been recognized as the only force sufficient to diminish and remove
the causes of crime. But education has another office. From the
loss of supremacy in manufactures to the terrible downfall of a war
rior nation before a student nation, history teaches the lesson: Edu
cation is the first condition necessary to the prosperity of a nation.
History teaches still another lesson : Education will be generally
diffused only under a system of public schools; that is, under a sys
tem in which either the State by direct taxation raises the funds
necessary to support for a definite length of time the schools needed
to give every child a common school education, or the State compels
the different municipalities to establish and maintain such schools.
"American States have generally chosen the former alternative;
thus testifying, in the most emphatic manner, that as the prosperity,
nay, the very existence of the State,, depends upon education, so
education shall be the first and paramount care of the State.
AND SCHOOL REPORTS. 65
*
The only time the people have had an opportunity to express
their will, they have declared themselves overwhelmingly in favor
of compulsory education. Since then the fearful increase of "hood-
lumism " has made the question one of vital importance. And to~~~
save themselves from the rapidly increasing herd of non-producers,
who must be supported by the community at large, to save them
selves from the wretches who prey upon society like wild beasts,
aomp rlpmfl/nrl already that ft law for compulsory education be
supplemented by a law requiring the State~to e"Btat)Tis"h and maintain
labor schools , school ships, industrial and technical schools. The
times demand not only that children be educated in the common
English branches, but, also, that children be educated how to work.
Superintendent Bolander treats at length on the necessity of
increasing the State School Tax, and proposes a minimum
apportionment of $500 for each district, without regard to num
bers; of the need of teachers trained in Normal Schools; and
closes with the remark that —
These two — long terms and qualified teachers — are the real
educational forces of the State; and with them at our command, the
prosperity, efficiency and usefulness of our common schools will be
insured beyond peradventure.
38. SCHOOL LEGISLATION, 1874.
The only act of school legislation of any importance at this
session, was the levying of a State school tax of $7 per school
census child, and the apportionment of $500 as a minimum to
each school or school district; the balance to be apportioned
pro rata on the census children.
-
TEXT-BOOKS.
All the incorporated cities except San Francisco were placed ;
under the law of State uniformity of text-books.
39. SIXTH BIENNIAL REPORT, 1874-75.
Superintendent Bolander's last report opens with the follow
ing summary of progress :
Since my last report, 29,953 children have been added to our
school population ; 117 new school districts, supporting 322 schools,
have been organized; 274 new schoolhouses have been built and
furnished, and old schoolhouses refurnished, at a cost of $613,-
746.41; the school expenditures have been increased $544,885.09;
the school property has increased in worth $1,011,262.85; the aver-
66 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
age school terms have been lengthened 1.33 months, being now 7.47
months as against 6.14 months in 1873; 34 districts, as against 464
in 1873, maintained school less than six months; 765 districts, as
against 361 in 1873, maintained school more than six months; and
787 districts, as against 637 in 1873, maintained school eight months
and over.
In relief to this showing of our educational statistics, I must note
a great advance in the number of first grade schools, i. e., high
schools, grammar schools, and schools in which high school and
grammar grade studies are taught in addition to the lower grade
studies; the greater number of teachers holding high grade certifi
cates; in the better salaries paid to lady teachers; in the greater
amount of funds spent for school apparatus, "one-half of our districts
being now supplied, at least partly, with apparatus. Much remains
yet to be done, however, in the equipment of schoolhouses; for one-
fifth of our districts have not yet even the outhouses demanded by
decency; three-fourths of the districts have not suitably improved
school grounds; one-half of the districts do not furnish their schools
with the necessary apparatus; and nearly one-half of the districts
have not furnished their schoolrooms with improved furniture.
f*~"!From July 1, 1866, to June 30, 1867, for the first time in the his-
I tory of the State, every public school was made entirely free for
\ every child; and an important transition was thereby marked in
^popular education. But, though every public school was made free,
the ways and means provided for the public schools, and the man
ner of apportioning these means to the different districts, were for
years such that only in the centres of wealth and population the
children had sufficient facilities for obtaining a good common school
education, whilst in all other sections of the State the school system
was but a pretense for popular education. The system went further,
for in some cases it even thrust districts from without its pale. Hun
dreds of districts did not receive sufficient funds to maintain in
every year the three months' school guaranteed by the Constitution
to every district of the State. Up to June 30, 1874, districts whose
number of census children fell below a certain figure — twenty for
some counties, up to as high as thirty for others — did not receive for
any one school year sufficient funds to maintain a three months'
school for that year.
Thanks to the last Legislature, however, for the school 3^ear
ending June 30, 1875, and for the first time in the history of this
State, every district received sufficient funds for not only a three
months' school, but for at least a six months' school. The progress
thereby made in popular education can hardly be overestimated.
Short school terms — which, until last year have been the rule and
not the exception in a majority of the districts of the State — place
within the reach of our children only such fragmentary bites of
instruction which are only a little better than none at all. Every
system of popular education which does not insure to every district
of the State at least an eight months' school every year, is but a
sham. Long school terms are the sine qua non without which it is
impossible to give our children the full measure of the amount and
quality of education needed by them. Happily, the wise action of
AND SCHOOL REPORTS. 67
k
the last Legislature has secured to our schools this first factor in
every successful system of popular education. The results of this
action are patent. In 1873, only 43.3 per cent, of all the districts
maintained an eight months' school; in 1875, this percentage is
raised to 49.53; in 1872, over 464 districts, or 31.74 per cent., did
not keep a six months' school; in 1875, the number has diminished
to 34, or 2.15 per cent, of all the districts in the State. In other
words, all but 34 districts maintained at least a six months' school.
Superintendent Bolander condemned "text-books" in unmeas
ured terms, spelling-books in particular. He says :
In short, the board, and through it the State, must furnish
each teacher with a Manual of Instruction. By this means we can
dispense with several text-books, and reduce the bulk of the remain
ing text-books by rigidly excluding therefrom everything which
appertains exclusively to the teacher's office. A text-book should
be, what its name implies, a " book of texts." (< The sermons are to
be preached by the teacher — the book is to furnish the texts which
are to be analyzed, developed, unfolded, explained, enlarged upon
by the teacher — texts which need an exegesis to make them under
stood."
The Manual of Instruction will furthermore point out to teachers
the course of culture and technical training needed by them to
qualify themselves for their work; in other words, it will prepare
teachers for their work. Being no longer able to rely upon the
text-book, teachers will be compelled to assimilate some method of
teaching, and, in time, will then become real teachers, instead of
mere school keepers.
TRAINED TEACHERS. ^ rf »
For the purpose of securing professional teachers he recom
mended the following plan :
1. That in our State University be established a school or faculty
of education with a four years course of study; all students com
pleting and passing a satisfactory examination in the first year's
course, to obtain a life certificate entitling them to teach any pri
mary or third grade school in the State; all students completing
and passing a satisfactory examination in the second year's course,
to obtain a life certificate entitling them to teach any school in the
State not above the intermediate or second grade; all students co%m-
pleting and passing a satisfactory examination in the third year's
course, to obtain a life certificate entitling them to teach any school
not above the grammar or first grade, and to be eligible to the
office of City or County School Superintendent; all students com
pleting and passing a satisfactory examination in the four years
course, to obtain a life diploma entitling them to teach in any school
of the State, including high schools, normal and training schools,
and the Educational College of the University, and making them
furthermore eligible to the office of State Superintendent and in
structors of normal institutes.
68 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
2. That the course of study of the State Normal School be con
formed to the one just sketched.
3. That any high school or college, private or public, be author
ized to establish a normal school department, with a partial or full
course of study as prescribed for the Educational College of the
University, provided that such department be taught only by
graduates of the four years' course; that the course be the same as
provided for the State Normal School, and that the students be ex
amined and certificated only by the faculties of the State Normal
School and University. If such department be connected with a
public institution, tuition to be free.
4. That any City Board of Education, or County Board of Super
visors, be authorized to establish city or county normal schools,
teaching partially, or in full, the course above mentioned, but their
students to be examined and certificated only by the faculties of the
State Normal School and University.
His plan for the establishment of Normal Institutes was as
follows :
1. The present Teachers' Institutes and Boards of Examination
are replaced by Normal Institutes.
2. Normal institutes are to be held annually in such places as
may be determined upon, either by statute or by authority con
ferred upon the State Superintendent or other officer or board.
3. Every normal institute must be continued in session for not
less than four weeks. It must be under the direction of a teacher
who is known or proved to be a thorough normal school instructor;
such teacher to be appointed by the State Superintendent, or other
officer or board, as may be deemed best. Each of the teachers en
gaged in the State Normal School or the Educational College of the
University, must conduct annually at least one normal institute.
4. Every applicant for a teacher's certificate must be present at
the beginning of a normal institute; his admission as a member of
the institute must be upon an examination like that required of
applicants for admission into the State Normal School; he must
attend the institute at least one full term; and must pass, at the
end of the term, a satisfactory examination in the instruction given
during the institute.
5. The expenses of the institute are to be paid direct by the
State, or from the unapportioned County School Funds of the
counties comprising the district in which the institute is held.
I have thus given the merest sketch of a system of normal insti
tutes which can easily and profitably be introduced into this State.
From this sketch an appropriate system can readily be elaborated;
but as so much depends upon the temper and view of the Legisla
ture, and its Committees on Education, it is preferable to leave
such elaboration till the time when such committees can act upon
the matter.
He quoted extensively from various writers on "School
AND SCHOOL REPORTS. 69
Hygiene," on "Technical Education" and "Kindergartens,"
and concluded as follows :
I now retire from an office which I entered with a great deal of
hesitancy and many forebodings. I brought to it many firm con
victions, the growth of a decade spent in the schoolroom; and
according to these convictions have I labored to perfect our system
of education; and I feel that I need not fear the verdict of the
future. I have at least succeeded in equalizing somewhat the edu
cational facilities enjoyed by the districts of the State, and in
rationalizing, in some measure, the system of instruction, and
bringing it somewhat more in harmony with the "new education."
The appendix contained a manual of suggestions for teaching
the State course of study, including an exposition of the
"Grube system " of teaching arithmetic to beginners, and a full
course of elementary lessons in local geography, and botany.
It contained also an explanation of the "Kindergarten," an
essay on "The Nervous System as affected by School Life," by
Dr. D. F. Lincoln, of Boston; a report of the State Board of
Examination, of the State Normal School, of the Institution for
the Deaf and Dumb and Blind, and the report of the Regents
of the University.
40. SCHOOL LEGISLATION, 1876.
The first school legislation during the first week of the session,
was a bill taking from the State Board of Education the power
of changing text-books, it being evident that a majority of the
board were in favor of throwing out McGufTey's series of Read
ers, and Monteith's series of Geographies.
Mr. Carpenter, Speaker of the Assembly, introduced a bill ?
providing for a State Board of Education, consisting of the'
Governor, State Superintendent and eight elective members, two
from each congressional district; the board so elected to assume j
the powers of the State Board of Education, the Board of
Eegents of the University, and the Trustees of the State Normal
School. The bill also provided for abolishing State uniformity
of text-books, and for giving boards of education and school
trustees the power of local adoption. This bill passed the
Assembly, but was defeated in the Senate.
' Mr. Hopkins introduced a bill providing for "county uniform
ity " in text-books, which passed both Houses but was pocketed
by the Governor.
70 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
The section relating to county certificates was amended so as
to authorize county boards to issue second and third grade cer
tificates, on an examination in only the following studies : Arith
metic, Grammar, Geography, History, Beading, Writing,
Spelling and Methods of Teaching.
41. LIST OF STATE SUPERINTENDENTS.
John G. Marvin ......................... 1851-1854.
Paul K. Hubbs ......................... 1854-1857.
Andrew J. Moiflder ...................... 1857-1863. v
John Swett ............................. 1863-1868. A
Rev. O. P. Fitzgerald .................... 1868-1872. ^
Henry N. Bolander ..................... 1872-1876.
Ezra S. Carr ............................ 1876-1880.
DEPUTY SUPERINTENDENTS.
J. H. Eickhoff. .......................... 1872-1876.
Mrs. E. S. Carr. . LC. . X .T.'. ^.v. . . . : .\ . .1876-1880.
SUPERINTENDENTS'. JA^i) -POLITICS.
John G. Marvin and Paul K. Hubbs were elected by the
Democrats.
Superintendent Moulder was twice elected on the Democratic
ticket. He declined a nomination by the " Breckenridge " wing
of the Democracy in 1862.
In the election of 1862 there were three tickets in the field,
and the State Superintendent happened to be the only State
officer to be elected. The opposing nominees were Col. Jona
than D. Stevenson, by the "Douglas Democrats;" Eev.O. P. Fitz
gerald, by the "Breckenridge Democrats;" John Swett, 011 the
"Union Ticket.'7 The vote stood as follows: Swett, 51,238;
Stevenson, 21,514; Fitzgerald, 15,514.
Superintendent Swett was re-elected on the Republican
ticket in 1863 by about 20,000 majority over Dr. O. M. Wozen-
craft, the Democratic nominee, and was renominated in 1867.
The canvass was a bitter one on both sides. Hev. O. P. Fitz
gerald, the Democratic nominee, was elected by a majority of
1401.
Superintendent Fitzgerald was renominated in 1871, his op
ponent being Henry N. Bolander, nominated by the Kepub-
LIBRARY
UNIVEltSITY OF
CALIFORNIA.
AND SCHOOL REPORTS. 71
licans. The canvass was quite an exciting one, and resulted in
the election of Bolander by 10,000 majority.
In 1875 the opposing candidates were Eev. O. P. Fitzgerald,
Democratic nominee, and Dr. Ezra S. Carr, Republican candi
date. This was also an abusive canvass. Dr. Carr was elected
by a majority of 7000.
It was expected that the office of State Superintendent would
be " taken out of politics" by providing for the election at the
special judicial election, but this measure only intensified the
evil.
SPECIAL HISTORY OF SAN FRANCISCO.
i. SCHOOL REPORTS.
THE first school reports published in pamphlet form by the
Board were those of Superintendent O'Grady, 1854 and 1855.
The Superintendent reported the average number of pupils to
a teacher to be 87; that a uniform series of text-books had been
adopted ; and that a Teachers' Association had been formed.
Superintendent Theller in 1856 reported the following statis
tics :
Teachers, 39; Pupils, 3347.
District.No. 1, Mr. Swett, Principal 683
District No. 2, Mr. Denman, Principal 580
District No. 3, Mr. Ellis Holmes, Principal 635
District No. 4, Mr. Alrira Holmes, Principal '733
District No. 5, Mr. Carlton, Principal 374
District No. 6, Mr. Morrill, Principal 200
District No. 7, Mr. Macy, Principal 142
3347
In the "Ward Schools there were educated 1421 pupils. The
Male Departments of the Ward Schools were taught by^male and
female instructors, and the Female Department by the ladies of the
different religious orders of the city, known as Sisters of Charity,
Sisters of Mercy, and Sisters of the Presentation — all of whom had
certificates of capability, and were licensed to teach by the late
72 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
County Commissioners of Education, and drew their salaries from
the city, county and State educational fund.
The school law of 1855 abolished the separation of the school
fund, and all these schools have been mingled into one uniform
system. Since the 5th of May last there has been no religious, sec
tarian or denominational doctrine taught in them.
He reported the discipline good, and the instruction satis
factory.
In fusing the "Ward Schools" with the public schools, the
following additional teachers were elected :
Principal of District No. 4, Wm. Hammill, vice Ahira Holmes;
Principal of District No. 5, Mr. T. S. Dunne, vice Mr. Carlton;
District No. 7, Mr, T. C. Leonard, vice Mr. Macy; New School,
Thomas S. Myrick; District No. 8, Mr. H. P. Carlton.
By the Consolidation Act, Mr. Pelton, who had been previ
ously elected as County Superintendent, was made, ex officio,
City and County Superintendent for one year.
His report contained the first full statistical tables of the
schools. He recommended the establishment of evening schools;
of a Teachers' Institute ; the study of History of the United
States; and published the "Course of Study."
The reports of Superintendent Janes for 1857 and 1858 were
still more complete.
He reported the weekly Normal School a success, teachers
being compelled to attend ; recommended the establishment of
more evening classes, and treated* at length of discipline and
methods; gave a short historical sketch of the early schools;
treated of methods of teaching; complimented his predecessors
in office; opposed May festivals; and reported favorably on the
City Normal School, Mr. George W. Minns, Principal; Messrs.
Myrick and Swett, assistants.
Superintendent Denman's report, 1861, was longer than any
preceding report.
He summed up the improvements in 18(50 as follows:
1. Better Classification. ^
2. The grading into Grammar and Primary Schools.
3. Better accommodations and new buildings.
4. New furniture.
5. School Registers furnished by the Board.
6. Monthly Reports of pupils. *
AND SCHOOL EEPOETS. 73
The questions used in the examination for admission to the
High School were given in this report.
SUPERINTENDENT TAIT's REPORTS.
The four reports of Superintendent Tait, 1862, '63, '64, and
'65, were all creditable documents. In his first report, 1862,
Mr. Tait reported a list of graduates of the Minns Evening
Normal School— 16 for 1861, and 38 for 1862. He recom
mended that promotions in the primary grades be made semi-
annually; that Principals be required to make monthly reports
to the board of attendance, etc. ; and that no person under 18
years of age should be eligible to teach.
In his last report, 1865, he advocated the reading of the
Bible in school.
Superintendent Pelton's report for 1867, recommended an
increase of salaries; a simplification of the course of study,
and the appointment of a Deputy Superintendent.
COSMOPOLITAN SCHOOLS.
Concerning the school, Mr. Peltoii said:
These schools of recent establishment are designed to afford the
facilities for acquiring the modern languages — German, French,
and Spanish — in connection with the ordinary English course. As
elsewhere stated, it has been conceived that the object of our Pub
lic School system, its true policy and leading idea, is to meet all
reasonable educational demands. A few }Tears since a great num
ber of our citizens, native as well as foreign, were compelled to
patronize private institutions, with their less perfect classification,
and less thorough instruction, for the sake of the modern lan
guages, which by the more observing and thoughtful of our people
are considered of greater importance in the ordinary vocations and
positions of society than much, very much else included in the
English course, especially in our advanced High School course.
And there were many of our best citizens who were unable to meet
the expense of private tuition for their children; and }^et they were
unwilling to permit their sons and daughters to grow up to ma
turity, and remain forever ignorant of their mother tongue.
Some two years since, to meet this public demand, I recom
mended the establishment of a single class, now grown to be the
Cosmopolitan Schools of this city. This system, though by no means
unique, and confined to this cit}^ is here perhaps better organized,
and on a more liberal and comprehensive basis, than elsewhere.
The plan is European; Germany has multitudes of schools where
the French and English are recognized as we recognize the Ger
man, French, and Spanish. There are man}7 such schools in the
Eastern States.
This system, though at first opposed here, as it had been else
where when first proposed and adopted, and before its merits and
5
74 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
practicability had been tested, is now exceedingly popular in the
community, and enjoys a very intelligent and excellent patronage.
Most of its former opponents are now its advocates — some its
warmest supporters. These schools now can stand upon their own
recognized and admitted merits. I predict that they will more
than justify all that has been claimed in their behalf.
SUPERINTENDENT WIDBER's REPORTS.
The three reports of Mr. Widber, 1871, '72, '73, were models
of brevity, containing little except finance and statistics, Deputy
Snperintendent Swett in his reports made an exhibit of the re
sults of the cramming system as shown by the written examin-X
ations; argued against state uniformity of text books; advocated
a higher rate of salaries for principals of Grammar Schools;
and recommended the adoption of the Grube system of teaching
Arithmetic to beginners.
MR. DENMAN'S REPORTS.
The last reports of Superintendent Denman, 1874 and 1875,
were the longest of the city reports. The report of 1874 treated
at length of the new course of study.
The last report of Superintendent Denman, 1875, recom
mended the establishment of a city Normal School, and treated
at length of the course of study. It also contained a valuable
historical sketch of schools and teachers.
The report of Deputy Superintendent Leggett recommended
the abolishing of annual written examinations for promo
tion; favored the appointment of a Board of Inspectors and
a city Normal School; criticized the methods of teaching modern
languages in the Cosmopolitan Schools, and recommended a
cutting down of the course of study in the higher grades. The
examination questions, iu language prepared by Mr. Leggett,
were particularly good.
The report of Deputy Superintendent Leggett, on exam
inations and methods of teaching, was a valuable one. The fol
lowing extracts illustrate its style :
THE ANNUAL WRITTEN EXAMINATION.
It is curious to observe how hard it is to break the chain in which
long habit binds human society, or to get out of the groove of cus
tom. During certain stages of a people's progress no doubt this
principle of aversion to change is useful and necessary; but there is
also a time (whether we have yet reached it or not) when every
practice or custom must make good its claim to future existence or
cease to be.
I J'i u K \ li Y
UNIVERSITY 0}
AND SCHOOL REPORTS. 75
UAL1FOKNIA.
Why should we have annual examinations at all ? The question
startles most ears, and why ? Because we have always had them at
the close of the school year. The habit of holding them has become
venerable from antiquity, and I know I shall be accused of sacri
legious interference with a time-honored custom in proposing to do
away with them. If we ask, why should the annual examinations be
kept up, we have for reply: Because we have always had them.
If we ask, why should they be abolished, we have for replies:
First. Because they are not needed.
Second. Because they are expensive, costing the department at
least $20,000 a year.
Third. Because they render useless the school work of the last
school month of every year, and foster cramming and overwork
during that time.
Fourth. Because they tend to produce excitement and lead to
over-exertion on the part of pupils at a time when they are wearied
by the work of the whole year.
Fifth. Because if they were abolished, many teachers who, under
the present system cannot be induced to abandon the practice of
cramming for the examination, because they are, as they believe, to
be judged by the results of it, could be induced to do some teach
ing in their classes.
If I am asked how pupils could be promoted without these exam
inations, I answer, Promote them at any time of the year when their
proficiency and the classification of the school would permit. How ?
I believe it would be best to do it on examination duly made by
thoroughly qualified inspectors, such as I recommended the ap
pointment of in my last annual report. But if we are not ready for
that, then on the examination of the teacher, the principal and the
superintendent or his deputy. There is no one season of the year,
so far as my observation goes, at which the minds of children ripen
or mature — no particular month out of the twelve in which they
become fully ripe and fit for the harvest. I believe the monstrous
attempt to put children of widely varying physical and mental
powers through the same mill in the same time, has worked infinite
and irreparable mischief to many minds.
THE TEACHERS OF OUR PUBLIC SCHOOLS.
The School Department employs more than five hundred teachers
at the present time. Most of them are ladies and gentlemen well
qualified for the positions which they hold. They are zealous and
enthusiastic in their work. They are willing and anxious to do all
in their power to further the best interests of the children committed
to their care. If they fail to do all that we could wish them to do,
it is not because of any lack of desire to do so. It is disheartening
to any such body of men and women to be treated with distrust by
those who employ them, and I trust that the new Board of Educa
tion will extend to the teachers of our schools all the kind consider
ation, sympathy and aid that it is in their power to do. Young-
teachers in this city have very meagre opportunities for improvement
in the art of teaching. We have no Normal School. We have no U
teachers' institute, or associations. During the period of my coil-
76 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
nection with the department there has not been a single lecture on
the science of education, or the art of teaching, delivered to the
teachers of this city and county. If, therefore, some of our teachers
are behind the times, if the ardor of others has slackened, if the
professional pride of all has declined a little, is it much to be
wondered at? I believe a revival of educational interest is needed in *
our city, and if the Board of Education can do something to bring
about so desirable a result, they will by so doing reflect credit on
themselves, and confer a benefit upon the schools under their
charge.
A CITY NOKMAL SCHOOL.
In my last annual report I tried to call the attention of the Board of
Education to the necessity of having a Normal School established for
the training of teachers. Up to the present time, however, members of
the board have been unable to see the matter in the same light that
I do. I think it is a disgrace to our city that we have no school ^
within her limits for preparing young men and women, who wish to
devote themselves to the profession of teaching, for their work. I
venture to say that there is not on the American continent to-day, a
city of 250,000 inhabitants where some sort of a Normal School has
not been established. I know that as we are now situated every
dollar expended for the support of a really good Normal School
would repay the city tenfold in the greater efficiency of the teachers
who would be trained in it. Every person who has a particle of
educational sense, must see that for lack of Normal School instruc
tion the department is losing every year ten times as much as it
would cost to sustain a good Normal School in our city.
The State Normal School at San Jose is, under its present able
management, doing a noble work for the cause of education in Cal
ifornia. But we need a school of our own in this city for the special
training of teachers for our graded schools. I do not think that the
Normal School ought to be conducted in the High School, nor
taught in connection therewith. I think it would be better to have
it in some school in which all the grades are taught. In that case
the teacher of the Normal Class could take the teachers in training
into the classes of the different grades and there show them how to
teach practically, by taking charge of the class himself and showing
his pupils how to apply the best methods of instruction. If candi
dates for the positions'of teachers in the public schools were well
trained in such a school, we should have much more teaching and
much less experimenting done in a large number of our classes.
TOO MANY PUPILS ASSIGNED TO A TEACHER.
I have no reason to change or modify my views on this subject
during the past year. I would reiterate my opinion, as expressed ,
in my last report, that not more than forty grammar pupils, nor
more than fifty primary pupils, ought to be assigned to any one
teacher.
AND SCHOOL REPORTS. 77
2. MISCELLANEOUS HISTORICAL ITEMS.
1. Buildings. — The schools were held in rented rooms up to
1854, when a building on the corner of Bush and Stockton streets
was erected for the Denman School; a large brick building for
the Union Street School; and a spacious house at North Beach
for the Powell Street School. This last building was soon after
ward turned into a City Hospital, because it could not be filled
wjth pupils.
The first schoolhouses were arranged on the New York City
plan of large session-rooms and small recitation-rooms. Since
1857, the buildings have been arranged on the Boston plan — a
separate room for each class of 50 pupils.
2. Grading. — The schools were originally classified into Pri
mary, Intermediate, and Grammar Departments, but were not
regularly graded on the present plan until late in 1857.
The first printed " course of study" was adopted June 10,
1857, Mr. Pelton, Superintendent, and William Sherman, Pres
ident of the Board. The High School was organized in 1856,
mainly through the efforts of William Sherman, the President
of the Board.
3. Salaries. — The salary paid Principals in 1852 and 1853 was
$150 a month, exclusive of Vacations; that is, $1500 a year. In
1854, the salary was increased to $2000 a year; but this was
paid in city scrip, worth from 60 to 70 cents on the dollar.
From 1854 to 1872, the salaries varied from $1900 to $2100, but
in 1873 were raised to $2400.
The salaries of the High School Principals varied from $2300
to $2500 and $3000, until 1874, when the salary of the Principal
of the Boys' High School was made $4000.
4. Certificates. — Until 1863, teachers were annually examined,
to test their "fitness to teach a common school one year," and the
pioneer teachers, such as Denman, the Holmeses, Swett, Pelton,
and others, were passed through the "examination-mill" a dozen
times. The system afforded a fine opportunity for petty officials
to browbeat schoolmasters and schoolma'ams.
5. Annual Elections. — From 1850 to 1870, at the end of each
year, all positions were declared vacant, and there was a general
scramble for a "new deal." Occasionally there was the war-
cry: "To the victors belong the spoils."
78 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
If a "Director" had a spite against some unfortunate peda
gogue, vengeance descended when the Board went into star-
chamber sessions for the " Annual Election of Teachers."
The doors of the star-chamber were besieged until midnight
by anxious teachers, waiting to know their fate.
This senseless annual insult to a whole body of teachers
originated in the New England District Schools, when they were
kept but a part of the year, and when, of course, a new teacher
had to be elected annually. Strange as it may seem, it has
been handed down from father to son as a precious heirloom,
and is still the law of nearly every city, town, and district in the
United States, — San Francisco excepted.
A NEW DEPAETURE.
In 1870, the Board, H. A. Cobb, President, decided to abol
ish annual elections, and elect teachers "during good behavior."
This measure was vigorously supported by most of the city
press, but was as vigorously opposed by the Superintendent
and a minority of the Board, who tenaciously "held on to the
good old way."
6. Examinations of Schools. — Up to 1862, the pupils in Gram
mar and Primary Schools were promoted by the principals and
teachers on the records of the scholars' work during the year.
Public examinations were conducted orally at the end of the
year.
In 1863, the promotion by means of written examinations and
percentages was introduced as a system. The result was, that
in a few years, the main efforts of teachers were directed to
cramming for examination. Pupils were made writing-machines.
In 1874 and 1875, even the lowest grade primary classes were
examined in writing. The evil culminated in a reaction, and in
1876 a committee of principals, with Superintendent Bolander,
requested the Committee of Classification, Mr. Tait, Chairman,
to abolish the cast-iron system, and allow principals to classify
their schools. The permission asked for was granted, and it is
to be hoped the cramming system will never be restored.
7. Secular Schools. — From 1851 to 1854, it was customary in
many schools to open the exercises with prayer and the reading
of a passage from the Bible by the teacher. This was authorized
by one of the earliest school regulations. The question formed
a bone of contention for several years, but by common consent
u a
AND SCHOOL REPORTS. { " I L
>^
most of the teachers, after 1856, discontinued the reading of the
Bible and prayer. The tendency of public opinion was toward
purely secular schools. In his State Eeports, Superintendent
Swett advocated purely secular schools.
In 1874, for the first time, an official resolution in favor of
purely secular education appears on record. The President of
the Board, Andrew McF. Davis, ruled that the repeating of the,,
Lord's Prayer was sectarian, and in violation of the school law.
This decision was sustained by the Board. Public opinion, in
most parts of the State, is in accordance with this decision.
8. Politics and Schools. — Though nominated and elected by
political parties, the Boards of Education have not been, in
general, marked by partisan action. From 1856 to 1867, a ma
jority of the members of each Board was elected on the " Peo
ple's Party Ticket." From 1868 to 1876, there has been a
preponderance of members elected on the Democratic Ticket.
Superintendent Theller was elected on the Democratic Ticket;
Mr. Pelton was twice, and Superintendent Denman three times
elected by the Democratic party. All the other Superintendents
were elected on the " People's Party" or the Republican
Ticket. Under the "Know-Nothing" regime, in 1855, a few
teachers were removed on account of "accent." During the
war, two or three "secession" teachers were dropped; but, in
general, while both political and religious influences have, to
some extent, influenced the election of teachers, very few have
been proscribed on account of either politics or religion. Prot
estants, Catholics, Israelites, Democrats and Kepublicans, work
harmoniously together in teaching children of all shades of
religious belief and political opinion.
9. Music and Drawing. — From the beginning, music and
drawing, to the extent of a smattering, were taught in the
schools. In 1859, Hubert Burgess was appointed special
teacher of drawing, and Mr. F. K. Mitchell, teacher of music.
In 1868, Washington Elliott succeeded Mr. Mitchell as music
teacher. In 1871, Mason's Music Readers and Charts were
adopted, with a specific course in the Manual. Real instruc
tion in vocal music dates from this period. In 1874, Smith's
System of Drawing was introduced, making the beginning of
systematic instruction in this branch.
10. Changes in Text-Books. — The changes in text-books, from
80 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
1851 to 1876, twenty-five years, may be briefly summed up as
follows:
Headers: Swan's, Towne's, Sargent's, Willson's, McGuffey's.
Average time of use, five years.
Arithmetics: Thompson's, Colburn's, Eobinson's; the last from
1865 to 1876. Average time of use, eight years.
Grammars: Tower's, Weld's, Greene's, Kerl's, Brown's. Av
erage time, five years.
Geographies: Mitchell's, Cornell's, Guyot's, Clarke's, Mon-
teith's. Average time, five years.
Spellers: Towne's, Sargent's, Willson's.
United States History: Parley's, Goodrich's, Lossing's, Ander
son's, Swinton's. Average time, five years.
11. Co-Education. — Up to 1864, the boys and girls were edu
cated together. When the Denman Grammar School building
was completed, only girls were admitted; the Lincoln was made
a boys' school, and the Rincon a girls' school. In 1868 tfye
Union and the Washington were made boys' schools, and the
Broadway a girls' school. The Boys' High and the Girls' High
were formed from the Boys' and Girls' High School in 1864.
With these exceptions all the other schools have always been
attended by both sexes.
12. Teachers' Associations and Evening Normal Schools. — In
1853 the Principals formed a monthly association for the discus
sion of school questions. This continued until 1857, when a
weekly Normal School was established by the Board of Educa
tion. Attendance was made compulsory. The school was held
at first on Saturdays; afterwards, on Monday evenings. George
W. Minns, John Swett, Ellis H. Holmes, and Thomas S. My-
rick, were elected teachers. This school continued until 1862.
The following is a list of the graduates of what is known as
the * ( Minns Evening Normal School :"
Miss Ellen Casey,
' M. A. Casebolt,
' Alice Baker,
' L. E. Field,
' Eliza Hawklmrst,
' Kate Kennedy,
GKADUATES OF 1861.
Miss Lizzie Kennedy,
A. B. Kimball,
M. A. Wills,
C. L. Hunt,
D. S. Prescott,
M. L. Tracy,
Miss M. D. Lynde,
" Hannah Marks,
" Beatrice Weed,
Mrs. A. E. Du Bois.
AND SCHOOL REPORTS.
81
Miss A. S. Barnard,
C. V. Benjamin,
Anna Child,
C. A. Coffin,
L. H. Crocker,
H. B. Gushing,
E. P. Fern aid,
E. S. Griffin,
H. A. Haneke,
H. H. Heagan,
Anna Hill,
M. A. Humphreys,
' L. A. Humphreys,
GEADFATES or 1862.
Miss Lizzie Macy,
W. L. Morgan,
A. S. Moses,
H. E. Porter,
Geraldine Price,
M. E. Scotchler,
A. A. JRowe,
E. K. Shaw,
M. E. Stowell,
P. M. Stowell,
Helen Thompson,
E. M. Tiebout,
M. K. Warren,
Miss M. C. White,
S. J. White,
L. A.Humphreys,
S. M. Hunt,
Annie Lawrence,
Mis. E. C. Burt,
E. S. Forrester,
L. A. Morgan,
M. S. P. Nichols,
H. E. Packer,
C. H. Stout,
S. A. D. Lansingh.
The "Minns Normal School " was succeeded for several years
by monthly meetings of teachers under the direction of the
Board of Education, but these died out in 1869.
In 1872 the Board established another Evening Normal
School, which was continued two years, with the following
corps of teachers: Principal, John Swett; Assistants, Joseph
Leggett, Mrs. Mary "W. Kincaid, and Theodore Bradley.
Since 1873 there have been no teachers' meetings, associations,
or normal schools.
13. Educational Hobbies. — In early times Colburn's Mental
Arithmetic was a favorite hobby, and for many years afterward
arithmetic was the leading branch of study to which more than
half the school-time of pupils was devoted. In some cases, four
hours out of the five were devoted to the favorite hobby of the old-
time schoolmaster. Of late years, about one-fourth of the time
is given to this study.
The epidemic of self -reporting prevailed from 1859 to 1862.
" Map drawing " was fashionable from 1860 to 1871.
In 1868-70 education consisted mainly of " oral instruction."
In early times "exhibitions," "May festivals," and "danc
ing parties" were in fashion. " Calisthenics and gymnastics "
prevailed from 1856 to 1860.
" Written Examinations " and "Percentages" were the rage
from 1863 to 1875; they went out of style during the Centennial
year.
"Phonography," in the higher grammar grades, was the
hobby of 1872 and 1873, but was ridden to death in 1874.
" Mark's Geometry," for the 3d and 4th grammar grades, was
the experiment in 1869 and 1870; it failed in 1871.
" Cosmopolitan Schools" became the rage in 1872 and 1873;
82 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
there was a reaction in 1874, when French and German were
abolished during a revolutionary period of four months. The
"restoration" soon followed by act of the Legislature.
The twin hobbies, with Boards of Education from 1854 to
1864, were the annual examination of teachers and the an
nual elections. Indeed, " annual elections," like bull rights,
were in vogue until 1870. " Investigations " raged in 1872 and
1873, while the favorite hobby of the Board of 1874 and 1875
was "rules and regulations."
14. Merits and Defects. — The marked merits of the city schools
are:
1. Convenient buildings.
2. Good discipline.
3. In general, hard-working teachers.
4. Good instruction in Music and Drawing.
5. The purely secular character of the schools.
The marked defects are :
1. Too many pupils per teacher.
2. Too rigid classification.
3. Too much cramming of text-books.
4. Too many lessons for home study.
5. A complicated system of daily recitation records and
monthly reports.
6. A lack of professionally trained teachers.
7. The lack of a City Normal School.
8. A lack of thorough inspection.
9. Short terms of office of Superintendent and School
Directors.
15. Address of President Davis. — The address of the President
of the Board, Andrew McF. Davis, Nov. 14, 1875, sets forth in
detail some of the marked features of the city system. The
following are extracts :
It is fitting and proper that I should avail myself of this oppor
tunity to say to this audience a few words concerning what this
Board, whose term of office is so -nearly closed, has done, and also
relative to the graded system upon which the schools of the Depart
ment are organized.
Under the customs which at present prevail, no report is made
by the Board to the people. The only published report concerning
the affairs of the Department which reaches the public is the report
of the Superintendent. That officer being elected directly by the
people, arid being only in a measure responsible to the Board, and
no report being submitted in published form by the Board, or its
AND SCHOOL REPORTS. 83
Committees, I shall offer no apology for taking advantage of this
occasion to say a few words which, under a different organization of
affairs, I should have preferred to present elsewhere.
The objects and purposes of this school, as originally organized,
were substantially what they are to-day. The means at hand to
reach these objects and effect these purposes have largely increased,
and the school to-day has before it an enlarged field of usefulness,
the circle of which not only expands with the increase of the popu
lation of the State and City, but the cultivation of which is vastly
aided by the generous sympathies of the public.
The necessity of the school is to supplement the graded system
of teaching which prevails in the lower divisions of the Department.
To accomplish this, the course of study in the school itself must be
elastic enough to aid and encourage in their labors:
I. Those who have successfully passed through the Grammar
grades and wish to pursue a higher course of study, whether scien
tific, literary, or classical.
II. Those who have passed through the Grammar grades success
fully, and wish to round off their education in a shorter period ; to
gather in and appropriate what they can, but who are especially de
sirous of pursuing with diligence for a short space of time certain
scientific or mathematical studies.
III. Those whose education has been acquired outside of our city
schools, and whose percentages may show a decided falling off in
some of the studies, and an unusual prominence in others.
And finally, those who, from some constitutional incapacity, are
unable to pursue with success certain studies beyond fixed points,
but who are able to reach a certain grade, yet cannot get beyond it,
if the inexorable law of percentages is rigidly applied.
For all of these, and perhaps for others, must a place be found
in this school.
Because a young man, with a copious diction and a delicate
literary taste, can only achieve the pons asinorum by memorizing
the demonstration, shall we keep him lagging behind the army in
its advance, or shall we try him now in this place, now in that,
until we find the place where he can do the best work and where we
can work him to the best advantage ?
Because the graded system demands a certain percentage for pro
motion, shall we keep a pupil, year after year, in the first grade of
the Grammar department, who from some mental deficiency is held
back from promotion by absolute failure in some especial study?
Is it not better to recognize this as one of the defects of a system,
excellent in some respects, which is to be supplemented as far as
may be by this school ?
In order to realize what the defects are that need to be supple
mented, it is essential to look at the organization of our schools and
observe of what different materials they are composed. We see,
side by side, the children of professional men, merchants and la
borers ; children whose every step is carefully watched, and those
whose normal condition is absolute freedom from restraint ; we see
the rude and the polished; black and white; rich and poor; all pat
ronizing our schools.
84 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
For these children, reared under such different conditions, enjoy
ing such varied advantages, disciplined to such different degrees of
obedience, is provided a curriculum, rigid, inelastic, and uncon
scious of any difference in the characters, the ..surroundiDgs, or the
opportunities of the pupils.
At the age of six years, says the law, you may send your child to
the public school, and, continues our course of study, whatever his
condition of discipline may then be, he shall pursue the following
studies, such and such quantities to be given in stated periods and
in definite ways. At the age of six, then, the pupils are launched
upon the course of study. But how different are their opportuni
ties! While at home, whether at meals or at play, the one child is
under the care of educated and refined parents, who maintain a con
stant supervising influence over their offspring; who do not neglect
discipline in mistaken kindness, and who accomplish far more in
the process of leading forward the child than can be possible for
any teacher in the lower grades.
Side by side with his little playmate another has to struggle along
the path alone. His parents earn their bread by the sweat of their
brows. There is no time to waste on refinement or cultivation.
Here the case is reversed. The teacher is all in all, and much more^
is accomplished at school than at home in the process of unfolding
the mental faculties and developing the intellectual growth.
Suppose that these two children are of equal mental calibre, will
their growth be the same under the graded system ? If not, what
provision is there for such vast, such inevitable discrepancies? For,
in this comparison, I have not drawn the strongest possible, nor
even the strongest probable contrast. The law of "hereditary ten
dency" would assert, as probable, that the child of professional or
literary parents would have stronger natural tastes for literary pur
suits than the child of the laborer. So that the natural tendency
would be to make the contrast even more striking.
How in the world can such grave obstacles to the adjustment of
the graded system be overcome ? How can any rigid s}7stem be
made to fit such a variety of minds, from the most brilliant to the
positively stupid ? How can the same nourishment, in quality and
quantity, sustain the giant and the pigmy ? These questions seemed
to me, when I entered upon my duties as a School Director, inca
pable of answer.
I have found a partial explanation of the matter in this, that in
many schools the promotions are so made that the bright and for
ward scholars do two years' work in one — actually accomplishing
this work with ease. In other words, the course of study, as at
present arranged, being adapted as near as may be to the best in
terests of the average intellect under average conditions favorable
for its development, must necessarily fall below the capacity of a
large number of the scholars. To keep these busy, they must either
do two years' work in one, which is accomplished by promotions at
the end of the first six months (making advance work of what is re
view to a portion of the grade), or some other means must be devised
to keep their minds active during school hours.
This forcing pupils over two years' work in one, is the only source
of relief from the rigid demands of the Manual which I have discov-
AND SCHOOL REPORTS. 85
ered. It is not, of course, capable of extensive application, and the
generally inelastic nature of the work in the lower departments re
mains to be supplemented, and as far as possible compensated for
here. We have sought to provide for this by furnishing various
parallel branches of study in this school, and it is my hope that the
chevaux de frise of percentages which bristle upon every avenue of /
approach to this stronghold of learning may be to some extent re- /
moved, and a more liberal view taken of what the school is for. It
is true that not every horse can be trained to be a race horse; but
it is none the less true that we like to see our coach horses well
groomed.
The question has been discussed in public, "What shall we do
with our boys?" Orators, lawyers and editors have addressed audi
ences upon this topic. It interests all classes, and we, who are
connected with educational matters, are brought closely in contact
with it.
Let those gentlemen who have propounded that question cast
their eyes over this audience, and we will show them what we are
doing with our boys at this end of the line. But alas ! the fruit
that we see ripening here to-day is but a small percentage of that
which was set in the primary school, and they might still say this
does not answer our question.
May I be pardoned at this time, and in this connection, if I throw
out a hint of what I believe will help to solve this question in the
future. The subject is closely connected with what has gone be
fore, and perhaps these words may fall upon willing ears.
I have alluded to the different planes upon which pupils of the
same age stand in the graded system, and the different results that
must follow from precisely the same instruction. Apart from all
questions of intellectual culture, the habits of discipline and obedi
ence acquired by a child reared in a well-ordered family are probably
of more value than any other development. The receptivity of a
child who has been taught to move, or to stop when spoken to, must
be far greater than that of one whose life has been spent in throwing
stones at Chinamen, and building bonfires in the streets.
The generous nature of the climate here is such that the child of
a family too poor to maintain constant supervision over it, is turned
adrift upon the streets to charge about, committing those minor
offenses — promises, and almost certain forerunners of serious diffi
culty one of these days.
Experience has established, and the law has defined, the proper
minimum age for beginning our regular studies in the poblic schools
to be six years, and we all know that practically this is young
enough according to our present methods.
But modern German thought has developed a system of amusing
children which at the same time prepares their minds for future
training, and enables parents to avail themselves of the system while
their children are still very young.
If it were possible to erect a few buildings around the city, in
those portions where the very young abound so thickly, and gather
in the little children between the ages of three and six years, for live
or six hours daily, during which time they should be amused 'and
interested; thus removing them from the dangers and temptations
86 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
of the streets; comforting their mothers with the knowledge of their
safety; teaching them little or nothing except methods of thought;
I say, if one, two or three such schools could be tried, something
could be done for the boy of twelve or fifteen years hence. From
the Kindergarten these boys would enter the Primary School upon
a par with the boys with whom I have heretofore placed them in
contrast; with habits of obedience and methods of thought already
acquired. Truancy, that terror of principals, would be reduced, for
school by this system is a synonym for pleasure. The little fellows
look forward with delight to the hours to be spent there, and leave
for home with regret. The wild charms of a nomadic life, the com
forts of a night in a dry-goods box or a sugar hogshead — all these
can and would be dispelled by continuous kindTy effort. The hold
that this wild, irresponsible sort of life has upon the unkempt
natures of these little fellows is almost incomprehensible, and the
necessity for capturing them while young — very young — and mold-
ing them to conform more nearly to some recognized social type, is
evident to the reflective mind. Further, our knowledge of our pupils
and their ways of life would begin earlier, and we should know
better what it was essential to do to aid them in the rugged pathways
of life.
These, then, are the lessons which my two years' service in the
department have taught me :
I. The great evil of our system is its inelasticity.
II. The remedies which can be applied are: The Kindergarten at
one end of the course; judicious promotions of exceptionally bright
pupils during the course; and a liberal opening up of the opportu
nities of the High School at the other end.
I entertain the hope that the experiment of the Kindergarten or
some kindred school may be tried at an early date. Properly man
aged it cannot fail. I urge it not so much for its direct educational
result (though the experiment elsewhere has proved a success) as
for the hold it will give upon the good- will and affections of these
nomad children, whose lives are otherwise destined to be lost in the
streets. By this means they can be gathered in. They can be kept
out of mischief and they can be taught, without knowing it, what
obedience is. They can be prepared for the primary work, and the
tares of truancy can be weeded out of their desires. This work fairly
inaugurated, the effects upon the inelastic graded system could not
fail to be realized.
As to the work in the High Schools, I feel sure that all here will
give the present Board of Education credit for having labored with
great unanimity to improve it, and will join with me in congratu
lating the teachers and the boys upon the mutual good-will which
seems to pervade this school.
I have before stated the purposes of the school. "We have shaped
our course of study to meet these purposes. In this form we shall
hand it over to our successors, our term of office having nearly
expired. Its future rests in their hands.
Among the problems which they will have to solve will "be the
various questions as to what shall entitle a person to admission, and
what shall be required of students after admission. In our action we
have recognized certain general principles.
AND SCHOOL REPORTS. 87
It is impossible for us to ignore the fact that after passing beyond
the Grammar grades, any course of study which treads beyond cer
tain limits must overtake and lie parallel with that of the University.
A due regard for economy will not permit us to retain here, at a
great expense, a school simply to traverse ground, which can be
gained by crossing the Bay, with little inconvenience to the student
and with no expense to the city. Apart from questions of economy
we have earnestly labored to maintain harmonious relations with
the officers of the University, and have sought to shape our school
so that it should prove a feeder and not a rival.
At the same time we have endeavored to enlarge the sphere of
usefulness of the school to its greatest possible dimensions. It be
longs to the public. It has been carefully provided for, and its
dispensations should be made in a liberal spirit and with a liberal
hand.
Many questions relating to young men, peculiarly situated, who,
under the rules cannot derive any benefit from the school, but who
are worthy of our aid and sympathy, will constantly arise. No rule
can be laid down that will govern all such cases. The only thing to
do is to determine each case on its merits.
What I have said of this school will generally apply to the Girls'
High School. We have endeavored to make the course of study
there more elastic than it was. The elements with which we have
to deal there, differ largely from those composing this school. A
majority of the pupils desire to become teachers, and are anxious to
pursue a special course of study which shall fit them for that pur- v
pose. It is not improbable that the pressiire in that direction will /
at an early day lead to the foundation of a City Normal School. In
that case, what will become of the remnant of the school which will
be left ?
When the school was founded the sexes were together, and I see
no objection to an opportunity being afforded them to pursue their
studies together now.
I believe this to be the only true policy to pursue with reference
to the higher schools. As far as is practicable, give your principals'
swing and hold them accountable for results. If they fail, depose
them, but do not meddle with them any more than can be helped
while they are on trial.
In the matter of text-books for the High Schools, fear of popular
clamor against new books should not prevent their introduction
whenever needed. The world does not stand still, and advanced
ideas cannot be obtained from obsolete books. It is nonsense to
think of acquiring a higher education without taking advantage of
every aid in the way of new books.
15. Veteran Teachers. — .Ellis H. Holmes ranks as the teacher
continuously engaged in teaching in the city schools for the
longest period of time — 23 years, from February, 1853, to June,
1876. During that time he was never absent a day from school.
Mrs. A. E. Dubois, nee /Miss Anna E.J Sandford, ranks next
to Mr. Holmes, having begun teaching as an assistant in Mr.
Denman's school, April, 1853. She has been continuously in
88 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
the schools, with the exception of six months' leave of absence.
Mrs. L. A. K. Clappe has taught continuously since November
4, 1854, and Mrs. L. A. Morgan since 1855. Mrs. Margaret
Deane has taught since 1854, but not continuously.
James Denman began teaching November 17, 1851, but re
signed in 1857, and was elected City Superintendent in 1858.
He has taught altogether 13 years, and held the office of Super
intendent 7 years.
John 0. Pelton taught in San Francisco in 1850; from 1857
to 1860; 1863 to 1870; altogether 11 years. He was City Su
perintendent 3 years, and County Superintendent 1 year; was
Principal of the State Reform School at Marysville, 1860 to
1863, and Superintendent of the San Francisco Industrial
School from 1870 to 1872.
Captain Joseph C. Merrill was the popular Principal of the
Spring Valley School from 1852 to 1860, when he resigned and
soon after entered the volunteer service of the United States,
and remained during the war of secession. In 1870, he was
appointed Principal of the Industrial School, and soon after
wards Superintendent. During an "investigation" the hue and
cry of cruelty was raised against him, and he resigned. He
was one of the kindest and most generous of men, and was the
most useful teacher ever employed in that institution.
George W. Minns was elected teacher of Natural Sciences in
the High School, August, 1856, and Principal of the Boys' High
School in 1864, and Principal of the State Normal School, 1866.
In 1867, he resigned and went East. Professor Minns was one
of the leading educational lecturers in the State.
H. P. Carlton was Principal of a Grammar School from 1854
to 1861; Vice-principal and ^Principal of the State Normal
School from 1863 to 1873; and has been a teacher in San Fran
cisco and Oakland since 1873.
Theodore Bradley was made Principal of the Denman School,
1861, and of the Boys' High School in 1866; in which he re
mained until 1874.
Thomas S. Myrick was the popular Principal of the Market
Street School and the Union Grammar School from 1856 to
1869. He is now teaching at Dutch Flat.
Mrs. E. S. Forrester has been continuously engaged as a pri
mary teacher since May 10, 1856, — 20 years.
Miss Kate Kennedy, the first female Principal of a Grammar
AND SCHOOL REPORTS.
89
School, has been in the Department, without leave of absence,
for 19 years.
Miss Dorcas D. S. Prescott, and Mrs. C. V. Gummer, nee
Benjamin, have taught since 1857, — 18 years.
Mrs. E. H. B. Varney has taught school 30 years; one half
of that period in this city.
Miss A. E. Slavan, Miss C. L. Hunt, and Mrs. S. N. Joseph,
have been teaching since 1859.
Miss P. M. Stowell, Mrs. M. J. Sankey, nee Kitchie, Mrs. A.
H. Hammill, nee Austin, and Miss M. A. Humphreys, have
taught for 15 years; Mrs. Mary W. Kincaid, Miss J. M. A.
Hurley, Miss Anna A. Hill, 14 years; Miss Helen Thompson,
Mrs. E. P. Bradley, Mrs. A. S. Trask, nee Duane, Miss Anna
Gibbons, 13 years; Mrs. Aurelia Griffith, Miss G. E. Thurton,
Miss S. A. Barr, Mrs. C. L. Atwood, and Miss Laura S. Fow
ler, 12 years.
Hubert Burgess has taught drawing for 16 years, and Wash
ington Elliott has been teaching music for 14 years.
Henry N. Bolander was a teacher in this city for 11 years;
he became State Superintendent in 1872, and City Superintend
ent in 1876.
Ebenezer Knowlton, well known as an Institute elocutionist,
was first an assistant in the State Normal School, 1865, after
wards Principal of the Kincon School, and is now an assistant
in the Boys' High School.
16. Ten Years' Teaching. — The following is a list of teachers
continuously engaged in teaching in the city schools for a period
of ten years :
Beales, Mrs. C. E. Flint, Miss A. T.
Bragg, Miss Mary J. Grant, Miss Helen A.
jBaumgardner, Mrs. E. M. Gorman, Mr. W. J.
Baldwin, Nellie.
Burke, Mrs. L. K.
Cleveland, Miss E. A.
Ciprico, Miss Anita C.
Campbell, Miss Amy T.
Cook, Miss Hannah.
Carusi, Mrs. M. J.
Cbilds, Miss Katie B.
Campbell, Miss C. E.
Coulon, Miss V.
Castelhun, Miss M. A.
Carter, Mrs. Louisa.
Dore, Miss A. M.
Deetken, Mrs. E. G.
Foster, Mrs. Emily.
Fink, Miss A. P.
Forbes, Miss Jennie.
6
Humphrey, Mr. E. D.
Hucks, Miss Annie E.
Hoffman, Mrs. M. L.
Harswell, Miss M. A.
Hyman, Miss Deborah,
Jourdau, Miss A. M.
Jordan, Miss M. L.
Jewett, Miss A. S.
Jewett, Miss Lizzie B.
Jones, Mrs. E. B.
Littlefield, Miss Nellie A
Manning, Miss Agues M ,
~~Mayboru, Miss M. J.
Marcus, Mrs. E. C.
Malloy, Miss Bessie.
Miller, Miss S. E.
-»•», Parker, Miss Jean.
Plunkett, Mrs. C. P.
Reynolds, Mrs. F. E.
Russell, Mrs. L. A.
Howe, Miss A. A,
- Sullivan, Miss KateM.
Salisbury, Miss M. A.
Shaw, Miss E. A.
Sullivan, Mrs . Therese M,
^Stincen, Miss M. A.
Smith, Miss Jessie.
Smith, Miss Jennie.
Smith, Miss M . F.
Stowell, Miss Fannie .
Soule, Miss Fanny L .
White, Miss Elizabeth.
Wood, Mrs. E. A.
Wade, Miss Margaret,
Washburn, Mrs. Georgia.
-.Winn, Mr. A. T.
White, Silas A.
90 SCHOOL LEGISLATION
3. SUPERINTENDENTS OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS, SAN FRANCISCO.
APPOINTED BY THE BOARD OF EDUCATION.
Thomas J. Nevins '52, '53
Wm. H. O'Grady '54, '55
ELECTED BY DIRECT VOTE OF THE PEOPLE.
E. A. Theller '56
John C. Pelton '57, '66, '67
Henry B. Janes '58, '59
James Denman '60, '61, '68, '69, '70, '74, '75
George Tait '62, '63, '64, '65
J. H. Widber '71, '72, '73
H. N. Bolander '76-'78
Deputy Superintendents.
[Appointed by the City Superintendent.]
John Swett '71, '72, '73
Joseph Leggett '74, '75
D. C. Stone '76-'78
Secretaries of the Board.
[Appointed by the Superintendent and Confirmed by the Board.,]
George Beanston '68-'76
4. PRESIDENTS OF BOARDS OF EDUCATION, SAN FRANCISCO
[Mayors, ex-qfficio, Presidents of Boards appointed by the Common Council.
C. J. Brenham '52
C. K. Garrison '54
S. P. Webb '55
James Van Ness '56
CHOSEN BY BOARDS ELECTED BY THE PEOPLE.
William Sherman '57, '58, '59
William Pierson '60, '61
W. L. Palmer ." '62
Dr. C. C. Knowles '63
M. Lynch '64, '65
J. W. Winans '66, '67
Thos.. H. Holt '68
H. A. Cobb '69
J. M. Burnett '70, 71
Joseph Clement '72, ;76
H. J. Tilden '73, '74
Andrew McF. Davis . . '75
AND SCHOOL REPORTS.
91
5. HISTORICAL LIST OF PRINCIPALS, SAN FRANCISCO.*
* Taken, mainly, from the Annual Report of Superintendent Denman, '75.
BOYS' HIGH.
X E. H. Holmes Aug. '56.
Geo. W. Minns Jane, '64.
Theodore Bradley. . . .June, '65.
W. T. Heed March, '75.
GIRLS' HIGH.
E. H. Holmes '64 to '76.
John Swett June, '76.
DENMAN.
James Denrnan ....... Nov. '51.
George Tait .......... June, '57.
Theodore Bradley ..... Dec. '61.
James Denman ....... July* '64.
John Swett ........... Dec. '67.
James Denman ........ Jan. '71.
John Swett ........... Dec. '73.
James Denman ....... June, '76.
RINCON.
Silas Weston .......... Jan. '52.
Wm. H. O'Grady ..... May, '52.
Stillman Holmes ....... Oct. '53.
VFohn Swett ............ Dec. '53.
John C. Pelton ........ Jan. '63.
Ira G. Hoitt .......... Sept. '64.
Ebenezer Knowlton. ..June, '65.
Miss E. A. Cleveland. ..Oct. '74.
WASHINGTON.
E. E. Jones ........... Dec. '51.
E. H. Holmes ...... March, '53.
H. P. Carlton ......... Aug. '56.
James Stratton ........ Jan. '61.
L. D. Allen .......... July, '68.
Joseph O'Connor ...... Dec. '74.
UNION.
Ahira Holmes ........ June, '52.
Wm. Hammill ........ Nov. '56.
Ahira Holmes ......... Jan. '58.
Thomas S. Myrick ..... Jan. '60.
Philip Prior ......... June, '69.
Chas. F. True.. ..Dec. '74.
SPUING VALLEY.
Asa W. Cole Feb. '52.
J. C. Mori-ill Oct. '53.
Geo. W. Peck May, '60.
Geo. W. Bunnell Jan. '62.
Bernhard Marks Jan. '74.
Noah F. Flood June, '68.
W. J. G. Williams. . . .June, '69.
Silas A. White Feb. '75.
J. W. Anderson -.Jan. '76.
LINCOLN.
Ira G. Hoitt July, '65.
J. C. Pelton Dec. '67.
W. T. Luckey Dec. '67.
Bernhard Marks June, '68.
J. K. Wilson.. ..Nov. '72.
MISSION.
Alfred Kix
Clara B. Walbridge.
Thos. C. Leonard..
Ahira Holmes
E. D. Humphrey. . .
Mary J. Bragg
Laura T. Fowler. .
, . May, '52.
..Aug. '53.
. . .Nov. '55.
.June, '65.
.June, '67.
..Feb. '71.
..Nov. '74.
BROADWAY.
W. J. G. Williams. . .June, '68.
Noah F. Flood June, '69.
Chas. F. True Nov. '72.
W. J. G. Williams Feb. '75.
C. H. Ham March, '76.
SOUTH COSMOPOLITAN.
Mrs. Ulrika Eendsburg . .Oct. '65.
H. N. Bolander Feb. '67.
A. Herbst Dec. '71.
NORTH COSMOPOLITAN.
Miss Kate Kennedy '67.
EIGHTH STREET.
WTm. J. Gorman Jan. '68.
J. Phelps Sept. '69.
John A. Moore Sept. '70.
SCHOOL LEGISLATION
HATES VALLEY.
E. D. Humphrey July, '71.
VALENCIA STREET.
Silas A. White '71.
J. W. Anderson Feb. '75.
Silas A. White Jan. '76.
MODEL SCHOOL.
Mrs. A. E. Dubois '67.
SOUTH SAN FRANCISCO.
W. J. Gorman Sept. '69.
GEARY STREET.
Wm. A. Kobertson . . . .June, '76.
MARKET STREET PRIMARY.
Miss M. D. Lynde. . .March, '60.
Fred. Elliot Jan. '62.
Bernhard Marks Sept. '62.
Mrs. C. H. Stout Jan. '64.
Miss Agnes Manning. .July, '72.
LINCOLN PRIMARY.
Miss Kate Sullivan '66.
TEHAMA PRIMARY.
"Mrs. E. C. Burt June, '65.
Mrs. E. A. Wood June, '67.
FOURTH STREET.
Mrs. A. E. McGlynn. .April, '63.
Mrs. L. A. Morgan June, '65.
PINE AND LARKIN PRIMARY.
Miss Eliza Hawxhurst. .Jan, '62.
Miss J. A. Lyon March, '62.
Mrs. C. H. Stout May, '63.
Mrs. Alice Bunnell May, '64.
Miss Hannah Cooke. . .June, '65.
GREENWICH PRIMARY.
Mrs. K. D. Bird. . Jan. '52.
Miss P. M. Stbwell Dec. '61.
Miss Kate Kennedy. . .May, '62.
Mrs. W. E. Duane. . . June, '68.
HAYES VALLEY PRIMARY.
Miss H. B. Gushing. . . .Jan. '63.
Miss L. J. Mastic May, '64.
Miss P. M. Stowell. .March, '68.
UNION PRIMARY.
Mrs. Amelia Griffith '67.
EIGHTH STREET PRIMARY.
Miss Mary Williams. .June, '64.
Miss A. E. Slaven Oct. '64.
SHOTWELL PRIMARY.
Miss Anna A. Hill Feb. '72.
BUSH STREET PRIMARY.
Mrs. C. P. Plunkett Jan. '72.
BROADWAY PRIMARY.
Miss A. M. Murphy. . . .Feb. '67.
Mrs. L. G. Deetkin Aug. '70.
SPRING VALLEY PRIMARY.
Miss H. A. Hanecke . .March, '66.
Miss P. A. Fink Sept. '66.
Miss J. M. A. Hurley. .Nov. '67.
POWELL STREET PRIMARY.
Mrs. E. C. Burt June, '61.
Miss Caroline Price. . .June, '63.
Miss C. Y. Benjamin. .June, '66.
RINCON PRIMARY.
Miss E. G. Smith Jan. '67.
Miss Jennie Smith. . .March, '68.
STOCKTON PRIMARY.
Miss M. D'Arcy '68.
Miss A. M. Stincen '74.
TYLER AND JONES STREET.
Mrs. C. B. Jones '70.
SAN BRUNO.
Miss G. Washburn. . ..Sept. '64.
George Pershine July, '65.
Miss Jennie Sheldon . . Sept. '65.
Miss Marion Sears Oct. '69.
Mrs. M.Dean Aug. '72.
AND SCHOOL KEPORTS.
93
TYLER STREET.
- Miss A. S. Jewett Aug. '68.
Miss S. H. Whitney. . .Aug. '67.
Miss Mary J. Bragg. . .June, '68.
Miss E. Gushing Feb. '71.
POINT LOBOS.
Wellington Gordon '71.
WEST END PRIMARY.
Miss A. M. Dore Oct. '04.
Mrs. Louisa Carter. . .June, '65.
Mr. S. A. White.' Oct. '66.
Mr. A. L. Mann June, '67.
Mr. Robert Desty. . July '67
Mr. W. W. Holder . . .July, '68.
Mr. J. W. Lannon Aug. '69.
Mr. Chas. F. True.. March, '70.
<Mr. C. H. Ham Aug. '70.
Mr. W. W. Stone Feb. '73.
Mr. Selden Sturgess. . .Sept. '75.
FAIRMOUNT PRIMARY.
Miss M. A. Salisbury . . Sept. '64.
Miss A. M. Manning. . .Jan. '65.
Miss A. C. Bowen June, '65.
Mr. E. D. Humphrey. June, '66.
FAIRMOUNT PRIMARY— Continued.
Mr. Philip Prior June, '67.
Mrs. T. J. Kevins Aug. '67.
Miss Susie Carey July, '68.
Mr. Albert Lyser Oct. '68.
Mr. Geo. B. Kobertson . Aug. '70.
Mr. J. W. Lannon Oct. '70.
Mr. J. C. Robertson. . .Nov. '71.
Mr. J. W. Anderson. . .Oct. '73.
Mr. H. P. Carlton Oct. '74.
Mr. W. W. Stone Aug. '75.
OCEAN HOUSE.
Mrs. M. McGilvery . . . .July, '66.
Mr. Albert Lyser June, '68.
Mr. W. A. Robertson. .Nov. '68.
Mr. John Fox April, '69.
Mr. John A. Moore. . .June, '69.
Mr. W. Gordon Dec. '69.
Miss A. M. Murphy. . .Sept. '70.
Mr. Jas. Dwyer Feb. '73.
JTOE AND TEMPLE.
Mrs. E. Foster 75.
JACKSON STREET.
Mrs. B. F. Moore., ..75.
Evening Schools. — An evening school was opened, Aug. 1856,
Aliira Holmes, principal. James Denman, John Swett, and John
Hammill volunteered their services as assistants until the
school was established. This school continued with from 100
v
to 200 pupils until 1869, when John Swett was elected Principal.
The school was then regularly graded, was opened in the
Lincoln building, was made free to adults, and in three months
the attendance swelled to 900. A commercial class and an
industrial drawing class were soon organized. In 1871, Mr.
Swett resigned and was succeeded by William A* Robertson,
the present Principal.
SCHOOL LEGISLATION.
6. HISTORICAL STATISTICAL TABLE OF THE SAN FRAN
CISCO SCHOOLS, 1852-76.
YEAES.
TOTAL EXPENSE.
AVERAGE
DAILY
ATTENDANCE.
NUMBER
or
TEACHERS.
1852
$23 125 00
445
15
1853 ,
35 040 00
1 182
16
1854
159 249 00
1 272
19
1855
136 580 00
1,638
29
1856 .
125 064 00
2 516
61
1857
92 955 00
2 155
60
1858
104,808 00
2,521
67
1859
134 731 00
2,829
75
1860
156 407 00
2 837
68
1861
158 855 00
3 377
73
1862
134,567 00
3,786
82
1863
178,929 00
4,389
94
1864
228,411 00
5,229
108
1865
346,862 00
6,718
138
1866
361,668 00
8,131
206
1867
507,822 00
10,177
253
1868
415,839 00
11,871
285
1869
400,842 00
13,113
326
1870
526,625 90
15,394
371
1871
705,116 00
16,978
416
1872
668,262 00
18,272
480
1873
611,818 00
18,530
506
1874
689 022 00
19,434
510
1875
707,445 36
21,014
552
Total
$7,610,043 36
7. SPECIAL SCHOOL STATISTICS, SAN FRANCISCO.
Estimated population, 1875 234,000
Number of census children, 5 to 17 37,583
Number of pupils enrolled in public schools 31,128
Average daily attendance . • 21,014
Number attending private and church schools 6,094
Enrolled in High Schools 702
AND SCHOOL REPORTS. 95
Enrolled |in Grammar Schools 6,055
" Primary Schools 22,158
" Evening Schools 2,213
Teachers (men, 63; women, 447) — total 510
Whole number of classes 449
Expenditures $700,147
Tax roll of the city $264,000,000
Estimated value of school property $3,367,000
CLASSES AND TEACHERS. j
Number of classes in the High Schools 17
Number of Grammar Classes (average, 50 each) 108
Number of Primary Classes (average, 55 each) 304
Number of Evening Classes (average, 40 each) 20
Total number of classes 449
Total number of Principals of different schools 47
High Schools, 2; Grammar Schools, 12; Mixed Schools,
9; Primary Schools, 24.
Number of Principals of schools not required to teach a class . . 25
Males, 12; Females, 13.
Number of Vice-Principals 16
Males, 8; Females, 8.
Number of teachers in High Schools 22 ^
Males, 10; Females, 12.
Number of teachers in Grammar Schools 129
Males, 27; Females, 102.
Number of teachers in Primary Schools 325
Male, 1; Females, 324.
Number of teachers in Evening Schools 23
Males, 20; Females, 3.
Number of teachers of German and French 22
German, 13; French, 9.
Teacher of Latin and Greek 1
Number of special teachers 11
Music, 6; Drawing, 5.
Total number of teachers . . . 510
96 TEACHERS' CONVENTIONS
PART II.
I. TEACHERS' CONVENTIONS AND INSTITUTES.
i. FIRST STATE TEACHERS' CONVENTION.
THE first State Teachers' Convention, called by State Super
intendent Hubbs, was held in the city of San Francisco, Dec.
26-28, 1854, Supt. Hubbs presiding. No roll of members ap
pears on the manuscript minutes, but about 100 teachers, and
other persons interested in school matters, from various parts
of the State, were in attendance.
Col. E. D. Baker was introduced to the convention, and
made an eloquent address on the subject of general education,
and painted in glowing language the future of California. Ke-
marks were made by Kev. M. C. Briggs, Eev. John E. Benton,
and Dr. Gibbons. Dr. Winslow read an address on the "Use
of the Bible in Public Schools," and the Eev. S. Y. Blakesly
one on "Phonography in School."
On the second day J. M. Buffington, of Stockton, made a
report, which was adopted, recommending the appointment of
a committee of seven, to make ; immediate arrangements for
organizing a State Institute. John S. Hittell introduced a
resolution, which was adopted, providing for the appointment
of a committee to memorialize the Legislature on the subject
of libraries. Mr. Freeman Gates moved the appointment of a
committee to report a State series of text-books. Essa}7s on
the management of primary schools were read by Mrs. Hazle-
ton, Mrs. Clapp, Mrs. Williams, Miss Allyn, and Miss Austin.
Mr. Wells, of Sacramento, read an essay on the "General
Management of Schools," and Mr. Phillips, of Stockton, on
the "Free School System. " Mr. Buffington, of Stockton, de
livered an address on "Education," and Sherman Day spoke
AND INSTITUTES. 97
on the same subject. * John Swett read an address on the sub
ject of "Elocution in the Common Schools," and J. C. Merrill
an able address on "Unclassified Schools."
The proceedings of this Convention were characterized by
a good degree of interest; the essays and addresses were gen
erally able; but no improvements in school law worth mention
ing were recommended, and the convention left no mark on the
educational history of the State.
a. SECOND STATE TEACHERS' CONVENTION.
The second State Teachers' Convention met at Benicia, Aug.
12, 1856, Supt. Hubbs presiding.
William Sherman, from the Committee on Text-Books, re
ported a series recommended for general use.
Gen. Wool being introduced to the meeting, made a brief
speech, in which he complimented the ladies, and said that all
the greatest men owed their education and the formation of
their characters principally to women.
Mr. Merrill offered a resolution in favor of reading the Bible
in the public schools, which, after an exciting debate, was
tabled by 21 to 16.
Essays were read by Mr. J. C. Merrill, on "Corporal Pun
ishment;" by Mr. Monroe, on "Thorough Training;" by Mr.
Wells, on "Course of Studies;" and by Mrs. Hill, on the
"Mission of Females as Teachers."
The convention was not largely attended, only 60 members
being present. No important measures were acted on, and the
convention gave no renewed impulse to the interests of educa
tion.
3. FIRST STATE INSTITUTE.
The first State Institute, called by State Superintendent
Moulder, met in the city of San Francisco, May 27, 1861, and
continued in session five days, with a total attendance of 250
members. The Legislature of the previous year had made
an appropriation of $3000 for the purpose of aiding State In
stitutes.
In his address, Mr. Moulder stated the plan of proceedings^
which devoted the morning sessions to regular Institute lec
tures, and the afternoon sessions to a convention; that the adop-
98 TEACHERS' CONVENTIONS
tion of a State series of text-books was one important measure
to be acted upon; recommended the appointment of committees
on school laws and State Normal School; and summed up the
improvements made in the school laws during a period of four
years.
George W. Minns delivered an address on "Methods of
Teaching."
^ Mr. Swett, who was appointed to present the subject of
"Object Teaching" and "Gymnastics," introduced first an
object lesson, and then a gymnastic class from the Eincon
School, which went through with double and single dumb-bell
exercises, free gymnastics, calisthenics, wands, and Indian club
exercises.
James Denman delivered an address on "School Discipline."
Mr. Sparrow Smith moved that a committee of three teachers
be appointed to report on establishing a State Teachers' Jour- '
nal, and Messrs. Smith, Gates and Minns were appointed.
George W. Minns was made Chairman of a Standing Com
mittee on Text-Books, to report at the next Institute. Mr.
Smith, of Sacramento, from the Committee on State school
journal, reported in favor of appointing a standing committee
to devise ways and means for publishing such a journal, and
after the appointment of this committee, the Institute adjourned
sine die. The proceedings were published in pamphlet form.
4. SECOND STATE INSTITUTE.
The Second State Institute was convened in Sacramento by
Superintendent Moulder, September 23, 1862, and continued in
session three days, with an attendance of 100 members.
Superintendent Moulder made a brief introductory address.
Mr. George W. Bonnell delivered an address on the "Art of
Memory," illustrated by a pupil from his school.
Mr. Minns, Chairman of Standing Committee on Text-Books,
made a lengthy report on that subject. Union resolutions were
unanimously and enthusiastically adopted.
Mr. Pierce, of Yolo, introduced a resolution in favor of a
law requiring a uniform State series of text-books, which after
a long debate was passed by a vote of 26 to 24.
Mr. Sparrow Smith introduced a resolution, which was
adopted, to appoint a standing committee of twelve on State
Teachers' Journal.
AND INSTITUTES. 99
Mr. Minns delivered a very eloquent and able lecture on
"Moral Instruction."
Supt. Moulder then closed the Institute with the following
remarks :
Before putting the question to adjourn sine die, I desire to
express my earnest thanks for the kindness and consideration you
have exhibited toward your presiding officer, and more especially
for the warm and flattering terms in which you have seen fit to
speak of my official action during the past six years.
It is deeply gratifying to find that I have met the approval of
those who ought best to know how I have performed the duties of
my office, and whose good opinion is therefore most to be desired.
* * # # # * *
My connection with you, fellow-workers in the cause, has always
been harmonious and agreeable. In retiring to private life, I shall
retain a pleasing recollection of our long association. From the
bottom of my heart I wish you all a prosperous and happy career.
Thanking you again for your unvarying courtesy and your kind
expressions of approval, I bid you farewell, and declare this con
vention adjourned sine die.
The proceedings were published in pamphlet form.
STATE CERTIFICATES.
At this Institute, the State Board of Examination, consisting
of the State Superintendent and six County Superintendents,
held an oral examination and issued 5 State grammar school
certificates and 12 "Mixed School" certificates, valid for two
years.
5. THIRD STATE INSTITUTE.
The third State Institute, called by State Superintendent
Swett, assembled in San Francisco, May 4, 1863, in the New
Music Hall, the largest and finest hall in the city. Four hun
dred and sixty-three registered members were in attendance.
The daily sessions were also attended by hundreds of other per
sons, and at the evening lectures the hall was filled to its utmost
capacity. In the circular announcing this Institute is found the
following on the benefits of Institutes :
No argument is needed to prove the great advantages resulting
from Teachers3 Institutes. They are not intended as substitutes
for Normal Schools, nor can they educate teachers to the business
of their profession ; yet they serve the most admirable purpose of
improving those who are only temporarily engaged in the profes
sion, of furnishing those who are not systematically trained, with
the best methods of instruction, and of increasing the efficiency of
professional teachers.
100 TEACHEKS' CONVENTIONS
The exercises of an Institute involve an outline view of subjects
relating to the proper mode of imparting instruction, present the -
latest information regarding the progress of education in our own
and in other countries, and afford an occasion for experienced teach
ers to present practical views, which cannot be obtained from books.
The best thoughts and best acquirements of the most original teach
ers are elicited and thrown into the common stock of professional
knowledge. They influence public opinion, by bringing the teach
er's labors more prominently before the community, and by prornot- f
ing a higher estimate of the Common School in its vital relation to
society and the State. The routine of a teacher's daily life limits
his influence to the narrow sphere of the school-room; but the pro
ceedings of an Institute are carried by the press to thousands of
families in the State, and his views become an active element in
public opinion. No obstacle to the progress of Free Schools is so
formidable as the apathy and indifference of the people. Eloquence
the most winning, and logic the most convincing, alike fall dead
upon the ears of those who see nothing in the establishment of
Common Schools but an increase of the rates of taxation. But let
the true relation of schools to property be once clearly seen, let it
be generally known that the value of property increases with the
excellence of the schools, and real estate cheerfully consents to be
taxed, from motives of self-interest. The axiom in our American
system of Free Schools, that it is the bounden duty of the property^
of the State to provide for the education of all the children of the
State, rich and poor alike, is in accordance with the spirit of our
Government, and should be insisted on by the people to the very
fullest extent. If the people of our State are indifferent to Public
Schools, it is only because more absorbing topics engage their atten
tion, while the educational interests are not urgently and persist
ently presented to their view.
Association in some form is one of the most powerful agencies of
the times. In conventions of industry and arts, mind is dignifying
the labor of the artisan. Farmers have their agricultural societies,
and hold their annual fairs, in which are exhibited the best stock,
the choicest varieties of grain and vegetables, the most approved
agricultural implements, and the best labor-saving machines. The
inventions, improvements, and discoveries of one, thus become the
common property of all.
And while Institutes have accomplished so much in introducing
better methods of instruction, they are no less beneficial in their
effects on the mental habits of the teachers. Constantly imparting
to minds inferior to his own, his faculties exercised in one direction^
only, his full strength seldom called forth, he needs the stimulus of
contact with his equals, or superiors. A vigorous contest in a new^,
arena lessens his self-conceit, and brightens his faculties.
It is a common notion that the occupation of teaching makes a
man narrow-minded, or leads him into eccentricities, which stick to
him like burs ; but it is not true of a teacher who has in him the
elements of living scholarship. He may, it is true, run in the
grooves of daily habit, until he becomes a machine for dragging the
dead weight of a school; but, on the other hand, he may, while im-
AND INSTITUTES. 101
parting to others, himself drink from the perennial fountain of true
scholarship.
But no occupation is more exhausting to nervous force and men-
' tal energy than teaching ; and the teacher needs, above all others,
the cheering influences of pleasant social intercourse with those
whose tastes and habits are similar to his own.
No wonder, then, that the schoolmaster, buried in some obscure
district, surrounded only by the raw material of mind, which he is
trying to weave into a finer texture, without access to books, his
motives either misunderstood or aspersed, his labors often seemingly
barren of results, his services half paid, with no amusement but the
collection of delinquent rate bills, and no study but "how to make
both ends meet;" no wonder that he sometimes becomes moody
and* disheartened, loses his enthusiasm, and feels that the very sky
(above him is one vast blackboard, on which he is condemned to/*
/ work out the sum total of his existence.
He only needs the social intercourse of institutes, and the cordial
sympathy of fellow -teachers, there evoked, to make the heavens
glow with hope. There he finds his difficulties are shared by
others, his labors are appreciated, and his vocation respected.
The duties of the teacher are not limited to the school-room ; his »
influence should extend to society around him. If teachers fold
their arms in listless apathy, it is not strange that public opinion is
" dead as a door nail" to their demands. There was a time when
a man taught school because he was fit for nothing else ; but all
such fossils lie buried in the strata of past educational epochs.
Now, a living man is asked for, not an abridgment of mathematics.
While a State Institute is designed more especially for the teach
ers of public schools, professors and instructors in colleges and pri
vate institutions of learning are hardly less interested in the success
and influence of this educational meeting. The interests of colleges
and collegiate institutions are intimately connected with those of
the public schools. All those who acquire an elementary education
in the common schools, necessarily seek in private institutions of
learning to complete a full course of instruction. The better the
public schools, the larger will be the number of those whose minds
shall be awakened to pursue a course of study beyond the range of
the common school. Before our higher institutions can produce
disciplined thinkers, and thoroughly trained professional men, the
elementary schools must be carried to a corresponding degree of
excellence.
As teachers, we are debtors to our profession; and our patriotism
ought to incite us to an earnest devotion to the advancement of our
system of Free Schools ; a system essential to the existence of a
free people, and the permanence of a free government.
It is our duty to cultivate in our schools a higher regard for free
dom, a sounder faith in the fundamental principles upon which a
representative government is based, and a higher estimate of the
incalculable blessings conferred by the Constitution — firm in the
conviction that our country is working out for the future, amid the
present storm, a higher order of civilization and a nobler conception
of liberty.
' 102
The course of lectures was as follows :
George W. Minns : Physical Geography of the United States.
Prof. J. D. Whitney: Character of Humboldt. Eev. Thomas
Starr King: James Eussell Lowell, or the "Bigelow Papers.'
'John Swett: Duties of the State to Public Schools. Prof. S. I.
C. Swezey : State Normal Schools, and how to teach English
Composition. Eev. S. H. Wiley : The Place and Eelations of
the College in our System of Education. H. P. Carlton: Object
Teaching. D. C. Stone: Grammar. Bernhard Marks: W^aste
in School. Supt. Swett: Common Sense applied to Teaching.
John E. Benton : Elocution. John S. Hittell : Defects in Teach
ing. Dr. F. W. Hatch : Need of Good Teachers. Hubert Bur
gess: Linear Drawing. Ahira Holmes: Report of State Normal
School.
The proceedings were published in a neat pamphlet form of
166 pages, and an edition of 2400 copies was distributed among
teachers and school officers.
One of the most important results of the Institute was the
action taken in favor of a State tax for the support of schools.
The State Superintendent urged this measure in a lengthy
address.
The recommendation for a State tax met the approval of the
Institute; and the State Superintendent was instructed to pre
pare a form of petition to the Legislature on the subject, and to
circulate it in every school district in the State.
The following form was accordingly prepared, circulated and
signed by more than six thousand voters :
PETITION FOR STATE SCHOOL TAX.
To the Honorable the Members of the Legislature of the State of Cali
fornia:
WHEREAS, We believe that it is the duty of a representative gov
ernment to maintain public schools as an act of self-preservation,
and that the property of the State should be taxed to educate the
children of the State; and whereas, the present School Fund is
wholly inadequate to sustain a system of free schools; we, the un
dersigned, qualified electors of the State of California, respectfully
ask your honorable body to levy a special State tax of half a mill on
the dollar during the fiscal years eighteen hundred and sixty-four
and eighteen hundred and sixty-five, the proceeds of the same to be
disbursed in the same manner as the present State School Fund.
The next important measure was the action relating to a State
educational journal.
AND INSTITUTES. 103
D. C. Stone, of Marysville, from the standing committee of
the previous year, reported against the practicability of starting
such a journal.
Sparrow Smith, also of the committee, in a minority report,
dissented, and urged an attempt to establish one.
Professor Swezey, J. L. Wilbur, J. 0. Pelton, George Tait,
James Stratton and Superintendent Wwett, spoke in favor of a
journal, and Dr. Gibbons and Mr. Eodgers rose in opposition.
A committee, consisting of Messrs. Smith, Tait and Seymour,
was appointed, who reported in favor of establishing a State
educational journal, called the California Teacher, to be pub
lished at one dollar per annum, and to be edited by a board of
resident editors, consisting ofSTohn Swett, George Tait and
George "W. Minns. Mr. Minns declined to serve, and nomi
nated Mr. Swezey to fill his place. The first number of this
journal was issued in July following.
The subject of a State professional society being brought
before the Institute, the plan was advocated by Rev. John E.
Benton, Theodore Bradley and others.
A committee was appointed, with Mr. Bradley chairman, who
made a report, and requested all interested in forming such a
society to meet after the final adjournment of the Institute.
A State Educational Society was soon afterwards formed on
the plan recommended.
STATE SERIES OF TEXT-BOOKS.
The revised school law having made provision for the adop
tion and compulsory use of some uniform State series of text
books, no small share of the time of the Institute was taken up
in discussing the merits of school-books. The Institute voted
to recommend to the State Board of Education the following
series, which was afterwards adopted by the State Board with
hardly any variation: Willson's Eeaders and Spellers; Eaton's
and Robinson's Arithmetics; Cornell's and Warren's Geogra
phies; Quackenbos' Grammar and History of the United States.
STATE EXAMINATIONS.
One hundred teachers entered the examination for State
diplomas and certificates. The examination was conducted in
writing, by means of printed questions, and nearly three thou
sand pages of manuscript were carefully examined and credited
by the Board.
104 TEACHEES' CONVENTIONS
State educational diplomas, valid for six years, were granted
to the following teachers : T. C. Barker, Stephen G. Nye,
Bernhard Marks, T. W. J. Holbrook, Joseph W. Josselyn,
Thomas Ewing, William K. Kowell, Cyrus C. Cummings,
Edward P. Batchelor.
State certificates were issued as follows :
First grade certificates, valid for four years 7
Second grade certificates, valid for two years 10
Third grade certificates, valid for two years 20
Whole number, including diplomas 46
KESULTS.
Aside from the incidental labors and benefits of the Insti
tute, its practical and solid results may be summed up as follows :
First. A State educational journal;
Second. Action recommending a State school tax;
Third. A State educational and professional society;
Fourth. Adoption of a State series of text-books;
Fifth. The granting of a large number of State diplomas and
certificates;
Sixth. The publication of a valuable volume of proceedings
and lectures.
6. FOURTH STATE INSTITUTE.
A State Teachers' Institute was held in the city of San Fran
cisco from September 19-24, 1865. No appropriation in aid of
such Institutes was granted by the State Legislature in 1863;
but owing to the liberality of the Board of Education of San
Francisco, which tendered the use of the Lincoln Schoolhouse,
and paid the bills for gas, the State Superintendent was enabled
to hold one without any expense whatever to the State.
The Institute was convened in September, during the vacation
of the city schools, that being the only time in the year when
the Lincoln Hall could be used for such a purpose. Notwith
standing the fact that many of the schools in the interior had
just opened their new terms for the year, in consequence of
which the teachers were unable to attend, three hundred teach
ers from various parts of the State were present.
The most important purpose for which it was convened was
the holding of an examination of applicants for State diplomas
AND INSTITUTES. 105
and certificates. How well that purpose was accomplished is
set forth in another part of this report.
The following lectures were delivered before the Institute:
"The State and the School," John E. Benton; " School Law,"
UTohn Swett; " Geography of California," Charles Russell Clarke;
"A Practical Education," Prof. Kellogg; "Physical Training,"
EbenezerKnowlton; "Physiology and Hygiene, " H. P. Carlton;
"Force," Dr. "Washington Ayer; "Comparison between the
European and American Systems of Education," Bernhard
Marks; " Moral Training," Rev. S. H. Willey; "Modern Lan
guages in Public Schools," .Ralph Keeler; "Education," Dr.
Luckey.
Several of these addresses were published in the California
Teacher. The subjects of "School Libraries," "Course of
Study for Ungraded Schools," and "Teachers' Life Diplomas,"
were discussed at length.
A committee of all the County Superintendents present at the
Institute acted in detail on the sections of a bill of amendments
to the school law, and, with a few immaterial changes, approved
the provisions submitted to the committee by the Superintend
ent of Public Instruction.
An evening ticket lecture was delivered by J. Boss Browne,
about " Queer People and Queer Places," which netted the sum
of $54 for the benefit of the California Teacher. Also an evening
lecture on "Natural Philosophy," by Professor Minns, of the
State Normal School.
The California Steam Navigation Company gave all members
of the Institute free passes to and from San Francisco, over their
several routes of travel, and the railroad lines gave free return
passes to Institute members.
7. FIFTH AND SIXTH INSTITUTES.
The Fifth Institute was held in San Francisco May 7-11, 1867,
and attended by 500 teachers. Addresses as follows:
< Supt. John Swett: "Educational Progress." D. C. Stone:
"Self-Improvement." Kev. C. G. Ames: "The Teacher's Mo
tives." Ealph Keeler: "The Oldest Scholar." Eev. John E.
Benton: "Eeadiuess." William White: "Teachers and Pa
rents."
17
106 TEACHEKS' CONTENTIONS AND INSTITUTES.
The Sixth Institute convened at Lincoln Hall, May 4-7, 1869.
Addresses were delivered as follows :
State Supt. Fitzgerald: "Educational Condition." Prof.
John Le Conte: "Nebula Hypothesis." Geo. W. Simonton:
"True Education."^" John Swett: "Arithmetic."
The subject of "Text-Books" was discussed and reported
upon.
8. SEVENTH AND EIGHTH INSTITUTES.
The Seventh State Institute met in San Francisco, Sept.
13-16, 1870. Addresses and lectures were given by Supt.
Fitzgerald; Prof. E. S. Carr, on "Air," and "Industrial Ed
ucation;" Mr. Marks, on "Mathematics." J. P. Garlick:
"Ungraded Schools." Miss Dolliver: A Poem. Dr. Schell-
house: "Grammar." Miss Fowler: "Defects in Education."
Dr. Luckey: "State Normal School." Prof. Joseph Le Conte:
"Universal Law of Cyclical Movement."
The Eighth and last Institute met in San Francisco, Nov.
7-10, 1871. Supt. Fitzgerald delivered an annual address.
Lectures were given as follows :
Dr. Schellhouse: "The Art of Teaching." Dr. Logan:
" School Ventilation and Hygiene." Dr. Gibbons: "Hygiene
of Dress." Miss Dolliver: "Cobwebs and Brooms." Dr. E.
S. Carr: " The Educational Work of Sarmiento."
The discussions were, in general, on unimportant topics.
This was the last of the State Institutes, the Legislature of
1872 having cut off the annual appropriation of $250 for
expenses.
9. STATE ASSOCIATION.
The State Board of Education called, by resolution, a con
vention of teachers at San Jose, June, 1875, but the attend
ance was small.
A State Teachers' Association was organized, but the pro
ceedings were of no special consequence.
INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 107
II. INSTITUTE ADDRESSES.
i. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION.*
Mr. President and Teachers: During the past few weeks the world
has been watching the sudden, and to the unobservant eye, almost
miraculous transfer of power and prestige from one of the great
leading European States to another. A quiet, home-loving practical
people have suddenly developed a vast amount of latent force, which
it puzzles us to name. Is it brains versus bullets, science versus
sentiment^ that awaits the arbitrament of war, or a territorial ques
tion only ? Somehow or other, ideas and education have gone up
in the scale as they never did before in any ten weeks of human
history.
We are all foolish enough to fix our eyes upon the two central
figures of the strife; but neither Teuton fox nor Gallic wolf have
had very much to do with the results which so astonish and appal
the world.
If Prussia, so far victorious, has been busy rearing a nation of
soldiers, she has done it openly, in the face of the world. She has
made every soldier a fortification by the completeness of an educa
tional system which makes the most of whatever a man is born with.
That system is on exhibition, not only of its value for defense, but
its moral power, its temperance and self-control. Whatever the
final political result may be, it is certain that not one Prussian who
has fallen has felt himself a tool or a dupe, played upon by superior
cunning and selfishness.
There is not a soldier of that grand army who has had less than
ten years' schooling (most of them have had from fifteen to eighteen
years); their bodies have been as carefully trained as their minds,
and by teachers who make this their life business.
What would you expect from a country that has an army of three
million children at school, whether they wish to go or not and
whether their parents wish them to go or not, and for a Government
that provides for this largely by devoting to it the heaviest outlay of
its resources ?
Would you expect Prussia to be beaten, when you know that
until the year 1831, France had made no provision for the instruc
tion of her millions, had no public elementary schools when Guizot
sent Victor Cousin to study the school system of Prussia, with a
view to its adoption ?
Power is cumulative, and although Napoleon III has nobly fostered
education and science, he started at a disadvantage. Poor, be-
leagurecl Paris trembles to-day in greater terror of the ignorant and
* Abstract of a lecture before the State Teachers' Institute, September, 1870,
by Ezra S. Carr, M.D.
108 INSTITUTE ADDKESSES.
therefore brutalized rabble, shut in to watch and wait -with her
her deliverance or her doom, than the foe outside her gates.
I confess I am anxious that our own Government should keep on
the best of terms with those Germans. I should dread a tyranny
like that of "Wurtemburg, which permits no child to learn a trade,
enter any occupation, or receive any pay for any service whatsoever,
until he has answered the demands of the school law. Imagine the
consternation which the sudden enforcement of such a regulation
would cause in America, in low and in high places! As an offset to
this terror, imagine what it would be for you, teachers, to be
enrolled among the " high mightinesses," to be ranked and consid
ered as the most valuable civil servitors of the State, with honorable
compensation and just promotions for your terms of service, and a
comfortable pension when you are old.
Do not think I am praising overmuch, and covertly keeping back
a part of the truth. Germany has outdone the world in education,
and we have outdone Germany in just one respect! We have dis
covered and put in practice a great natural law of education, viz.,
that women are better teachers than men. And they only need the^
higher education from which they have been so long excluded to
make their superiority manifest.
The educational creed of Prussia does not take long in the reading.
Article one declares the sacred right of every individual to the
best means of development.
Article two, the value to the State, to her wealth, power and civ
ilization, of universal education.
Article three declares the realization of this impossible without
the agency of a great profession, acting concertedly, wisely and
zealously together, and that the members of this profession must be
made to feel their position honorable, secure and independent.
Unless you are dissenters, I ask you to listen patiently to some
thing I have to say about industrial education, for your help is very
much needed in creating a desire for it.
On this new field of California, where we have only begun our
work, and where there is only a glimmering apprehension on the
part of the public of what this business of education is, and what it
is worth, the informing and propelling influence must go out from
the body of teachers themselves. Let us get a clear idea of the
scope and value of our work, and of the wants of the people; let us,
with firm and strong convictions of what is essential to the growth
and prosperity of the State, be prepared to meet the most unin
formed with some practical, tangible knowledge of the things with
which they have to deal, and we shall create a public opinion, a
demand for education, that will advance quite as fast as we can keep
up with it. Our political system is of such a kind as to require this
kind of effort. And our public school system, from the university
to the primary school, must be a unit in motive and in method, in
this respect.
The question has become one of vital importance to the nation,
" How shall we educate our youth so that there shall be more farm
ers and mechanics in the land, and how shall we raise these pursuits
to the rank they deserve in the hierarchy of industries?" It is in
INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 109
vain to eulogize a calling whose votaries forsake it with every oppor- V
trinity, and whose children turn from it with disgust. Congress
might give every acre of the public domain to found Agricultural
Colleges, making them not only free, but giving a bonus of land as
a reward for attendance, and still their halls will remain empty,
until the relations of agriculture to human welfare and to human
nature are understood and carried into practice — until the farmer,
out of his sense of privation, loss, failure and onesidedness, shall
resolve that his children be as carefully cultured as his fields; that
they shall grow up in pleasant homes, and lay up, if not dollars and
cents, capital for after-pleasures of thought and memory.
Let us consider for a little wherein this business of agriculture
fails to meet the higher demands of human nature; and why, in
California, we are looking to the lower classes of foreigners for the
permanent tillers of the soil.
The educational \vorld has been aroused within the last few years
to find a remedy for the growing aversion of American 37outh for
pursuits most vital to the public welfare. What are the influences
tending to the demoralization of young men by leading them to look
to speculative enterprises, instead of steady industry, as a means of
support? Is it the monotony of country life, or a want of the right
kind of education ?
How shall we create in this country, as there is in Europe, a
higher attachment to the land than springs from a sordid self-inter
est, and make our paternal acres represent here, as they do in older
lands, social standing, intelligence, leisure and culture?
By educating our youth, boys and girls, into a respect for these
pursuits, and by multiplying in every possible way the social enjoy
ments and embellishments of country life.
The disadvantages of agricultural pursuits were clearly stated,
and the remedies by which they can be overcome; social and isolated
industries and their results were contrasted, and the methods of
uniting the abstract and practical sides of industrial education fully
presented. In a rapid survey of European progress, we were shown
to what the immense recent development of Prussian power is
mainly due.
A concise report of what has been done in America by Michigan
and other States, what has been done by Congress, and what Cali
fornia will be able to accomplish for industrial education, if her
people appreciate in any just degree the value of that system of free
instruction which, from the common school to the university, guaran
tees to every child the general culture and special training necessary
to energize and economize, to lighten and enlighten all labor, until
the measure of usefulness shall come to be the measure of greatness.
2. DUTIES OF THE STATE TO PUBLIC SCHOOLS.*
At a time like the present, when the nation is one vast camp of
instruction for armed men; when argument has ended in the right
of appeal to trial by battle; when the one absorbing topic of each
successive day is the brief telegram, telling of victories won, or of
* Bead before the State Teachers' Institute, 1863.
110 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES.
hope deferred; when our eyes turn with longing gaze across the
Sierras to catch the first breaking of the war clouds which fringe
their summits — it might seem, at first thought, that a convention
like this, which waives all military and political considerations, and
relates only to the peaceful and almost unseen workings of the pub
lic schools, would be inopportune, and out of harmony with the
spirit of the times.
But when we stop to ponder, and consider the vital relations
which public schools hold to our national life; when we consider
the agency which they have had in supplying the intelligence and
the patriotism of the army; when we begin to feel, amid the terri
ble realities of war, that the schools have been the nurseries of
loyalty, and the lack of them, the right arm of treason; when we
begin to fully realize that the trite truism, " The only safety of a Be-
publican Government is in the virtue and intelligence of the people,"
is no abstraction — there is a deep significance in this meeting, and
in all such conventions, as concerning the future stability of the
Government, and the integrity, power, glory and unity of the nation.
Constitutions and laws may be bequeathed by one generation to its
successors; but patriotism, intelligence and morality die with each
generation, and involve the necessity of continual culture and edu
cation. Public opinion, the sum of the intelligence of the citizens of
the nation, constructs and modifies all constitutions, and breathes
vitality into all laws by which the people are governed.
Let the public opinion of one generation become demoralized by
ignorance, or by passion resulting from ignorance, and any consti
tution is like gossamer to restrain and bind it.
It is an axiom in education that the great majority of the people
can be well educated only by a system of Free Public Schools, sup
ported by law, in which the property of the State is taxed to educate
the children of the State.
" The first object of a free people," says Daniel Webster, " is the
preservation of their liberty." In a government where the people
are not only in theory the source of all powers, but in actual prac
tice are called upon to administer the laws, it is evident that some
degree of education is indispensably necessary to enable them to
discharge their duties, maintain and administer the laws, and to re
tain their constitutional rights. All nations recognize the neces
sity of educating the governing classes. In a Government like ours,
either we must have officers unqualified for their duties, or we must
be ruled by an educated and privileged aristocracy, or we must pro
vide a system of public instruction which shall furnish a supply of
intelligent citizens capable of discharging their various official trusts
with honesty and efficiency.
If left to their own unaided efforts, a great majority of the people
wrill fail through want of means to property educate their children;
another class, with means at command, will fail through want of in
terest. The people, then, can be educated only by a system of Free .
Schools, supported by taxation, and controlled directly by the
people.
The early settlers of our country recognized this vital principle
by providing by law for Free Schools, and by making schools and
taxation as inseparably connected as taxation and representation.
INSTITUTE ADDKESSES. Ill
The Puritans of Massachusetts Bay had just escaped from a gov
ernment which provided only for the education of the higher classes;
•which declared, in the words of Charles the First, that " the peo
ple's right was only to have their life and their goods their own, a
share in the government being nothing pertaining to them;" and in
nothing does far-seeing sagacity of those self-reliant men appear
more conspicuous than in the wise forecast which led them to pro
vide for the general diffusion of the elements of knowledge as the
basis of a principle which is expressed in the Constitution of Massa
chusetts, as opposed to the declaration of Charles the First, in the
following words; " The people of this Commonwealth have the sole
and exclusive right of governing themselves as a free, sovereign and
independent State."
A section of the Massachusetts Colony Laws of 1642 reads as
follows :
" Forasmuch as the good education of children is of singular be
hoof and benefit to any Commonwealth; and whereas, many parents
and masters are too indulgent and negligent of their duty in that
kind; it is ordered that the Selectmen of every town shall have a
vigilant eye over their brethren and neighbors, to see, first: that
none of them shall suffer so much barbarism in any of their families
as not to teach, by themselves, or others, their children and apprentices so
much learning as may enable them perfectly to read the English tongue,
upon penalty of twenty shillings for each neglect therein."
In 1647, this law was followed by another, to the end, in the
words of the statute, <( that learning may not be buried in the grave of
our fathers in the Church and the Commonwealth," which required every
town of fifty families to provide a teacher to instruct all the chil
dren of the town in reading and writing, and every town of a hun
dred families to set up a grammar school, with a teacher compe
tent to fit young men for the university; the expense of these scliools
to be borne by the town, or by the parents, as the town should
determine.
In 1692, the law provided that these schools should be supported
exclusively by tax levied on all the property of the town.
The Colony Laws of New Haven, 1665, provided that the "Depu
ties of the Court " should have " a vigilant eye " over all parents and
masters, " that all their children and apprentices, as they grow capa
ble, may, through God's blessing, obtain at least so much learning
as to be able duly to read the Scriptures, and other good aod prof
itable printed books in the English tongue, being their native
language."*
If this law was not complied with, the delinquent was fined ten
shillings; and if after three months the offender failed to comply,
the fine was doubled; and then the magistrates were empowered to
take such children and apprentices, and place them till they became
of age, "with such others who shall better educate and govern
them, both for the public conveniency, and for the particular good of
said children and apprentices."
In 1669, the Colony of Plymouth passed the following law:
"Forasmuch as the maintenance of good literature doth much tend to
* Probably the first American compulsory school law.
112 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES.
the advancement of the weal and flourishing state of societies and re
publics, this Court doth therefore order, that in whatever township
in this government, consisting of fifty families or upwards, any meet
man shall be obtained to teach a Grammar School, such township
shall allow at least twelve pounds, to be raised by rate on all the in
habitants."
The following is the old Colonial Connecticut Law for " appoint
ing, encouraging and supporting schools:"
" Be it enacted by the Governor, Council and Representatives, in
General Court assembled, and by the Authority of the same: That
Every Town within this Colony, wherein there is but one Ecclesias
tical Society, and wherein there are Seventy House Holders or
Families, or upwards, shall be at least Eleven Months in each Year
Provided with and shall Keep and Maintain One good and sufficient
School for the Teaching and Instructing of Youth and Children to
Bead and Write, which School shall be steadily Supplied with, and
Kept, by a Master, sufficiently and suitably Qualified for that
Service.
" And, also, there shall be a Grammar School Set up, Kept and
constantly maintained in every Head or County town of the several
Counties, that are, or shall be Made in the Colony, Which shall be
steadily Kept by some Discreet Person of good Conversation, and
well Skilled in and Acquainted with the Learned Languages, es
pecially Greek and Latin."
For the support of these schools, a tax of "Forty Shillings"
upon every "Thousand Pounds in the Lists of the Respective
Towns," was levied and collected.
Many of the wealthy counties of California levy, this year, a
smaller school tax than was paid by the hard-fisted colonists of Con
necticut.
The following preamble to an act shows the germ of our na
tional policy of reserving certain sections of public lands for school
purposes :
"And Whereas, the several Towns and Societies in this Colony,
by Virtue of an Act of this Court, made in May, in the Year of our
Lord One Thousand Seven Hundred and Thirty-Three, Received
by their Committees Respectively, for that purpose appointed, con
siderable Monies, or Bills of Public Credit, Raised by the sale of
certain Townships, Laid out in the Western lands, then so Called,
to be Let out, and the Interest thereof, Improved for the Support
of the Respective Schools aforesaid, for Ever, and to no other Use:
Be it enacted/' etc.
In 1785 an ordinance respecting the disposition of the public
lands was introduced into the old Congress, referred to a commit
tee, and passed May 20, which provided that the sixteenth section
of every township should be reserved "for the maintenance of pub
lic Schools."
The celebrated ordinance of 1787, which confirmed the provisions
of the land ordinance of 1785, further declared that "MOEALITY and
KNOWLEDGE, being necessary to good government and the happiness of
mankind, SCHOOLS, and the means of EDUCATION, shall be forever encour
aged."
INSTITUTE ADDKESSES. 113
As the results of this noble policy, more than fifty millions of
acres of the public lands have been set apart for the purposes of
education.
These few references to Colonial laws show how early in the his
tory of our country these two fundamental principles were enun
ciated and adopted : That it is the duty of a Republican Government 3
as an act of setf -preservation, to educate alt ctasses of the people, and
that the property of the State should be taxed to pay for that education.
Let us consider the first axiom : That it is the duty of a Republican
Government, as an act of self-preservation, to educate all classes of the
people.
In a representative government all forms of constitutional law
spring from the people, and are changed at will by public opinion.
If that is demoralized, public officers will be bad, and the Govern
ment will be bad. If public opinion is ignorant, demagogues will
warp it to suit partisan purposes. The fountain cannot rise higher
than its source ; and the administration of the laws will not rise
above the level of the morality of the masses.
Consider for a moment the various civil duties a citizen of the
State may be called upon to perform. First and highest is the duty
which is attached to the right of elective franchise. Intelligence
must preside at the ballot-box, or it becomes a partisan machine.
The elector is virtually a tool and slave just so far as he is ignorant
of the questions on which he votes. If ignorant voters elect knaves
to office, the State pays the just penalty of neglecting to educate
her citizens. Every citizen is liable to be called to the jury-box.
Are those light questions which twelve men are called upon to de
cide ? Questions of life or death, of character or reputation, of for
tune, of real estate? Can ignorance and prejudice decide those
questions legally and equitably ? Would the real estate owner, with
a hundred thousand dollars at stake, on which, perhaps, he has un
willingly paid a school tax, choose to trust the verdict to an illiter
ate jury in preference to one educated in the schools which his
property has in part maintained?
Consider, again, all the minor official trusts which an ordinary
citizen is called upon to fill — district, township, and county offices.
Taken together, they make up no small share of the administra
tion of government.
In the legislative department, is it safe to elect men poorly edu
cated to frame the laws ? Any citizen may aspire to and reach the
place, and the only safeguard is the general education of all citi
zens. And it must be borne in mind that while laws may remain
unchanged, the intellectual and moral qualifications necessary for
the discharge of the duties of a citizen of the State cannot be trans
mitted, like property, from father to son. They are personal, not
hereditary, and must be taught anew to each generation. The
work of the schools is never done, and property can never escape
continual taxation. This general education of the citizens of the
State can only be secured by Public Schools. The rich will be
educated under any circumstances; education gives power — power,
an aristocracy.
But the Public Schools must be of a character which will attract
114 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES.
the children of the rich as well as afford an opportunity to the poor.
Such schools prevent the formation of castes and classes in society.
The only aristocracy which they recognize is that of talent — an aris
tocracy which always commands respect and wields power. Said a
Boston teacher once, to a visitor: "That boy who has just received
the first prize for scholarship, is the son of a wood-sawyer; and the
boy who has won the second prize is the son of the Governor of
Massachusetts. "
It is often objected that Public Schools cannot educate high*
enough. Dr. Bushnell says :
"The chartered privileges of education furnished by our colleges
can be more highly valued by no one than myself. But still it
should be understood that an educated man is a MAN ALIVE. Many
a boy who does not know Latin from Dutch, and has never seen
any university but his mother's and the District School, having at
tained to the distinction of a living soul, is, in the highest sense, •
educated. Could this, which is the only just view of the case, be
once established in the public mind, it would do much to encourage
attempts at self-education, and would greatly endear the system of
Common Schools.
' ' Many years ago, in an obscure country school in Massachusetts,
an humble, conscientious, but industrious boy was to be seen, and
it was evident to all that his soul was beginning to act and thirst for
some intellectual good. He was alive to knowledge. Next we see
him an apprentice on the shoemaker's bench, with a book spread
open before him. Next we see him put forth, on foot, to settle in a
remote town in this State, and pursue his fortunes there as a shoe
maker, his tools being carefully sent on their way before him. In
a short time he is busied in the post of County Surveyor for Litch-
field County, being the most accomplished mathematician in that
section of the State. Before he is twenty-five years old we find him
supplying the astronomical matter of an almanac published in New
York. Next he is admitted to the bar, a self-qualified lawyer. Now
he is found on the bench of the Superior Court. Next he becomes
a member of the Continental Congress. There he is made a mem
ber of the Committee of Six to prepare the Declaration of Inde
pendence. He continues a member of Congress for nearly twenty
years, and is acknowledged to be one of the most useful men and
wisest counsellors of the land. At length, having discharged every
office with a perfect ability, and honored, in every sphere, the name
of a Christian, he dies regretted and loved by his State and Nation.
Now this Roger Sherman, I maintain, was an educated man. Do
you ask for other examples? I name, then, Washington, who had
only a common domestic education. I name Franklin; I name Eit-
tenhouse ; I name "West ; I name Fulton ; I name Bowditch ; all
Common School men, and some of them scarcely that, but yet all
educated men, because they were MADE ALIVE. Besides these, I know
not any other seven names of our countrymen that can weigh against
them. These are truly American names, and there are the best of
reasons to believe that a generous system of public education would
produce many such. Let them appear, and if they shall embody so
much force, so much real freshness and sinew of character as to de-
INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 115
cide for themselves what shall be called an education, or shall even
be able to laugh at the dwarfed significance of college learning, I
know not that we shall have any reasons for repining."
To this roll of honor we might add a long array of public men and
of scholars whose first impulse to self-education was received in the
Public Schools: Henry Clay, Andrew Jackson, Stephen A. Douglas,
Lewis Cass, Abraham Lincoln, N. P. Banks, Elihu Burritt, Horace
Mann, and many others.
The second proposition is, that the property of the State should be
taxed to educate the children of the State. The only just ground for
taking any man's money for a public purpose is that the public good
requires it. But, says some stiff-necked taxpayer, "I have edu
cated my children at my own expense;5' or, "I have no children to
educate; why should I be taxed to pay for educating the children of
others ?"
But children arrived at the age of maturity belong, not to the
parents, but to the State, to society, to the country. Government
calls on them for the defense of the Constitution and the laws.
Take the half a million of men now in the army; what are they
doing but defending the property which has been taxed to educate
them ? Without them, what would property be worth ?
Again: Every able-bodied laborer adds to the wealth of the com
munity; for the real wealth of a State lies in its amount of produc
tive labor. Educated labor is more productive than ignorant labor.
The testimony of all the mills, factories and workshops of the wroiid
is, that intelligent artisans are far more profitable than ignorant
ones. .Raise the standard of education among working-men, and
the productive value of property is increased. Ignorance and idle
ness are companions; vice and ignorance are companions. Experi
ence shows that the education of the masses affords better protec
tion to good morals, and more security to the rights of property,
than all the criminal enactments that can be made or the prisons
that can be built. Intelligence makes labor respectable and honor
able. Brute labor — the labor of the menial — is no more honorable
to-day than when the unwilling millions toiled on the Pyramids of
Egypt. The intelligent brain gives dignity to the toil-hardened
hand. But we may base the necessity for general education on still
broader grounds. Every man born into the world to enrich it by
his labor, claims an education as an inalienable right, as much as
liberty, food, air or light. Civilization is the result of the labors
of all generations which have existed upon the earth. Our laws,
our institutions, 'books, arts, sciences and inventions, are mostly
the product of generations which have preceded us. What a child
like, generation ours would be were the printing-press and steam
power swept out of existence ! The-oeneration now living strikes
its roots deep into the mental strata^ of the globe, and draws its
nutriment from all past generations. As the miners gather the
mineral wealth of our State, upheaved by the convulsions of
great geological epochs which thrust up the broken ribs of the
earth through granite crusts, so do we enrich ourselves with the
wealth of past time uplifted by the convulsions of nations. Having
been educated by the labors of preceding generations, we cannot
116 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES.
escape the responsibility of educating those who are to succeed us.
Every man that is indebted to society for an education, is in duty
bound to discharge that debt by educating the child who is to suc
ceed him.
EDUCATION IK OTHEE COUNTKIE3.
Before considering in detail the condition of education in the dif
ferent States of the Union, let us glance at the national systems of
instruction in the countries of the Old World.
Germany may justly claim the credit of first thoroughly organiz
ing a system of public education, under the administration of the
civil power. The characteristic features of the German schools
are, the power of the Government to compel attendance; provision
to make the schools, not free to all, but accessible to all; and excellent
methods of instruction, resulting from Normal Schools; and the
making of teaching a life profession.
Music is a prominent part of education in Germany, and the
strong national pride, love of country, and love of liberty, of the
Germans, is born in schools, where the patriotic songs of the nation
become as familiar as the alphabet of their mother tongue.
England, with all her time-honored Universities and endowed
Public Schools, is far behind Germany in her elementary schools
for the common people. Lord Brougham, in 1836, advocated a na
tional system of Public Schools, but the bill failed on account of the
bitter controversies of the religious sects, and the children were allowed
to grow up in ignorance rather than run the risk of an education
without the catechisms. In advocating this bill, Lord Brougham
said:
" Let the people be taught, say I. The school is closed, but the
penitentiary yawns day and night to ingulf its victims; the utterly
execrable, the altogether abominable hulk lies moored in the face of
day, which it darkens, riding on the face of the waters, which it
stains with every unnatural excess of infernal pollution, triumphant
over mortals/'
Macaulay said, in 1847, in the House of Commons:
" Educate the people, was the first admonition addressed by Penn
to the commonwealth he founded; educate the people, was the last
legacy of Washington; educate the people, was the unceasing exhor
tation of Jefferson. Yes, of Jefferson himself, and I quote his
authority with peculiar favor, for of all public men that the world
ever saw, he was the one whose greatest delight it was to pare down
the functions of Governments to the lowest possible point, and to
leave the freest possible scope for the exercise of individual rights."
CHARLES DICKENS.
Charles Dickens deserves to be classed among English educa
tional reformers, for his caricatures of English schoolmasters, in the
character of Squeers, and of boarding schools conducted on the
starvation system of that motherly matron, Mrs: Squeers, effected a
salutary reform. The merciless wit of Dickens has never spared
pompous pretensions to learning, nor pedantic methods of in-
INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 117
struction. How capitally he hits off what is termed "practical
teaching:'3
" ' Now, what I want is Facts. Teach -these boys and girls
nothing but facts. Facts alone are wanted in life. Plant noth
ing else, and root out everything else. Stick to facts.5 The
emphasis of the speaker was helped by the speaker's square
wall of a forehead, which had his eyebrows for its base, and
his eyes found commodious cellarage in two dark caves over-
hadowed by the wall. The emphasis was helped by the speak
er's mouth, which was wide, thin and hard set. The emphasis was
helped by the speaker's voice, which was inflexible, dry and dicta
torial. The speaker's obstinate carriage, square coat, square legs,
square shoulders, — nay, his very neckcloth trained to take him by
the throat with an unaccommodating grasp, like a stubborn fact, as
it was, — all helped the emphasis. ' In this life we want nothing but
Facts, Sir, nothing but Facts."'
Gradgrind was a teacher with " a rule and a pair of scales, and
the multiplication table always in his pocket, Sir, ready to weigh
and measure any parcel of human nature, and tell you exactly what
it comes to."
Said the visitor, eloquently discoursing " to the little vessels ranged
in rows ready to have gallons of facts poured into them until they
were full to the brim:"
"We hope to have before long a Board of Fact, composed
of commissioners of fact, who will force the people to be a
people of fact, and nothing but fact. You are not to have
in any object of use or ornament what would be a contra
diction in fact. You don't walk upon flowers in fact ; you
cannot be allowed to walk upon flowers in carpets. You never
meet with quadrupeds going up and down walls ; you must
not have quadrupeds represented on walls. You must use, for all
these purposes, combinations and modifications of mathematical
figures, which are susceptible of proof and demonstration. This is
fact. This is taste."
In the school of facts, Mr. McChoakumchild does the practical
work:
"He, and some one hundred and forty other schoolmasters, had
been lately turned in the same factory, at the same time, on the same
principles, like so many piano forte legs. He had been put through
an immense variety of paces, and had answered volumes of head-
breaking questions. Orthography, etymology, syntax and prosody,
biography, astronomy, geography and general cosmography, the
sciences of compound proportion, algebra, land surveying and
levelling, vocal music and drawing from models, were all at the ends
of his ten chilled fingers.
" He had taken the bloom off the higher branches of mathematics
and physical sciences, French, German, Latin and Greek. He knew
all about all the watersheds of all the world, and all the histories
of all the peoples, and all the names of all the rivers and mountains,
and the productions, manners and customs of all the countries, and
all their boundaries and bearings on the two and thirty points of the
compass.
118 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES.
' ' If he had only learnt a little less, how infinitely better he might
have taught much more !
"There were five young Gradgrinds, and they were models, every
one. No little Gradgrind had ever seen a face in the moon; it was
up in the moon before it could speak distinctly. No little Grad
grind had ever learnt the silly jingle, ' Twinkle, twinkle, little star;
how I wonder what you are !' It had never known wonder on the
subject, having at five years dissected the Great Bear like a Pro
fessor Owen, and driven Charles3 Wain like a locomotive engine
driver. No little Gradgrind had ever associated a cow in a field
with that famous cow with the crumpled horn who tossed the dog
who worried the cat who killed the rat who ate the malt, or with
that yet more famous cow who swallowed Tom Thumb. It had
never heard of these celebrities, and had only been introduced to
a cow as a graminivorous, ruminating quadruped with several
stomachs.
" 'Bring to me/ says Mr. McChoakumchild, 'yonder baby, just
able to walk, and I will engage that he shall never wonder.'
"And Gradgrind, as he surveyed the children, seemed a kind of
.cannon, loaded to the muzzle with facts, and prepared to blow them
clean out of the regions of childhood at one discharge."
DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF OUR SCHOOLS. *'
One distinctive feature of our schools is the general education of
the sexes together. I believe that the true deference paid to woman,
and the chivalric politeness with which she is treated, and the high
standard of morality generally prevailing in the United States, are
the results, in no small degree, of educating boys and girls together
in the same schools.
Another distinctive feature of our schools is their freedom from
sectarian instruction. In most European schools direct religious
lessons are given by the clergy of both the Catholic and the Prot
estant churches ; in other words, the schools are made the medium
of denominational and sectarian teaching of creeds and catechisms.
Happily for their prosperity, and for the best interests of vital re
ligion, our schools are removed from all denominational influences,
and the reading of the Bible, without note or comment, affords lit
tle occasion for sectarian feeling. All are left free to form their own
belief, drawn from the primal source of Christianity.
STATE SCHOOL TAX.
A State tax of half a mill on the dollar has been levied this year
for carrying on the work of building up the State Capitol ; is it not
quite as necessary that the work of building schoolhouses should
not be delayed ? Of what use will a magnificent State Capitol be,
unless educated legislators are sent there to fill it ? The State is to
be placed on a military footing. It is equally necessary that it should
be placed on an educational footing, for educated and intelligent
men are a stronger defense than Monitors, Colurnbiads, or field bat
teries. During the darkest hour of our national adversity the work
upon the dome of the Capitol, at Washington, was carried on with-
INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 119
out cessation, even under the roar of the enemy's cannon — a fitting
type of the faith of the people in the permanence of our Govern
ment and the stability of our institutions. Our public schools are
not the dome of the Republic, but the solid and everlasting founda
tions on which is based the permanence and integrity of the nation.
We, of this generation, fall back upon the sword and the bayonet
to sustain the laws ;. but if we expect our children to be capable of
self-government, if we have not utterly lost our faith in representa
tive institutions, let us not stultify ourselves by failing to educate
our children.
We sprang at once into a high degree of civilization ; our mines
yield immediate and rich returns for labor, and we are unworthy
the fairest inheritance the sun shines upon if we do not provide a
system of free schools which shall furnish the means of education
to every child as liberally as nature has bestowed her mineral wealth
upon our land. Shall California, just entering on a renewed career
of prosperity from the recent discoveries of fabulous mineral wealth,
contribute less for schools than the States where ice and granite
take the place of silver and gold? Is the table of ten mills one
cent — ten cents one dime — ten dimes one dollar — ten dollars one
eagle — the only ten commandments our children shall be taught ?
Is the national ensign of the Republic, like the calf of molten gold
the children of Israel worshiped in the wilderness, to be made a
great golden buzzard ? Is metal to be valued more than mind, and
"feet" more than the little brain engines that fill the schoolhouses?
Shall .we pay thousands of dollars annually for blooded stock, and
let the chilcfren run wild, like Spanish cattle ? Shall we sink costly
artesian wells through all our valleys, and keep the living well-
springs of knowledge sealed to the thirsty children ? Shall we send
to Europe for choice foreign wines, and leave the children to grow
up like the wild mustard which covers our fertile lands with its rank
growth ? Shall millions be expended in constructing a Pacific Rail
road, and the State fail to lay the solid foundations of character and
intelligence on which rest the permanent prosperity of the genera
tion which will reap the benefits of that great highway of the world ?
Shall we make every sacrifice of men and money to maintain the
Union for a generation unfitted, through want of education, to ap
preciate either our sacrifices, or the value of the inheritance we
leave them ?
The effect of our abundant wealth, unless its possessors shall be
educated and trained to use it in intellectual pleasures and refined
enjoyments, will be to sweep us into the rankest and grossest forms
of materialism.
The real wealth of the State must ever be her educated men and
intelligent laborers. Educated mind has made the world rich by
its creative power. The intelligent minds which invented the steam
ship, the cotton-gin, and. the spinning-jenny, created for the wrorld
a wealth greater than the products of the gold mines of Australia
and California together. How many millions of dollars is Erics
son's invention of the Monitor worth to the nation? How much
the invention of the electric telegraph ? How much the hundreds
of labor-saving machines in every department of industry ? Igno-
120 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES.
ranee invents none of these. What influence, tell me, is so. mighty
in developing the intellect of society as the common school ? One
single great mind, inspired in the public school with a love for
learning — without which it might have slumbered forever — may
• prove of more value to the State than the entire cost of schools for
half a century.
What influence is so mighty in developing this creative power of
society, as the intelligence imparted in the public schools ? Go to
the Patent Office and find out how many inventions come from the
land of common schools, and how many from the States that have
failed to establish them.
Not many years ago, a member of the British Parliament urged,
as a reason against a system of national instruction, "that if they
deprived the farmers of the labor of the children, agriculture could
not be carried on, because there was no machinery to get the weeds
out of the land."
The policy of New England always has been to send the children
to school, and let Yankee ingenuity invent machines "to get the
weeds out of the land."
She has "saved" enough by the invention of "machines," con
trived by laboring men educated in her schools, to pay for the
whole cost of her schools twice told.
An agricultural report says:
"The saving to the country from the improvements in plows
alone, within the last twenty-five years, has been estimated at no
less than ten millions of dollars a year in the work of teams, and
one million in the price of plows, while the aggregate of the crops
is supposed to have been increased by many millions of bushels."
The machinery brought into use, since 1816, is estimated to be
equal to the labor of five hundred millions of men.
Ignorance never invented a machine to save the labor of a single
man.
The life of the nation lies not in a few great men, not in a few
brilliant minds, but is made up of the men who drive the plow,
who build the ships, who run the mills, and fill the machine shops,
who build the locomotives and steam-engines, who construct the
railroads, who delve in the mines, who cast the cannon, who man
the ironclads and gunboats, who shoulder the musket, and who do
the fighting ; these constitute the life and strength of the nation,
and it is with all these men that the public schools have done and
are now doing their beneficent work. The nation will not be saved
by any one " great man;" the bone and muscle of intelligent labor
ing men must work out its salvation. Blundering statesmen may
mar the fortunes of the war; general after general may show up his
own incompetence ; the concentrated and consolidated intelligence
of the working men and fighting men will, in the end, prove victo
rious. When the bayonet has done its work, the ballot-box must
protect the freedom won on the battle-field. When every ballot
represents an idea, and falls electrified with intelligence to "exe
cute a freeman's will/' the States will revolve harmoniously around
the central sun of a consolidated Union ; no star will shoot off in
INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 121
eccentric orbit into the chaos of disunion, or the cometary darkness
and desolation of secession. .-.'•
********
Intelligent free laborers are working out the great problem of
civilizing this continent; intelligent fighting men are consolidating
its Government; and, underlying all, the public schools are silently
forming a sound national character. Free as air, vital as electricity
and vivifying as the sunlight, they act on the organic forces of the
nation, as these three physical agents build up the life of the globe
out of inorganic matter.
The insurrection will be put down by the sword and the bayonet;
but even then the only strength of the Union will be in a public
opinion based on an intelligent comprehension of national affairs by
the people of the whole nation.
The number of legal voters in the United States who cannot read
and write is greater than the ordinary majority by which a President
is elected.
It is seldom the Governor of any State is elected by a majority
larger than the number of " illiterate voters of the State." What
avails the Constitution at the mercy of men who cannot read it ?
Unless the laws of the several States are administered by rulers
chosen by electors whose ballots fall vitalized by intelligence, no
standing armies, no Constitutions, can hold them in harmonious
spheres around the central sun of a Representative Government.
They will shoot off in eccentric orbits into the unfathomable dark
ness of dissolution and chaos, never to return.
It is a Prussian maxim. "Whatever you would have appear in the
life of the nation you must put into the schools."
If the schools inculcate with intellectual training love of country,
>cordial submission to lawful authority, moral rectitude, some knowl
edge of the theory and organic structure of our Government, and a
true spirit of patriotism, then shall our citizens be truly MEN, and our
electors princes indeed.
When I consider the power of the public schools, how they have
disseminated intelligence in every village, and hamlet, and log-
house in the nation, how they are molding the plastic elements of
the next generation into the symmetry of modern civilization, I can
not think that our country is to be included in the long list
" Of nations scattered like the chaff
Blown from the threshing-floor of God."
I hold nothing in common with those fainthearted patriots who
are beginning to despair of the future of our country. The latent
powers of the nation are just coming into healthful and energetic
action, and in spite of treason, are moving the Republic onward and
upward to a higher standpoint of liberty.
The Anglo-Saxon race, even in its ruder years, always possessed
an inherent power of self-government. Tell me not that now, when
this stubborn vitality and surplus energy, expended so long in over
running the world, are guided by intelligence and refined by Chris
tianity, this same race is to be stricken with the palsy, because of a
<two years' war.
Long before the completion of the Pacific Railroad, these new re-
8
122 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES.
cruits, drilled in the public schools, will push their way across the
continent, as the Saxons set out from their northern hives, a vast
army of occupation, cultivating the "National Homestead, "and for
tifying the whole line of communication by a cordon of schoolhouses
that shall hold it forever as the heritage of free labor, free men and
a free nation.
" So shall the Northern pioneer go joyful on his way,
To wed Penobscot's waters to San Francisco's Bay !
To make the rugged places smooth, to sow the vales with grain,
And bear, with Liberty and Law, the Bible in his train;
The mighty West shall bless the East, and sea shall answer sea,
And mountain unto mountain call, PRAISE GOD, FOE WE AKE FEEE !"
3. METHODS OF TEACHING.*
The common schools are established by law, for the purpose of
affording to all the children in the State the means of obtaining a
good education, at the public expense. Their design is to have
knowledge as common among the people, as are water, air, and the
sunlight. They are planted deep in the affections of the people.
Their importance cannot be overstated. Any attempt to improve
them, or to render them more useful, deserves the encouragement
of every good citizen. I understand that the object of this Insti
tute, composed of teachers from various parts of the State, is to
interchange views in relation to the great cause of education, in
order to assist one another in the practice of their profession.
So much has been written upon the subject of education, that it
would seem to have been exhausted long ago. Yet it is, in fact, as
inexhaustible as human nature. It comprehends and applies to all
men, from the cradle to the grave, under all circumstances, and
with all their varieties and peculiarities of character. It endeavors
to ascertain the true and philosophical system of human culture, to
point out the best methods of teaching, of maintaining good order,
of preserving the health, and of developing all the faculties in the
natural order, so as to produce the best results for the individual
and the community.
The object of the present meeting is more specifically to improve,
in every possible manner, the condition of the common schools of
this State. We wish to render these fountains, at which the great
mass of the people drink, as pure and invigorating as possible.
My purpose is then to take some of the ordinary branches taught
in the common schools, and to state what I think the best methods
of giving instruction in them. Before doing so, however, let me
present a few general considerations.
Although the practice of teaching must have begun in Para
dise (indeed, according to the pious legends of the Kabbins, Adam
was not only the first man, but also the first schoolmaster, aided by
Enoch, I suppose, as his first assistant), yet it is nearly certain that
no great improvements were generally effected in the art of teach
ing, and that there never was known such a thing as the philosophy
of teaching, until the institution of common schools, and, in point
* Eead before the State Teachers' Institute, 1861, by George W.Minns.
INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 123
of fact, not even till long after they were known. We owe our
fathers a debt of gratitude for the establishment of the first free
schools, supported at the public expense, for the education of the
whole people. Yet they were very imperfect in many particulars,
and the change for the better was very slow and not made without
much opposition. There was for a long time great imperfection in
the construction of schoolhouses. The Hon. Horace Mann, while
he was Secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education, described
schoolhouses in central districts of rich and populous towns, where
each seat was a stump, without side-arms or back-board ; some of
them so high that the feet of the children in vain sought after the
floor, and on the hard top of which they were obliged to balance
themselves as well as they could, for some six hours in a day.
Mr. Mann says: " I have reason to remember one of another class
of schoolhouses, of the wicker-work order of architecture — summer-
houses for winter residences — where there was never a severely cold
day without the ink's freezing in the pens of the scholars while they
were writing, and the teacher was obliged to compromise between
the sufferings of those who were exposed to the cold of the win
dows, and those exposed to the heat of the fire, by not raising the
thermometer near the latter above ninety degrees, until that near
the window fell below thirty. It was an excellent place for the
teacher to illustrate one of the facts in geography, for five steps
would have carried him through the five zones. Just before my
present circuit," he writes, "I passed a schoolhouse, the roof of
which, on one side, was trough-like, and down towards the eaves
there was a large hole, so that the whole operated like a tunnel, to
catch the rain, and pour it into the school-room. At first, I did
not know but it might be some apparatus to illustrate the deluge.
I called, and inquired of the mistress if she and her little ones were
not sometimes drowned out. She said she should be, only that the
floor leaked as badly as the roof, and drained off the water."
I myself have seen a schoolhouse in which an old hat was shown
to be a pronoun, by being used instead of the noun, glass.
It is of great importance to provide healthful and comfortable
Bchoolhouses for the young. Let them be placed in the most
pleasant locations ; let the seats be convenient for children of all
ages, and let an abundance be furnished of that prime necessary of
life, fresh air.
More improvements have been made in the last twenty-five years,
in relation to the structure and management of schoolhouses, and
in reference to the modes of teaching the various branches pursued
therein, than had been accomplished during the preceding two cen
turies. I well remember the first grammar-school which I attended.
It was a very long room, with a smoke-pipe extending the whole
length of it, into which, so the master said, all bad boys would go.
I was puzzled for some time to find where it led, as it passed through
a partition separating us from the next room. The stove was large
and grim-looking, with the head of some nondescript monster upon
the door, with the snarling mouth wide open ; and when the full
power of the draught was on, it roared loud enough to devour sev
eral bad boys at once. I kept at a safe distance from it. The walls
124 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES.
of this apartment were as bare as prison walls. There was not a
map, nor an engraving, nor a picture upon them, and no globe be
longed to the school. This was certainly wrong. The walls of our
school-rooms should be covered and adorned with maps and pict
ures suited to the progress of the scholars. There are published in
the pictorial papers, and in other ways, farm scenes, pictures of do
mestic animals, birds, and beasts, of flowers, of different kinds of
trees, and views of some of the largest cities of the globe, all of
which would be useful in this respect. Nor, by any means, would
I have omitted some scenes addressed to that sense of the beautiful
which exists in children as strongly as it does in us. All this might
be done at a trifling expense, and what a contrast would be presented
between such a school-room and the cold, lifeless, and dingy walls
within which too many children are confined. If I had a school in
the country, particularly if it was one for small children, I would,
in the proper season, have many of the exercises conducted in the
open air, in a grove, or any shady place near by. Every lesson
relating to nature should be studied, or read, in the face of nature,
"With flowers scattered all around, and under the living trees, instead
of hanging over the "desk's dead wood." Why should a class read
Bryant's glorious poem, " The groves were God's first temples," in
& wooden box lined with Lowell sheeting, when at a short distance
may be nature's temple itself, with its lofty pillars, its green arches,
its majestic roof, and its sweet songsters.
Then, still carrying out this principle of object-teaching, I would
avail myself of it wherever I could. For instance, by the use of the
numeral frame, or, if that cannot be had, with buttons, or beans, all
the fundamental rules and principles of arithmetic can be taught
and made palpable to the eye. I would have the length of a yard,
foot, and inch, permanently marked upon the upper part of the
blackboard. 1 would have every grammar school provided with
the following articles, for use in the various departments, namely :
Peck, gallon, quart, pint, and gill, measures; grains, pennyweights,
ounces, and pounds, of the different measures ; blocks to represent
square and solid measures, and, in addition, a pair of scales. The
clock can be used to illustrate the divisions of time. I would have
every scholar studying arithmetic show himself, by experiment,
whether the tables he commits to memory are correct. In this
manner, the learning of the tables, which is so often considered a
drudgery, would become a pleasant pastime. After this, do you
think the pupil would forget them ?
So in commencing grammar. Provide a number of different col
ored wafers, bits of cloth, silk, or cotton. Show them to the schol
ars, asking them to state the color of each. Let the pupils tell and
write upon their slates the object, the color, and the number shown.
Will not they very soon learn which is the noun, and which words
merely describe the noun — that is, are adjectives ?
A similar course may be pursued with the verb, and it may be
modified so as to bring the child to understand the office of pro
nouns, and to apply some of the tenses of the verbs.
Example — I lift a book (doing it). He lifts a book. The book
can be lifted. You may rise. They will sit. She is touching the
table, etc.
INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 125
This exercise may be varied indefinitely. Children should go
through these exercises together, pronouncing the sentences, and
illustrating them by doing the thing mentioned.
In this connection, I will remark that, in my opinion, children r
pursue the study of grammar at altogether too early an age. Be
cause they can easily be taught what a noun, an adjective, or a verb
is, it by no means follows that their minds are in a fit state to under
stand the principles of grammar, or analysis. There are other stud
ies more suitable for their tender years. A year or two later, they
can enter more readily into the spirit and foundation of the rules of
grammar, and their minds will be better prepared to grapple with
the difficulties of the study. Time is lost by putting children into
studies for which their minds are not ripe. "Grammar is not the
stepping -stone, but the finishing instrument." As grammar was
made after language, so ought it to be taught after language.
When scholars come to study the natural sciences, these are
made, as much as possible, matters of experiment and observation.
No one supposes a pupil will make any proficiency in the study of
chemistry, or of any branch of natural philosophy, without witness
ing experiments, or making them for themselves. Is there not good
reason, then, for pursuing the same course, as far as possible, with
less advanced children ? It is true, as has been remarked, that pri-
mary and intermediate schools need apparatus as much as a high *"
school, but, of course, of a different character.
The several faculties of the human mind are not simultaneously
developed, and in educating an individual we ought to follow the/
order of nature, and adapt the instruction to the age and mental
stature of the pupil. If we reverse this order, and attempt to culti
vate faculties which are not sufficiently matured, while we neglect
to cultivate those which are, we do the child an irreparable injury.
Memory, imitation, imagination, powers of observation, and the fac
ulty of forming mental habits, exist in early life, while the judgment
and the reasoning powers are of slower growth. It is well known
that the memory may be stored at an early age with valuable rules
and precepts which in future life may become the materials of reflec
tion, and the guiding principles of action ; that it may be furnished
with heroic sentiments and poetic illustrations, with " thoughts which .
breathe and words that burn/' and which, long after, will spring up
spontaneously from, the depths of the mind, at the proper moment,
to embellish and to enforce the truths of the future man.
This period of life, when acquisitions of this kind are most readily
made, is not that in which the judgment and reasoning powers can
be most properly cultivated. They require a more advanced age,
when the mind has become more matured by natural growth, and
better furnished with the material of thought.
An important part of elementary mental instruction is that of im
parting expertness in the performance of certain processes, such as
spelling, reading, penmanship, drawing, composition, expertness in
the first rules of arithmetic. I shall by and by consider some of
these branches under another aspect. At present I refer only to
that promptness and dexterity in going through certain processes,
which can be imparted only by laborious drilling on the part of the
126 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES.
teacher, and acquired only by attention and frequent practice on
the part of the pupil. As merely one illustration of what I mean,
I will mention skill in adding long columns of figures with rapidity
and correctness. It is only in early life, while the mind is in a pli
able condition, that these mental facilities can most readily and most
perfectly be acquired. The practice in each case must be so long
continued, and the process so often repeated, that it becomes a
mental habit, and is at length performed with accuracy and rapid-
ity, almost without thought. I think this drilling is the most irk
some part of a Teacher's duty; it is apt to be distasteful to the pupil,
but it must be faithfully and resolutely performed. It is an import
ant principle which should be kept In view by the Teacher, that
although the practice of an art is at first difficult, and requires at
each step an effort of mind, yet, every repetition renders it easier,
and at length we come to exercise it not only without effort, but as
a pleasurable gratification of a habitual act. Perseverance, there
fore, in this cause, will ultimately receive a grateful reward.
We should carefully avoid having too many studies in our schools.
Non multa, sed muttum is a maxim of sound sense. Do a few things
well, not many things poorly. It should never be forgotten that
correct spelling, reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, grammar,
and facility in expressing one's self in good plain English, are indis
pensable. They are the foundation of all future acquisitions; in
fact, without them, there can be no superstructure. They are worth
any quantity of heads full of mere smatterings of ologies and osophies.
' ' I want to conjecture a map to study antimony, and to learn
bigotry," said a girl to her master. "My dear little girl," was the
reply, " jou may project a map, after having studied geography some
time longer; astronomy you may attend to when you can understand
it; and I would advise you never to learn bigotry in all your life.
Perhaps you mean botany."
It is a great evil, I have said, to introduce many studies into a
school. It works evil in another way, and that is, children are put
into studies for which their minds are not mature enough. It is an
important fact that the mind, at a certain time, may be totally un
able to comprehend a subject, because it is not sufficiently developed
to understand it. The evident course to be followed is, to wait,
wait until the mind has grown, and then what was formerly so diffi
cult becomes perhaps quite easy.
An incident is related in the Autobiography of Dr. Benjamin
Franklin, which illustrates this point.
Dr. Franklin states that he was sent by his father to a school for
writing and arithmetic, " kept by a then famous man, a Mr. George
Brownwell. Under him," says the Doctor, " I learned to write a
good hand pretty soon; but I failed entirely in arithmetic."
It is almost incredible that a mind like Franklin's should be in
capable, even at the age of nine years, of understanding the rudi
ments of arithmetic, which he tells us, he mastered a few years after
by himself, with ease. His mind, perhaps, was not sufficiently
grown for him to take hold of the subject. Another explanation of
this fact is to be found also in the character of the text-books used
in Franklin's day, and in the method, or, rather, want of any method,
INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 127
-of instruction. Every one, at all interested in the cause of Educa
tion, knows the vast improvement that has been made within a
brief period, both in the books used in schools and in the methods
of teaching from them. This improvement has extended to every
branch of a school education. It is difficult for us to form an idea
how different was the state of things in Franklin's time. I imagine
I see the boy — endowed by his Creator with faculties which were to
astonish the world by their strength, acuteness, and grasp — that
boy, who afterwards made his name immortal by his discoveries in
science, and who did more than any man, except Washington, to
carry his countrymen successfully through the war of the Revolu
tion — I imagine I see him in a small and, probably, ill-ventilated
school-room in School Street, in the town of Boston, resting his
distracted head upon his hand, and endeavoring in vain to catch a
glimpse of the meaning of the mysterious rules in Cocker's Arith
metic. The various studies that now make school life pleasant were
entirely out of his reach. At ten years of age he was taken from
school to help his father in the business of tallow-chandler and
soap-boiler, having learned from that "famous man," Master
Brownwell, nothing except a good hand — a statement which every
one will admit to be true who looks at his name, signed in clear,
round characters, to the Declaration of Independence. One cannot
help thinking with what delight Franklin would, even at that early
age, have pored over the most elementary treatise on Natural Phi
losophy; but it was to be his fate, by his brilliant discoveries, to
make some of the most important additions to such a work, instead
of merely reading accounts of the achievements of others.
It should be carefully kept in mind that the object is not to pour
information into the mind, but to train and discipline it. Hence,
we see the absurdity of learning a lesson merely by rote, and of
asking, in hearing a recitation, simply the questions which may be
in the book. Montaigne says: "To know by heart, is not to
know." Self-development should be encouraged to the fullest ex
tent. The pupil should be told as little as possible, and induced to
discover as much as possible. Encourage him to conquer difficul
ties himself. Every victory so achieved adds to the strength of his
mind, and what he acquires in this way he makes permanently his
own. The rule that the teacher should follow, is not to do anything
for the scholar which the scholar can do for himself; to remove
.from the road only those obstacles which are insurmountable, and
to put the pupil on the right track when he has got on the wrong
one. The true object in teaching is, to enable the scholar to do
without a teacher, as in assisting a child to walk; it is that he may
walk alone. It is true that certain information muse be imparted
by the teacher, and the best informed man, other things being
equal, will be the best teacher. But in imparting information, the
same caution should be used as in feeding a child. Give him intel
lectual food only when he craves it, then only can he digest it.
Don't load his stomach when he is not hungry. There is intellec
tual dyspepsia in schools.
It is implied in what I have said, that the real object of education
is to teach how to think. If this is not done, the memory may be
128 INSTITUTE ADDEESSES.
crammed with knowledge, so called (even this is like the rude and
undigested mass with which Virgil's harpies gorged themselves);
but what wisdom is there, what development of mind ? Emerson
says: " When a great thinker is let loose upon the world, look
out." How true it is that very few people do think. Many follow
in the beaten track, without asking whether there is not a better
road. How many are carried away by mere words, names, devices,
without once inquiring — What does all this really mean ? Let us
not be surprised, then, that the power of thinking is not more
frequently found among the young. Few grown persons possess
it. But it is a source of great gratification to the teacher when he
finds in his class any who do think, wrho turn the matter over in
their minds, who inquire why this is, or is not, so; in short, who
bring mind to bear upon the subject of their lessons. He wishes
that that leaven would leaven the whole lump of juvenility before
him. Too many learn their lessons by going over them as a mere
matter of memory, not as an exercise of the mind. This will be the
case as long as teachers insist upon, and are satisfied with, merely
the answers in the book, hearing the lesson almost as a mechanical
exercise. The remedy for the evil is to cross-examine the scholars
closely, and in a variety of ways, in order to ascertain whether they
have clear and definite ideas on the subject which they have been
studying. In this manner you probe their knowledge. Take all
the pains in the world to see that they understand what they recite,
perhaps, very glibly.
As the foundation of all memory, of all thinking, of progress in
learning, of success in any pursuit, attention is indispensable. It is
the possession, or the want of this faculty, that makes the great
difference among men. It is the power of directing and holding^
the mind closely and fixedly upon any subject until it is contem
plated in all its aspects and relations, and thereby fully understood.
You remember Newton said if there was a difference between him
self and other men, it resulted from his attention to the subject of
his thoughts. This ability to fasten and hold the attention cannot
be estimated too highly. It must not be disregarded even in the
youngest pupil. Whether one or many are to be instructed, un
divided attention must be given. Care and judgment are, of course,
highly necessary in presenting just such thoughts and lessons as
are adapted to their capacity. One thing at a time should claim
attention until it is fully mastered- Let that one thing be within
the reach of the child's mind, and then impressed upon it until the
idea is fully grasped.
A pleasant method of giving a child a lesson in attention may be
found in Ogden's " Science of Education/' He says: " A little ex
pedient to which I have resorted, on some occasions, may be sug
gestive of means that may be adopted for correcting these evils,
and of fixing the attention. Holding up my watch to the school, I
have said: ' How many of these little boys and girls can look at it
for one minute at a time ?' The idea, perhaps, is a novel one, and
their little voices and hands will respond, anxious for the experi
ment. Some will say, boastingly, ' I can look at it an hour!' c Two
hours r responds another little captain, who is anxious to make a
INSTITUTE ADDRESSES.
display of his prowess. At this juncture, I ask, how many would
be willing to make the experiment of one minute continuous look
ing ? There is a shower of hands and a shout of voices raised to
the highest pitch. ' Well, let us try; all ready; now!' And their
forms straighten up, and all eyes are bent with intense earnestness
upon the watch. It grows very quiet, and every one listens and
looks. Presently it occurs to half a dozen, or more, of them, that
they are doing it about right. ' I wonder if John, or Charles, or
Mary, or Ellen, is looking too ? Wonder if they all are doing as well
as I am?' And their thoughts leave the watch and the promise, and
wander after Charles or Ellen, and the temptation to look away be
comes so great that in about half a minute, or less, you will see an
occasional pair of eyes glance hurriedly to some convenient quarter
of the room, and back quick to the watch again; others, still less
cautious, will turn the head, and look carelessly away; others,
again, will drop off entirely, and cease to look; while some more
resolute and determined and careful than the rest, will not remove
their eyes for a moment, and, at the expiration of the time, will an
nounce their triumph with evident satisfaction. At the close, some
will insist upon a new trial; it may be granted, and then others
will succeed: and here it might be well to vary the experiment.
The question might be asked : ' If you are capable of holding your
eyes fixed upon that watch, can you, with equal success, confine
them to a picture or mark, upon the board ?'
" ' Now, if you can look at a watch, a picture, or a mere chalk
mark upon the board, for a given time, can you look at your books
as long without change?' The intention here, perhaps, will be dis
covered by some, and they will begin to see the force of it. Let
the experiment be made with the book, without attempting to study
during the first few trials. If they succeed well, suggest that if
they can look upon one page of the book, they might study that
long without looking away; and if they can thus confine the atten
tion for one, two, or three minutes, they can also, by practicing,
continue to five and six; but it will be found that young scholars
are not able to endure more than three or four minutes, even after
months of practice."
Another method is to read sentences selected for the beauty of
the thought, or for the admirable manner in which they express
some noble sentiment, or convey some moral truth. They are to
be suited to the mind of the scholar, and are to be read to the
whole class, beginning, of course, with short sentences, and after
wards proceeding to longer and more complicated. Every one in
the class must be told to give close attention. The sentence is
then read only once, slowly and distinctly. All those who can re
member it are requested to raise their hands, and some one is called
on to repeat it. It is wonderful to what an extent the attention and
the memory can be cultivated by such .a course as this. Do you
suppose that children, who have had the advantage of this practice,
will, when they hear a lecture or sermon in after-life, complain that
their memories are so wretched that they cannot recollect a word?
Warren Colburn's "Intellectual Arithmetic" (and all mental
arithmetics are based upon his plan), besides addressing the reason-
130 INSTITUTE ADDKESSES.
ing faculty, and leading pupils to understand the principles of
arithmetic, is remarkably instrumental in increasing the power of
thought, and in enabling the mind to hold and to follow a line of
consecutive reasoning.
The object of the Common School is to give the pupil a good
knowledge of the fundamental branches of an English education.
I shall now remark upon the methods of teaching some of these
branches somewhat more in detail.
Edward Everett says, " I hold that to read the English language
well — that is, with intelligence, feeling, spirit, and effect; to write,
wTith dispatch, a neat, handsome, legible hand (for it is, after all, a
great object in writing to have others able to read what we write),
and to be master of the four rules of arithmetic, so as to dispose,
at once, with accuracy, every question of figures which comes up in
practical life — I say, I call this a good education. And, if you add
the ability to write pure, grammatical English, I regard it as an ex
cellent education. These are the tools. You can do much with
them, but you are helpless without them."
First, let me speak of reading. To read understandingly, natur
ally, expressively, and feelingly, is a delightful accomplishment;
and yet how few possess it ? Vocal exercises are excellent for cul
tivating and developing the powers of the voice; the proper pro
nunciation and distinct enunciation of words, the different intona
tions of the voice should be carefully regarded; but the significance
of the words, the meaning of the author, is indispensable. A lesson
in reading should be studied as thoroughly as any other lesson set in the
school. The teacher should inquire the meaning of every word and
every allusion with which he may suppose the pupils to be unac
quainted. As their minds become more mature, he should call
their attention to the beauties or defects of any comparison em
ployed. He should endeavor to impress them with a proper con
ception of the beauty, wisdom, or truth of what they read. If a
lesson of only a few lines can be learnt in this manner, set that les
son, and no more. Do not be discouraged if the progress be slow
at first, it will be rapid by and by. At any rate, it is progress,
whereas the other course is no progress at all. For surely the ut
tering of pages of words, day after day, and month after month,
without comprehending their meaning, is not at all elevated above
the occupation of the parrot. Nor is it sufficient that the pupil
understands the meaning of most of the words; he must know them
all. If he is ignorant of the meaning of one word, he may lose all
the soul of whatever he reads. Let the teacher, in hearing a class
read, have perpetually in mind the question addressed by Philip,
" Understandest thou what thou readest?"
There can be no good reading if the lesson is not understood.
If, upon examining a school, I found the pupils well acquainted
with the meaning of what they read, I should feel the best assur
ance that they had pursued their other studies understandingly.
I wish to caution all against a theatrical tone. Most Professors
of Elocution commit this error, and many who attend their instruc
tions imitate them in this respect. Hence, there is so little good
reading among us. On the one hand, some who have never re-
INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 131
eeived any instruction from a competent teacher, read in a careless,
slovenly, and wretched manner, mumbling their words in the same
monotone, whatever the subject may be; while, on the other hand,
many, taking their cue from some Professor of Elocution, or some
distinguished public reader, assume an unnatural tone, and, with an
air and manner, all affectation and conceit, begin what they consider
remarkably stunning reading. Heaven preserve me from it. "I
had rather be a kitten, and cry mew/' than be obliged to listen to
it. I pray you avoid it. Of one of these theatrical readers it was
said that, at dinner, she stabbed the potatoes instead of taking
them, and that she asked for a knife in the same tone in which she
would say, c< Give me the dagger."
I proceed next to the subject of Geography. This study is often
commenced with a series of definitions, which are got by heart, re
peated, laid aside, and forgotten; forgotten, for one reason, be
cause not explained or understood, the language being made to
precede the ideas; and for another, because the words which the
definitions are to explain are new to the pupils. A better way of
commencing geography, with all children, is to call their attention
to the spot on which they live; to point out surrounding objects,
and mark their relative situations on the floor or black board; and
thus, to show how a town, its streets or roads, and its prominent
features, natural or artificial, may be represented. As their ideas
expand, the scale may be reduced, and distant towns, counties,
rivers, and mountains, with which the children are acquainted, or
of which they may have heard, may be introduced, correct ideas of
space and number being gradually acquired. Pupils should be
taught, by reference to objects around them, what is the length of
a mile; and by questions put to them in relation to places to which
they have traveled, they should be enabled to form a correct idea of
what the distance fifty, one hundred, or one thousand miles ac
tually is. Point out in which direction North, South, East and
West are, and state why a certain direction is fixed upon for the
North. Call attention to the pictorial representations of lakes,
rivers, &c. (like those introduced into the San Francisco schools);
and having already become acquainted with the thing, notice how
quickly they will learn and how easily they will remember the name.
Geography ought not to be studied without continual reference to
a globe. It should be looked at during every lesson, and it would
gradually stamp upon the minds of the scholars such a lively image
of the sphericity of the earth and of the relative positions and sizes
of continents, islands, oceans, &c., as would never be effaced.
I find in most geographies, lists of questions directing pupils to
learn the situations of small towns, or villages, or insignificant
rivers or lakes, as: Where is Toudou, Tzentzin, Sewah, &c.} &c. ?
Such places are of no consequence; the scholar has no assistance
from the association of ideas in mastering what may be truly called
his task; and in ascertaining the position of places, which might as
well be called by the letters of the alphabet as by the names used
in the book. I should request the scholar to find out the localities
only of the more important places, and which these are can be
easily known from the book. Why should he be called upon to
132 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES.
burden bis memory with a mass of useless details forgotten as soon
as acquired ? You do not wish to make of him a Geographical
Gazeteer. You cannot expect him to know the locality of every
place upon the earth from Borioboloo Gha to London. You must
draw the line somewhere; draw it then between those places which
are of importance and those which are not. After leaving school,
the scholar can easily ascertain the position of any place in which
he may happen to be interested.
I make these remarks because pupils, at exhibitions, have been
called upon to run through long catalogues of names of rivers, lakes,
seas, oceans, capes, islands, mountains, states, cities, towns, &c. It
is well that children should know these, to a certain extent, but this
is by no means the important part of geography. They should also
become familiar with the grand facts and the leading principles; the
real and comparative sizes of countries, using their own State as a
unit; the comparative population of different countries and large
cities, taking the population of California and. San Francisco as the-
units of measure; the grand features of countries, such as the moun
tain and river systems; the climate of different parts of the world,
and the causes affecting it; the various productions of the globe; the
extraordinary natural curiosities found upon the earth; the great
ocean surrounding the land, and inviting the nations to commerce;
the kind of people tkat live in any land, their religion, their pecu
liarities, their social and political condition, and many other subjects-
which will suggest themselves to the competent instructor.
If geography were taught in this manner, should you think ifc
possible for children to consider the top of a map to be up, and the
bottom down, and thatf consequently, all rivers which flow into the
Arctic Ocean must run up hill ? Or to state that Cuba and Massa
chusetts are of about the same size ? Answers which have actually
been given in schools of considerable reputation.
The elements of composition are almost invariably a stumbling-
block to the young — and, strange as the statement may appear, I
think the principal reasons for this fact are that it is not commenced
early enough, but is put off until the pupil is considerably advanced
in his other studies, and that he is then usually told to write a com
position upon some subject — perhaps an abstract one — about which
he knows nothing, and in which he cannot, of course, feel the
slightest interest. Who does not remember the vacuity of mind and
vexation of spirit with which, in his youthful days, he addressed
himself to the set task of writing an essay upon such a theme as —
Virtue, its own Reward ; The Study of History, &c. ? Of what fright
ful dimensions, and how supernaturally white, looked the blank
sheet (blank as our own minds) of foolscap, which we were to fill
with our own thoughts (so the master directed) without receiving
any assistance from our friends. How frequently we thrust the pen
into the inkstand in the vain hope to hook up some idea which
might be concealed in that Stygian abyss ! How despairingly we
scratched our heads, how closely we scrutinized the walls and the
ceiling, as if we expected to catch by the tail some stray idea which
might be lurking in some corner or crevice of the room ! How
firmly did we for the time believe in the non-existence of mind, and
INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 133
the existence of nothing but matter throughout the universe! And
then, if, after all this cudgeling of our brains, something did come
into our heads, whispered, doubtless, by the pitying spirit of some
repentant pedagogue, did we not make the most of it ? Did we not
dilute it, and dilate it, and amplify it, and spread it out, in the
largest hand, upon lines ruled at least two inches apart, being very
careful to prevent any quarreling between the words, by placing
them at such a distance as to make it impossible for them to cross
swords with one another!
Now, the remedy for this unfortunate state of things consists in
asking children to write upon those subjects only which the}r under
stand, or which relate directly to, or spring out of, their studies, or
in which they would naturally, as boys and girls, take an interest.
A multitude of such questions, drawn from the everyday pursuits,
amusements, and occupations of the young, will suggest themselves
to the qualified teacher. It is highly important that the exercise of
writing out their own thoughts should commence early. Very soon
after children begin to think, and are capable of using and writing
small words, a slate and pencil should be put into their hands, and
they should be brought to express their thoughts in their own lan
guage, no matter how short the sentences or the words. In most of
the schools for the deaf and dumb, the pupils begin to write ex
ercises of this character after two years' instruction — in some sooner.
And, certainty, if this can be done by those unfortunately deprived
of speech and hearing, it can be accomplished by those possessing
all their faculties. I have known scholars, in other respects excel
lent, who found great difficulty in expresmng themselves either
orally or in writing. They were deficient in language. They
ought to have been from an early period frequently practised in
the use of their mother tongue. The exercises should be made
more difficult, as the pupil becomes older; for beginners, they
should, of course, be of the simplest character. As soon as a child
can write legibly, he should be put to writing short phrases —
original or from dictation; and, as a part of this exercise, he
should be taught spelling, the dividing of words into syllables,
punctuation, the rules for the use of the capital letters, &c. Teachers
complain that it is difficult for scholars to learn to spell correctly;
and so it is, especially from the use of spelling-books alone. To
become a very correct speller, is the labor of years on the part of
the pupil. It is continual practice in the writing of sentences, not
isolated words, that makes the good speller; and pupils cannot learn
to spell correctly without being more in the habit of writing than
they now are. A man who writes only a letter or two a year is
likely to be a poor speller; but one who, from his occupation, writes
every day, is rarely faulty in this respect. Consider, too, in practis
ing such simple lessons in composition as I recommend, how many-
valuable things they are at the same time acquiring. Besides punc
tuation, spelling, the use of capital letters, &c., they are, or should
be, improving their handwriting; they are exercising their minds
pleasantly by the invention of sentences, short or long; they are
learning the meanings and the right use of words; they are gradu
ally becoming acquainted with their own language, and accustomed
134 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES.
to express their thoughts appropriately. Think how desirable an
acquisition this last will be to every boy and girl upon entering into
life, and how many have regretted the want of it.
I agree to the opinion, that it is a wicked waste of time to confine
children, year after year, to copy-books in penmanship. After a
certain stage has passed — and that not a very late one — handwrit
ing should be made the common and every-day means of acquiring
and reducing to practice a knowledge of orthography, punctuation,
the construction of sentences, &c. Children who have been kept
in their copy-books until they could write a beautiful hand have, if
required to write down sentences of their own composition, produced
illegible and disgraceful scrawls, abounding in errors of punctua
tion and spelling. This statement proves the importance of early
combining handwriting, punctuation, and spelling, in one exercise of
the pupil's own composition; of departing from the beaten track,
and of making, as soon as possible, scholars do the whole work for
themselves without pattern or assistance.
Similar remarks to those which I have made are applicable to the
subject of Declamations. Let the boys speak only pieces which they
fully understand and appreciate, suitable to their age, and expres
sive of such thoughts, feelings, and interests, as are natural to boys,
not men. I take no interest in seeing a stripling ascend the ros
trum, and, in tones intended to be very impressive, exclaim : " There
stands Bunker Hill Monument/5 with a gesture directed at the
stove-pipe. I object to hearing a youthful prodigy shriek, in the
shrillest treble, "Myjpice is still for war." I refuse to lend my
ears, although urgently requested to do so, in the well known line,
beginning —
"Friends, Romans, countrymen."
I am not at all withered by the tone of contempt with which the
embryo orator " hurls back the base insinuation, with scorn and
defiance, into the teeth of the contemptible and inefficient member
of the opposite party." I have seen, in a California paper, a notice
of an exhibition, in which it was stated that the Great Debate be
tween Webster and Hayne was conducted with decorum by the
youthful Senators. Well, I am glad it was; I am thankful that no
violation of parliamentary propriety occurred, calling for the inter
ference of the Sergeant-at-Arms. But wrhy should boys personate
Demosthenes, Cicero, Burke, Webster, Clay, or James Buchanan?
Why not simply and naturally be themselves ?
Who would shorten this blissful period by introducing into it the
passions, strifes, and ambition of men ? Let boys be boys in every
sense of the word, while they are such in years, and neither on nor
off the stage ape the bearing, passions, or language of men. I do
not wish to be understood as saying that appeals to the highest and
best feelings of our nature, that the noble and patriotic sentiments
of our great orators cannot be appreciated by boys. Far from it.
But I wish particular pains to be taken by the teacher to avoid
pieces which do not lie within the comprehension or the experience
of the pupil; and let those selected be as thoroughly studied and
understood as the lessons in reading, to which I have alluded, or
any other lessons, in the school.
INSTITUTE ADDKESSES. 135
I cannot condemn too strongly all dramatic exhibitions, conducted
by schools, in which scenes from plays are represented with scenery,
dresses, music, &c. I do not object to a good dialogue or polylogue,
such as is adapted to interest the youthful mind and touch to finer
issues the youthful heart, spoken in the usual manner. But I am
opposed to dramatic representations, accompanied, to use ihe tech
nical word, with all the properties. I do not know that any exhi
bition of this kind has ever occurred in connection with the Free
Schools of America, and I hope none such ever will. There is no
talent in spouting. Do not boys have too much inclination for the
stage already without its being stimulated ? And what a waste of
time there is in getting up such representations; precious time
which might be, and ought to be, spent in familiarizing the pupil ,
with all the fundamental branches of a good, sound, English edu
cation, without which they cannot expect to be useful to themselves
or to society.
You must perceive of what primary importance I consider it is,
that children should know the meaning of every thing they attempt
to learn. It is astonishing with what facility they will use words,
or give an answer, to which they attach an erroneous meaning, or
perhaps, no meaning whatever. This was much more the case for
merly than at present, since our fathers did not, in many respects,
pursue the natural course in the education of children.
How pleasantly and successfully nature teaches the infant! No
sooner has it begun to exercise its senses, first, probably, the touch,
in perceiving warmth, to open its eyes, to take food, to perceive
odors, to hear sounds, than it begins to acquire knowledge. In the
exercise of these powers the infant takes great delight. That dur
ing the first months of a child's life, its progress is highly satisfac
tory, is evident to a very ordinary observer; its first lispings show
how much interest it finds in the appearances of surrounding ob
jects; its first observations are listened to and receive that degree
of attention which they demand; and it is not till the pressure of
other domestic duties, or other inclinations, divide the mother's-
care, that the inquiries of the infant are neglected, and it is left,
often discouraged and disheartened. A child obtains its notions as
as we do, by seeing, sounding, feeling, smelling, and tasting ob
jects. "Do not meddle" puts a stop to these processes. In cases
of doubt and uncertainty, it asks for information, and is, perhaps,
told, "Little children should be seen, and not heard." After a few
years, the child is placed at school, where, instead of that natural
course being pursued which should turn to account the observa
tions and knowledge he has already stored up, he is often forced
upon studies for which he shows no inclination; he is taught ivords,^
instead of things ; and his memory is loaded with phrases and rules,
which he does not understand.
Thus, his education commences, and thus a path, which might be
strewn with flowers to allure, is choked with brambles to impede,
his progress. The thorny track is traveled over, and for a long
time the pupil has only confused notions floating in his mind, to
the exclusion of that precise and distinct knowledge which lies
within the grasp of those.^f acuities which nature courts him to ex-
136 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES.
ercise. We all know that in many schools children have been
taught, nay, are even now taught, as if they had to use only one
or two of the senses. A child who possesses in perfection all the
senses, should have them all exercised. We are, none of us, per
haps, more than half educated in this respect. The five senses
are the^rneans of communication between the outer world and the
spirit within. It is through these media that the child for some
time receives all its knowledge. A late writer says of the infant
of two years old: " He has acquired more knowledge during this
short period than he generally does on the present plan of in
struction through the eight or ten succeeding years of his life,
and it is a striking instance of the benevolence of the Creator, and
a prelude of the vast extent of knowledge the child is afterwards
capable of acquiring, that all these acquisitions are made, not only
without pain, but, in the greater number of instances, are accom
panied with the highest enjoyment."
In the school-room, we should imitate as much as possible the
method of nature. Young children are not reflecting or reasoning
beings; they have no appreciation of abstractions; they are for the
tangible, the real, the concrete. It is through their senses that
nature is acquainting them with the material world, and how fresh,
active, and vigilant their senses are, and what untiring pleasure
they take in their exercise.
Children should be taught by things as much as possible, by words
• as little as possible. The latter may kill any idea, but the reality
maketh alive. On this account, I consider object-teaching as a de
cided improvement in our schools. It is an excellent plan, when
ever practicable, to show the scholars whatever may be the subject
of the lesson, or, if that cannot be done, then a drawing or picture
of it. Their interest is thus awakened; every eye is sure to be wide
open; the information imparted is correct; there can be no mistake
about it. How quickly, also, it is gathered; how much time it
takes to convey, by description, through the ear, a full and accur
ate idea of what may, perhaps, be understood at a glance of the
eye, and so impressed upon the mind as never to be forgotten.
There are some teachers who should be informed that they do not
have under their charge Institutions for the Blind; but that their
pupils have eyes, and would rejoice in an opportunity to use
them.
The importance of real objects, natural and artificial models, pic
torial representations, experimental and other practical elucida
tions, cannot be too strongly urged on those who have the direction
of the young mind. In most of the subjects which form the school
business, such illustrations may be introduced. The school-room
should be furnished with receptacles for works of art and nature;
the pupils themselves would be the most valuable and active con
tributors to such collections; and those specimens which are ap
parently the most humble will often be found to be the most use
ful. Visits to mines, manufactories, to the sea-shore, to fields and
woods, would furnish great additions to such a store. Minerals,
vegetables, woods, metals, animal substances, insects, shells, &c.,
are easily obtained. The arrangement and classification of these
INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 137
objects would call into exercise faculties which are now scarcely
ever developed. One writer says that he has known boys of twelve
years of age who could recognize and refer to their proper class al
most every object around them in nature, and gives it as his opinion
that a wide range of descriptive natural history may be imparted at
that age.
The world around us is fair and beautiful, and full of wonders;
it is always speaking to the heart of man, though the cares of life
may prevent him from hearing its voice. But it is in the morning of
life, when the heart is free from anxiety, when the spirits are light
and buoyant, when the senses are the most acute, the curiosity in
satiable, and creation fresh and new, that its language finds a will
ing and a charmed ear.
How do the young enjoy the glories of sunrise, a lovely prospect,
a ramble through the woods, or along the sea-shore, and how much
quicker than their elders do they notice any little circumstance that
may occur! And what a pity it is to close upon them this broad
face of nature which God himself has spread before them for their
contemplation and delight, and shut them up within four walls,
where they are told to keep their eyes on their lessons, which are
some pages of a printed book ? Cage the lark, tie up the forest
deer — and you do not act more against nature than has been done
in sentencing children to imprisonment six hours a day within the
blank walls of some penitentiary of a school-house.
Now, I know very well that geography, grammar, and arithmetic
are indispensable. They must be learnt, and well learnt. The
fundamental branches of a good English education must not be
neglected. But while I would not have these in the least interfered
with, I would urge it upon all connected with schools not to disre
gard the natural sciences. The study will, I am sure, contribute to
the pleasure and improvement of both teachers and scholars, and
promote, instead of retarding, the progress of the latter in fcheir
other studies. These first books 'can be understood by any teacher
whose " heart is in her vocation;" in fact, such a teacher will be
delighted with them; and if she catches the true spirit of observa
tion, she will be continually led to add facts of her own gathering
to those which the author has preserved.
It is certainly possible, during the seven or eight years spent in
the Grammar Schools, to pay some attention to the natural sciences.
Do not shut the children out from them during this the golden
period of their lives for studying them . Consider a few of the ad
vantages to the discipline of the pupil's mind in pursuing theso
sciences. How much are his powers of observation improved by
the study of nature ! And this is no small thing. How few people
see things just as they are! How often do witnesses under oath
disagree with regard to material circumstances in relation to events
occurring before their eyes, and where all had equal opportunities
of seeing ! Men are unwilling to trust their own senses in reference
to matters a little out of the line of their own business. They will
tell you they are no judges in such cases. Have not persons been
made believers in spiritualism and animal magnetism, because their
9
138 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES.
observing faculties were not sufficiently awake to see through the
deception ?
But after things are seen (and it is a very important thing to see
them accurately and fully), then comes the exercise of the facultyo
of comparison. Now this faculty implies a great deal. We com
pare things, not merely to see their resemblances, but their differ
ences. He who can do this well, is no ordinary person; he who
can do it remarkably well, is one out of ten thousand. Men differ
greatly in their ability to perceive resemblances and differences.
An unfortunate lawyer is compelled to take his seat in mortification,
by the Judge's showing him that the cases he had cited are not an
alogous to that before the Court, and consequently not at all applic
able. The great business of buying and selling depends, as one
may say, upon comparison. It sometimes happens that the best of
friends will get angry in a discussion, when the difference between
them is a trifle, a fact of which they may afterwards become aware,
much to their astonishment. We consider it a compliment to any
one, when we say that he has a discriminating mind; he can make
distinctions. Now, the natural sciences teach hoiv to observe, and how
to distinguish things correctly — which is, in fact, the greater part of
education, and that in which people otherwise well educated are
sometimes surprisingly deficient.
It must not be forgotten that the course of study in the Grammar,
Schools should be comprehensive enough to meet the wants and
tastes of every mind. Now, the list is by no means small of those
who have been pronounced dunces at school, who have afterwards
been widely distinguished for their attainments in science. Hugh
Miller, who has been mentioned, is an instance in point. Dr.
Franklin was probably considered by his teacher as arithmetic
proof, and, perhaps, as stupid in other respects; the reason being
that there was no study pursued in the school which interested the
youthful philosopher, who was born to be an observer of nature.
Many other instances to the same effect might be mentioned. In
troduce, then, into the Common Schools the study of Nature, and
make provision for those whose tastes, perhaps whose genius, lies in
that direction.
I know that the general impression is, that the study of any
branch of natural science is a study of hard words, particularly in
the case of natural history. It is surprising to notice how many
school-books will commence with pages of hard words and defini
tions, the purpose of which at that stage is unintelligible. This is
not the case, however, with the books I have mentioned. They are
simple, and suited to the 3roung. The great and interesting- facts
are noticed; hard names are explained, and the definitions given
only when 'it becomes necessary in the course of the works, and
thus the pupil is not disheartened or disgusted at the very begin
ning. We must wait until the mind has become more mature be
fore the scholar can attend to classification or to generalization.
It must not be overlooked that, in consequence of the great ad
vances made in the physical sciences, they are much more the
objects of attention now than formerly. The great discoveries of
modern times, more or less intimately connected with the welfare
INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 139
and the progress of society, are made in these sciences, and the
physical arts themselves have received a new impulse. We must
keep pace with them in our schools.
The public are little awrare how much interest is taken by natural
ists the world over in the natural history of California. The State
has been visited and explored, in some parts, for that purpose by
agents from most of the prominent universities and societies in the
world. The distinguished naturalist, Agassiz, states that he has a
friend in San Francisco who has sent him an amount of specimens
greater than all those collected by all the United States Exploring
Expeditions put together.
Is it not high time for the citizens of California to take an interest
in this subject, and to introduce it into the Public Schools, so as to
give every young man desirous of entering upon these pursuits an
opportunity to make some, at least, of the necessary preparations;
and is there any country where such studies are more needed, or
will be more useful to the public and to the individual ?
There is a very strong desire at the East to introduce more ex
tensively into their schools the study of the natural sciences, includ
ing natural history. They acknowledge their remissness in this
respect, and all concur in the importance and necessity of this
change being made.
In a lecture, delivered by Agassiz, are the following remarks:
" Our school system has been developed in a manner which has
produced the most admirable results, and is imitated everywhere as
the most complete and the most successful; but, while we have at
tained the highest point in that respect, we are also best prepared
by that very position to make any further improvement which may
lead to a better future. And I believe that the introduction of the
study of natural history, as a branch of the most elementary educa
tion, is what can be added to what is already so admirable a system.
The difficult art of thinking can be acquired more rapidly by this
method than by any other. When we study moral or mental phil
osophy in text-books, which we commit to memory, it is not the
mind we cultivate — it is the memory alone. The mind may come
in; but if it does in that method, it is only in an accessory way.
But if we learn to think, by unfolding thoughts ourselves, from the
examination of objects around us, then we acquire them ourselves,
and we acquire the ability of applying our thoughts in life. The
teacher who is competent to teach the elements of this science,
must, of course, feel a deep interest in it; he must know how to
select those topics which are particularly instructive and best
adapted to awaken an interest to sustain it, and to lead forward to
the understanding of more difficult questions. He should be
capable of rendering the subject attractive, interesting, and so
pleasant, indeed, that the hour for the school should be welcomed
by the scholar instead of being dreaded as bringing something im
posed by duty, and not desirable in itself."
It may be added to what has been said by Agassiz, in illustration
of the benefits to be derived from the study of natural history, that
it is a fact, which every one acquainted with the subject will admit,
that our crops are every year injured to the extent of many thou-
14:0 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES.
sands of dollars by the depredations of insects whose habits are not
properly understood. In this way, the Hessian fly, the canker
worm, the apple worm, the apple and peach borers, the curculio,
the cotton worm, the tobacco worm, the corn borer, the rice weevil,
the wheat midge, and other insects not yet known, make way with
capital and labor to an enormous extent. There are many insects
injurious to the grape-vine, to one of which a volume has been de
voted. Investigations into the habits of such insects have been at
tended with the best results, one of the most useful of which has
been to stop the farmer from destroying his friends with his enemies
among insects, as he had been in the habit of doing. The best way
of finding an effectual remedy for these injuries is to diffuse and cul
tivate in our schools a taste for natural history.
In a moral point of view, this study, as well as that of all the
natural sciences, is of the highest importance. I never heard of a
real lover of nature who was a bad man. They exhibit to man the
thoughts of the Creator, for all the arrangements which he sees
around him are manifestations of the Divine Mind. In the book of
nature we can read a portion of the laws and the designs of the
Almighty. The more diligently any one pursues these studies the
more deeply he is impressed with the abundant evidences of the
power, the wisdom, and the benevolence of the Creator. He sees
that a drop of water is full of wonders, as well as the starry heavens;
that the tiniest insect that sports in the sun-beam is not so insignif
icant as to be beneath the care of its Maker, nor the Island Uni
verses, scattered through the realms of space, too vast for His
power to control. Every creature made by the Divine Hand he
sees to be perfect, with an organization exactly suited to its wants,
and its place in the scale of being, and adapted to contribute to its
happiness. God provided for all His creatures. Now, the youth
ful heart readily understands and feels the lesson which Nature
teaches; it will not rest satisfied merely with Nature and Nature's
laws, but willingly and instinctively is led through them up to
Nature's God. It is touched by His goodness; it reverences His
power and majesty; as the mind expands, it feels that He is the
source !of all we possess; it begins to feel the need of His aid and
protection, and then earnestly to invoke them. In this manner it
at length realizes the great truth, that in Him we live and move,
and have our being; it does not read these as unmeaning words,
but is pervaded with their deep signification. It is impressed with
the heartfelt conviction, that there can be no more utter and dread
ful ruin than to disobey the commands of this Good and Just Being,
and that there is no greater happiness than to do His will and re
ceive His approbation.
I consider it an evil to stimulate the intellect, almost, perhaps,
to its utmost exertions, and to neglect the moral training of the
scholar, or to treat the latter as if it were of minor consequence, as
if the object were to make smart linguists, or mathematicians, or
chemists, instead of complete men. We have, undoubtedly, too
many smart men in the world already; that is, smart in the bad
sense of the word, arid yet, perhaps, in a sense by which they feel
complimented.
INSTITUTE ADDRESSES . 141
What is wanted more than anything else is true men, men of
principle, men fearing God, loving their neighbor, loving their
whole country, and cherishing its free institutions; men who stand
for the right as immovable as the eternal pyramids; whose word,
whose look is truth itself; whose honor can no more be tarnished
than a suD-beam can be soiled; in whose breasts the ruling maxim
is not "Cotton is king," nor " Gold is king/' but everywhere, both
in their most secret retirement, as well as in public position, reigns,
enthroned in their hearts and obeyed in their lives, the divine prin
ciple — DUTY is KING FOREVER !
Now, the child is not all intellect, any more than it is all con
science; it has a sense of right and wrong, and this sense is silently
addressed in a hundred different ways, as the questions arise
whether the pupil shall do this thing or not, whether he shall con
fess or conceal a certain fault, &c. I know that the importance of
this subject is adequately felt by the public school teachers of San
JFrancisco, and that much attention is paid by them to moral in
struction, and pains taken to impress upon the minds of their pupils
the great religious truths in which all are agreed. At the same
time, while this is done, all sectarianism is carefully avoided.
I would have this moral sense carefully cherished as the voice of
God; I would have it kept sensitive and acute, and properly trained
and educated. I would have every part of the nature of the pupil
well and proportionately exercised and developed — the physical, the
intellectual, and the moral, the body, the mind, and the heart; the
last the most carefully of all, since out of it are the issues of life.
I would tell the pupil that the acquisition of knowledge is valuable,
"but that, though his attainments in science and art, and in all learn
ing, were transcendent, though he might "speak with the tongues
•of men and of angels," and "understand all mysteries and all
knowledge/' yet, if he had not a good character, sound moral prin
ciples, he would be nothing but a miserable failure. With all the
energy I possessed, and all the different methods of appeal I could
invent, I would enjoin it upon him to strive to become a good, true,
.and noble man.
And such words, addressed in the spirit of affection to the young,
4*0 directly to their hearts. Their impulses can easily be turned
into the right channel. They have a desire after excellence in the
acquisition of knowledge; but if their sense of right and wrong is
properly appealed to, I believe it can be made the ruling power of
their lives. When this result is accomplished, how blessed is the
work! It is beautiful to look upon the young, with their clear and
honest eyes, their frank and beaming countenances, their warm and
pure hearts beating high with aspirations after goodness and truth,
and desiring that every evening may find them more worthy of the
approbation of their teachers, their parents, and of Heaven.
Fellow Teachers! from our connection with the Public Schools,
we must take a deep interest in their prosperity and success, and
earnestly wish that each revolving year may render them more effi
cient. The Common School System is the child of the people, in
which they take great pride. The Public Schools are emphatically
the People'-s College. From them graduate the bone and sinew of
142 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES.
the community — men of sound common sense, of good principles,,
and with stout hearts, who will stand by the Common Schools as
the bulwark of their rights and liberties, and who will defend them
against bold and open attack, or vile and secret slander. Their
crowning glory is, that their doors are open freely to all; that in
them the poorest child is the equal of the richest, and may lay the
foundation of an education which may lead him to employment, to
competence, to respectability, nay, even to high station and to a
glorious fame. Many a poor man has denied himself in order that
his little ones might attend school decently attired, and has had his
last moments cheered by the thoughts that he had faithfully given
his children every advantage afforded by the Public Schools — feel
ing in that fact a strong assurance of their future good conduct and
welfare.
The Common Schools can show upon their rolls the names of dis
tinguished men who laid in them the foundation of a world-wide
renown. Franklin, of whom I have spoken; Clay, in the log cabin
school-house of Peter Deacon, with no floor but the earth, and no
window but the door; Webster, in the log school-hoiise kept by
Master Tappan in the wilds of New Hampshire; George Stephen-
son, the founder, and, to a great extent, the inventor, of the present
system of locomotion on railroads, commencing at eighteen years
of age in a village school to learn his A, B, C, like a little child;
Fulton, Bowditch, and hosts of others. They commenced life in
poverty. Had not the Common School afforded them an oppor
tunity to begin their education free of expense, how few of them
might ever have been known to the world? How many of those
yet unborn, and destined to immortal renown in their various
capacities, would, but for the Free Common School, be lost in eter
nal night! We have a right, then, to feel an honest pride in this
great system with which we are connected.
Our profession is humble, laborious, and exhausting. The ser
vices of the teacher are not adequately appreciated in any com
munity. Neither fame nor wealth belongs to him. He is not al
lowed even the designation — Honorable. He is overworked and
underpaid. And yet his life has its compensations. I know noth
ing more touching and more grateful to the teacher than, at the
close of the year, when he is bidding farewell to those who are
passing forever from his care, for him to see every countenance
turned towards him with affection and gratitude — to know that
these minds have received from him wholesome knowledge — that,
by his influence and example, good principles have been implanted
in their hearts — and that he has troops of friends growing up and
becoming every year more numerous, who will voluntarily pay him
that honor, love, and obedience, which they feel to be due to the
benefactor of their youth.
The faithful teacher has another reward, of which nothing can
deprive him. It is the approbation of his own conscience; it is the
consciousness that he is humbly imitating the Creator and Preserver
of all, in doing good. " Think not," said Sydney Smith to an aged,
poverty-stricken master teaching the art of reading or writing to
some tattered scholars, " you are teaching that alone; you are pro-
INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 143
tecting life, insuring- property, fencing the altar, guarding the gov
ernment, giving space and liberty to all the fine powers of man,
and lifting him up to his own place in the order of creation." This
well describes the nature of the teacher's office.
It was the boast of the Emperor Augustus, that he found Rome
brick, and left it marble. Let it be the higher praise of the Public
School teachers, that California was found a wilderness, but that
they have contributed by their exertions to fill its valleys and cities
with a virtuous and intelligent population — a richer treasure than
all her nodding harvests, than all her mines of gold.
4. CONCERNING COMMON SENSE IN TEACHING/
It is one of the highest compliments we can pay a man to say that
he possesses good common sense. The article in question is cer
tainly one of the most important qualifications of a successful
teacher. Call it "tact," or "knack, "or " faculty," or "gift, "or
whatever you please, it implies alwa}Ts a clear conception of things
as they exist, and an adaptation of means to the end sought.
In broaching this subject, I feel that I may place myself in the
situation of the learned divine, whose third and principal division
of his discourse was "concerning that of which we know nothing."
I do not propose to treat of a course of instruction for graded
schools, where children are presumed to be in regular attendance
for a series of years, and where provision is made for a specific
course of learning for all the faculties of the mind; but to consider
briefly those schools remote from cities, and continued only a part
of the year. What are they expected to accomplish, and what view
should the common sense teacher take of his field of labor ? Many
of our public schools, in the sparsely settled districts of the State,
are kept less than six months in the year, and even then the attend
ance is irregular and inconstant. Pupils may be expected to attend
school from the age of six to fourteen ; and allowing six months at
tendance in each year — a high average when one-fourth attend only
three months of the year — the actual time at school will be reduced
to four years. The question propounded by common sense is :
What course of instruction will impart the greatest amount of use
ful information, and best fit the children for the duties of common
life?
Now, hardly any course of study or mental exercise can be sought
out which shall be utterly useless. The driest and dullsst style of
memorizing musty text books, and the most parrot-like verbatim
recitations, involve some thought, and are not without some advan
tages. The thoughtful man of wealth, who, in order that his son
should not grow up in idleness, compelled him to wheel a huge pile of
stones from one part of his garden to another, and then wheel them
back again, and so kept him wheeling them back and forth each
day of the year, was wiser than the parent who allows his son to do
nothing. But it would have been more sensible in the man of
*Kead before California State Teachers' Institute, 1863.
144 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES.
wealth had he set his boy at work upon some useful labor, which
would have interested his attention, instead of keeping him engaged
in unprofitable drudgery.
I cannot help thinking that sometimes in our schools we set the
boys to wheeling stones, instead of building walls, or clearing fields
for future harvests. For instance, keeping a boy for years drilling
on the stereotyped forms of solving Mental Arithmetic, committing
a great mass of routine verbiage, when he ought to learn the simple
forms of Written Arithmetic used in business life, is undoubtedly
" wheeling stones." The boy may repeat the " solution/' and the
" forms/' and the " conclusion/' and the <c therefores," and " where
fores/' with a marvelous skill, and yet it is not common-sense
teaching. A man was brought before an Eastern king, and extolled
by the courtiers for his wonderful powers of endurance, because he
could stand on one leg for twenty-four hours. "A goose can stand
longer than that," said the king.
When, in school, we teach boys and girls the abstract rules and
scientific mysteries and technicalities of grammar, training them
skillfully to analyze complex, compound, ;and^ involved sentences,
but omitting to teach them by daily practice how to express com
mon thoughts in correct English, or how to talk correctly in ordi-
nary conversation, without using provincialisms or cant phrases —
what are we doing but keeping them " wheeling stones," and feed
ing on husks ?
When children study for years the columns of uncommon and
obsolescent words, piled up in perpendicular obelisks, staring them
in the face like huge exclamation marks of wonder and surprise, and
then leave school unable to write a list of articles wanted from the
corner grocery without exciting the risibilities of the grocery man,
or are unable to write a friendly letter without offending the eye by
misspelling the commonest words — what have they been doing but
' ' wheeling stones ? "
So when scholars are kept forever drilling on elementary princi
ples and minute particulars, it is not in accordance with common
sense. "Be thorough," is a good maxim'; but there is such a thing
as being too thorough — of dwelling on particulars, to the neglect of
essentials. A teacher may be painfully particular, like a good aunt
of mine, years ago, who was so distressingly neat that nobody ever
took any comfort in her house.
In Arithmetic, for instance, it is keeping a boy wheeling stones
"to discipline his mind" a month in learning to explain in due
form the reason of ' ' inverting the divisor in dividing one fraction
by another," if thereby he should fail to learn how to write a prorn-
missory note, compute simple interest, or make out a bill. A
teacher from a graded city school would fail in an unclassified
school, should he attempt to apply the same test of thoroughness,
or to pursue the same exact course of study. Certain results must
be obtained, to the sacrifice of many particulars which are all good
in themselves. |Dne great reason why self-educated men are practi
cal workers, is that they learn nothing they do not want to use, and so
learn it well. ) Concentration gives them strength. Napoleon dis
pensed with tents and luggage in his great armies, taking only
what he wanted to use — the sword and the bayonet.
INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 145
It seems to me — and the conclusion has been growing stronger
each year, during twelve years' experience in public school teaching
— that no small part of what children are required to learn might
appropriately be headed: "Things worth forgetting." Nature is
wiser than we are, and casts off the useless surplus of facts and
figures into utter oblivion. Bun through an ordinary school
geography, and see how many bushels of chaff to a single grain of
wheat. Look at the compendious arithmetics, strike out nine-
tenths of which, and the remainder would be more than sufficient.
Look at the bulky grammar, grown fat by feeding on all other
grammars printed since Lindley Murray's, of which, not even the
authors could carry in their heads a moiety. Look at the school
histories of our country, full to repletion of dates and chronological
tables, containing more of details than any grown man in the
United States could learn in a lifetime. I allude to these only to
show how much a teacher must omit in the school text books, and
how essential that he should have common sense to guide him in
selecting.
A four years' course of study in an unclassified school can neither
be very complicated nor very extensive. A matter-of-fact teacher
would look at his work in something of this manner : These boys
are, most of them, to become farmers, miners, mechanics, and
laborers. All the scholastic education they receive will be gained
here. These girls will, most of them, become the wives of farmers,
miners, mechanics, and laborers. "What instruction is absolutely
essential to these boys and girls to fit them to grow up respectable
men and women? Letting alone the geniuses and the prodigies,
they are of average mental capacity. "What shall be done with them ?
First, they must learn to read, write, and spell the English lan
guage. Reading is usually taught well enough for all practical
purposes, whether according to elocutionary rules or not ; but pen
manship and spelling are too often sadly neglected. Almost every
man, in whatever occupation engaged, is called upon to write, more
or less, every day of his life. "Writing involves spelling, and both
are unmistakable evidences of culture, or want of it. Teach these
three things thoroughly, so that every child fifteen years of age
shall be able to read readily, to write legibly, and to spell correctly,
the words in the English language most used in common life.
Sacrifice everything to this — even let algebra remain a minus quan
tity, and the higher branches take a back seat. They are of vastly
more practical value than arithmetic — the trite and venerable
maxim, that the study of arithmetic is the best discipline of the
mind, so often quoted by arithmetic-run-mad teachers, to the con
trary notwithstanding. A knowledge of arithmetic sufficient to
enable men and women to keep accounts correctly, will suffice,
letting alone the mental discipline of the reasoning faculties, so
often harped about. Ben. Franklin was a dullard in arithmetic ; he
grew up with pretty tolerable reasoning faculties, because he kept
his perceptives wide awake. Don't let arithmetic, then, be the
great nightmare of the school to squeeze out all the vitality from
the scholars. Most Americans take naturally to reckoning dollars
and cents, without the aid of text books.
146 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES.
Some knowledge of the geography of the world is necessary, and
particularly that of our own country. But common sense declines
to expect that little boys and girls should learn the names and loca
tions of the two thousand little round dots on the map of the
United States, called towns and cities, with figures attached repre
senting the population; or the names and length of the five
hundred little black lines, drawn like spiders' webs over the map,
representing rivers. Neither is it necessary that they should com
mit to memory the entire returns of the last census. Strike out
one half of the questions and answers in any school geography, and
the remaining twentieth will be more than most children of average
ability can learn and retain. How I wish some of these bookmakers
had to learn their own books! Any teacher who would expect or
compel his scholars to answer all the "questions in the book" on
examination day, ought to be indicted for a lack of common sense;
and any committeeman who should find fault because the scholars
couldn't answer them, ought to be strapped within an inch of his
— collar. How many teachers, after years of study and dai-ly use of
the geography, can remember one fifth of the tenth-rate rivers and
towns, or one twentieth of the hackneyed descriptions. I would
flog a child of mine if he wouldn't forget such rubbish.
A general knowledge of the leading events in the history of our
own country, they should be expected to acquire; but if, on examin
ation day, they fail to tell the exact day and hour on which every
battle of King Philip's war, the French and Indian war, or the
Revolution, or the war of eighteen hundred and twelve, and exactly
how many were killed, wounded, and missing; or should they
forget that wonderful account given by one school history, of two-
early settlers of New England, who were frightened up a tree by a
lion, and remained there in perfect terror, and -came safely down
the next day! — common sense would not be shocked.
Next in importance, comes a knowledge of language, and of the
meaning and use of words. This must be communicated by the-
teacher, in questions on reading lessons, and in oral lessons. Dic
tionaries alone cannot impart it. Printed words are valuable onhr
as the medium of ideas; if the medium is opaque, the ideas will be
muddy. After a knowledge of language, comes the framework of
grammar. And here, I think, common sense steps in and dictates
that in order that scholars may learn to speak and write the English
language correctly, they should be exercised in writing sentences,,
and talking sentences, instead of continually tearing to pieces the
sentences of others. Exercises on grammar, sufficient to enable
them to write a letter, and speak plain English correctly, should be
embraced in the course.
Some little knowledge of physiology and hygiene should be im
parted, inasmuch as each boy has to take care of his own body, and
when he ruins that by ignorance of the laws of health, he will find
it very inconvenient to transfer his knowledge of arithmetic and ac
companying mental discipline to* Another corpus. And as most of
the young girls will become mothers, and consequently the custo
dians of the constitutions of the next succeeding generation, common
sense opens its eyes in astonishment that committeemen and school
INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 147'
teachers should ignore all allusion to physiology, anatomy, and
the laws of health, and exalt arithmetic, algebra, and the fashion
able branches.
A little drawing, a little vocal music, a little calisthenic and gym
nastic training, may be introduced as incidental amusements and
recreations. Some provision should be made during the whole
course for daily exercise of the perceptive and the expressive facul
ties, as well as for the reasoning powers. Children should be trained
to habits of observation. They should be trained to distinguish
colors; to tell the properties of the common objects by which
they are surrounded; should be taught something of natural his
tory, at least enough to distinguish a dog from a coyote, or a
grizzly bear from a calf, or potatoes from yams, or cauliflowers from
cabbages. A boy instinctively turns to stories of birds, beasts, and
fishes.
Herein lies the most grievous deficiency of our schools : that they
deal with the abstract instead of the real. I have repeatedly asked
classes which could run off pages of questions in geography with
marvelous rapidity, to point north, and the direction generally has
been perpendicularly up to the zenith; they had no notion whatever
of directions, except as the top and bottom of the map. A city
was to them a dot, nothing more; a river — a crooked line; and a
mountain — a definition. How many classes have I seen versed in
"the tables/' who would estimate the dimensions of a room sixteen feet
by twenty, in numbers ranging from five and forty to ten and eighty;
how many who could not estimate the weight of an object weighing
five pounds, within four pounds of its weight; how many that had no
notion of a mile, except as three hundred and twenty rods; how
many who could " parse like a book," and yet could not write five
consecutive sentences in tolerable English!
If common sense were a school-master, he would look with fa\or
on the system of object training as supplying a basis of actual
knowledge, on which the reasoning faculties should afterwards be
exercised. He would also endeavor to collect a small school library,
well knowing that many a boy who grows dull, listless, and lazy over
his set tasks, will absorb general knowledge from readable books, as-
a thirsty plant drinks in the rain-drops of a summer shower. In
governing his school, he would treat scholars like human beings,
bearing in mind that children are born to be happy, not miserable;
and that school ought to be made a pleasant place.
The teacher must expect to leave much untaught. If he attempts
to teach everything, he will fail; for nobody ever succeeded. He
must expect to find some dull scholars, some obstinate ones, some
vicious ones, some troublesome ones, some negative ones, some good
ones; if he is a philosopher, gifted with a sublime common sense,
he will go calmly and quietly at work, do his duty faithfully, and
not worry about results — bearing in mind that all the stupid boys
and dull scholars, somehow or other, generally grow up into respect
able average men and women. . „
148 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES.
5. ADDRESS BY THOMAS STARR KING.*
This audience, representing the mothers and fathers, the official
forces and the rising life of this young, strange city, are to be con
gratulated on the event and occasion that calls us together. We
welcome you to the service here with pride and joy.
The corner-stone of any important representative edifice is laid
with elaborate ceremonial. It is well to foster public interest in
such forms. And it seems to me that it would be as fitting to recog
nize, with public rejoicing, the completion of a noble building, the
moment when the workmen lay the last stone of the turret, the apex
of the spire, the final tile on the dome. It was when the corner
stone of the earth was laid, that " the morning stars sang together,
and all the sons of God shouted for joy." Can we believe — though
we have no record or hint of the hallelujahs — that there was less
jubilance amongst the holy hosts when "the heavens and the earth
were finished, and all the host of them," and "God saw everything
that he had made, and behold it was very good?"
We are here to rejoice in this completed work. There is very
little in the building itself, though it is commodious and cheerful,
to awaken any enthusiasm. But as a school-room — a new structure
to befriend civilization, in a State where the forces of good and evil
meet in a more open and demonstrative wrestle, probably, than
upon any other equal area on the globe — it does invite us to be
glad, and to express our joy that it is added to the landscape of the
city, and has sprung out of a deepening popular faith in the worth
of education.
And yet it is not simply a new schoolhouse that we are to conse
crate to its noble offices. It is the symmetry of an educational
system in the city that we complete and establish. It is truly the
top-stone, the crown, of an ideal edifice, whose co-ordinate parts
are the excellent common schools of the cit}r, that we now lift to its
place with rejoicing. If there were any influence to be exerted by
the establishment of this High School, in drawing away the public
interest from the Grammar Schools, the public pride in them, the
public readiness to be taxed to sustain them, there would be no
occasion for gratitude in the completion of this building. This
would be an unfortunate service and hour. The Grammar Schools
are the true fountains of health and power in a community. What
ever tends to slight them, or reduce their efficiency, or throw the
shadow of public indifference upon them, is to be deplored, and to
be strenuously resisted. The city and state are far more deeply
interested in the general diffusion of the elements of knowledge than
in the concentration of learning in a small percentage of the youth
of our community. WTe want to equip tens of thousands for the
toils and struggles of life, not to polish a few hundreds for a better
<?hance to seize its prizes and wear its honors. We must never
forget this. And if the erection of this High School into perma-
* Delivered September 19, 1860, at the dedication of the High School building,
Powell street. From The Bookseller, the first educational journal published in
the State.
INSTITUTE ADDKESSES.
nence threatened to abate the importance, or lower the dignity, or
drain the energy of the Grammar Schools, this building, though it
were a hundred times more elegant, though it were seemly in pro
portions as the Parthenon of Athens, would be a mistake and a
disaster.
I cannot but think, however, that we strengthen the ordinary
schools of the city by confirming this one, and leading the com
munity to regard "it with more favor and pride. Not only is the
standard of a free education raised, but the earlier removal from
the Grammar Schools of the scholars who wish to pursue a higher
grade of studies, concentrates the interest and energies of the teach
ers there upon the progress of the average of students. The ordinary
schools can hardly fail to give.more thorough training in the elements
of English education, by relieving the teachers from the responsi
bility of carrying small upper classes through a range of studies far
above the average lessons; and the ambition that is excited to enter
the High School must be felt, after awhile, as a very serviceable
stimulant throughout the ranks of the scholars below. Wherever
the plan has been tried of projecting schools on the system of
Primary, Grammar, and High, it has been found that each grade
helps the one beneath. No New England cities now, I am sure,
could think of parting with their High Schools. They would
account it deliberate mutilation of the symmetry of the educational
system, and treason against the mental rights of the scholars who
can spare two or three extra years for instruction and discipline.
And we must not fail to take into account the needs and rights of
the hundred and fifty youths, of both sexes, in our city, who are
ready and willing to postpone their entrance into practical life, for
the sake of a more generous culture. The free-school system has
duties to them as manifest and binding as to the lowest class in a
Grammar School. Let us rejoice that we can fulfill them in entire
harmony with our duties to the mass of the children whose education
is intrusted to us. Let us rejoice that we can see that all jealousies
are unwise. Let us be glad and grateful, to-day, that we strengthen
the whole structure of our teaching organization by this crowning
school to which we here devote an excellent building. The masons-
lay, strong and compact, the stones which make the floor of the
porch to an edifice after the Grecian style. They rear column after
column along its front. But when the beautiful entablature is lifted
aloft, to rest on the pillars, there is not only completed proportion,
but more strength. Each column is firmer; the base itself is forti
fied; and the edifice stands in harmony with the force of gravitation.
So, we believe, it is here. We send strength into the important
schools below, the pillars and pavement of our public welfare, by
the import of this service of dedication. And I believe the whole
system of education would attain final symmetry, and be still
stronger in all its parts, if we had not only High Schools in our
cities and large towns, but a free and largely planned University
besides, in every State, in which the sons and daughters of the poor
est could obtain the best training which the resources of the State
might afford, free of cost. When we get this, we shall have the
majestic dome overarching and strengthening our intellectual temple.
But very likely in all this I am speaking needless words. Perhaps
150 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES.
I have done wrong to assume or hint that there can be any question,
in any quarter, of the value of the school whose home we consecrate
here, or of its advantageous relation to the other schools of which
we are justly proud. Let us turn to other considerations that should
awaken grateful joy here.
It is now, throughout this State, the time of rejoicing in the har
vest. We have been reading in the papers glowing accounts of
many district agricultural fairs. This very day the yearly State fair
is to be inaugurated in the Capital. What interest is felt, through
out the State, in the improvements of stock, in the new varieties of
fruit, in the production of more efficient and economical machinery
for planting, reaping, threshing, stacking! The man who refines a
breed of sheep; the man who brings from his ranch a calf or colt,
perfect according to its type; the man who displays the noblest yoke
of steers; the cultivator who offers to view the soundest and sweetest
plums, the most lovely and savory peach, the weightiest cluster of
grapes, or who can say the wisest word about preventing the curled
leaf in peach trees, the rust in wheat, the "foul brood" among
bees; yes, the man who produces a mammoth pumpkin, a monstrous
sweet potato, a beet that will half fill a barrel, a watermelon as am
ple as Daniel Lambert in girth, is heard of throughout a county,
perhaps throughout the limits of the State.
What interest in education can we bring yet into competition with
this scientific enthusiasm for vegetable and animal products? What
would the honest answer be, taking the State through, if we should
ask which the people of the State were more concerned about, a
better type of calves or a higher grade of children; more efficient
grazing-grounds or more thorough school training; vineyards that
should double their profits, or methods of education that should
equip pupils twice as efficiently for noble success in life; the reclaim
ing of tule lands, or the gathering of twice as many youth, who
now receive no instruction, into the intellectual folds where they
may have a teacher's care? Alas! we know what it would be. If
one tithe, or one hundredth part, of the watchful, patient, cultured
and strenuous exertion that has been expended by the general com
munity on peach-raising, short-horned cattle, the perfecting of
horses and bee-culture, during the last five years, had been devoted
to the training of children, and fitting them to be competent masters
of their fathers' colts, and meadows, and carrot fields, the State,
to-day, would be immeasurably advanced, beyond its present attain
ment, in civilization. We should not read such sad statistics as are
forced upon us now, showing that hardly more than a third of the
children of the State attend regularly any school.
There is really some danger that we shall be pulled down,
materialized, half-barbarized, by the very advance and splendor of
our scientific control of the elements of agricultural opulence. One
of our poets tells us that now
' ' Things are in the saddle,
And ride mankind."
It behooves us to be a little careful lest we cultivate beeves and
racers to such superiority over ourselves that they shall get the
upper hands, and we find ourselves, after a generation or so, in
INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 151
which animals rise and children sink, yoked and harnessed, owned
~by our Durhams, and Alderneys, and Morgans, and perhaps fatted
for their advanced and dominant appetites.
The spiritual forces must be started soon in States like this, and
trained to ten times their present vigor, or we shall be unable to
wield the majestic armor and implements of our science and ma
terialistic culture. And this building, which lifts the torch of
education higher, as a beacon to the State, which will turn out nobler
specimens of young manhood and womanhood, invites us, by peculiar
fitness, in this harvest-time, to rejoice in its completion, and to
express our gratitude by elaborate ceremonial and reverent prayer.
And we should rejoice also to be here, to-clay, in order to pay a
conscious and deliberate tribute to the service of teachers in our
civilization. Every time I enter a school-building I travel back to
the time, twenty years ago (when I was a young man), when rny
name was enrolled in the army of instructors. During the three
years of service appointed to me in that department, I learned so
much of the difficulties and responsibilities of the office, that the
stepping into a pulpit seemed like passing into an easier sphere of
duty. It is not on abstract grounds and observation, but on trials
which gave me my first knowledge of what serious responsibility is,
and of how closely moral forces must be allied with intellectual
ones in every successful school, that my own reverence for the
teacher's call and duty is based. And from that day to this it has
been widening and deepening.
We do not pay our social reverence wisely as yet, even in our
most advanced and thoughtful communities. The men who do the
most for the world are those who work scientifically upon the land,
increasing its productiveness without exhausting its fertility — and
the men wTho increase the mental and moral forces of the State.
These classes are the fountains of lasting power, and the true con
servators of public health and vigor. In a truly ordered society,
these classes would receive the heartiest and most stable honor.
But as yet, alas, even in the most Christian districts of society,
the question is scarcely raised, as a condition and gauge of respect,
what the relation is between his employment and the permanent
benefit of the community — what the moral aroma is of a man's gold
and position. And so the best men work with very little recognition.
The most useful ministers are those who work through years of
quiet fidelity, encouraging good purposes in the village circle, warn
ing with sincere and uneloquent unction, the humble and steady
friend of humble people, threading the life of a small community,
through more than the years of a generation, with a golden influence
of charity, and fortunate in not having to see their names in half
the issues of the newspaper press. Some of the purest pages of
heroism might be copied from the long careers of country physicians,
who spend themselves without the patronage and solace of cultured
society, and cross the line of old age without a competence.
In the case of teachers, however, the fact is peculiarly striking.
Think what an influence, during the past ten years, has been exerted
upon the intellect and character of the best portions of our country,
by the ambition of teachers to be more efficient in their work, by
the establishment of journals of education, by county, district and
152 INSTITUTE ADDKESSES.
State conventions of instructors, not sunned by public applause,
not paid for by the public either, in which the wisest unfold the
best results of their experience, and the youngest are stimulated by
the contagious enthusiasm of the leading masters of the profession I
"Profession," did I say? No. Here is the injustice; here is the
proof of the marvelous infidelity of our public as yet to the service
which can hardly be surpassed by any other type. American liberty
and hopes are based on comprehensive education — mental and
moral — and we do not yet recognize the teacher's calling as one of
the "learned professions." There is the degree of M.D., a title of
respect for every one who enters the ranks of the healers by the
regular door. Every clergyman has his prefix of "Rev.," which
floats him sometimes like a cork upon waters where he could not
swim. "D.D." is conferred, every year, upon many a man who is
no scholar in Christian history or dogmatics. I have known cases
where LL.D. has been affixed, by prominent colleges, to the names
of men who could not have told what the two L's, with a period
after them, were the abbreviation of. But there is no title for teach
ers. And I am ignorant of the fact if any University or College has-
yet sought out an eminent, consecrated, thoroughly efficient teacher,
to confer upon him or her any title of honor as an acknowledgment
of personal service to society, or the rank of the calling to which he
or she is pledged.
We must do what we can to repair this injustice — we who know
the value of the office, the grand proportion of the gifts that are so
often brought to it, and the nobleness of the spirit in which those
gifts are frequentty dedicated.
Let us make this festival time, in the consecration of this building,
a season in which we pledge ourselves to greater interest in the school
cause in this city and State. It is not in the structure we are inter
ested, so much as in the edifice of education itself, which has been
erected here by faithful, far-seeing men, against the opposition of
lazy wealth and skeptical hearts. It is not the porch and hall and
seats and roof that we are grateful for, so much as the wise manage
ment and skilled instruction, which, so successful in the past, are ta
have a better inclosure for their operation in years to come.
Would that the services of this day might be more joyous and
welcome by the appearance here of the philosophical apparatus that
is needed by the teachers, and would be in various ways a benefit to
the community ! The $3000 which it would cost ought to be con
tributed by the wealth of San Francisco the next week, and would
be, if we were not still in our public life so blind to the immense
meaning and value of public education. And let us cherish a deeper
respect for the office and influence of every good teacher, as we
recognize here anew the solid truth of a noble American poet's,
words :
"The riches of the commonwealth
Are free, strong minds, and hearts of health;
And more to her than gold or grain,
The cunning hand and cultured brain.
She heeds no skeptic's puny hands,
While near her school the church-spire stands;
Nor fears the blinded bigot's rule,
While near her church- spire stands the school."
INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 153
6. MORAL INSTRUCTION.*
The fervent prayer which every parent offers is, that whatever pov
erty, 'destitution, pain or misery, his children may be called upon to
bear, God will mercifully grant that they may preserve their purity,
and all be found at last worthy to be reunited in that kingdom pre
pared for the just, beyond the grave.
The faithful teacher, occupying as he does, for a time, the parent's
place, must feel a similar anxiety, as he looks round upon those
placed under his charge. His situation is inferior in responsibility
only to that of the parent. Indeed, since so many parents neglect
their duty in this respect, his influence upon those who continue for
any length of time under his charge, is probably not surpassed by
that of any other class of men in the community. He must often
seriously ask what will be the lot of- those committed to his trust.
Could the veil with which Heaven conceals the future be removed,
would he behold this noble and ingenuous boy, with heart full of
aspirations after all excellence, still rising higher and higher, or
would he behold him descend from the lofty heights of honorable
renown, and become dishonored, degraded, and corrupt? This
fair girl, with the light of Heaven in her eye, and its purity sur
rounding her as with an atmosphere of holiness, would she be seen
still the same in her spotlessness and innocence, or would the light
be extinguished, the glory have departed, and nothing remain but
the wreck of what was once so lovely and so promising ?
It is related that an Eastern prince once offered a prize to be given
to the most beautiful boy in all his dominions. Many were pre
sented for the premium, but it was bestowed, by acclamation, upon
one for his transcendent and angelic loveliness. So beautiful a boy
had never been seen upon the earth before. Some years after, the
same prince again offered a prize — but this time it was for the
ugliest man to be found in all his possessions. Diligent search was
made; many exhibited themselves to view, of all kinds and degrees
of ugliness, but among them it was difficult to make a choice, until
one day there was brought into the royal presence a being, if he
could be called a man, so hideous, so loathsome, so bestial, that the
people shuddered while they gazed upon him. Sin had stamped its
polluting mark upon every feature; from every wrinkle in that hor
rible face stared out a vice. Upon inquiry, it was ascertained that
this frightful and disgusting wretch had been the attractive and
lovely boy. A life of intemperance, sensuality, and iniquity, had
made the awful change. God save our pupils from any and all the
causes tending to produce so terrible an alteration.
In view of the great responsibility pressing upon every teacher
to do all in his power to train up his pupils to a life of virtue and
excellence, I invite your attention to some remarks upon the import
ance of Moral Instruction. I Have a fear that some few teachers (I
know they must be very few) may think their duty done if they pre
serve good order in the school, and give instruction to their scholars
in the course of study prescribed. But no teacher, who has an
*Read before the State Teachers' Institute, Sept., 1862.
10
154 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES.
adequate sense of the responsibilities devolving upon him, can
entertain this opinion. His duty is not performed by merely culti
vating the intellect. He must also educate the heart. No parent
would consider any teacher fit for his post, who not only did not
check even the slightest infringement of morality, but who did not
endeavor to elevate his whole school to a high standard of moral
excellence. To think otherwise is a great mistake — and the popular
notion of education falls in with and confirms this mistake. Talk
about giving a young man the advantages of education, and the
thoughts immediately run on what is taught in schools and colleges.
Speak of giving a young lady a finished education, and almost every
one wishes to have the seminary pointed out where she can accom
plish, in the shortest space of time, botany, French and Italian,
music, and drawing, besides a few of the ordinary branches. As
if what is taught in schools and seminaries were able, of itself, to
make one either great, or good, or happy.
The truth is, my friends, that hitherto, all over the world, the cul
tivation of the head has been regarded as the principal thing, while
the cultivation of the heart comes in only incidentally. Speak of
any school, and most probably the conversation will be upon who is
the best scholar in the school. Talk about college, and a cer
tain young man is pointed out to you as the first scholar in his class.
Ten prizes are offered for intellectual, to one for moral excellence.
The student who can make the best Greek verses, or run through a
complicated mathematical demonstration, or write the most flowery
oration, or deliver it in the most eloquent manner, is the recipient
of the honors, while one, perhaps infinitely his superior in moral
character, but not possessing his precocity or assurance, is passed
by unnoticed. Now this is surely wrong. The heart is of more im-
portance than the head. The essence of greatness, always and
everywhere, is a great spirit. Acquisitions and attainments are not
the man; they are mere additions to him. Intellectual talents are
not the man; they are merely the instruments he uses. The man
himself is behind them all, and he may use them either for good or
for evil. The spirit with which a man works, the motives which
prompt his conduct — these show us and constitute the man, and
these are moral qualities, springing from and dwelling in the heart.
The character is the man; the life, in its every particular, which one
lives, is the man; and what is it that makes life what it is but the
man's motives, his moral qualities, his heart. Therefore we are told
that God judgeth the heart; that with the heart man believeth unto
righteousness; that out of that, and out of that alone, "are the
issues of life/' And, therefore, I repeat, the heart is more than the
head.
Sir Walter Scott says: "We shall never learn, and feel, and re-
spect our real calling and destiny, unless we have taught ourselves
to consider everything as moonshine, compared with the education
^k)f the heart." When, after his fruitless journey for health, he had
returned to Scotland and to Abbotsford, as he was near his end, he
said to his son-in-law, " Lockhart, I may have but a minute to speak
with 3rou. My dear, be a good man; be virtuous, be religious; be a
good man. Nothing else will give you any comfort when you come
to lie here."
INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 155
" Here was a man," remarks a writer, "who Lad won the highest
prizes of life; had gained the most splendid literary reputation; had
been honored, flattered and caressed as few men have ever been;
.and yet, at the last moment, falls back for support on moral and re
ligious faith — that possession which all may earn."
Horace Mann, as the shades of death were gathering around him,
was heard to utter the words, "God — man — duty" — and shortly
after, bidding all near him "Good night," sank quietly into that
last, deep, sleep, which knows no waking in this world. But who
that witnessed his peaceful and joyful end would not say, with the
poet,
' ' That deeper shade shall fade away,
That deeper sleep shall leave his eyes;
Thy light shall give eternal day,
Thy love the rapture of the skies."
The formation of an honorable, upright, Christian character, ig
the great business, the great success of life. This must be done, or
nothing is accomplished. Do this first; do this at any rate; do this
even if everything else is left undone; though that sacrifice is not
required of us. What parent would not prefer his child should
leave school with good principles, well settled, his heart in the right
place, even though he might be deficient in knowledge, to seeing him
adorned with all the accomplishments taught in the schools, if, at
the same time, he fears that he is compelled to distrust the sound
ness of his moral character ? What man or woman does not demand
of his friend that he shall first be true, sincere, hearty, whether pos
sessed or not of any remarkable intellectual penetration or sagacity?
Now, I am not deciding intellectual attainments — I value them
highly — but I am only placing them on their true level, namely, be
low moral attainments. It is a matter of great importance that the
pupils in our schools should be well instructed in the branches taught
in them; and any teacher who succeeds in so doing has accomplished
-a great good. But it is of the highest consequence, it is absolutely
necessary, that we should all become good men and good women.
For that purpose, infinitely above all others, we were sent into the
world. For that purpose, the world and all that belongs to it were
created. For that purpose, the sun shines upon man, the winds in-
invigorate his blood, the rains descend upon his fields, society sur
rounds him with its blessings, and wife and children warm his heart
and strengthen his arm to action. For this purpose, above all
others, the school-house, as well as the house of God, was reared.
I see no proper use of language in those who speak of the godlike
intellect of such a man, or of another as having a gigantic under
standing. We have all heard the observation, "Sir, he is the most
remarkable man in America." You may be certain that man is not
remarkable for moral qualities. A godlike, a gigantic intellect as
cribed, to a mere creature of an hour! When the more we know
only shows us the immensity of our ignorance. How true it is, also,
that purely great intellectual achievements cannot be understood by
the great majority of mankind! I suppose there are not one thou
sand persons in the world that can go through the steps of the
reasoning by which Leverrier proved the existence of the new planet,
156 INSTITUTE ADDEESSES.
and determined its position. But the triumphs of goodness are at
once felt and acknowledged by all. We are through them made
personally acquainted with the individuals by whom they are accom
plished. Howard and Florence Nightingale are household words.
Every deed of true heroism, of self-sacrifice, of devoted patriotism r.
of love to brother man, thrills the heart of the world. The heart is
quicker, and keener, and truer in insight than the head.
"One touch of goodness makes the whole world kin."
The best eulogy ever pronounced upon George Washington was
that which declared him to be first in the hearts of his countrymen.
I do not intend to go into detail upon the best methods of impart
ing moral instruction to the young. Here again the heart is of more
worth than the head. Every teacher who really arid earnestly feels
the importance of this work, will instinctively select and adopt the
best methods. One thing, however, may be said — that moral instruc- ,
tion cannot commence too early. Its essence lies in training chil
dren to do right; and they understand the difference between right
and wrong even before they can talk. An essayist — commenting on
the fact that sometimes a man, characterized by genuine piety during"
early and late manhood and into old age, has, when he fell into sec
ond childhood, broken out into profanity, and manifested evil habits
that surprised, if not shocked his friends — says that second child
hood is but a repetition of first childhood, and that the follies, bad
habits, and vices, which were allowed to pass unchecked in child
hood, will be likely to reappear in dotage. If this is so, it shows us
of what great importance is careful and judicious moral instruction
in early life. The lessons then received are never entirely obliter
ated. It is in the morning of life that the seeds of good principles
must be planted. Do not be disappointed if you do not meet with
immediate or speedy good results. Think how slowly the world is-'
improving. A higher morality, even more than a higher intelli
gence, is frequently a plant of slow growth. I suppose there is
nothing which makes a greater demand upon the parent's or teach
er's patience than the slowness with which a wayward and obstinate
child improves.
Sometimes, perhaps for years, the course appears to be all down
hill. But persevere; still exercise love, patience, and hope. Years-
after, when the child has long since left your care, when the good
seed which you sowed seems to have been lost forever, and the
ground choked up with rank and noxious weeds, a tempest of afflic
tion may rush over the place and sweep off the brambles and thistles,
and then may appear, "first the blade, then the ear, then the full
corn in the ear," until the fields are white with an abundant harvest,
fit to be gathered into the granary of the Lord.
Moral instruction is not to be conveyed to the young by preach
ing or lecturing. It is a work to be performed. "Train up a child
in the way he should go," says the Good Book. The teacher must
be diligent in seeing that the child acquires good habits— habits of
obedience, order, punctuality, method, neatness, studiousiiess, gen
tleness, courtesy, respect for elders, reverence for the law, and a
love and devotion for his country, which knows not and never can
INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 157
Imow "a shadow of turning." Teach him to check the first symp
toms of envy, jealousy, cruelty, arrogance; to be honest in word
and deed; to think the truth, to speak the truth, to act the truth,
and to shrink from using a profane word as he would from touching
his tongue to red-hot iron. Show him that the brave man never
brags; that true courage is in daring to do right; that the man of
high and noble spirit will forgive an injury rather than avenge it,
because he infinitely prefers to suffer rather than to do wrong. And
finally, impress him with the conviction that the greatest victory is<
not over one's enemies, but over one's self; that the sight upon
which Heaven smiles is that of the good man relieving and comfort
ing his fellow-man in distress; and that "the fear of God is the
beginning of wisdom."
I have said that the influence of the faithful teacher is not sur
passed by that of any other class in the community. Listen to
Martin Luther's words :
" The diligent and pious teacher, who properly instructeth and
traineth the young, can never be fully rewarded with money. If I
were to leave my office as preacher, I would next choose that of
schoolmaster, or teacher, for I know that, next to preaching, this is
the greatest, best, and most useful vocation; and I am not quite sure
which of the two is the better; for it is hard to reform old sinners,
with whom the preacher has to do, while the young tree can be
made to bend without breaking."
A distinguished educator remarks:
"Next in rank and efficacy to that pure and holy source of moral
influence, the mother, is that of the schoolmaster. It is powerful
already. What would it be if, in every one of those school districts
which we now count by annually-increasing thousands, there was to
be found a teacher well-informed, without pedantry; religious,
without bigotry; proud and fond of his profession, and honored in
the discharge of its duties? How wide would be the intellectual,
the moral influence of such a body of men?"
This is the opinion of every enlightened man upon the nature of
the teacher's office. Let us endeavor to justify it in every particu
lar, and then we shall elevate our vocation to the true position which
it ought to occupy.
In the remarks I have made upon the propriety and necessity of
moral instruction, based upon our duty to God, I do not mean that
there should be any formality, any affected sanctity, or any preten
sions to superior holiness on the part of the teacher. God forbid. I
would have him as pleasant, and cheerful, and honest, as a summer's
day. I would not have the moral lessons occupy too much time, or
crowd out the other indispensable studies of the school. But I
would have them receive all the share of attention which their im
portance demands. The judicious teacher will avail himself of the
favorable moment for making the right impression upon the minds
of his scholars.
I am conscious that I have very imperfectly presented this subject to
your consideration. But I do not exaggerate its importance. If I
Lave said anything which is true, anything which really bears upon
the most important question which can be submitted to any human
158 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES.
being, I urge and entreat you to give it careful thought, to allow it-
all the weight to which it is fairly entitled. So shall your influence'
never be lost, but go on, extending and widening. No sincere effort
to promote the good of others can be wholly ineffectual. I remem
ber the kindly tones, the pleasant face, the affectionate warning, and
the cheering words of encouragement of a teacher under whose care
I was placed when a small boy. The influence which he exerted
upon me will, I think, be felt forever; and it is an influence always
leading to right. I shall never forget him. How often do I see
him in imagination ! He is living at the present time, and if he knew
that I have been thinking and speaking of him to-day to an audience
of teachers upon the distant Pacific coast, his first emotion would be
that of surprise that I still think of him after the lapse of so many-
years; the second would be a thrill of joyful gratitude to God that
his counsels had made so deep an impression upon the minds of his
scholars, that he had been remembered with esteem and affection.
May our efforts be such in relation to all who may be entrusted to
our care that hereafter, wherever the lot of our pupils may be cast
upon the broad earth, they may look back upon the school-house
which they attended, as the place where they received, besides all
useful learning, a love for all that is good, pure, and honorable,
which has never left them, but exerts an abiding influence on their
characters. So shall your memory be ever kept green in their
hearts; so shall your faithful efforts be blessed in their lives.
PHYSICAL TRAINING.*
Intellectual training being the main object of the public schools,,
it is not surprising that the body has too often been remorselessly
sacrificed to the brain.
The neglect of physical culture having produced a long train of
evils, too serious to be longer evaded by the most stubborn conserva
tives, the result is, that systematic physical training is beginning to
be recognized as a duty in the public schools of the United States.
In some schools, gymnastic and calisthenic exercises form a part
of the daily drill of pupils, quite as regularly as the mental exer
cises in arithmetic and grammar. In some colleges, muscular train
ing in the gymnasium is insisted on quite as strenuously as a
knowledge of the classics. They are using their gymnasiums to
build up stout bodies, as well as strong minds. A four years' war
taught the nation to place a higher value on physical manhood. In
many public schools, the elements of military drill have been intro
duced, and, under the stimulus of the war spirit, successfully car
ried into effect. But the first great requisites for good soldiers,
before which all others sink into insignificance, are sound health,
activity, and power of endurance. The rawest recruits can be
taught to handle a musket in a few weeks, but muscles of iron and
sinews of steel cannot be fastened upon men like knapsacks. The
Greek and Koman veterans were trained from boyhood, by gymnastic
*First Biennial Report, 1865.
INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 159
exercises, and athletic games and sports. To lay a solid foundation
for our own military strength as a nation, we must begin with the
three millions of boys in our public schools; and, while we breathe
into their hearts the spirit of patriotism, we must train them to a
muscular power which will give us fit soldiers to fight and win the
battles of the republic. Ten years of boy-life in schools where
regular gymnastic drill is followed up, and where a fondness for all
athletic games and sports is cultivated, will make a good foundation
for military drill.
Physical training is important as an efficient aid to mental culture.
It comes into school as an amusement, a relaxation from the hard
work of mental application. School amusements are a necessity of
childhood. One of the greatest defects of our schools, is their
failure to recognize the laws of animal life.
In Germany and Prussia, the children are trained in the schools
to gymnastic and athletic exercises; and the result is a national trait
of fondness for out-of-door life. English schools are noted for
rough-and-tumble games, foot-ball, cricket, leaping, running, wrest
ling, rowing, boxing, and fencing. Pluck is a national trait of
English school-boys, and of English men.
Amusement, in all nations and among all people, in some form,
comes in to lighten the burden pf toil. Labor is a means, not an
end; and the true end of life, usefulness and happiness, lies in the
golden mean, the alternation of labor, rest, and amusement.
"When the only standing recreation of the American people is busi
ness, and their lighter amusements billiards and the ball-room, we
have little reason to expect great fondness for sports in schools.
This distaste for fun and frolic comes down to us as a natural inherit
ance. The grave old Puritans, who settled New England, and laid
in granite the foundation of the nation, had too much hard work to
do in clearing farms and hunting Indians, to think much of amuse
ments. They brought with them, too, something of the old Round
head antipathy to May-poles, dancing, and theatres.
"Whatever may be the reason, it is certain that the Americans, as
a people, have little fondness for athletic games and out-of-door
sports, without which it is hard to keep the muscular system in good
condition.
The ancient Greeks carried to the highest perfection the cultiva
tion of the intellect and the training of the body. Their Olympic
games, their athletic exercises, their school discipline, their military
drill, secured the highest possible degree of physical perfection.
Their poets, orators, philosophers, painters, sculptors, and histo
rians, were good fighters. Alcibiades, the sybarite, the fop, the
reveler, could live on black broth, and rough it in the camp with the
hardiest of the common soldiers.
Socrates was a soldier as well as a philosopher, and would
have been less respected had he wanted the attributes common to
all citizen soldiers — strength, courage, and endurance.
When, in Greece, a luxurious civilization corrupted the tastes of
the citizens, and reduced them to effeminacy, the rude barbarian
claimed the land, and won it.
Their severe gymnastic training, it is true, had for its primary ob-
160 INSTITUTE ADDKESSES.
ject the perfection of military discipline; but it ateo produced clear
heads, strong minds, and the perfect forms which still live in marble.
Its influence was felt in literature, to which it gave a healthy cast.
It gave to the nation its immortal sculptors and painters.
It is in the power of the public schools to educate the nation to a
more healthful taste for simple amusements, and to raise the stand- »
arc! of manly strength and womanly beauty.
But apart from this, the highest degree of mental culture cannot
be attained in violation of the laws of physical life. Childhood is
the season or growth, of animal development. It is a mistaken no
tion that children are born into the world for the purpose of going
to school to learn to read and write. Playfulness is, with them, as
much an instinct as with kittens. Even in the long, dark winters of
the arctic zone, where nature in her savage forms almost freezes out
the life of man, Dr. Kane found the stunted little Esquimaux boys
playing their games of ball on the snow-banks. Let the children in
school have amusements in the form of healthful, rnuscular exer
cises. It is absolutely painful to think how most of our primary
schools sin against the laws of nature; how they cramp the little
bodies, and repress childish emotions and impulses.
Education is the harmonious development of all the faculties of
the human mind, and the training of the human body to its great
est strength and highest beauty. Why, then, in our public schools,
should not pliysical training be considered, as well as mental
development?
It is evident to all who are in the least familiar with the daily
routine of our schools, that the muscular natures of the children
are as little regarded as if they were made of gutta percha. Now,
I do not suppose that many children are killed outright by the high
pressure of mental training. Occasionally some nervous boy, bril
liant and ambitious, his vitality all running to brain instead of body,
drops out of school into his grave, and his death is attributed to
Providence instead of mathematics. But thousands of boys leave
school, thin, pale, and weak, or bungling, clumsy, and awkward,
when they might as well have left it strong, active, and graceful.
It is not so much the positive harm which the schools inflict of
which we complain, but their neglect to accomplish positive good.
It might be hard to prove, in court, that delicate girls, of fine nerv
ous organizations, have been killed outright by long lessons, over-
stimulated ambition, late study hours, and mathematical puzzles;
yet all teachers very well know that brain fevers have taken off many
promising young girls, and that many more leave school with diplo
mas and ruined constitutions. All the girls in public schools have
neither crooked spines, round shoulders, sunken chests, nor pale
faces; but how much more perfect might be their physical develop
ment, did their health receive half the attention devoted to music,
drawing, and mathematics. Can any mental culture be of greater
importance than the health of those who are to become the mothers
of the next generation of men ? Few girls who are educated in the
public schools escape the universal law of labor. Most of them,
when they enter homes of their own at an early age, will need
strength as well as accomplishments. Many of them must do their
INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 161
own housework, in addition to the care of children; and is the ques
tion of physical strength of no consequence to them ? Is it of little ^
consequence to the laboring man, with a family to support, whether
his wife be strong or feeble, well or sick?
The strong boys, in the long run, come out ahead. When an ox
is let into a pasture full of cattle, there is a trial of horns, and the
strongest takes the lead. So with the boys of a public school. The
strong, the energetic, the active, are the real kings of school, whether
they are at the head or foot of the arithmetic class. Give the boy,
then, the exercise his nature craves, and which will make him a live
boy and a manly man. If he leaves school with a fondness for ath-^
letic amusements, he has one of the surest safeguards against ex
pensive and ruinous dissipation.
A judicious union of social, mental, and physical culture, will
make our public schools practically adapted to the wants of the peo
ple. If parents, through ignorance, neglect the proper training of*-"
their children, let the public school take charge of them. Amuse
ments form a part of education, and much excellent gymnastic and c—
calisthenic training maybe connected with games, or made delight
ful by music.
But some will say, leave children to follow their own inclination *"
in pla}rs and sports; it is not natural for boys to climb the ropes and
ladders of a gymnasium, to swing clubs, lift weights, and revolve on
bars; nor is it desirable that young ladies use wrands, swing dumb
bells, and romp in the play-ground. Any attempt at systematic and
repeated drill will prove irksome, and therefore useless.
Then why not leave the mind to its natural, untrained action ? -
Why submit the brain to regular training? Children's brains are as
active as their bodies; why not leave both alike to the ill-regulated
laws of impulse and feeling ? In mental culture we recognize the
great law of nature, that no perfection is attained without repeated
and systematic effort. Mental gymnastics of the severest kind are
rigidly practised during at least ten years of early life. Strength,
readiness, and quickness are the result. Leave the mind to its own
aimless action, and its strength all runs to waste.
The same law applies to the muscular system; yet we leave the'
boy in school, day after day, year after year, cramped over his desk,
his muscles weak and relaxed, and his nervous energy, diverted from
his growth, to be poured on an already overworked brain. If he
have unusual stamina, he comes out in tolerable health, but clumsy '
and bungling; if of a nervous temperament, he leaves school pre
cociously sharp and quick, but thin, pale, and weak.
Take a class of boys and subject them, from the age of six years
to fifteen, to a careful and judicious daily exercise of an hour in
such gymnastics as are best adapted to the growing body, and will
not their physique be vastly superior to that of a class left to run
wild in the yard? And would not such an additional stock of ani
mal vigor and strength stand them in quite as good stead in the
world as their limited store of school-book learning? The gradu
ates of West Point can be singled out of a crowd by their straight
forms, erect walk, general quickness of movement, and superior
physical development. On a small scale, why cannot the elementary
162 • INSTITUTE ADDRESSES.
schools reach the same results ? Any business man knows that ,
sound health and power of endurance are quite as necessary to suc
cess as quickness in mathematics, or skill in the use of language.
What merchant would not rather have his son come to the count
ing-room with every muscle strung to its highest tension, quick,
active, self-reliant, strong, and proud of his strength, even if he
knows a few pages less of a few books, than to see him drag home a thin
face and attenuated muscles? Do not mechanics and laborers think
it of some importance that their sons, who will take their places and
live by manual labor, shall have sinewy frames, as well as intelligent
minds? By far the greater number of boys who attend the public
schools grow up working men. To all such, power of endurance is'
the most practical education. The arm to lift a fifty-pound dumb
bell is better than the analysis of cube root.
A sound body is the only capital they have to start with in life.
Knowledge may oe power, but muscular strength is food and cloth
ing. Some men must earn their living by muscular labor, as well as-
others by their wits. Horace Mann said, and he knew the truth of
it, "All through the life of a pure-minded but feeble-bodied man,
his path is lined with memory's grave-stones, which mark the spots-
where noble enterprises perished for want of physical vigor to em
body them in deeds. ' '
Sound health is a necessary condition of all permanent success,
and the greatest drawback to our public school system is the neg
lect to provide for this necessity. ^Better illiterate strength than
sickly erudition. It is true that sometimes a heroic spirit conquers
pli3rsical weakness, but such cases are exceptions. Dr. Kane braved
the terrors of the arctic regions, and endured more than many phys
ical giants, but died in Cuba. Nature had her revenge.
Many teachers will say, that is all very fine theoretically, but it is
utterly impossible to carry it out practically in the school. Yet, it
can be done, has been done, and is done in a great many public
schools.
Connected for a period of ten years with a public school of five
hundred children, during five years of that time gymnastic and cal-
isthenic training was made a part of daily education, just as much
as arithmetic, or geography, or grammar, and with quite as satis
factory results. Having practiced all that I recommend, I am
troubled with no doubts in urging the practicability of physical cul
ture in the public schools. True, it was rather hard in the begin
ning, to be blamed for innovations, laughed at by conservatives, and
found fault with by parents. But persistence and patience over
came all obstacles. Mothers who at first objected to letting their
boys exercise in the gymnasium, for fear they would break their
necks or tear their clothes, soon grew proud of the strength and
agility of their sons.
Delicate girls, who horrified their mammas with accounts of wands
and dumb-bells, grew to like both, as they grew stronger under daily
drill. Pale, weakly, good-for-nothing boys, who at first only moped
around the yard and looked at the other boys, soon became inter
ested and took hold in earnest, until the narrow chest expanded,
the round shoulders straightened, and the soft, flabby arm became
like knotted whip-cords.
INSTITUTE ADDRESSES. 163
The measurements of many boys' arms showed an increase of cir-^
cumference of one inch in three months, and an expansion of the
chest of two inches in the same time. Some of my most pleasant
memories of teaching are connected with my gymnastic classes of ath
letic boys, who could kick foot-ball, play base-ball, lift dumb-bells,
swing clubs, climb ladders, vault the bar, walk the parallel, swing-
on the rings, foot it twenty miles on Saturday excursions, and box
and wrestle with their teacher. I would not give those boys, who
have since grownup to be rugged men, rejoicing in their health and
strength, for all the arithmetical prodigies in the United States. As
I feel the hearty grip of their hands, my only twinge of pain is, that
when I went to school my teachers did not have a higher estimate of
muscle, and a lower one of books.
One of those " big boys" of my class has been several years the
leading gymnast of the Olympic Club Gymnasium of the young1
men of this city, and I am quite as proud of him as of another boy
who has grown to be a scholar. Another strapping fellow, six feet
two, straight as an arrow, and strong as Hercules, who has been x ,
two years in the army, fighting Indians, is a walking illustration of j
the benefits of gymnastic drill in a public school. I would not thus
allude to my own experience, except that any reference to gymnas
tics is met by many teachers with one argument, condensed in a
single word — impracticable.
How shall such exercises be conducted in a public school? The
excellent books on the subject render it unnecessary to go into de
tail. All children have arms, and the will to use them. With or
without music, any teacher in any school, graded or ungraded, can x
give ten minutes a day for free arm movements. A few dollars will \
buy a set of wands, and some wooden dumb-bells; and the girls can J
make two dozen " bean bags." With this simple apparatus alone, /
any teacher with an ordinary amount of ingenuity, tact, or skill,
can, with the aid of a book, have a good light gymnastic class.
Half an hour a day can be taken out of the school hours, and the
children be all the better for losing so much study time. A vast
amount of training can be given, even in the short period of a year.
The time for study and recitation ought to be reduced. In years to
come, little children will not be confined in school more than three
hours a day. Years ago, the good old-time clergymen preached ser
mons two hours long, and those who could not stand them patiently
were held to be weak in the faith. Better sermons are now deliv
ered in thirty minutes, with quite as good results. So it will be
with schools. Better teachers than we, when the present six-hour
system shall have become obsolete, will teach more in half the time.
Not length of time in study, but the quality of thought, and the
force of action, is the measure of mental progress.
The light gymnastics are good for the smaller boys and girls; but\
the "big boys" will generally prefer some out-of-door exercises.,/
The movable horizontal bar is a great favorite with boys, and the
exercises on it are among the best of the gymnasium. One can be
set in any school-yard for twenty dollars. A few iron dumb bells
will be useful. The Indian clubs are excellent for the arms and
chest, but boys do not generally " take to them." The swinging
164 INSTITUTE ADDRESSES.
rings cost but little, and are liked very much. Leaping is a pleas
ant yard amusement, a.nd requires only two sticks and a string.
Football is a rough and tumble game; but it has the charm of in
tense excitement, and the more {he Iboyti get of it the better.
Bruised ankles and sore legs are forgotten in the exultation of win
ning. Rugby ought not to monopolize it. Base ball is a fine old
game, which ought alwa}Ts to be kept before the boys. An occa
sional Saturday pedestrian excursion of twenty miles is a fine thing
if the teacher can stand it. I was reminded of one the other day
by a strapping fellow, who exclaimed: " It made my legs ache, but
how nice the beefsteaks were that we broiled on sticks over the
fire." A set of boxing gloves will make fine fun for the older boys,
and yet give them the most vigorous kind of exercise. "Do you
box any nowadays," was one of the first salutations of one of my
*t boys," who has just returned from the army. He was thinking
of the half hours after school with the boxing gloves, in the old
schoolhouse, and how, with the aid of what he had learned there,
he whipped the eyes out of a big " bully" at the W^est Point Mili
tary Academy. Wrestling used to be a favorite amusement, and
what New England boy does not remember many a hard tussle on
the green sward round the " old schoolhouse."
Teachers who wish to succeed in physical training must study *-
fvarietj^in their exercises. Boys are fond of novelty and change,
and the same routine day after day will soon tire. Marbles, tops,
kites, and ball follow after one another, changing quite as often as
the moon. It requires more skill, tact, judgment, and knowledge
of boy nature to succeed with a gymnastic class than to teach arith
metic or grammar; one requires a soul and sympathy with boy '
j nature, the other does not. An owl should not mingle with sing-
1 ing birds; and a cold, formal, dignified, melancholy teacher has no
I,' business in the boys' playground. If he cannot kick a foot-ball
well, the boys will laugh at him.
Ever}7" teacher needs gj^mnastic exercises and amusements. No
occupations so drains the nervous power; he must find the " foun
tain of 3'outh" in the sports of boyhood. What matters it if exam
inations are a little less " brilliant," children less precocious, and
" school phenomenons" less common? The object of school is to\
train up children to be sensible men and women, and to form tastes i
and habits which shall follow them through life.
-The indirect lessons of the play-ground are often more valuable
than the formal teachings of the class-room, and the kind words
there spoken will soften the necessary severity of discipline in a
public school. In the hours of play, when " off duty," the teacher
with a great heart can win the souls of children while training their
bodies. What teacher would not be remembered by his pupils as
a sharer of their sports, a sympathizer with their boyish amuse
ments, as a living man who had a heart, and moulded their charac
ter, and formed their tastes, rather than as a mere schoolmaster
who only expounded text-books!
vv^*X v- UA^
i^A.A fcvj3 VA^t-C Vv4
LIBRARY.
^KSITY OF CALIFORNIA1.
UNIVERSITY. OF
165
III. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.
IN 1866, Hon. Wm. Holden introduced a bill to organize a
State Agricultural School, in order to secure the 150,000 acres
of land granted by Congress for that purpose. The bill became
a law, but no action was taken under it; and in 1868, Hon. John
W. ^Dwinelle drafted and introduced a bill, which was passed,
providing for a State University with an Agricultural College.
The University of California was opened in Oakland, in the
College of California buildings, Sept. 23, 1869, with an attend
ance of about 50 students.
The University was made free, and opened for the admission
of young men and women.
The first Board of Regents was composed as follows :
EX-OFFICIO KEGENTS.
H. H. Haight Governor..
Wm. Holden Lieutenant-Governor.
O. P. Fitzgerald State Supt. Public Instruction.
C. T. Byland Speaker of the Assembly.
Chas. F. Heed President State Agricultural Society.
A. S. Hallidie , - President Mechanics' Institute.
APPOINTED BY THE GOVEENOE.
Samuel Merritt 2 years.
B. P. Hammond 6 years.
Horatio Stebbins 10 years.
Wm. Watt 14 years.
John T. Doyle 4 years.
John W. Dwinelle 8 years.
Lawrence Archer 12 years.
S. B. McKee. . ..16 years.
ELECTED BY THE BOABD.
Isaac Friedlander. ... 2 years.
J. Mora Moss 6 years.
A. J. Moulder 10 years.
F. F. Low 14 years.
Edward Tompkins 4 years.
S. F. Butterworth 8 years.
A. J. Bowie 12 years.
John B. Felton 16 years.
Andrew J. Moulder, having been elected Secretary, resigned
his position as Regent.
The College of California, incorporated in 1855, disincorpo
rated, and conveyed its grounds at Berkeley, 5 miles from Oak
land, as a site for the State University.
The men chiefly instrumental in this consolidation, were
Henry Durant, Gov. F. F. Low, and Horatio Stebbins.
166 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.
The College of California had its germ in a private school,
established in Oakland in 1853, by Henry Durant.
FACULTY OF THE UNIVERSITY.
On the 30th of November, 1868, the Begents elected General
Geo. B. McClellan, President, with a salary of $6000. He de
clined, and Prof. John LeConte was made "Acting President."
In 1869, the following Professors were appointed:
Joseph LeConte. ...Prof, of Geology, Natural History, and Botany.
John LeConte Prof, of Physics and Industrial Mechanics.
Martin Kellogg Prof, of Ancient Languages.
R. C. Fisher Prof, of Chemistry, Mining, and Metallurgy.
W. T. Welcker Prof, of Mathematics.
Frank Soule, Jr Ass't Prof, of Mathematics.
Paul Pioda Prof, of Modern Languages.
Ezra S. Carr Prof, of Agriculture, Agricultural Chemistry, and
Horticulture.
Wm. Swinton Prof, of English Language and Literature,
History, Rhetoric, and Logic.
Henry Durant was elected President in 1870. In 1872, he
resigned, and D. C. Gilman was elected, Sept. 1st. President
Gilman resigned in March, 1875, and was succeeded by Prof.
John LeConte, as "Acting President." In June, 1876, Prof.
John LeConte was elected President.
The Legislature of 1870 appropriated $300,000 for building
purposes, and in the Autumn of 1873, the buildings being com
pleted, the University was removed from Oakland to the perma
nent site at Berkeley.
The resignation of Prof. Fisher was requested by the Eegents
in '71, and the chair of Chemistry was filled by Prof. Eising.
In 1874, the resignation of Prof. Carr was requested by the
Eegents. He demanded an investigation, which was refused, and
his chair was declared vacant. He was nominated and elected
Superintendent of Public Instruction, in 1876.
In 1874, Prof. Swinton resigned his professorship to go East,
and E. E. Sill was elected to his place.
During the same fyear, Fred. G. Hesse was elected to the
Chair of Industrial Mechanics; John D. Hoffman, Prof, of In
dustrial Drawing; Wm. Ashburner, Prof, of Mining Engineer
ing; E. "W. Hilgard, Prof, of Agriculture; George F. Becker,
Instructor in Metallurgy.
A. J. Moulder, resigned, and E. E. C. Stearns was elected
Secretary.
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
The Kegents and the Faculty, 1876, are as follows:
ft]
^lt
.1 ^ ^7
^ V / <f
EX-OFFICIO REGENTS.
"William Irwin ......... Governor, ex-officio President of the Board.
J. A. Johnson ............................. Lieutenant-Governor.
Hon. G. J. Carpenter .................. Speaker of the Assembly.
'Hon. Ezra S. Carr ....... State Superintendent Public Instruction.
R. S. Carey, Esq ............ President State Agricultural Society.
A. S. Hallidie, Esq. . . .Pres. Mechanics' Institute of San Francisco.-^
John LeConte ....................... President of the University.
APPOINTED EEGENTS.
Rev. H. Stebbins, San Francisco. D. O. Mills ....... ..... Millbrae.—
Hon. L. Archer ....... San Jose. William Meek. . . .San Leandro.
J. West Martin ........ Oakland.- Hon. F. M. Pixley, San Francisco.
Hon. Samuel B. McKee, Oakland. Hon.W. T. Wallace, San Fran'co.-
Hon. J. F. Swift, San Francisco. Hon.E.Casserly . .San Francisco.
Joseph Winans. . .San Francisco. Hon. J. S. Hager, San Francisco.
J. Mora Moss ........ Oakland. A. J. Bowie ...... San Francisco.
J. M. Hamilton ........ Guenoc. Hon. John B. Felton. . .Oakland.
ACADEMIC SENATE.
John LeConte, M.D. . . .Pres. and Prof, of Physics and Mechanics.
William Ashburner ............................. Prof, of Mining.
Geo. W. Bunnell, A.M. . . .Prof, of Greek Language and Literature.
Geo. Davidson, A.M. .Non-Resident Prof. Geodesy and Astronomy.
Stephen J. Field, LL.D .............. Non-Resident Prof, of Law.
Frederick G. Hesse ............... Prof, of Industrial Mechanics."
-*-E. W. Hilgard, Ph.D . .Prof. Agriculture and Agricultural Chemistry.--
Martin Kellogg, A.M ..... Dean, and Prof, of Ancient Languages."
Joseph LeConte, M.D ...... Prof, of Geology and Natural History."
^Bernard Moses, Ph.D .......................... Prof, of History."
Paul Pioda ......................... Prof, of Modern Languages.
^WillardB. Risipg, Ph.D ...... Prof, of Chemistry and Metallurgy.—
Edward R. Sill, A.M. . . .Prof, of English Language and Literature.
s Frank Soule, Jr ....... Prof, of Civil Engineering and Astronomy.^
William T. Welcker ....................... Prof, of Mathematics.
W. A. Barbour, A.B ................... .Instructor in Chemistry.
Geo. F. Becker, A.B., Ph.D .............. Lecturer on Metallurgy.
Samuel R. Christy, Ph.D ................ Instructor in Chemistry.*.
,^G. C. Edwards, Ph.B. .Inst'r in Mathematics, and Com. of Cadets.-*
Carlos F. Gompertz ....................... Instructor in Spanish.
L. L. Hawkins, Ph.B. . . .Instructor in Mathematics and Surveying.
John D. Hoffman .............. Instructor in Mechanical Drawing.
Henry B. Jones .................. Assistant Instructor in German.
G. de Kersaint-Gily ....................... Instructor in French.
Robert E. Ogilby ............... Instructor in Free-hand Drawing.
Edward A. Parker, Ph.B ..... Instructor in Physics and Mechanics.
Jas. M. Phillips, A.B. ..Instructor in Hebrew and Ancient History.
—-Albin Putzker ............................ Instructor in German.-
-^ Ambrose C. Richardson, A.B ....... Instructor in Latin and Greek.
—-'Joseph C. Rowell, A.B ............................... Librarian.-
E. H. Sears, A.B .................. Instructor in Latin and Greek.
Slate, Jr., S.B ....................... Instructor in Chemistry.-
168
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.
GEADUATE ASSISTANTS.
John W. Bice, Ph.B .................... College of Engineering-.
Isaac T. Hinton, Ph.B ............................ Mathematics.
^Wm. Carey Jones, A.B ..................... Recorder of Faculty.
Franklin P. McLean, Ph.Gr ........................... Chemistry.
vFrank S. Button, Ph.B ................... College of Agriculture.
STUDENT ASSISTANTS.
Fred. L. Button .................................. Mathematics.
J". B. Clarke ...................................... Mathematics.
X. Y. Clark ....................... Natural History and Geology.
NUMBER OF STUDENTS.
The number of students from 1870 to 1876 is as follows: 40,
78, 153, 185, 191, 234.
ENDOWMENT.
The 150,000 acres of land granted by Congress for the slip-
port of an Agricultural College have been sold, or applied for,
at an average price of $5 per acre. If paid up, there would
be a fund of $750,000, which, at six per cent., would yield an
annual revenue of $45,000. But in selling these lands, only 20
per cent., or $1 an acre, is required in cash, the remainder
draws interest at the rate of ten per cent. ; so that the income
ought to exceed $50,000, or even $60,000.
In addition to this endowment, the State has given from the
sale of tide lands an endowment fund sufficient to yield an
annual income of $50,000— about $800,000, invested in State
bonds. The endowment fund of the University may be set
down, in round numbers, at $1,500,000, and its annual income
at $128,000.
LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF
*
CALIFORNIA
STATE NORMAL SCHOOL.
UNIVERSITY (
CAL1FORT
IV. STATE NORMAL SCHOOL.
Under the appropriation of $3,000, by the Legislature of
1861-2, Ahira Holmes was appointed as Principal by a Board
of Trustees, consisting of Superintendent Moulder, George
Tait, Superintendent of San Francisco, and Dr. Taylor, Super
intendent of Sacramento.
The school was opened in one of the vacant rooms of the
San Francisco High School, July 21st, 1862, with 34 pupils,
during the first term. The school was soon removed to rented
rooms on Post Street. Henry P. Carlton was elected Yice-
Principal, and Miss Helen M. Clark and Miss Kate Sullivan
teachers in the Training School.
The first graduating class, December, 1863, consisted of
Bertha Comstock, Augusta P. Fink, Nellie Hart, and Louisa
Mails.
In July, 1864, Miss E. W. Houghton was elected as an Assist
ant, and in July, 1865, George W. Minns succeeded Ahira
Holmes as Principal. The school was removed to the rear of
the Lincoln Grammar School, and Mrs. C. H. Stout was ap
pointed Principal of the Training School.
The number of pupils, October, 1865, was 86. The School
Law of 1865-5 made the State Board of Education ex officio a
Board of Normal School Trustees.
At the first meeting, April 13, 1866, Professor Minns was
granted a year's leave of absence, and H. P. Carlton elected
Acting Principal. In 1867, Mr. Minns, concluding not to re
turn from the East, resigned. Mr. Carlton continued Principal
until July, 1867, when George Tait was elected Principal. Mr.
Tait resigned in 1868, and was succeeded by W. T. Luckey.
Under the Act of April 4, 1870, Gov. Haight appointed a
Board of Trustees, consisting of James Denman, J. H. Braly,
C. T. Eyland, H. O. Weller, and A. J. Moulder, the Governor
and State Superintendent being ex officio members.
11
170 STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION.
This Board proceeded to erect a building at San Jose, com
pleted in 1872, at a cost of $250,000.
In June, 1873, Charles H. Allen was elected Principal, vice
W. T. Luckey, and J. H. Braly, Yice-Principal, vice H. P.
Carlton.
At present, the school is filled to its utmost capacity — 350
students — and is, in fact as well as in name, a Normal School.
The Board of Instruction, June, 1876, is as follows:
Charles H. Allen Principal
J. H. Braly Vice-Principal.-
Henry B. Norton Natural Science.
Ira Moore Language.
Miss Eliza W. Houghton Preceptress.
Mrs. Lucy M. Washburn Assistant in Junior Class.
Miss Cornelia Walker Assistant in Junior Class.
Miss Annie E. Chamberlain Assistant in Junior Class.
MissPhebe P-Grigsby. • j. Preparatory Department.
Miss Helen C. Wright . . j
Miss Mary J. Titus Principal of Training School.
Miss Florence Grigsby Assistant in Training School.
NUMBER OF GRADUATES OF THE STATE NORMAL SCHOOL.
Year. No.
'63 4
'64 28
'65 ° 25
'66 22
'67 41
'68 38
'69.. 29
Year. No.
'70 45
'71 21
'72 17
'73 20
'74 33
'75 46
'76.. ..36
Whole number 414.
V. STATE BOARDS OF EDUCATION.
By the School Law of 1852, the State Board of Education
was made to consist of the Governor, State Superintendent, and
the Surveyor-General. The Surveyor-General was included
because the law originally proposed to entrust the Board with
the sales of school lands. This, however, was not done; and
the State Board remained, up to 1864, without powers or duties,
BOABDS OF EXAMINATION. 171
except *to apportion, annually, the State school moneys. In
1864, the State Board was made to consist of the Governor, the
State Superintendent, and the County Superintendents of San
Francisco, Sacramento, and San Joaquin. The Board was em
powered to adopt a uniform series of text-books, for all schools
except in incorporated cities; to require a uniform course of
study, and to make rules and regulations for the schools. In
1865, the Board was enlarged by the addition of the Principal
of the State Normal School, and of two members appointed by
the State Superintendent. In 1872, the two appointive mem
bers were cut off. In 1864, the State Board was made, ex officio,
the Board of Normal School Trustees; repealed, 1870.
VI. TEACHERS' CERTIFICATES AND BOARDS OF
EXAMINATION.
From 1850 to 1860, the power of examining teachers for cer
tificates was vested in District School Trustees and City Boards
of Education. These Boards were authorized to grant certifi
cates " of good moral character and fitness to teach a common
school one year."
In 1860, Superintendent Moulder secured the passage of a
law providing for a State Board of Examination, appointed by
the State Superintendent, with power to grant certificates, valid
for two years, and for County Boards, appointed by County
Superintendents, with power to issue county certificates, valid
for one year.
The power of examining teachers was still vested in City
Boards of Education, which were not required to recognize
State certificates.
At the State Institute, Sacramento, 1862, the first State ex
amination was held by Superintendent Moulder and a Board
made up of County Superintendents. The examination was
somewhat informal, and mostly oral. The Board granted five
Grammar School certificates and twelve " Mixed School" certifi
cates.
172 BOARDS OF EXAMINATION.
From 1851 to 1863, teachers in San Francisco were examined
every year. At first, these examinations were oral; but, in
1856, the Board introduced written examinations.
Concerning this annual re-examination of experienced teachers,.
Superintendent Swett, in his first Report, said :
No one cause has done so much to render the occupation of a
public school teacher distasteful as the old system of annual ex
aminations. Teachers were condemned to be tried, not by a jury
of their peers, but too often by men who knew little or nothing of
practical teaching, and who not unfrequently made the annual ex
amination a guillotine for decapitating any unlucky pedagogue who
had fallen under ban of their petty displeasure. A teacher in
the public schools, though he might have, added to the finest
natural abilities for teaching, a complete professional training in
the best normal schools in the "United States; though he might be
crowned with honors, won by many years of successful experience;
though he might be esteemed by the community, and revered by
thousands of grateful pupils — at the end of each year, forsooth, he
must be " examined" by a committee of lawyers, doctors, dentists,
book-binders, contractors, and non-professional men, to ascertain if
he were "fit to teach a Common School!" After having passed
through the examination mill annually, nine years in succession,
turned out each time with a " bran new" certificate of " fitness to
teach a Common School one year," I can speak feelingly on this
subject. These annual examinations of experienced teachers offered
an annual insult to intelligence, by lumping character, aptness to
teach, moral and social culture, in tabular statements of " percent
age" on arithmetic and spelling, in which infinitesimal details
'i counted everything, character and success nothing at all. Actual
trial in the school-room is the best test of fitness to teach; and
when a teacher has once passed examination, and proved success
ful in school, subsequent examinations are uncalled for and un
necessary.
I remember more than one successful teacher, arraigned before
the Examination Star Chamber, who was decapitated by the official
guillotine of "percentage/' because he happened to fail " on the
best route from Novogorod to Kilimandijaro," or from " lied Dog
to You Bet;" or forgot the population of Brandy Gulch, Humbug^
Canon, or Pompeii; or could not remember the names of all the
rivers of the world, from the Amazon down to the brook where he
caught " minnows" with pin hooks when a boy; or blundered on
some arithmetical shell, hard enough to pierce the hide of a moni
tor; or chanced to spell traveler with two 1's; or happened, firmlty,.
to fall one tenth of one credit below nine hundred and ninety-nine,
the standard which exactly gauged the moral character and intel
lectual ability of a man •" fit to teach a Common School one year."
The new State law, by granting diplomas for six years, relieves-
teachers from the annoyance of such examinations, and is the first
step towards recognizing teaching as a profession. It was my firm
BOARDS OF EXAMINATION. 173
Conviction from the first, that the end sought would be best attained
by vesting the authority to examine candidates in a board of prac
tical teachers, selected for that specific purpose. The future suc
cess of this important movement will depend upon retaining this
principle as a foundation. Teachers have a right to demand an ex
amination by their peers.
In the State Institute circular, 1863, the subject of teachers'
certificates was noticed as follows :
The State Board of Examiners will hold an examination of all ap
plicants who desire to obtain State certificates during the Institute
Session. By an amendment to the school law, these certificates re
main in force during the term of four years — relieving the holders
from all further examination by County Boards. It would be diffi
cult to adduce any reason whatever for the annual examination of
teachers, except the natural desire which some seern to entertain for
tormenting unlucky applicants for district schools. There are many
able teachers in the State whose pride revolts at the humiliation.
Under the old law, a teacher in the public schools, though he might
have added to the finest natural abilities for teaching, a complete
professional training in the best Normal schools in the "United States
— though he might have grown gray in the service, might be crowned
with the well-earned honors of many successful schools, be revered
by thousands of grateful pupils — though he had graduated from a
university — yet he could not apply for the smallest district school in
the remotest corner of the State, without "passing an examination;"
-and, if he wished to teach another year, he had to travel twentv or
thirty miles to pass examination, to satisfy the State that he was "fit
to keep a common school!" And further, if he wished to remove to
another county, he must be examined by another Board, to ascertain
his fitness to teach a common school! If examination imparts fitness
to teach, some of the teachers in this -State ought to be well fitted
for their occupation.
In 1862-3, Superintendent Swett secured important amend
ments to the law relating to certificates and examining boards;
and in 1865-6, the Revised School Law made elaborate provisions
for the whole subject.
This law authorized the State Board of Education to issue
State Life Diplomas to teachers of at least 10 years' experience,
holders of State Educational Diplomas; provided for City
Boards of Examination, consisting exclusively of professional
teachers; required City Boards of Education to recognize the
validity of State certificates; required the percentages obtained
in the different studies to be indorsed on the back of the cer
tificate; required the State Board to issue certificates to the
holders of State Normal School diplomas, and of State life cer-
174 BOARDS OF EXAMINATION.
tificates of all other States in the United States; provided for
granting State certificates on. the results of county examinations
with the State series of questions — in other words, made teach
ing a legal profession.
These provisions, with slight amendments, are retained in the
present school law.
On this subject, Mr. Swett spoke as follows, before the
National Educational Association, at Boston, August 6-8, 1872 :
By way of introducing my subject, and for the purpose of showing
why I entertain radical views on the common methods of examining
teachers, and of granting them certificates, I am constrained to offer
my own experience as an illustration.
Twenty years ago this very month, moved by the migratory instinct
that seems to be hereditary in so many Yankee boys, impelling them
to take flight in search of warmer climes and richer feeding-grounds,
I sailed out of Boston harbor bound for California, "round the
Horn."
My pocket-book was not plethoric with money, but carefully
stowed away in its ample folds there were three certificates, every one
of which bore the most positive evidence as to my good moral char
acter, and certified to my "ability and fitness to teach a common
school for the term of one year." One of these, like its holder, had
its birth in the Old Granite State.
It bore the signature of a " Deesfrict School Trustee," dear old
Deacon Brown, who examined me in the vowel sounds, and the conso
nant sounds; asked me to pronounce correctly g-e-w-g-a-w , and, by
way of a clincher, required me to define the four parts of English
Grammar according to Lindley Murray, to wit: Orthography, Ety
mology, Syntax, and Prosody.
The other two certificates were dated in the town of Timbuctoo, in
the old Bay State, almost in the shadow of Bunker Hill. I*was ex
amined in the dingy office of a cobwebbed old lawyer, who was quite
as scientific in his style of doing things, as was dear old Deacon
Brown.
It is enough to say that every one of these examinations was as
great a farce as it would be for Vincent Collier to examine an Apache
Indian in mental and moral philosophy and theology, or rather, as
absurd as it would be for a green-grocer to examine John Stuart Mill
in political economy.
I would not rake up old events that happened so near the cradle of
the common-school system, except that on returning, nearly a
quarter of a century later, I find that good old wray of examining
teachers still going on in my native State, and in some other States
that I do not now care to mention.
When I reached California, I mined, until I found myself dead-
broke ; worked as a day-laborer on a ranch ; sought in vain for per
manent employment, save only the profession of blacking boots;;
BOAEDS OF EXAMINATION. 175
and, at the end of the year, looked sadly at my certificates, and, as
a last desperate resort, " looked round" for a school.
I heard of a school, but my old certificates were not current in
California; and the flattering letters of Prof. Eussell, who taught
me how to teach, availed me nothing. I had to be "examined"
before I could be patented to be " fit to teach a common school in
the State of California, for one year," and a miserable little school
of half-Spanish children at that.
The school trustee, a Yankee minister, a man of huge body and
, enormous pomposity, did his duty with an awful dignity, which
j 1 nobody but a little-minded man, in a petty little office, can ever aspire
I to. It was the same old rigmarole of 4< reading 'ritin' and 'rithentic/'
with never a question to test education, culture, or power to teach.
After a half-day's examination, he gave me a certificate, and the
school to somebody else.
Then I went to San Francisco. There was a vacancy in the school
department. The old examination-mill was still kept running under
Yankee management. Fifteen of us, all in a row, like good little
boys in school, were questioned " once round " in arithmetic, " once
round " in grammar, " once round" in geography, " once round"
in spelling, by the Superintendent and the Mayor — the former a Ver
mont Yankee, and the latter like unto him, except he hailed from a \
city nigh unto Boston, where they gibbeted witches instead of
teachers.
I was told I ranked first of the batch; and of course somebody
else, who had "influence with the board," got the place. The suc
cessful somebody this time was a young doctor without patients.
He soon resigned, and I was allowed the privilege, at $125 a month,
of conquering a peace by subduing the young hoodlums, or of meet
ing the fate of my predecessor.
This was how I became a schoolmaster, and how I won my way
into the noblest profession — I think that is what they call it some
times in educational conventions.
For eight successive years I taught the same school, and — I am
am ashamed to own it, and would not tell it were it not necessary to
illustrate what I intend to present — I had the cowardice, like other
teachers with me, to submit to eight annual examinations, in order
to determine my fitness, at each annual revolution of the sun, to
teach the same school each succeeding school year.
Nor was this the end of humiliation and insult. After getting a
" bran new " certificate at the end of each year, before I could go
on again, I had to be elected by the votes of twelve members of the
Board of Education, because my term of office lasted on];' one year.
This annual election system was handed down to us from the primi
tive New England " town meetings." I believe that here in Boston,
and in all New England cities and villages, and, in fact, in most;
parts of the United States, it is still kept up. A teacher holds the
office only one year, and then he is at the mercy of any school di
rector, or local member of the board, who may have some spite to
wreak, or some relative to put in. Much as I honor the occupation
of teaching, I am not in love with a system that tends to take all
the manliness out of a man, and all the independence from a woman. ,
176 BOARDS OF EXAMINATION.
Under such a barbarous system 'of office-holding, rather than have
a son of mine become a common-school teacher, I would apprentice
him to the trade of a tanner, a tailor, or a shoemaker. He might
then stand some possible chance of rising in the political world.
For myself, rather than teach under it, I would contest with Nasby
the postmastership of the Confederate Cross-Roads.
At length, dragged out of my bed, after a typhoid fever that
brought me to the verge of the grave — a sickness brought on by
over-work, worry and anxiety — in order to be run through the examin
ation-mill a ninth time, the hereditary blood of my grandfather, who
"fit" in the Revolution, rose up in rebellion. I vowed to breakup
and root out the annual-examination farce, and the New-England-
town-meeting-annual-election humbug, both of which had followed
me across the continent, like the ghost of some grim old Puritan,
sticking closer than the accent of Yankee-land in our mother tongue.
So I left the school-room, went into political conventions, secured
a nomination for the only office ever open to a schoolmaster, that of
State Superintendent of Public Instruction, stumped the State, won
two successive elections, and the third time, with my whole party,
won a defeat; framed a school-law; established free schools; lobbied
legislatures; secured a legal recognition of professional teachers;
abolished the New England annual-examination farce; and, in San
Francisco, broke up the annual rotation-in-office election system;
placed the examination of teachers throughout the State exclusively
in the hands of experienced teachers, thereby ruining the occupa
tion and the glory of many a learned committee-man; secured life
diplomas for experienced and capable teachers; gained a legal recog
nition of the normal school diplomas of all State normal schools in
the United States; and, by law, made valid in California the life
diplomas and State certificates granted to teachers by other States.
All these reforms cost me }rears of hard wrork and determined
effort, and you will understand why I entertain strong convictions
on the subject of teachers' certificates.
For nearly twenty years, on the western verge of the continent, I
have been engaged in a kind of border warfare in education. My
educational notions have changed since; I taught school near
Boston. Living in a State whose people have been gleaned from
every other State in the Union, from France, Germany, Italy, Eng
land, Ireland, Australia, and China, new conditions have made new
questions to be decided, and new issues to be met.
While I fully recognize all that is good in New England schools,
school laws, school customs and usages, I take satisfaction for past !
suffering, in hurling a few brick-bats into the windows of the old
school-house where I was flogged.
Before touching on the subject of professional certificates, the
two weak points of our public school system must be taken into
account.
1. Of the .three hundred thousand persons that " keep school "
in our country, not more than one tenth can be regarded as profes
sional teachers, that is, teachers trained to their business, and intend-
BOARDS OF EXAMINATION. 177
ing to pursue it for a term of years. From the various normal
schools altogether, there are graduated, annually, not more than two
thousand at a very liberal estimate, and of these at least one half
drop out of the occupation in five years.
Most of our schools outside of our large cities, and many of the
lower classes toithin our cities, are " kept," not taught, by unskilled
and untrained labor, at the wages of unskilled labor. The pay of
these unskilled "school-keepers" is less than that of any class of
artisans or mechanics in any occupation that requires a trained
apprenticeship.
These " school-keepers" are quite as good as the people deserve,
and in most cases better than they ought to get for the wages paid.
Until the people recognize the necessity of schools all the year
round, until they recognize that teaching is an art, until theyfcare will
ing to pay for skilled training, instead of mere '*' school-keeping,"
the broken summer and winter schools, kept by young girls waiting
to get married, and by boys working their way through college, or
into other occupations and professions, or by migratory Ichabod
Cranes, must serve the purpose of keeping the children out of utter
barbarism, by giving them a chance to learn to read and write, and
reckon dollars and cents.
The abstract theory of our school system is fine enough, but the
census statistics loom up in fearful significance as a dark back
ground. We shall learn before long that mere reading and writing
do not constitute education, and that schoolmasters and school-
ma'ams are not necessarily teachers.
It is a quarter of a century since I went to school in my native vil
lage. I return and find the school there is no better than when I
was a school-boy. That village school is a fair type of many schools
all over our country. It will not do to pick out a few cities, and
shut our eyes to the rural districts.
When I went to school, we boys had neither training nor culture.
We learned to read and write and cipher, and memorized text-books,
but wre were not educated; and hundreds of thousands of boys and
girls, all over our country, are doing the same thing at the present
time.
It matters but little how the temporary keepers of schools of this
type are examined. Still, there ought to be a plan devised by which
the untutored, untrained and unskilled " school-keeper'' shall not
be placed on the same footing and paid the same wages as the accom
plished graduate of a normal school, or the self-made teacher,
trained in actual work in the school-room.
Schools of this class were well enough in the ruder years of the
republic, when men and women were subduing the wilderness,
driving out the savages, and laying the rough foundations of a great
nation. But the time is now rapidly coming when, in consequence
of a denser population, the struggle for existence will become fiercer,
when there will no longer be millions of acres of fertile land to be
taken up at nominal prices, and made productive by unskilled labor.
The time is coming when our artisans and mechanics must be trained
178 BOARDS OF EXAMINATION.
to compete with, those from the technical and industrial schools of
European countries.
Our schools in the small villages and farming districts must be
reorganized to meet this new order of things, and the people must
employ skilled teachers, and pay them the wages of skilled labor.
2. The other radical defect in the practical working of our school
system is the short terms of school officers and superintendents, and
their election by direct vote of the people in general elections.
Annual elections suited the genius of New England towns when
the government was the purest t}7pe of a democracy, and when the
machinery of great political parties was unknown; but, applied to
great cities, to States, and to the broader expanse of the West, the
short term of office and the annual election have been ruinous in
their results, not only in educational offices, but in all others.
There can be no steady progress in public schools without long-
continued, systematic efforts; and there can be no system when one
set of school officials succeeds another as often as the seasons
change. By the time one set of school officers has learned some
thing about the condition and wants of the schools, by some change
in the politics of the city or town, a new set succeeds, bent on reform
ing the work of their predecessors.
In many parts of our country, already, school boards elected by
one political party feel under no obligation to retain in place the
teachers appointed by the opposite party, and the outrageous annual-
election farce, which cowardly teachers have so long submitted to
without a struggle, affords a fine opportunity to drop out the old
ones and run in the new.
Gradually, but surely, the schools are coming to be considered as
legitimate party spoils of the victors, and the struggle for position
on boards of education in all our great cities is mainly to control
the patronage of appointments. There has been a great deal of
talk about reform in civil-service appointments, but the country
stands in greater need of reform in the manner of making educa
tional appointments. There is more favoritism, more of politics
and church, mixed up in the annual appointments of the 300,000
teachers in the country than in all the custom-houses; and there is
more ignorance and unfitness for position than in all the post-offices
and civil-service places taken together.
I make no random assertions. I speak from a thorough personal
knowledge of our State; and teachers and educators from other
States affirm the same condition of things with them. It is un
doubtedly worse in the newer States than in the older, and worse in
the States evenly balanced, and subject to frequent political changes,
than in the one-sided States always controlled by the same political
party. Right here in Boston, the centre of conservatism, there is
little change, because for twenty-five years there has been no change
in the political character of the Board of Education. But, each suc
ceeding year, every one of the thousand teachers here feels that it is
possible for one single enemy on the Board to secure, by persistent
misrepresentation, and by trading votes, the removal of any teacher.
Occasionally, even in Utopia, it happens that a teacher is " left out/5
BOARDS OF EXAMINATION. 179
and consequently no teacher can act or can think independently;
and it is even whispered that it makes a material difference with a
man's chances whether he be a believer in Cotton Mather or in
Darwin.
If the Boston Brahmins like this condition of petty servitude to
school directors, I am perfectly willing they shall fold their arms
with all due meekness and gratitude, leaving the work of reforma
tion to outside barbarians. They get better salaries than we do out
West, and consequently are conservative.
Until there is a reform in these defective points of our school
system, it seems to me there can be no marked and permanent im
provement in our public schools as a whole. There will be indi
vidual schools that, under superior teachers, wrill attain a high
degree of excellence; but the general average of the schools cannot
be raised much higher than it is, because the system neither en
courages independent thought nor tolerates progress.
Puttering in conventions over the little details of teaching arith
metic, grammar, and geography, will avail nothing. Men are wanted
to shape legislation, to dig out the c/e6m,and with strong and rough
hands to lay the superstructure of a better system of American school
supervision and school teaching.
There are some men and women engaged in public school service
who make teaching a life-work, who understand their business, and
who are earnestly devoted to their work, and the rights and privi
leges of this class demand a careful consideration. There are only
a few States that have any system of professional examinations by
which a public school teacher can secure a professional life diploma,
and thereafter be exempted from the humiliation of periodic exam
inations by petty school officials, just emerging from babyhood of
official ignorance of the whole subject of education.
And even if a life certificate can be secured in a few States, such
as Illinois, Ohio, Iowa, or California, it is of no legal value outside
of the particular State in which it is granted. California is the only
State that recognizes by law the State diplomas and certificates of
other States, by placing them on an equal footing with her own.
Were I, after twenty years of continous service as a teacher, as State
Superintendent, and as Deputy City Superintendent of San Fran
cisco, holding in my possession dozens of defunct certificates, and a
life diploma of the State of California, were I to go back to my
native town, and seek employment in my native State by teaching
the little " Deestrict School" that I went to when a barefoot boy,
I should have to "pass examination" to determine my fitness to
teach a little squad of boys and girls to read and write. The school
law of New Hampshire not only fails to recognize the educational
diplomas of mushroom States like Calif ornia ; but, with true Puritan
stubbornness, neglects to provide her own sons, who pick up educa
tion enough to become teachers, with any kind of a State document
which they can carry with them to the State where the}7 go to earn a
living.
It would be the same were I to go "looking out for a school " in
Maine, or Vermont, or Massachusetts, or Khode Island, or Connec
ticut, or any State in the Union except my own adopted State.
180 BOARDS OF EXAMINATION.
Were my esteemed personal friend Mr. Philbrick, the Superin
tendent of the Public Schools of Boston, crowned with the well-
earned honors of twenty-five years of educational labor, to lose his
position at the next annual election, and in consequence, were to
emigrate to California, to teach school to earn a living, he would
have to pass a rigid written examination, before he could draw a
dollar of the school fund for teaching the smallest school, in the
roughest mining camp in the State. Massachusetts has provided no
means of giving her educational veterans a certificate of public-
school service.
No State in the Union, except California, recognizes by law the
normal school diplomas of other States. In fact, many of the States
fail to recognize by law the diplomas given to the graduates of their
own normal schools.
There ought to be, in every State, a State Board of Examination,
made up exclusively of professional teachers, including the State
Superintendent of Public Instruction, having power to issue life
diplomas to experienced teachers of the highest rank, and certificates
of lower grades to j^ounger teachers, of lower rank; these diplomas
and certificates to be issued only upon actual examination in writing,
and the record of examination to be indorsed upon the certificates.
There ought, also, to be a system of broad and liberal legislation in
all the States, by means of which a professional teacher holding a
diploma or certificate in one State, should be guaranteed a legal
recognition in all the other States.
It is true that this need is more felt in the newer Western and
Pacific States than in the older ones. For instance, in California,
our teachers are drawn from every other State in the Union. These
teachers must pass a written examination in our State, before they
can engage in teaching. This requisition often keeps them waiting
for several months after their arrival. Occasionally a teacher comes
bringing a State certificate or normal school diploma, which is at
once recognized under our liberal school law.
But most of the States have failed 'to provide for any system of
State certificates, by means of which their teachers can carry with
them, when they emigrate, any written evidence of professional
fitness.
If the older States do not feel the local need of some provision of
this kind, they owe a duty to their educated sons and daughters,
who seek a wider field of action in the newer States. They owe a
duty to the cause of National American Education.
In addition to a State system of examination as a means of pro
tecting the public schools against charlatans, ignoramuses, and
humbugs generally, it is indispensable that eveiy State have an
efficient system of city, county, and township boards of examination.
These boards ought to be made up of each city, county, or town
superintendent, together with from three to five professional teach
ers, themselves holders of high-grade certificates. They should
have power to issue, on actual written examinations, certificates of
different grades, valid for periods of time ranging from two to ten
years, according to grade.
BOARDS OF EXAMINATION. 181
These boards ought to be paid a reasonable sum for their work,
otherwise it will not be well done. They ought to be made up ex
clusively of practical teachers, for the same reason that only lawyers
can legally examine law students applying for admission to the bar,
that only physicians examine medical students, and that only clergy
men pass on the fitness of theological students to enter the ministry.
By combining a system of State, city, county, and town examinations,
together with inter-state legislation, something might be done to
raise the standard of public school teaching.
It is a matter of surprise that so little has already been done in this
direction. It can only be accounted for by the fact that nine tenths
of the men and women engaged in keeping school are intending and
expecting to get out of the business as soon as they can. Otherwise,
they would never submit to the humiliation of successive examina
tions by petty officials, who often know little or nothing about edu
cation, but who delight in a brief official importance.
It is urged against this plan of competitive, professional examina
tions in writing, that "percentages" represent mere scholarship,
and fail to gauge the power to discipline, the tact to manage, and
the skill to teach.
This may be true to some extent, but it is also certain that, while
some good scholars inay/Vu7 when submitted to tlie final test of the
school-room, no ignorant teacher can possibly make a good teacher
under any circumstances. There is a grade of scholarship below
which no man or woman is fitted to make a trial of teaching. Above
this standard, some will succeed and some will fail. So it is with
graduates of the law schools, the divinity schools, and the medical
schools.
It may be urged that boards of examination will show favorit
ism in issuing certificates to friends. So they will, unless the people
elect incorruptible school officers, and appoint incorruptible teachers.
The best laws ever framed, and the best systems ever devised, are
never binding on corrupt or incapable executive officers.
It may be urged that the diploma of a college ought to be taken
as a valid certificate of fitness to teach. Now a college-bred young"
man may or may not be qualified to teach. I have known many
young men coming to California, with flying colors and fresh diplo
mas, who ignominiously failed to secure a certificate to teach even
the lowest grade country school, on an examination in arithmetic,
grammar, geography, history, reading, and spelling, so elementary
in its character, that to a pupil of average attainment in the second
grade of an ordinary grammar school, it would have been mere play.
They not only showed no "fitness to teach/' but they exhibited a
most lamentable ignorance of the very elements required to be taught
in every common school. They might have been brilliant in the dead
languages, but they misspelled their mother tongue, they murdered
English, and they couldn't cipher. There can be no safe and sure
test, except actual examination.
I do not deny that the hobby of written examinations may be
ridden to death. It has been wickedly said by somebody — doubtless,
some luckless examinee — that the leading object of many examina-
182 BOARDS OF EXAMINATION.
tions is to give the examiners a chance to show off their own attain
ments. I have seen many sets of questions that seemed to be fossil
curiosities, picked up during a life-long search after abnormal things
— "tough sums" in arithmetic and algebra, the product of some
mathematician run to seed; gleanings of the tag ends of the
•countless rules, and notes and exceptions, and annotations and ex
planations, and illustrations and idioms, of Lindley Murray, that
great grammarian who wrote bad English, and made sad the hearts
of unnumbered generations of school boys and school girls; twisted
elliptical sentences to be parsed according to Smith, or Brown, or
Greene, or Wells, or Weld, or Sanborn, or Kerl, or Hart, or Clark,
or Quackenbos, or Bullion, or Pinneo, or Nokes, or Stokes, or Niles, or
Stiles, or Thompson, or Pickwick ;lunheard-of words of crooked or
thography, the gnarled growth of centuries of changes of the English
tongue, strung together like onions, in away that would have brought
tears to the eyes of old Webster himself, t^.at dear old philological
bush-ranger, who fought orthography on his own hook, in defiance of
all usage, and of all laws of linguistic warfare; questions in geog
raphy on zig-zag boundaries, on the length of all the rivers of all the
world, from the Amazon down to the trout-brooks that we fished in
when boys; on the distance of the classic towns of " You Bet" and
" Ked Dog," in California, from Nijni Novogorod and the sources of
the Nile; on the direction of Brandy Gulch and Whisky Canon
from Ujiji and Petropaulovski; questions in history requiring the
year and the day of the month of the settlement of every State in
the Union, supplemented by senseless interrogatories on historical
myths known only in our school text-books; impracticable questions
on theory and practice of teaching, about what ought to be done
under impossible conditions; questions about elements of penman
ship that even such accomplished penmen as Greeley, or Choate, or
Napoleon Bonaparte, couldn't answer; questions on Sanscrit roots
no Brahmin ever heard of; questions on the constitution that would
have floored the " Great Expounder;" questions on physiology that
would puzzle Darwin; questions on natural philosophy at which
Huxley orTyndall would be dumb; questions which showed the ex
aminer to be " stick, stark, staring mad," and wiiich no sane man
could answer. But a practical system of examinations presupposes
a common-sense style of conducting them.
In conclusion, I submit the following propositions for the consid
eration of teachers, and educators, and legislators :
1. A comprehensive system of State, city, county, and town
Boards of Examination.
2. Boards of Examination to be made up of State, city, county,
or town -superintendents, together with a limited number of profes
sional teachers, appointed in the manner best suited to the school
systems of the different States.
3. A graded series of teachers' certificates, from life diplomas
down to temporary certificates, valid for one year, granted on actual
examination only.
4. Examinations to be conducted in writing, and the percentages
obtained in each study to be indorsed on the certificates.
SPECIMEN SET OF QUESTIONS.
183
5. A legal recognition by each State of the professional certifi
cates issued in other States.
6. A provision for the legal recognition, by Boards of Examina
tion in each State, of the normal school diplomas issued by the
normal schools of other States and other countries.
7. A determined and combined effort, to shape legislation so as to
secure longer terms of office to State, city, county, and town super
intendents, to members of Boards of Education, and to school
trustees, thereby securing some degree of uniform progress in edu
cational management.
8. A war of independence, to be waged against the outrageous
system of the annual election of teachers, a plan which reduces them
below the level of the holder of the smallest post-office in the gift
of a victorious political party.
SPECIMEN SET OF QUESTIONS.
QUARTERLY EXAMINATION, JUNE, 1876.
OEDEE OP EXAMINATION.
1. General Questions.
2. Orthography 100
3. Grammar 100
4. Written Arithmetic 100
5. Geography 50
6. *Eeading (with oral exercises) 50
7. Theory and Practice 50
8. Defining (word analysis) 50
9. Mental Arithmetic 50
10. *0ral Grammar 25
11 . History of the United States . . 50
12. Composition 50
13. Penmanship 25
14. Algebra 50
15. Natural Philosophy 50
16. Physiology 50
17. Natural History 50
18. Constitution of United States
and California 25
19. School Laws of California 25
20. Industrial Drawing 25
21. Vocal Music 25
Total . ..1000
* The Oral Examination may be conducted at any time, by taking each appli
cant separately.
i. GENERAL QUESTIONS.
1. Name, age, birthplace.
2. Where educated.
3. Experience in teaching.
4. What certificate, if any.
5. Are you an applicant for a State certificate
2. SPELLING.
I. DICTATION PAEAGEAPH.
[50 Credits. Three Credits off for each misspelled word, or misplaced capital.]
Had the Plantagenets, as at one time seemed likely, succeeded in
uniting all France under their government, it is probable that
England would never have had an independent existence. The
noble language of Milton and Burke would have remained a
|UNJ-TER8ITY
184 SPECIMEN SET OF QUESTIONS.
rustic dialect, without a literature, a fixed grammar, or a fixed
orthography, and would have been contemptuously abandoned
to the use of boors. No man of English extraction would "have
risen to eminence, except by becoming, in speech and'habits, a
Frenchman.
II. WORDS.
[50 Credits. One Credit off for each misspelled word.]
• harangue
"vignette
^diphtheria
corridor
.fricasee
guarantee
professor
kindergarten
maintenance /
N rendezvous v
•jPestalozzi
convertible
blamable
curable
metempsychosis
vacillation
feasible
responsible
vaccination
indestructible
inexorable ,
noticeable
anonymous
""•rnusu't*
independence
suppliance
wasn't
-^curriculum
'^•contrivance
/perseverance
immaculate
'^avoirdupois
--'farinaceous v
'-^sacrilegious
•'bissextile
technology
Jlsaikh
Matthew
sphericity
- -philologist
hieroglyphics
domicile
-tyrannical
• ammunition
"•defendant
Buddhism
pharmacy
inflammable
metaphysician
Mohammedanism/
3. GRAMMAR.
[100 Credits. Time, 1% hours.]
1. Write a synopsis of the verb to speak, in .the indicative mood,,
third person, singular number, passive voice.
2. State three cases where the relative that must be used in pref
erence to who or which, and illustrate each case by a sentence.
3. State all the noun-suffixes and verb-suffixes of inflection, in
English.
4. Write the plurals of — 1, focus; 2, index; 3, his; 4, memoran
dum; 5, animalcule.
5. Correct such of the following as are not, in your opinion, good
English :
I. You had better go.
II. I had rather not do it.
III. The ship was soon lost sight of.
IV. It is the strongest case I ever heard of.
V. " The deadest piece of ironmongery itithe trade."
6. c< The squirrel eyes askance the chestnuts browning." Parse,
with brief forms: 1, squirrel; 2, eyes; 3, askance; 4, browning; 5,
chestnuts.
7. " Let not Ambition mock their useful toil,
Their homely joys and destiny obscure;
Nor Grandeur hear, with a disdainful smile,
The short and simple annals of the poor."
I. What kind of a sentence ?
II. How many statements, or propositions?
III. Why a comma after toil ?
IV. Why a semicolon after obscure ?
V. Derivation of simple ?
SPECIMEN SET OF QUESTIONS. 185
8. Parse, with brief models: 1, ambition; 2, grandeur; 3, hear;
4, obscure; 5, why are ambition and grandeur capitalized ?
9. State five ways in which you can make use of a reading lesson
in connection with grammar ?
10. Correct the following sentences, and give a general rule or
direction to pupils, covering each case:
I. The lecture was brief, short, and concise.
II. She is a teacher whom all are pleased with.
III. A pin was accidentally swallowed by a little girl with
out a head.
IV. We reached home, at length, after great difficulty, in a
blinding snow-storm, through deep snow drifts.
V. It can be no worse for us, if we fail.
4. WRITTEN ARITHMETIC.
[100 Credits. Time, 2% hours.]
[NOTE.— Leave all your work on the paper; make no analysis or explanation
unless called for, and then give in full.]
1. Perform the following operations: Multiply 3.05 by 2-J-, sub
tract 0.21, divide the result by J, and add to it the quotient of 9
divided by l-900th.
2. A man owned a square field, containing ten acres. He gave
enough from it for a street 4 rods wide, all around it. How much
land had he left ?
3. How many feet of siding, six inches wide, will cover the sides
of a house which is 24 feet by 30 feet, and 15 feet high, allowing -£-
for the lap. (No gable ends.)
4. A water tank is 3J wide and 5J feet long. How deep must it
be to hold 8 hogsheads ?
5. A man sold two horses for $240 each; on the one he gained 20
per cent., and on the other he lost 20 per cent. Did he gain or lose
on the two transactions, taken together, and how much?
6. A vertical pole 99 feet high is standing in a public park,
equally distant from the four corners of the park. The park is rect
angular, and 16 rods by 36 rods. How far is it from the top of the
pole to a corner of the park ?
7. A merchant sold goods at 30 per cent, profit, and paid •§- per
cent, of his gross receipt for expenses, what is his net gain on sales
amounting to $8,000 ?
8. Deduce the multiplier used in compound interest for finding
the compound interest on any sum of money, at 5 per cent., for 5
years.
9. An eccentric old lady papered the walls of her room with 3
cent postage stamps. Her room was 16 by 10 feet, and 12 feet
high; it had 2 windows, each 5J by 4 feet, and 2 doors, each 6 by
3 feet. A postage stamp is 1 inch long by 15-16 wide. What was
the cost of papering her room ?
10. On a promissory note from John Doe to Richard Roe, San
Francisco, January 4, 1874, for $1,200, payable on demand, 10 per
cent, a year, there were paid: March 19, 1874, $300; Aug. 15,
12
186 SPECIMEN SET OF QUESTIONS.
\
1874, $200; Dec. 21, 1874, $150. Write the note in due form, and
compute the interest by the Business Rule up to the time of pay
ment, Jan. 4, 1875.
5. GEOGRAPHY.
[50 Credits. Time, 1 hour.]
1. On a steamer trip from New Orleans to Pittsburgh, name the
five largest cities you would pass, and the State in which each is
situated.
2. State the following facts about Europe: 1, area; 2, popula
tion; 3, five chief cities; 4, height of Mt. Blanc; 5, five chief rivers.
3. What is the estimated population, 1876, of : 1, San Francisco;
2, California; 3, the United States; 4, Philadelphia; 5, St. Louis.
4. Name the five most populous islands in the world, in the order
of population.
5. At what places on the earth is the sun vertical at noon, at least
once a year ?
6. How is it proved that the earth is an oblate-spheroid ?
7. State the chief cause of ocean currents, and also two minor
causes that influence them.
8. State the causes of the dense fogs that prevail off the coast of
Chili and Peru, Oregon and California.
9. Name the three chief cities of: 1, New England; 2, the Mid
dle States; 3, the Southern States; 4, the Western States; 5, the
Pacific States.
10. Name the three leading countries in the production of each of
the following: 1, cotton; 2, sugar; 3, gold; 4, iron; 5, wool.
6. READING.
[25 Credits. Time, 30 minutes.]
1. Illustrate the use of each of the following marks : 1, macron;
2, breve; 3; diaeresis; 4, cedilla; 5, caret.
2. Write ten words having the sound of a in half.
3. By means of accent, and the notation of vowels used in Web
ster's Dictionary, indicate the correct pronunciation of the follow
ing words: 1, interesting; 2, museum; 3, irreparable; 4, tirade; 5,
irrevocable.
4 and 5. Make the marks used in Webster's Dictionary to indi
cate the sound of each vowel in each of the following words: [Ex
aminers will write the words upon the blackboards, omitting the no
tation. One credit off for each error in notation.}
ale end old up
arm verge odd rude
all prey move pull
add heir done urge
ask pine wolf moon
what pin nor foot
air pique use fly
eve thirst
SPECIMEN SET OF QUESTIONS. fVj£|^187
7. METHODS OF TEACHING.
[50 Credits. Time, 1 hour.]
1. Explain the distinctive features of the methods of instruction
introduced by Pestalozzi.
2. Name three important educational topics that are attracting the
attention of educators, teachers, and school officers.
3. Name five books on Teaching that you would recommend to
persons ignorant of both the science and the art of teaching.
4. What is the so-called Grube System of teaching arithmetic to
beginners ?
5. In addition to teaching the table, how would you teach square
measure to a class '?
6. Write ten questions on the local geography of the place where
you are passing examination, such as you would put to a class of
beginners.
7. Can you name two leading defects in the text-books on gram
mar now in use in this State ?
8. What criticisms do you make on the arithmetics in use ?
9. Explain the chemical changes that take place in the burning of
a candle.
10. Explain to a class the cause of the strong sea breezes that pre
vail in Summer along the coast of California.
8. DEFINING AND WORD ANALYSIS.
[50 Credits.]
1. Derivation and root meaning of: 1, orthography; 2, syntax;
3, geography; 4, botany; 5, calculate.
2. Define impediment, and give two synonymous words.
3. Explain the difference between diurnal and daily, rotation and
revolution.
4. Make a list of the Anglo-Saxon prefixes and suffixes.
5. What classes of words in our language are mainly of Teutonic
or Anglo-Saxon origin; of Romanic origin ?
6. Derivation and meaning of: 1, scrupulous; 2, supercilious.
7. Write a single sentence containing both shall and will correct
ly used.
8. Origin of : 1, volcano; 2, bonanza; 3, demijohn; 4, arcadian;
5, sybarite.
9. Define the expression, "resumption of specie payments."
10. Derivation of: 1, centennial; 2, exposition; 3, Philadelphia;
4, the title " Dom ; " 5, international.
9. MENTAL ARITHMETIC.
[50 Credits. Time, % hour.]
[NOTE. — Questions to be read by the Examiner; only the answers
required.]
1. What is 500 per cent, of 2/5 ?
2. What is the interest on $60 for 2J months, at 6 per cent, a
year?
138 SPECIMEN SET OF QUESTIONS.
. 3. One-half and one-fifth of a number, plus 6, equals the num
ber; find the number.
4 Add 2/5 and 3/8.
5. How many leet in 4U : -Unno-Vit for $40 9
6 Af 1 9A p.fints each, how many oranges can t
fi At J.5w cem« tJtiuii, XL^»T -"j ~ ~ ° , ^p
7' Divide the decimal .4 by the decimal 05
S. How many ounces in 4| pounds of gold .<•
9 In 9 rods, how many feet ?
LO'. How many inches in 5/9 of a square foot ?
70-20-2^ 9 X 6-9 -, 7 = ?
g- - •*--'
*
16*. Cost of 6J yards of calico, at 15 cents.
17 One thousand is five-sixths of what?
18* Four-fifths is what part of twenty I
'20 Sst^l^G^r cent., for 2 years, 9 months 21 days.
21 Interest of $300, for 2 years, 11 months, at 4 per cent.
22. $20 is what per cent, of $3C I ?
23 Find 6(')§ per cent, of $1200.
24 24 is 120 per cent, of what i
25: What number, increased by 80 per cent.- 36?
xi. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.
[50 Credits ; 5 Questions, 8 Credits each.]
1 rot >.i.t mute i» 0» Iteto-J °' tta B"»tal»» »
of the Declaration of Independence.
[One Question, Ten Credits.]
12. COMPOSITION.
[50 Credits. Time, 1 hour.]
1 Write five brief directions about composition-writing, such as
vo^' would «i« to the highest grade in a Grammar School.
y 2 Write two directions about pvran.
SPECIMEN SET OF QUESTIONS. 189
3. "What kind of composition-exercises would you give to children
in a Primary School, during their third school year?
4. Give the " heads3' of a composition about Government.
5. Write the most important rules of punctuation that you would
give a class in composition, as follows : 1, two rules for the com
ma; 2, two rules for the semicolon; 3, one rule for the dash; 4, two
rules for the exclamation mark; 5, two rules for quotation marks.
14. ALGEBRA.
[50 Credits; 5 Questions, 8 Credits each.]
1. Find the square root of 4a4— 12a3+ 25a2— 24a + 16.
2. Divide the number 5 into two such parts that twice their pro
duct increased by the sum of their squares may be equal to 25.
3. Find the value of x and y :
4. Difference between a pure and an affected quadratic equation ?
5. Extract the cube root of a6— 6a5+ 15a4— 20a3+ 15a'2— 6a + 1.
[One Question, Ten Credits.]
6. What are logarithms, who invented them, and what are their
uses?
15. PHYSICS.
[50 Credits; 5* Questions, 8 Credits each.]
1. How far will a cannon ball, dropped from a height, fall in 4
seconds?
2. Give four illustrations of the correlation of heat and motion.
3. How is light supposed to be diffused.
4. A body would weigh 4 tons, 8,000 miles above the earth's
surface, find its weight at the surface.
5. On what law of light does the action of the microscope de
pend ?
[One Question Ten Credits.]
6. What are the laws discovered by Kepler that govern the
motions and distances of the planets ?
16. PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE.
[50 Credits; 5 Questions, 8 Credits each.]
1. State two differences between the veins and the arteries.
2. State the difference between the functions of the cerebrum
and the cerebellum.
3. Direct a class how to treat headaches ; common colds.
4. In case the artery of the wrist or the ankle were cut, direct a
pupil how to stop the bleeding until the arrival of a physician.
5. Give a class five rules for taking care of their eyes.
190 SPECIMEN SET OF QUESTIONS.
[One Question, Ten Credits.]
6. State the locality of: 1, the patella ; 2, the ulna ; 3, scapula ;
4, tibia \ 5, hyoid bone.
17. NATURAL HISTORY.
[50 Credits.]
1. What changes take place in the organs of a flower when it is
made " double" by culture?
2. Name and classify five of the most beautiful flowers, indige
nous to California.
3. Give the transformations of the frog.
4. How does the natural system of classification differ from the
artificial system ?
5. Mention the principal forest trees of this State.
6. What are the chief wild animals of this State, and where
found ?
18. CONSTITUTIONS OF THE UNITED STATES AND
CALIFORNIA.
[25 Credits; 5 Questions, 4 Credits each.]
1. When was the Constitution of the United States framed; who
was President of the Convention, and when was it adopted by a
majority of the States.
2. Name five rights of the people guaranteed by the Constitution
of the United States.
3. State the substance of two important amendments to the
Constitution of the United States.
4. How is the United States Constitution amended ?
5. What educational provisions does the Constitution of Califor
nia contain ?
[One Question, Five Credits.] \
6. In framing the Constitution, why was each State, large or
small, allowed two Senators?
19. SCHOOL LAW.
[25 Credits.]
1. What are the conditions for obtaining a life diploma?
2. In what three different ways are school moneys raised by tax
ation ?
3. Name five provisions of the school law that are, in your opin
ion, good ones.
4. What are the provisions of the State law about educating
negro children ?
5. How is the State University supported ?
PROFESSIONAL TEACHERS OF CALIFORNIA.
191
20. DRAWING.
[25 Credits.]
1. Name any benefits derived from the study of drawing in the
public schools.
2. What system of drawing has been adopted in this State ?
3. What are the distinctive features of this system?
4. In a graded school, how much time would you give for draw
ing ? In an ungraded school ?
5. Define: 1, a right-angled triangle; 2, a circle; 3, a surface;
4, a vertical line; 5, a perpendicular line.
21. MUSIC.
[25 Credits.]
1. How can a teacher that cannot sing have singing in school?
2. Name two benefits arising from school singing.
3. How much time ought to be given to singing, and when should
the time be taken ?
4. What text-books on music have been adopted by the State
Board of Education ?
5. Write the scale.
VII. THE PROFESSIONAL TEACHERS OF
CALIFORNIA.
LIST OF THE HOLDERS OF LIFE DIPLOMAS
WHICH HAVE BEEN ISSUED ONLY TO HOLDERS OF EDUCATIONAL DIPLOMAS THAT HAVE
HAD TEN YEAKS' EXPEKIENCE IN TEACHING.
[The names of holders of diplomas who have permanently engag
irsuits are marked t; the names of holders deceased are marked *.]
ed in other
pursuits
Abbott, "Warren '71
Aldrich, Abbie F '76
Allen, L. D '71
Allsopp, J. P. C '69
fAmes, Charles C '69
Ames, Martha '75
Anderson, J. W '68
Anderson, Mrs. C. A '73
Ashton, Mrs. N. J '76
Atwood, Mrs. C. L '67
Austin, Miss Minnie F. . . .'66
Babcock, WT. S ;76
Bagnall, John '67
fBailey, C. P '68
fBaker, George F '73
Baldwin, Miss Nellie '75
Barnard, Miss A. S '75
Barr, Miss Sara A '73
Batchelder, H. T '73
Baumgardner, Mrs. E. M '76
Beals, Mrs. C. E '72
Benjamin, C. V '72
192
PROFESSIONAL TEACHERS OP CALIFORNIA.
Bennette, Fanny E '69
Bennett, Miss Mary H '74
Black, Samuel T '7%
Black, Charles M '74
Bloomer, A. C '76
*Bodwell, Miss Mary L '66
Bolander, H. N '68
Bradley, Theodore '66
Bragg, Mary J '75
Braly, John H 69
Brodt, A. W '71
Brown, George '66
fBrown, F. E '67
Brown, Miss S. L '74
Bryerly, John E '76
Buckman, F. S. S '75
Bugbey, Mrs. B. N '76
Bunnell, George W '66
Burke, Lizzie K '73
Campbell, Miss C. C '72
Campbell, F.M '73
Carlton, H. P '66
fCasebolt, Miss M. A '72
Castelhun, Miss Maria A .... '74
Chapman, M. Y '72
Chalmers, Miss Annie B '75
Chestnutwood, Mrs. J. A. . . .'75
Chestnutwood, Jno. A '73
Childs, C. W '68
Clappe, Mrs. L. A. K '68
Clark, Dorcas '67
Clark, Mary E '67
fClark, Miss H. M '66
*Clark,L. E '70
Clark, M. C '75
Cleveland, Miss E. A '73
Coe,EliG '71
Conklin, E. B '71
fCook, Mrs. P '70
Cook, Miss Hannah '73
fCottle, Melville '69
Crane, Amanda '76
Craven, Andrew F '74
Crawford, Mrs. J. F '74
Crawford T. O '75
Crosette, F. M '76
Cross, C. W '75
Crowhurst, Wm '75
Crowell, C. H '73
Cummings, C. C '66
D'Arcy, Miss M. E '72
Davies, J. S /76
Davis, Mrs. Imogene W '75
Deane, Mrs. Margaret '71
Deetkin, Mrs. Lizzie G '74
Denman, James '66
Dodge, W. C '74
Dooner, John '75
Drake, A. J '71
Drake Chas. M '76
Duane, Mrs. A. S '72
DuBois, Mrs. A. E '68
Dubois, J. B '76
Duenkel, Wm '75
Dwyer, James '75
fEickhoff, J. Henry '73
Farley, A. J '72
Field, Miss Carrie P '75
Finch, J. B '71
Fink, Augusta P '75
Fisk, Julia A '76
Fitzgerald, A. L '71
Foster, Mrs. J. A '73
Foster, Mrs. Emily '74
Fowler, Miss Laura T '68
Freeman, G. N '75
Fry,W.H '72
|FullerA. L '69
Furlong, George '76
Gabriel, Mrs. C. E '74
Garrison, Gazena A '76
* Gates, Freeman '72
Gorman, W. J '73
Goodrich, A. H '68
fGraf , Miss Minnie '72
Grant, Miss Ella G '75
Grant, Miss Helen A '75
Gray, John C '69
Greer, Miss Jane E '75
Griffith, Mrs. Aurelia '71
Gunn, MissS.M '75
Gwinn, James M '71
f Hamilton, Miss Addie '73
f Hammond, Josiah Shaw. . . .'73
Harlow, James '67
fHart, W. C '73
Hall, Frances M '76
Hatch, J. L '75
Hayes, John '76
Henning, Irving P '75
Herbst A '73
Higby, H. C ..'75
Hill, Miss A. H '73
Hill, Whitman H '71
PROFESSIONAL TEACHEES OF CALIFORNIA.
193
Hodgdon,Miss S. J '72
Hoffman, Mrs. Mary L ,-'73
* fHoitt, IraG '66
fHolbrook, T. W. J '66
Holder, W. W '71
f Holmes, Ahira '66
f Holmes, Ellis H '66
Houghton, Miss E. W '66
v Howe, H. H '68
tHowe, J. M '67
Howe, Converse '75
Hucks, Annie E '75
Hudson, J. A '73
Humphrey, E. D '68
Humphreys, Miss L. A '74
Humphreys, Miss M. A '74
Hunt, Miss Carrie L '70
Hurley, Miss J. M. A '73
Hutton, Chas. E '73
Houghton, George E '76
Itsell, A. J '74
Jackman, Samuel H '70
Jessup, Miss S. A '12
' Jewett, Annie S '76
Jewett, Miss Susan N '72
Johnson, J. W '76
Johns, Charles T, '71
Johnson, J. G.. '70
Jones, George W '71
Jones, Thornton J '75
Keegon, Mary A '75
Kelso, John E '76
j Kennedy, Kate '67
Kennedy, J. G '71
Kennedy, W. W> '71
Kercheval, Miss Jennie G. . . .'69
Kincaid, Mrs. Mary W '76
Kingman, Mrs. M. F '75
Kinne, H. C '72
Kirkpatrick, J. M '69
Knowlton, Ebenezer '66
Lamb, Miss Irene '73
fLeadbetter, W. E '70
f Leggett, Joseph '72
f Leonard, T. C '66
Levinson, Miss Eosa '72
Levy, Daniel '73
Lighthall, G. E '71
Lillie, John B '75
Lipowitz, Max '75
fLittlefield, J. D '66
Loomis, Miss Amanda '68
Loudon, Jacques '76
Lovett, C. M '75
Lubeck, Mrs. Julia M '75
Luckey, W. T '67
Lynch, Miss Frances '66
Mack, George C '66
Mackall, J. N '72
f Makinney, H. E '68
Mann, Azro L '67
Manning, Miss Agnes M '73
f Marks, Bernhard '66
* Marriner, E. K '66
Marsh, Mrs. S. W '71
fMcBride, H. E '75
McCarty, A. F '75
McChesney, J. B '67
McDonald, A. H '68
McDonald, Mrs. A. H '75
McDonald, W. P '75
McFadden, Miss Agnes '75
McFadden, W. M '71
Menefee-, C. A '71
Metzger, C. L '75
Middleton, Mrs. Eliza F '75
Miller, Miss Ora E t '73
Millette, Percival C '71
Milliken, Mrs. Ellen A '73
McGlashan, C. F '76
Mumford, Mrs. M. E '76
Minns, George W '66
Moore, John A '71
Morgan, Mrs. L. A '72
fMorrill, Joseph C '67
Morris, George F '67
Morris, N. Z '73
*Morse, Augustus, Jr '67
Murphy, Miss Mary M 75
Myrick, Thomas S '66
Moore, Mrs. Mary B '75
Mayborn, Mrs. M. J '76
McKenzie, Margaret. '76
McCormick, Harriet '76
Nelson, Henry A '71
Nicholson, Thomas '74
fNutting, H. N '66
O'Connor, Joseph '71
OlingerA.F '72
Otis, James '73
fOverend, Miss Lizzie '73
Oliner, A. W '76
O'Conner, Maria E '76
194
PROFESSIONAL TEACHERS OF CALIFORNIA.
fParker, Miss Jean '71
Pascoe, Miss Mary I '72
fPearson, Dana C '75
Peck, George H '75
fPelton, John C '66
fPenwell, S. A '68
Phelps, Mrs. M. W '74
Potter, M.B '71
Powell, Miss Elizabeth '75
Power, Frank '71
Prescott, MissD. S '71
Preston, E. M '69
•(•Price, Caroline '67
Prior, Philip '71
Putraan, J. E '75
Eandall, A. H '68
Rattan, Volney '74
Eedway, J. W '76
Reed, L. W '70
Reynolds, Mrs. F. E '72
Rogers, James '76
Rose, T. H '68
Rousseau, E '69
Rowe, Miss A. A '73
fRowell, W.K '66
Ryder, Miss L. E '76
Salisbury, Mary A '76
Sanders, W. A '69
Sankey, M. J '75
Schellhous, E. J '69
Seawell, J. H '76
Shaw, Miss E. A '72
Shearer, S. M '72
Shearer, Mrs. C. O '73
Sherman, E. B '76
Sherman, Fannie M '75
Shipley, J.C '73
Short, Miss Julia B '75
Sibley, J. M '66
f Simon, Miss Frances '72
Simonton, George W '66
Slavan, Miss A. E '72
Sollinger, J. A '76
Smith, Miss Annie '68
Smith, Miss Carrie L '72
Smith, Chas. S '76
Smith, Miss Jessie '72
Smith, W. A. C '68
Smith, Miss Jennie '74
Southworth, Mrs. E. A '68
Standeford, Mrs. N. D '75
Steel, Thomas H '75
Stincen, Miss Alice M '73
fStone,H.P '71
Stone, D.'C '66
fStone, Mrs. B. H '73
Stowell, Fannie A '74
Stowell, MissM. E '72
Stowell, Miss P. M '72
Stratton, James '66
Sullivan, Miss Kate '72
Sumner, J. H '73
Swett, John '67 -1
--Swett, Mrs. Mary L '66
"Swezey, S. I. C '67
"Tait, George '66
f Taylor, Robert '66
Temple, Miss Emma -
Templeton, Miss L. S '72
Templeton, M. L '67
Thompson, Helen '72
Thurber, A '71
Thurston, E. T '69
fTrafton, Dr. A '71
Thurton, Sarah L '75
Todd, H. J '76
Towle, C. B '76
f Upham, Isaac '69
Walsh, Miss Nellie E '75
Warren, C. G '69
Warren, R. B..'. '70
Waterman, S. D '71 v
Watson, Mrs. C. R '72
Watson, Miss Mary J '72
Watkins, Emory '75 <
Watson, B. J '75
Watson, Miss Lizzie J '74
Weir, Miss Sarah J '68 i
Wells, Mrs. Laura H '71 x
Wermuth, Hamilton '71
Wheelock, Mrs. D. B '73
White, Silas A '71
White, T. B '72
White, William '68
White, Miss Louisa E '75
Williams, W. J. G '69
Wilson, H. R '71
Wilson, Jas. K '75
Wood, Mrs. E. A '72
Woodruff, Miss Frances A ... '70
Woodworth, Miss Janette E. .'75
Woodworth, Mrs. A. W. . . . ''75
Wright, Mrs. A. E ....'76
Westby, Miss S. M '76
Wade, Margaret '76
Yates, W. A '74
HOLDERS OF STATE EDUCATIONAL DIPLOMAS.
195
VIII. HOLDERS OF STATE EDUCATIONAL DIPLOMAS
NOTE. — State diplomas are issued only to persons that have been holders of First
Grade Certificates for at least one year, and that have taught at least five years.
* Deceased. t Not teaching.
Abies, Thomas J.
Adams, Clara A.
Adams, W. J.
Aldrich, Abbie F.
Alderson, M. J.
Alexander, Mary J.
Ames, Martha.
Anderson, C. A.
Ashbrook. M. V.
Ashbrook, T. P.
Ashley, Ella E.
Ashley, Julia V.
Ashton, Mrs. N. Jennie.
Augustine, S. M.
Ayers, Mary J.
Babcock, William S.
Baker, Samuel D.
Baldwin, F. D.
Banks, Jerome.
Barbour, Aaron C.
Barthelow, Mrs. A. W.
Beck, Mrs. N. B.
Betancue, Lizzie.
Biggs, Thomas.
Bightmire, S. A.
Bissell, Joseph.
Bloomer, A. C.
Boardman, C. F.
Bolton, H.
Bonnard, Eureka A.
Boyle, Sarah J.
Boynton, Kate.
Bovnton, S. S.
Bradshaw, W. R.
Bragg, Mary J.
Breschen, Seraphine.
Brier, K. W.
Brigham, Fannie E.
Brigham, Julia P.
Broadbent, E.
Brooks, E. R.
Brophy M.
Brown, A. G.
Brown, Chas. W.
Brown, George J.
Brown, J. B.
Brown, Sarah E.
Brumsley, M. I.
Bryant, Annie.
Buckman, F. S. S.
Bunnell, Mrs. Alice.
Bush, Mrs. E. A.
Butterfield, S. H.
Carr, Ezra S.
Campbell, Amy T.
Case, E. L.
Castelhun, Mary A.
*Chase, Carrie M.
Chesnutwood, Mrs. J. A.
Ciprico, Anita C.
Clark, W. J.
Clay, William T.
Colby, Julia E.
Congdon, Jas. S.
Connolly, J. J.
Conrad, C. C.
Cooper, Mrs. F. A.
Cory, A. A.
Coulter, Leonard.
Crane, Amanda.
Crane, George.
Crawford, T. O.
Crichton, Mrs. A. M.
Crocker, L. H.
Cross, C. W.
Crothers, Margaret I.
Culbertson, Mary K.
Curragh, J. M.
-Daniels, Mrs. S. B.
Davidson, Mrs. Nannie S.
Davis, Mrs. Imogene.
Davis, J. T.
t Davis, Sadie.
DeNure, D. D.
Dixou, Bessie.
Dolliver, Clara G.
Dooner, John.
Doyle, Irene.
Doyle, Mrs. James A.
Cozier, A, W.
Dozier, Melville.
Drake, Charles M.
Drake, Elmer.
DuBois, John B.
Dunbar, Annie S.
Duiibar, S. G. S.
Dwyer, James W.
Edwards, W. H.
Elliott, Ella J.
Elliott, Mary E.
Ellis, Mary 0.
Estabrook, Mary A. H.
Evans, Ellen A.
Evans, Ellen G.
Fail-child, Hattie M.
Fallon, Joseph K.
Feller, Lorenzo.
Fenton, H. W.
Fisk, Juliet A.
Flint, Almira T.
Floyd, Enos F.
Folger, H. C.
Fonda, Charles E.
Foss, B. R.
Foss, Wm. F. F.
Foster, Mrs. Julia.
Fowler, B. F.
Fox, John.
Frissell, Sarah E.
Furlong, Robert.
Gabriel, Mrs. C. E.
Garlick, J. P.
Garrison, Gazena A.
Geer, Emily F.
Geis, S. W.
Germain, Clara.
Goepp, G.
Godfrey, G. K.
Gordon, Wellington.
Gould, M. J.
Granger, F. C.
Grant, E.
Gray, Annie L.
Greer, C. E.
Guun, E. L.
Gunn, Sarah W.
Guthrie, N. L.
Goodcell, Henry, Jr.
Garin, Paul A.
Greer, Mary D.
Haislip, Benjamin F.
Hall, Annie J.
Hall, F. M.
Hall, Maggie J.
Ham, Charles H.
Hayburn, Annie T.
Hamilton, Hiram M.
Hamilton, Rev. Hiram.
Hamilton, Mrs. W. H. H.
Hamilton, James T.
Hamill, Amelia.
Harkness, Margaret.
Hartmeyer, Mrs. S. L.
Harvey, Oliver T.
Havens, Carrie.
Hawks, Carrie M.
Hawkins, J. 0.
Hazen, J. P.
Heckman, H. H.
Henning, Irving P.
Hewett, Roscoe.
Hiatt, Pleasant.
Higby, H. C.
Hiuton, J. M.
Hoffman, Mrs. Mary L.
196
HOLDEKS OF STATE EDUCATIONAL DIPLOMAS.
Horton, Geo. Wallace.
Holbrook, Edw.
Holmes, M. D,
Howard, Emma.
Howe, Converse.
Howe, E. P.
Howell, S. S.
Hubbell, S. C.
Hughes, A. B.
Humphreys, L. A.
Humphreys, M. A.
-Hunt, B. E.
Huntsinger, Mrs. Jennie.
*Ingraham, Mrs. E. F.
Jacks, Fannie.
Jamison, J. H. S.
Janes, Emma.
Jaycoax, Mrs. A. S.
Jenks, David W.
Jewett, Annie S.
Jewett, Fidelia.
Johnson, G. N.
Johnson, G. W.
Johnson, Joseph "W.
Jones, Addison.
Jordon, John F.
Jordan, Maggie L.
Kane, Eichard.
Keegan, Mary A.
Kellogg, M. D.
Kelso, John E.
Kelton, Mrs. Mary A.
Kendall, Sylvia A.
Kennedy, J. F.
Kenniston, Chas. M.
Kerr, Theodore T.
Kimball, C. A.
King, Charles E.
King, E. M.
Kingman, Mrs. M. V.
Kinkade, Letitia.
Klink, John F.
Knighton, William A.
Knowlton, E. L.
Kottinger, H. M.
Kratzer, Leila.
Lafferty, I. N.
Lambert, Daniel.
Lander, F. L.
Langan, George.
Laurie, B. M.
Law, John K.
Leach, Miss Mira.
Libby, Mrs. Joseph S.
Lighte, Pauline S.
Lillie, Sarah P.
Lippowitz, Max.
Little, Mary.
Loag, Emily T.
Lloyd, Mary A.
Loofbourrow, Elias.
Lovett, Charles E .
Lynch, Miss Tillie S.
Lynch, W. F. B.
Lyser, Albert.
Magoon, Win. H.
Martin, A.
Martin, E. J.
Martin, James M.
Marvin, A.
Mathews, Mrs. M. E.
Me Arthur, Annie.
McCarty, Thomas.
McColgau, Kate F.
McCormack, Harriet T.
McDonald, Mrs. N. E.
McDonald, W. P.
McDonald, Kate.
McDonald, J. J.
McDonall, Mrs. J.
McEwen, John.
McFadden, John.
McGowan, Patrick H.
McHugh, Peter.
McKean, Lottie.
McKusick, H. P.
McManus, A. C.
McPhee, V. J.
McEeynolds, Jos.
Mea, John F.
tMeagher, John F.
Merrill, Ida M.
Merritt, Julia E.
Metzger, C. L.
•Michener, Mrs. M, E.
Middleton, A. W.
Middleton, Mrs. Eliza F.
Miles, Mrs. E. S.
Miller, John.
Miller, Lafayette.
Miller, N. J.
Miller, John H.
Milliken, Mrs. E. A.
Miuta, Wesley.
Mitchell, Fannie.
Mondram, F. V. C.
Montgomery, A. S.
Moore, Mrs. B. F.
Morford, N. A.
Morgan, Eichard.
Morgan, Eose E.
Mullens, H.
Mumford, Mrs. M. E.
Murnan, John T.
Murphy, Mary.
Norman, L. F.
Norvell, Jos. A.
Neill, M. A. O.
O'Connor, Maria.
O'Laughlen, Mrs. Nellie.
Oliver, A. W.
Oliver, Mrs. C. F.
Oliver, J. C.
Ormstrong, Flora S.
Otis, C. W.
Overend, E.
Owen, Georgie.
Owens, Nellie M.
Page, Lizzie.
Palmer, E. M.
Parker, Flora A.
Parker, James L.
Peachy, Thomas G.
Peadry, Frank A.
Pearce, Carrie.
Peck, A. W.
Pedler, F. A.
Pendegast, H. B.
*Penwell, Mrs. L. M.
Pitcher, Charlotte M.
Powell, David.
Powell, Elizabeth.
Powers, Talbot P.
Prag, Mary
Pratt, Mary E.
Price, Harrison.
Putnam, J . E.
Eay, J. H.
Eayl, Mrs. Martha.
Eeavis, Walter Scott.
Eedway, Jacques W.
Eenfro, Lewis C.
Eice, L.
liighter, F. M.
Eoberts, Lizzie.
Eobertson, William A.
Eobertson, George B.
Eobinson, Mrs. M. S. P.
Eogers, Arthur.
Eogers, James.
Roper, J. W.
Eoyall, J. P.
Eoyce, Ella J.
Eyan, Amanda.
Eyder, L. E.
Saukey, Mrs. Mary J.
Sauuders, Samuel.
Saxon, T. A.
Sears, Marion.
Seawell, J. H.
Shaw, Annie J.
Shearer, Mrs. C. C.
Sherman, E. B.
Sherman, Ella Imogene.
Sherman, M. F.
Sexton, Mrs. Ella M.
Sickal, M. T.
Sill, Prof. E. E.
Sinex, Eev. J. H.
Slack, Clay H.
Smith, James D.
Smith, Ansell.
Smith, Grace.
Smith, James D.
Sollinger, J. A.
Soule, Maria L.
Southeimer, Jno. J.
Spring, Mrs. Fannie.
Squires, W. E.
Standish, H. M.
Standeford, N. D.
Stegman, Mattie A.
Stevenson, Helen E.
Stincen, Emma E. C.
Stoddard, C. W.
NOTES OF PBOMINENT TEACHERS. 197
Stone, W. W. Vestal, F. A. White, Mrs. Sara.
Stowell, F. A. Walbridge, Jennie M. White, A. F.
-Sturges S. Waldron, S. A. Whitmore, Ella L.
Swain, Orlando E. Walker, Alice Wicks, John T.
Swan, Amanda. Walker, Charles H. Wideman, James
Taylor, Mrs. H. P Wallace, Alma Wilson, H. C.
Thomas, J. R. Wallace, W. B. Wood, Jessie.
Thompson, Louisa Walter, Emelyn. Wood, Mrs. N. A.
Thompson, J. N. tWanzer, Mrs. L. M. F. Woodward,Mrs.N.Zoraida.
Tillotson, Henry Ira Ward, Mary A. Wooll, Hattie.
Todd, H. J. Webb, Sallie B. Wozencraft, W. Jl.
Towle, Mrs. Lizzie B. Weeks, M. D. Wright, Mrs. E.
Towle, S. G. Wells, Addie H. Wright, J. M.
Trout, Daniel H. Wells, Jos. H. Wythe, Sarah J.
True, Charles F. Wenk, Robert E. Yates, Lizzie.
Turner, H. F. Westbay, L. M. Young, Nestor A.
Underwood, J. G. Weston, Ada. Yule, John.
Van Dorn, V. J. Wheelock, Mrs. D. R. - Zimmerman, William.
Van Schaick, Mrs. Mary A.White, Emmons. Tyrus, Mary A.
IX. NOTES OF PROMINENT TEACHERS.
D. C. Stone taught in Marysville, from 1854 to '68, and organ
ized there one of the best schools in the State. In 1868, he
removed to Oakland, and established a "Family School." In
1873, he was appointed teacher of natural sciences in the San
Francisco Girls' High School, and, in 1876, was made Deputy
City Superintendent.
J. B. McChesney began teaching at Forbestown, 1857, but
soon removed to Nevada City, where he organized first a
Grammar School and then a High School. In 1865, he was
made Principal of the Oakland High School, where he is still
teaching.
^Freeman Gates was a pioneer in the schools of San Jose,
and afterwards County Superintendent. He subsequently
founded the San Jose Institute.
Joseph Leggett founded the Grass Valley High School, with
brilliant success; studied law; removed to San Francisco; was
made Examining Teacher, in 1872; Deputy City Superintendent,
1874 and 1875; and a lawyer in 1876.
Melville Cottle was a pioneer teacher in Stockton, and was
four years County Superintendent of San Joaquin County.
Isaac Upham taught in Butte County for several years ;
organized a fine school at Oroville, and was subsequently an
198 NOTES OF PROMINENT TEACHERS.
able County Superintendent of Butte County and of Yuba
County.
George H. Peck taught the first Public School in Sacra
mento, 1854; taught in San Francisco, from 1860 to 1865; and
was County Superintendent of Los Angeles, in 1874-75.
* Augustus Morse, Jr., was a teacher at Martinez; afterwards
Principal of the Grass Valley High School, and then County
Superintendent of Nevada County.
A. H. Randall organized the Stockton High School, which
he has made one of the most thorough in the State.
A. H. Goodrich was a pioneer teacher in Placer County,
where he held the office of County Superintendent for four
years, and where he is still teaching.
George W. Simonton taught for many years at Vallejo, and
was for four years County Superintendent of Solano County.
Dr. E. J. Schellhouse has taught for twenty years in various
counties in the State, and is well known as an enthusiastic
lecturer.
Dr. T. H. Hose taught several years at Benicia, made a fine
Grammar School at Los Angeles, and organized a High
School.
J. M. Sibley, in 1854, founded the Folsom Grammar School,
in which he taught for ten years. He subsequently taught at
Oakland and Sonoma, and for the last ten years has been teach
ing in the San Francisco Boys' High School.
A. H. McDonald, Principal of the Sacramento Grammar
School, has taught for many years in various parts of the
State.
F. M. Campbell began teaching near Vallejo; was for several
years a popular teacher in the Bray ton College School, and for
six years has been the efficient City Superintendent of the
Oakland Schools.
George W. Bonnell was Principal of the Spring Valley
School, San Francisco; was afterwards Principal of San Fran
cisco Latin School; and is now Professor of Latin and Greek
in the State University.
Professor Martin Kellogg was for several years Professor of
Ancient Languages in the College of California, and has been
from the beginning a Professor in the State University; he
contributed some valuable articles to the California Teacher,
and has frequently lectured at State institutes. J>t£A t
NOTES OF PROMINENT TEACHERS. 199
W. C. Dodge, who began teaching in the State in 1854, has
taught for many years in Alameda County.
M. L. Templeton was Principal of the Sacramento High
School, and afterwards of the Woodland Grammar School, in
both of which he was eminently successful.
B. J. Watson was for many years a prominent teacher in
Nevada County, where he became County Superintendent.
Alfred Thurber founded the Pacheco School, and has been
for six years County Superintendent of Contra Costa.
Sparrow Smith was for many years a teacher in Sacramento
County, and also County Superintendent.
George K. Godfrey was a pioneer in the northern counties
of the State. He has served twelve years as County Superin
tendent in Shasta and Sisldyou Counties.
C. W. Childs was for several years a teacher in El Dorado
County; he is now Principal of the Suisun School, and County
Superintendent of Solano County.
H. T. Batchelder has been a leading teacher in Butte County
for many years, and also a County Superintendent.
John Bagnall was for many years a teacher in various of the
central counties, and was one term County Superintendent of
Alpine County. He has been for several years in San Fran
cisco, noted for his success as a teacher in the evening school.
Under disabilities, which would have discouraged most men,
he has done vastly more in education than hundreds of other
teachers who walk without crutches.
Azro L. Mann taught for several years at Marysville, but
has gained his reputation chiefly by his success as head of
the classical department of the San Francisco Boys' High
School.
Mrs. Maria McGilvray, twenty-two years a teacher in
various parts of the State, is still a vigorous and capable
worker.
Mrs. J. H. Nevins has been twenty-three years a teacher in
the State, thirteen of which have been in San Francisco.
James Stratton began teaching in the State in 1853; was
several years Principal of the Washington School, San
Francisco, and is now Principal of a Grammar School, in
Oakland.
Miss Mary A. Hoyt taught the first Grammar School in
200 STATE EDUCATIONAL SOCIETY.
Los Angeles, where she was for many years a successful
educator.
Percival C. Millette, a pioneer, was County Superintendent
of Placer County in 1857, and has taught ever since in number
less county schools.
X. STATE EDUCATIONAL SOCIETY.
In his circular calling the State Teachers' Institute of 1863,
Superintendent vSwett thus alluded to the importance of a State
Society :
Educational conventions, in every part of our country, express a
general desire for a distinct and definite recognition of the occupa
tion of teaching by forms equivalent to those now existing in law,
medicine, and theology. It is true, there are many who make teach
ing a temporary occupation, a stepping-stone to other pursuits, and
there is no objection to this when they are duly qualified for the
noblest of human duties; but there is a large class, becoming larger
every year, who desire to make it the occupation of a life — an occu
pation which calls for a range of acquirements and a height of quali
fications fully equal to that of the liberal professions.
Why should not the pioneer teachers of this State, in the next In
stitute, take similar measures of self-organization, self -recognition,
and self-examination, and raise themselves above the humiliating
necessity of submitting to an examination by members of other pro
fessions, or of no professions at all ? A State Educational Society
could be organized by those who shall pass the next examination by
the State Board, those who hold diplomas of graduation from
normal schools, and the Professors in the various colleges and col
legiate schools of the State. This society could become legally
incorporated at the next session of the Legislature, and other mem
bers could be admitted from time to time, by passing a regular
examination, and receiving diplomas. Such certificates would soon
be gladly recognized by unprofessional examiners — many of whom,
though men of education, feel that they are not duly qualified to sit
in judgment on the competency of teachers for their peculiar work
— as the best possible assurance of fitness to teach. And teachers
may rest assured that legislative enactments would soon follow,
making such diplomas prima facie evidence of ability to teach in any
part of the State, without further examination.
Some such steps we are called upon to take by the large number
of accomplished men and women who are entering on our vocation.
We are called upon to act, not only in justice to scholarship and
talent, but in self-defense against impostors and pretenders; and we
« K A R
STATE EDUCATIONAL SOCIETY, 201
may honestly avow a desire to exclude all who unworthily or unfitly
intrude themselves into the noble office of teaching.
A State Society would unite the teachers of our State in the bonds
of fraternal sympathy; a certificate of membership would entitle the
holder to the aid of members in all parts of the State; it would be a
passport of employment when he should change his residence; it
would entitle him to the substantial benefits of an honorable recep
tion among all teachers; and a small annual membership fee would
soon constitute a fund for the establishment of a teacher's journal,
as the organ of the society.
The subject of a State professional society being brought
before the Institute, the plan was advocated by John E. Ben-
ton, Theodore Bradley, and others.
A committee was appointed with Mr. Bradley, Chairman, who
made a report, and requested all interested in forming such a
society to meet after the final adjournment of the Institute.
A State Educational Society was soon afterwards formed on the
plan recommended, with the following constitution:
PREAMBLE.
"We, as teachers of California, in order to further the educational
interests of the State, to give efficiency to our school system, to
furnish a practical basis for united action among those de
voted to the cause in which we are engaged, and for those pur
poses to elevate the office of teacher to its true rank among the
professions, do hereby adopt the following
CONSTITUTION.
NAME.
SECTION 1. This organization shall be known as the "California
Educational Society."
SEC. 2. All holders of State Life Diplomas, or State Educational
Diplomas, shall be eligible to membership on the recommendation
of the Executive Committee, and -the payment, in advance, of an
admission fee of five dollars.
SEC. 3. Any member may be expelled for unprofessional conduct
by a two-thirds vote of members present at any regular meeting;
provided, that a copy of the charges be deposited with the Record
ing Secretary at least four weeks before the meeting at which the
charges are acted upon, and immediate notice thereof be given to
the accused.
The society assumed the publication of the California Teacher,
and elected annually a Board of Editors, until 1873, when the
control of the journal passed into the hands of the State Super
intendent.
13
202
MEMBERS OF THE STATE EDUCATIONAL SOCIETY.
LIST OF MEMBERS OF THE STATE EDUCATIONAL SOCIETY.
[NOTE. — The names of deceased members are marked *; of those retired from
the profession t . "j
Anderson, J. W.
Anderson, Mrs. A. B.
Atwoocl, Mrs. C. L.
Austin, Miss M. F.
Allen, L. D.
Adams, J. G.
-Bradley, Theodore.
Bagnall, John.
Bolander, Henry N.
Brown, George,
t Brown, F. It.
Braly, J. H.
Brodt, A. AV.
t Baker, G. F.
Beanston, George.
Bennette, Fannie E.
Barre, Miss S. A.
Bragg, Mary J.
Baldwin, Nellie.
•f Brown, Louisa.
tCottle, Melville.
Cleveland, Miss E. A.
Cook, Hannah.
Denman, James.
*Deal, M. S.
Dubois, Mrs. A. E.
Deane, Mrs. Margaret.
Dolliver, Clara J.
Doud, Nettie.
Deetken. Mrs. L. G.
t Fitzgerald, 0. P.
t Flood, NoahF.
Fuller, A.L.
Finch, J. B.
Farley, A. J.
Fenton, H. W.
Fitzgerald, A. L.
Fink, Miss A. P.
Field, Miss C. P.
- Fowler, Laura S.
Goodrich, S. H.
tHolmes, Ahira.
t Holmes, Ellis H.
Humphrey, E. D.
Higbie, Alfred.
tHnntley, 0. H.
tHoitt, Ira G.
Howe, Converse.
- Hunt, Carrie L.
Hucks, Annie.
Johns, Chas. T.
Kellogg, Martin.
Knowlton, Ebenezer.
Kennedy, W. W.
Kennedy, J. G.
Kennedy, Kate.
Kincaid, Mary W.
t Leonard, T. C.
tLouttit, J. A.
Lyser. Albert.
Levison, Kosa.
Myrick, Thos. S.
t Marks, Bernhard.
McGlynn, A. E.
Makinney, H. E.
*Morris, Geo. F.
McChesnej', J. B.
tMcBride, H. E.
Moore, John A.
Nutting, H. N.
Nicholson, Thomas.
O'Connor, Joseph.
Peck, Geo. H.
tPelton, John C.
Preston, E. M.
tPenwell, S. A.
Prior, Philip.
Pascoe, Mary.
t Parker, Jean.
Prescott, Miss D. S.
tPtowell, W. K.
Kandall, Ambrose H.
Kousseau, E.
Rattan, Volney.
tSwezey, S. I. C.
Stratton, James.
Swett, John.
Smith, Sparrow A.
Stone, D. C.
Sibley, J. M.
Schelihouse, E. J.
Scott, M. M.
Smith, Jessie.
Smith, Jennie.
S to well, Miss M. E.
Stowell, Miss P. M.
Slaven, Miss A. E.
Sullivan, Kate.
Surnner, J. H.
Stone, W. W.
Smith, J.D.
Shaw, Miss E. A.
tTait, George.
*Townsend, Dennis.
Templeton, M. L.
Thurston, E. T.
Thompson, Helen.
True, Chas. F.
Upham, Isaac.
White, Silas A.
White, William.
Winn, A. T.
Williams, W. J. G.
Warren, R. B.
Wermouth, Hamilton.
Wade, Margaret.
Zimmerman, Wm.
PRESIDENTS OF THE STATE EDUCATIONAL SOCIETY.
1. John Swett.
2. George W. Minns.
3. Theodore Bradley.
4. James Denman.
5. D. C. Stone.
6. Bernhard Marks.
7. John Swett.
8. E. H. Holmes.
9. J. W. Anderson.
SECRETARIES.
1. Bernhard Marks.
2. Silas A. White.
3. Mrs. C. L. Atwood.
4. Mrs. Aurelia Griffith.
STATE SERIES OF TEXT-BOOKS. 203
XI. STATE SERIES OF TEXT-BOOKS.
In 1864, the State Board of Education, consisting of Gov
ernor Stanford, Surveyor-General Hougliton, and State Super
intendent 'Swett, met and adopted a State series of text-books,
taking the series recommended by vote of the State Teachers'
Institute that met in San Francisco, May 7-10, 1863.
BOOKS ADOPTED.
Eaton's Series of Arithmetics; Quackenbos's English Grammar;
Cornell's Primary Geography; Willson's Series of Readers;
Warren's Intermediate Geography; Willson's Speller;
"Greene's Introductory Grammar; Quackenbos's History of the U. S.
In 1866, the Board, reorganized under the Kevised School
Law, Governor Low, Chairman, met and readopted, for a
term of four years, the list of 1864, with the exception of the
geographies and Quackenbos's Grammars, which were indefi
nitely continued, but not readopted for four years. Clarke's
Geography was also added to the list of geographies, and the
Spencerian and Payson, Dunton & Scribner's Penmanship were
continued in use.
In 1869, the Board, Governor Haight, Chairman, Superin
tendent Fitzgerald, Secretary, adopted Monteith's Series of
Geographies, in place of Cornell's, Warren's and Clarke's, and
Brown's Grammars, in place of Greene's and Quackenbos's — the
change to take effect July, 1870.
In 1870, July 12-13, the State Board met, and, under the re-
enacted California School Law, adopted the following
STATE SERIES.
McGuffey's Series of Header? ; Willson's Spellers;
Robinson's Series of Arithmetics; Cutter's Physiologies;
Monteith's Series of Geographies; Paysoii and Dunton's Penmanship.
Brown's Series of Grammars;
A year later, the Board added to this list Swinton's Con
densed History of the United States, and Swinton's Word-
Analysis.
In 1874, June 22d, in compliance with a new section of the
School Law, the Board passed a resolution inviting publishers
204 STATE SERIES OF TEXT-BOOKS.
to lay before them, on or before January 5th, 1875, proposals
for supplying text-books for use in the public schools of the
State.
January 5th, 1875, the Board met — Governor Booth in the
chair, and Superintendent Bolander, Secretary — considered the
proposals received, and adopted the Pacific Coast Headers, in
place of McGuffey's; Cornell's Geographies, in place of Moii-
teith's; Spencerian Penmanship, in place of Payson, Dunton &•
Scribner's; and readopted Robinson's Arithmetics and Cutter's.
First Book in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene. The Board
also recommended Swinton's Language Series for teachers and
school libraries.
On February 3d, 1876, a writ of certiorari was issued by the
Sixth District Court, Sacramento, Judge Ramage, against the
introduction of the new Readers. The case was carried to the
Supreme Court, which, on April 19th, 1875, declared the action
of the Board, in adopting the Pacific Coast Readers, null and
void, on the ground that the record did not show that six
months' notice of a proposed change in Readers had been given,
as required by law.
On June 1st, the Board again met, and advertised for pro
posals for all the books, it being considered that the ruling of
the Supreme Court, on Readers, applied to all the books
adopted at their former meeting.
Dec. 5th, 1875, the Board again met, pursuant to advertise
ment, to adopt text-books, but were enjoined by Judge Bray-
nard, County Judge of Tehama County, and Judge Reardon,,
District Judge of the Fourteenth District, "from receiving,
opening, or acting in any manner upon proposals for supplying
Readers and Geographies, or taking any action whereby any
Readers other than McGuffey's, or any Geographies other than
Monteith's, may be used in the public schools of this State."
The Board being still free to act upon all other books, adopted
Robinson's Arithmetic, Swinton's Word Analysis, Spencerian
Penmanship, Smith's Drawing, Mason's Music Reader's, and
Cutter's First Book in Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene.
In the case of Readers and Geographies, the Board post
poned action to Dec. 28th, the hearing of the injunctions being
set respectively for Dec. 15th and Dec. 22d. Meanwhile, a bill
was introduced into the Legislature, Dec. 9th, that the text-
EDUCATION OF COLOEED CHILDREN. 205
l}Ooks in use in 1873-4-5, be continued in use in all the public
schools of the State, until otherwise provided by statute.
This bill became a law on Dec. 13th, when the injunction suits
were at once dismissed.
As the case now stands, the old list of books throughout
remains in the schools, and all power of changing is vested in
the State Legislature.
XII. EDUCATION OF COLORED CHILDREN.
The Legislature of 1860 passed a law prohibiting colored
(Negro and Mongolian) children from being admitted to
schools for white children, under penalty of forfeiting all
public moneys.
Previous to this, colored children were prohibited from
attending schools for white children, 'but there was no penalty.
The law had allowed trustees to establish separate schools for
colored children, but had not required it.
The first legal recognition of the rights of colored children is
found in the Kevised School Law, 1866 :
SEC. 57. Children of African or Mongolian descent, and Indian
-children, not living under the care of white persons, shall not be
admitted into the public schools, except as provided in this act;
provided, that, upon the written application of the parents or guar
dians of at least ten such children, to any Board of Trustees, or
Board of Education, a separate school shall be established for their
education, and the education of a less number may be provided for
by the trustees in any other manner.
SEC. 58. When there shall be in any district any number of chil
dren, other than white children, whose education can be provided
for in no other way, the trustees, by a majority vote, may permit
such children to attend schools for white children; provided, that a
majority of the parents of the children attending such school make
no objection in writing, to be filed with the Board of Trustees.
SEC. 59. The same laws, rules, and regulations which apply to
schools for white children shall apply to schools for colored
children.
Under this qualified provision, most of the colored children
in the State were admitted to school privileges, though in a few
outlying districts — notably the city of Oakland — they were ex-
206 COUKSE OF STUDY IN DISTRICT SCHOOLS.
eluded from white schools, and were not allowed a separate
school.
The Legislature of 1870 repealed Section 58, and left th&
colored question as follows :
SEC. 56. The education of children of African descent, and Indian*
children, shall be provided for in separate schools. Upon the
written application of the parents or guardians of at least ten such
children, to any Board of Trustees or Board of Education, a separate
school shall be established for the education of such children; and
the education of a less number may be provided for by the trustees,,
in separate schools, in any other manner.
In 1872, the Code Commissioners modified the law, under
a decision of the Supreme Court, and the Legislature adopted
it as follows :
SEC. 1669. The education of children of African descent, and
Indian children, must be provided for in separate schools; provided,.
that if the directors or trustees fail to provide such separate schools,
then such children must be admitted into the schools for white
children.
In 1872, the Board of Education of Oakland admitted their
eight colored children into the schools; and, in 1875, the San
Francisco Board abolished the separate school of seventy-five
colored children, and admitted the pupils to the white schools.
XIII. COURSE OF STUDY IN DISTRICT SCHOOLS.
The School Law of 1863-4 specified the studies to be pursued
in the schools as follows : Arithmetic, Geography, Grammar,
Beading, Writing, Spelling, History of the United States,
Physiology, and such other studies as trustees might deem
advisable.
The first "Course of Study for District Schools " was pre
pared by Superintendent Swett, and adopted by the State
Board, June 8, 1866. At the same meeting, rules and regula
tions were also adopted.
This " Course of Study" was revised by the State Board in
1870, and again revihed by Superintendent Bolander, and
adopted by the Board in 1872.
COURSE OF STUDY IN DISTRICT SCHOOLS. 207
In 1872, Drawing and Music were added to the list of regular
school studies.
RULES AND REGULATIONS, 1866.
SECTION 1. Teachers are required to be present at their respective
schoolrooms, and to open them for the admission of pupils at fifteen
minutes before the time prescribed for commencing school, and to
punctually observe the hours for opening and closing school.
SEC. 2. Unless otherwise provided by special action of trustees,
or Boards of Education, the daily school sessions shall commence at
nine o'clock A. M., and close at four o'clock P. M., with an intermis
sion at noon of one hour, from twelve M. to one P. M. There shall
be allowed a recess of twenty minutes in the forenoon session, from
ten-forty to eleven o'clock, and a recess of twenty minutes in the
afternoon session, from two-forty to three o'clock. When boys and
girls are allowed separate recesses, fifteen minutes shall be allowed
for each recess.
SEC. 3. In graded primary schools in which the average age of
the pupils is under eight years, the daily sessions shall not exceed
four hours a day, inclusive of the intermission at noon, and inclu
sive of the recesses. If such schools are opened at nine o'clock
A.M., they shall be closed at two o'clock, P.M. In ungraded schools,
all children under eight years of age shall either be dismissed after
a four hours' session, or allowed recesses for play of such length
that the actual confinement in the schoolroom shall not exceed three
hours and a half.
SEC. 4. No pupil shall be detained in school during the intermis
sion at noon, and a pupil ^detained at any recess shall be permitted
to go out immediately thereafter. All pupils, except those detained
for punishment, shall be required to pass out of the schoolrooms at
recess, unless it would occasion an exposure of health.
SEC. 5. Principals shall be held responsible for the general man
agement and discipline of schools; and the other teachers shall fol
low their directions and co-operate with them, not only during the
school hours, but during the time when the pupils are on the school
premises, before and after school, and during recesses. Assistants
shall be held responsible for the order and discipline of their own
rooms, under the general direction of the Principals.
SEC. 6. Teachers are particularly enjoined to devote their time
faithfully to a vigilant and watchful care over the conduct and hab
its of the pupils during the time for relaxation and play, before and
after school, and during the recesses, both in the school buildings
and on the playgrounds.
SEC. 7. It is expected that teachers will exercise a general inspec
tion over the conduct of scholars going to and returning from school.
They shall exert their influence to prevent all quarreling and dis
agreement, all rude and noisy behavior in the street, all vulgar and
profane language, all improper games, and all disrespect to citizens
and strangers.
SEC. 8. Teachers shall prescribe such rules for the use of the
yards, basements, and outbuildings connected with the schoolhouse,
as shall insure their being kept in a neat and proper condition, and
208 COURSE OF STUDY IN DISTRICT SCHOOLS.
shall examine them as often as may be necessary for such purpose.
Teachers shall be held responsible for any want of neatness or clean
liness about their school premises.
SEC. 9. Teachers shall give vigilant attention to the ventilation and
temperature of their schoolrooms. At each recess the windows and
doors shall be opened for the purpose of changing the atmosphere of
the room. Teachers are cautioned against hot fires and a high
temperature.
SEC. 10. Teachers shall enter in the school registers, in the order
of their application, the names of all those applying for admission
to the school, after the prescribed number of pupils have been
received. Such applicants shall be admitted to seats whenever a
vacancy occurs in any class for which they have been found duly
qualified, in the order of their registration.
SEC. 11. Teachers are authorized to require excuses from the
parents or guardians of pupils, either in person or by written note,
in all cases of absence or tardiness, or of dismissal before the close
of school.
SEC. 12. No pupil shall be allowed to retain connection with any
public school unless furnished with books, slate, and other utensils
required to be used in the class to which he belongs; provided, that
no pupil shall be excluded for such cause, unless the parent or
guardian shall have been furnished by the teacher with a list of
books, or articles needed, and one week shall have elapsed after
such notice without the pupil's obtaining said books. Books may
be furnished to indigent children by the trustees, at the expense of
the district, whenever the teacher shall have certified in writing that
the pupil applying is unable to purchase such books.
SEC. 13. Any pupil who shall in any way cut or otherwise injure
any schoolhouse, or injure any fences, trees, or outbuildings, belong
ing to any of the school estates, or shall write any profane or obscene
language, or make any obscene characters or pictures on any school
premises, shall be liable to suspension, expulsion, or other punishment,
according to the nature of the offense. The teacher may suspend a
pupil temporarily for such offense, and shall notify the trustees of such
action. Pupils shall not be allowed to remain in any of the rooms that
are provided with improved styles of furniture, except in the presence
of a teacher or a monitor, who is made specially responsible for the care
of the seats and desks. All damages done to school property by any
of the pupils shall be repaired at the expense of the party commit
ting the trespass.
SEC. 14. All pupils who go to school without proper attention
having been given to personal cleanliness, or neatness of dress, shall
be sent home to be properly prepared for school, or shall be required
to prepare themselves for the schoolroom before entering. Every
schoolroom shall be provided with a wash-basin, soap, and towels.
SEC. 15. No pupils affected with any contagious disease shall be
allowed to remain in any of the public schools.
SEC. 16. The books used, and the studies pursued, shall be such,
and such only, as may be authorized by the State Board of Educa
tion; and no teacher shall require or advise any of the pupils to
COURSE OF STUDY IN DISTRICT SCHOOLS. 209
purchase, for use in the schools, any book not contained in the list
of books directed and authorized to be used in the schools.
SEC. 17. It shall be the duty of the teachers of the schools to read
to the pupils, from time to time, so much of the school regulations
as apply to them, that they may have a clear understanding of the
rules by which they are governed.
SEC. 18. In all primary schools, exercises in free gymnastics, and
vocal and breathing exercises, shall be given at least twice a day,
and for a time not less than five minutes for each exercise.
SEC. 19. The following supplies shall be provided by the District
Clerk, under the provisions of section forty-six of the Revised School
Law, on the written requisition of the teacher, viz: clocks, brooms,
dusting-brushes, wash-basins, water -buckets, tin cups, dust-pans,
matches, ink, ink-bottles, pens, penholders, slate pencils, crayon
chalk, hand-bells, coal-buckets or wood-boxes, shovels, pokers, soap,
towels, thermometers, door-mats, scrapers, and stationery.
SEC. 20. Trustees are authorized and recommended to employ a
suitable person to sweep and take care of the schoolhouse, and to
make suitable provision for supplying the school with water.
RULES FOE PUPILS.
1. Every pupil is expected to attend school punctually and regu
larly; to conform to the regulations of the school, and to obey
prdmptly all the directions of the teacher; to observe good order,
and propriety of deportment; to be diligent in study, respectful to
teachers, and kind and obliging to schoolmates; to refrain entirely
from the use of profane and vulgar language, and to be clean and
neat in person and clothing.
2. Pupils are required, in all cases of absence, to bring, on their
return to school, an excuse in writing, from their parents or guard
ians, assigning good and sufficient reasons for such absence.
3. All pupils who have fallen behind their grade, by absence or
irregularity of attendance, by indolence or inattention, shall be
placed in the grade below, at the discretion of the teacher.
4. No pupil shall be permitted to leave school at recess, or at any
other time before the regular hour for closing school, except in case
of sickness; or on written request of parent or guardian.
5. Any scholar who shall be absent one week, without giving
notice to the teacher, shall lose all claim to his particular desk for
the remainder of the term, and shall not be considered a member of
the school.
6. Each scholar shall have a particular desk, and shall keep the
same, and the floor beneath, in a neat and orderly condition.
INSTRUCTIONS TO TEACHERS.
1. Teachers will endeavor to make themselves acquainted with
parents and guardians, in order to secure their aid and co-operation,
and to better understand the temperaments, characteristics, and
wants of the children.
2. Teachers shall daily examine the lessons of their various classes,
and make such special preparation upon them, if necessaiy, as not
to be constantly confined to the text-book, and instruct all their
210 THE CALIFORNIA TEACHER.
pupils, without partiality, in those branches of school studies which
their various classes may be pursuing. In all their intercourse with
their scholars, they are required to strive to impress on their minds,
both by precept and example, the great importance of continued
efforts for improvement in morals, and manners, and deportment, as
well as in useful learning.
3. Teachers should explain each new lesson assigned, if necessary,
by familiar remarks and illustrations, that every pupil may know,
before he is sent to his seat, what he is expected to do at the next
recitation, and how it is to be done.
4. Teachers should only use the text-book for occasional refer
ence, and should not permit it to be taken to the recitation, to be
referred to by the pupils, except in case of such exercises as abso
lutely require it. They should assign many questions of their own
preparing, involving an application of what the pupils have learned,
to the business of life.
5. Teachers should endeavor to arouse and fix the attention of the
whole class, and to occupy and bring into action as many of the
faculties of their pupils as possible. They should never proceed
with the recitation without the attention of the whole class, nor go-
round the class with recitation always in the same order, or in regu
lar rotation.
6. Teachers should at all times exhibit proper animation them
selves, manifesting a lively interest in the subject taught, avoid all
heavy, plodding movements, all formal routine in teaching, lest the
pupil be dull and drowsy, and imbibe the notion he studies only to
recite.
XIV. THE CALIFORNIA TEACHER.
At the State Teachers' Institute, May, 1863, it was voted to
begin the publication of a monthly educational journal.
John Swett and Samuel I. C. Swezey were elected managing
editors, and the first number of the California Teacher was issued
July, 1863.
At the succeeding session of the Legislature, 1863-4, a law
was passed, authorizing county superintendents to subscribe for
a number of copies, at $1 a copy, to supply each Board of
School Trustees with one copy.
In 1864-5, a provision was made in the Kevised School Law,
authorizing the State Board of Education to subscribe for a
number of copies, sufficient to supply the clerk of each board
of trustees, and each school library, with a copy of some edu-
THE CALIFORNIA TEACHER. 211
cational journal, the subscription payable out of the State
School Fund.
This provision placed the journal on a paying basis.
After the first year, the State Educational Society assumed
the control of the Teacher, electing its editors annually. By
the Kevised School Law of 1865, the State Superintendent was
made, ex-officio, one of the editors. Messrs. Swezey and Swett.
continued to edit the journal until July, 1868.
At the end of this time, Mr. Swezey made the following
report :
OFFICE OF "THE CALIFORNIA TEACHER,"
302 MONTGOMERY STREET,
SAN FRANCISCO, June 17, 1868.
To THE CALIFORNIA EDUCATIONAL SOCIETY.
GENTLEMEN: The undersigned, as acting publisher of the Califor
nia Teacher, desires to present the following facts for your in
formation :
1. The California Teacher was established at the State Institute,
held in May, 1863, at the same time that your society was formally
organized; since which time you have been recognized as the proper
representative of the teachers' profession in this State. The Insti
tute elected John Swett, Geo. Tait, Geo. W. Minns, and the
undersigned, as resident editors; and, owing to ,the pressure of
engagements upon the gentlemen named, the publishing duties were
devolved upon the undersigned, who has continued to perform those
duties through the entire five years, closing with the number for
June, 1868.
At the close of the first volume, the authority of your society was
editorially recognized in the following terms: " The Teacher will be
guided by the wise hand of the California Educational Society, to
which, indeed, we have hitherto looked, as the representative of the
teachers in the State. What that society says in regard to editors,
will be regarded as law; and whenever it desires a change, the res
ident editors of the first volume will rejoice in their relief from
responsibility of no small magnitude, while they give a cheerful
hand to their successors in office." (California Teacher, vol. 1,
p. 310.)
On the 18th of June, 1864, your Society unanimously and for
mally consented to assume the responsibility of the .publication,
and thereupon unanimously elected as resident editors, John Swett,.
George Tait, and the undersigned. (California Teacher, vol. 2,
p. 23.)
On the 5th of June, 1865, your Society elected John Swett, John
C. Pelton, and the undersigned, as resident editors for the ensuing
year. (California Teacher, vol. 3, p. 54.) Since that time there
seems to have been no formal action taken upon this subject,
though the principle has been regarded as settled that the State
Superintendent and the City Superintendent of San Francisco
should always be among the resident editors.
212 THE CALIFORNIA TEACHER.
2. Under Section 84 of the Kevised School Law, the State Board
of Education, on the 13th of April, 1866, unanimously designated
this journal as the official organ of education in this State. (Cali
fornia Teacher, vol. 3, p. 293.) And since that time the expenses
of publishing the Teacher have been mainly met by the proceeds of
the State subscription. This was to be expected. The proportion
of teachers in any State who pay for an educational journal which
they can read without paying for, is very small; and since the Teacher
has been sent to every district, comparatively few private subscrip
tions have been received. The amount received at this date for
subscriptions to vol. 6, commencing with the number for July, is
$4860.
3. As a matter of fact, the entire labor of conducting the Teacher
has been performed by Mr. Swett and the undersigned [Mr.
Swezey]. The two have acted in harmony, and have exercised a
mutual supervision over each other. Any article or paragraph to
which either has objected has been suppressed. The Department
of Public Instruction in the Teacher, however, was under the exclu
sive control of Mr. Swett during his administration; while, as a
general rule, the book notices were the special department of the
undersigned, who has also attended to the proof reading, mailing,
.accounts, and business correspondence. The receipts of the first
two years did not equal the cost of printing. The third year, the
receipts and expenses were about equal. During the fourth and
fifth years, the receipts have so far exceeded the expenses as to
enable the undersigned to depute to other hands the actual drudg
ery of mailing; and at the end of the whole term, the two working
resident editors are able to rejoice in the fact that they are neither
material losers nor gainers pecuniarily in the conduct of their
•editorial experiments. Last year, the balance sufficed to meet a
portion of the office rent of the undersigned, and to leave perhaps
$25 per month to the editors, as compensation for the labor
bestowed. During the j^ear now ending, the same result is prob
able, though, as the bills are not all settled, it is impracticable to
speak positively on the subject. At the close of each volume, Mr.
Swett and the undersigned have divided equally the profits or the
losses of the year, and commenced the succeeding one with clear
books, to stand or fall on its own merits.
4. A grave practical question comes before your society to-day,
arising from the following state of facts:
Upon the accession to office of the present State Superintendent,
he assumed that, as a matter of course, the Teacher came under his
personal and supreme control.
In the view of the undersigned, however, the Teacher is to be con
ducted by persons designated by your society; and they are to act
until their successors are appointed — the statute giving the State
Superintendent, as such, absolute control over simply his own de
partment in the journal.
The Superintendent was informed, therefore, of the time by which
the printers were expected to receive the matter for each monthly
issue; that whatever space he required for his department was always
to be at his service; and that, to avoid any apparent supervision of
THE CALIFORNIA TEACHEE. 213
what he should choose to insert, the printers would be instructed to
return the proof-slips of his department direct to his office, so that
the appointed editors would not know what he should print, until
they saw it in the completed journal.
This seems to have been unsatisfactory to the Superintendent, and
he declines to accept the proposition, or to use the Teacher as pro
vided by law.
At the last meeting of the State Board of Education, the Super
intendent announced his intention, if the exclusive control of the-
Teacher should not be placed in his own hands, to commence the
publication of an educational journal on his own account, which he-
should desire to have designated by the Board as the organ of the-
department. The Board so far deferred to his wishes as to formally
rescind the designation of the California Teacher, and the matter
was then left until after jrour present meeting should be held.
Should you abandon the plan hitherto acted upon, and elect the
State Superintendent as controlling editor, there is no doubt that
his objections to the designation of the California Teacher will be at
once withdrawn; and it seems to be equally certain that, should you
continue the plan hitherto acted upon, it will rest with the State
Board of Education, to make choice between the journal respon
sible to the profession, as teachers of the State, and a journal under
the supreme control of the present State Superintendent, as editor
and publisher.
With the undersigned, as to the principle involved, there is no
shadow of doubt. The example of all educational journals at the East,
favors the plan heretofore acted upon, that the teachers, in their
highest associated capacity, should name the editors, and the State
Superintendent should have entire control, simply, of one depart
ment in the teachers' organ.
As to the few hundred dollars that may be saved in the publica
tion of the California Teacher, each year, the undersigned, for him
self (and, as he thinks, for Mr. Swett), is decided in the wish, that
any other persons who think the amount received will properly pay
for the responsibility attached, should be elected by your society to
the editorial office.
All which is respectfully submitted.
SAMUEL I. C. SWEZEY.
In July, 1868, State Superintendent Fitzgerald and A. L.
Fitzgerald were elected editors.
In 1872, the State Society elected John Swett, associate ed
itor, with State Supt. Bolander; and, in the year following, the
journal was taken out of the hands of the State Society, and its
entire control was assumed by Supt. Bolander.
At this time, the State subscription amounted to $4,000 a
year.
In 1876, the Legislature cut off the State subscription, which
ended the publication of the California Teacher.
214 THE CALIFORNIA TEACHER.
THE PIONEER JOURNAL.
The first educational journal published in this State was The
Bookseller, published in 1860, by H. H. Bancroft & Co., and
edited by John Swett. It maintained a lingering existence of a
year, and then died of starvation.
It contained two fine articles by Starr King, one by Dr. Tut-
hill, and other able papers.
CONTRIBUTORS TO THE TEACHER.
The following list includes most of the teachers who were
^contributors to the State educational journal:
George W. Minns, Sparrow Smith, Charles Russell Clarke,
Mrs. Jennie C. Carr, Martin Kellogg, Dr. F. W. Hatch,
E. R. Sill, D. C. Stone, ' A. F. Hill,
Bernhard Marks, Ebenezer Knowlton, Dr. T. H. Rose,
Clara J. Dolliver, Ralph Keeler, W. W. Holder,
John S. Hittell, Volney Rattan, "William Swiuton,
Daniel J. Thomas, Dr. E. J. Schellhouse, H. C. Kinne,
Laura T. Fowler, John Bugnall, Joseph LeConte.
LEADING TOPICS.
Grammar— Hittell. Botany— Prof. Wood.
Heat as a Mode of Motion — Minns. Co-education of the Sexes — Swett.
The Classics in School — Kellogg. Against Medals in Schools— Marks.
v A Letter from 'Zekiel Stebbins — Minns. Education in Great Britain— Rattan.
N Physical Culture— Swett. The Eldest Scholar— Keeler.
Waste in School— Marks. The True Teacher— Swett.
Africa and the Nile — Minns. Arithmetic— Marks.
Constitution and Government — Thomas. Etymology — Hill.
• Juvenile Depravity in Schools— Swett. Pestalozzi— Carlton.
School Libraries — Stone. Marks's "Arithmetic" — Holder.
Geography of California — Marks. Composition — Bagnall.
Reverence for Children — Kellogg. Word-Analysis — Swinton.
Teaching as a Profession — Marks. Reading — Kinne.
Examination of Teachers — Swett Female Education— Mrs. Carr.
Modern Languages — Keeler. Botany for Schools — Bolander.
.Practical Education — Kellogg.
HISTORICAL STATISTICAL TABLES.
215
XV. HISTORICAL STATISTICAL TABLED R A R
18Sl-'76. 2KS
i. EXPENDITURES.
YEABS.
Assessed value of
property.
YEAKS.
Total expenditures.
Rate per
$100.
1850-51
$57,670,689
1851-52
$33,449
0679
1851-2
49,231,052
1852-3
65,645
1016
1852-3
64,579,375
1853-4
275,606
2890
1853-4
95,335,646
1854-5
334,638
3009
1854-5
111,191,630
1855-6
305.221
2938
1855-6
103,887,193
1856-7
307,832
3240
1856-7
95,007,440
1857-8
339,914
2696
1857-8 . . .
126,059,461
1859
427,003
3444
1858-9
123,955,877
1860
474,263
.3618
1859-60 . ...
131,060,279
1861
470,113
.3172
1860-61
148,193,540
1862
441,228
.2985
1861-2
1862-3
147,811,617
160,369,071
1863
1864 . .
483,407
655,198
.3014
.3763
1863--4
174 104 955
1865
883,116
4893
1864-5
180 484,949
1866 . .
859,229
.4680
1865-6
183 509,161
1867
1,163,348
.5816
1866-7 .
200,764 135
1868
1,151,407
.5255
1867-8
212 205 339
1869
1,290,585
.5418
1868-9
237,483,175
1870
1,529,04,7
.5868
1869-70
260,563 886
1871
1,713,431
.6572
1870-71
277 538 134
1872
1,881,333
.7001
1871-2
267 868 126
1873
2,113,356
.3321
1872-3
637 232,823
1874
2,111,155
.3992
1873 4
528 747 043
1875
2,658,241
4347
1874-5
611,495,197
FROM OFFICIAL REPORTS.
I. Total amount paid for teachers' salaries $14,463,846
II. Total amount paid for school-houses and sites. . 3,950,828
III. Total amount paid for incidentals 3,553,101
IV. Total amount paid for all purposes 21,967,775
216
HISTORICAL STATISTICAL TABLES.
ADDITIONAL EXPENSES (ESTIMATED).
1. State University *$850.000
2. State Normal School 600,000
3. Salaries of State Superintendents 75,000
4. Incidentals, printing, &c., of the State Superin
tendent's office 250,000
5. Salaries of County and City Superintendents, and
incidentals paid from the general funds 800,000
Total $2,225,000
Grand total of expenditures for Public School
purposes 24,542,775.
2. SCHOOL TAXATION,
YEARS.
State School Fund
apportioned.
Raised by county
and city taxes.
tRaised from other
sources.
1852
$2,417 CO
1853 . ... ..
10 626 00
1854
$52 061 00
$157 702 00
42,557 00
1855
03,662 00
119 128 00
39 395 00
1856
69 961 00
121 639 CO
28,619 CO
1857 ....
78 057 00
148 989 00
55 035 00
1858
53 405 00
162 870 00
85,107 00
1859
72,319 00
205 196 00
97,534 00
1860
81 118 00
230 514 CO
122 858 00
1861
81,461 00
241,861 00
114,397 00
1862
75 412 00
294,828 00
141 806 00
1863
145 537 00
328 554 00
68 209 00
1864
132 217 00
260,842 00
84 084 00
1865
168 828 00
390 306 00
91,181 00
1866
132 410 00
470 668 00
79 600 CO
1867
268 910 00
595,718 CO
81,966 00
1868
259 603 00
654 738 00
73 986 00
1869
990 796 00
847 229 00
66 531 00
1870
360 447 00
839 756 00
63 441 00
1871
423 853 00
923,809 00
46 6CO 00
1872
424 022 00
1,249 943 00
232 075 00
1873
430 220 00
1,541,597 00
310 502 00
1874
428 418 12
1 332 208 82
345,316 95
1875
1,212,252 03
1,115,530 06
676,259 64
Totals
$5,298.8(19 35
$12,243,625 88
$2.9fiO,16'2 59
"Exclusive of an endowment fund of $1,500,000.
tl istrict Taxes, Kate Bills, etc.
HISTORICAL STATISTICAL TABLES.
217
3. SCHOOL STATISTICS,
YEARS.
Children Listed
by Census
Marshals
Enrolled on
School Registers
Average daily
attendance.
Number of
Schools.
1851
*5 906
1 846
1852
•17,821
3,314
35
1853
*19,442
4,193
2,020
111
1854 ....
*20,075
9,746
4,635
168
1855
*26,077
6,442
227
1856
*30,039
8,495
321
1857
•35,722
17,232
9,717
368
1858
*40,530
19,822
11,183
432
1859
*48,676
23,519
13,364
523
1860
*57,917
26,993
14,754
593
1861 ..
"68,395
31,786
17,804
, 684
1862 ...
•71,821
36,566
19,262
« 715
1863
*78,055
36,540
19,992
754
1864
*86,031
47,588
24,794
832
1865
*95,067
50,089
29,592
947
1866 ...
1 8 1,179
50,273
33,989
913
1867
t94,213
62,227
43,271
,083
1868
t 104, 118
65,828
43,681
,228
1869
t!12,743
73,754
49,802
,354
1870
t!21,751
85,808
54,271
,492
1871
1 130, 116
91,332
64,286
,550
1872
t!37,351
94 720
65,700
,654
1873
t!41,610
107 593
69,461
868
1874
||159 717
120 240
72283
2 005
1875
$171,563
130,930
78,027
2,190
* Between four and fifteen years of age.
t Between five and fifteen years of age.
$ Including children over fifteen years of age.
II Between five and seventeen years of age.
§ Including children over seventeen years of age.
218
LIST OF COUNTV SUPERINTENDENTS.
XVI. HISTORICAL LIST OF COUNTY SUPERIN
TENDENTS.
From I8SS to 1876, inclusive.
NOTE.— From 1852 to 1854, the County Clerks were ex-qfficio County Superin
tendents. Those marked * are known to have been practical teachers.
ALAMEDA.
Rev. A. H. Myers '55, '56
Rev. W. W. Brier '57, '58
Dr. Henry Gibbons '59, '60
Rev. J. D. Strong '61, '62
Rev.B.K Seymour. .'63, '64, '65
Rev. Chas E. Rich . .'66, '66, '68
* A. L. Fuller '69, '70
Rev. W. F. B. Lynch. . . .'70, '78
ALPINE.
L. S. Greenlow '64, '68
S. W. Griffith '68, '69
Joseph Uncapher '70, '71
* John Bagnall '72, '73
R. W. Foster '74
*Mrs. C. M. Pitcher . . . .'76, '78
AM AD OB.
E. B. Mclntire '56, '57
Rev. H. H. Rhees '58, '59
J. H. Bradley '60
Samuel Page :'61, '63
*D. Townsend '64, '65
Rev. S. G.Briggs '66, '74
W. H. Stowes '74, '78
BUTTE.
J. J. Cline '56
Rev. B. N. Seymour '57
H.A.Gaston '58, '59
Rev. J. B. Thomas '60, '61
S. B. Osbourn '62, '63
* Isaac Upharn '64, '65
*C. G. Warren '66, '70
* Lewis Burnham '70, '71
*H. T. Batchelder '72, '74
*S. T. Blake '74, '76
* Arthur McDermott '76, '78
CALAVEEAS.
Robert Thompson '57, '63
Rev. W. C. Mosher '64, '65
* F. O. Barstow '66, '67
*C. V. Currier '68 '69
*J. H. Wells '70 '72
E. T. Walker '72, '76
* Chas R. Beale '76, '78
COLUSA.
B. M. Hand '57, '60
Frank Spaulding '61
Charles Street '62
John C. Addington '63, '67
*S. W. Britton '68, '69
*G. W. Howard '70, '71
E. J. Edwards '72, '73
*J. E.Putnam '74, '75
Sam. Houchins '76, '78
CONTRA COSTA.
Thomas Ewing '56
E. H. Cox ;57, '58
A. F. Dyer '59, '60
D. S. Woodruff '61, '63
Rev. H. R. Avery '64, '68
* Alfred Thurber. '68, '72, '76, '78
*H. S. Raven '72, '74
DEL NOBTE.
H. W. McMillen '58
R. S. McLellan.'59, '61, '64, '65,
'68, '70
Charles Hinckley '62, '63
John Mavity '66, '67
John R. Nickel '70, '74
*Max Lipowitz '74, '78
LIST OF COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS.
219
EL DORADO.
H. S. Herrick . . .'55, '56, '59, '60
J. G. Eustis '57
H. L. Pease '58
*M. A. Lynde '60, '64
*S. A. Penwell '64, '65
*C. C. Conldin '66, '67
*W. H. Hill '68, '74
*John P. Munson '74, '78
FRESNO.
E. S. Kincaid '61
H. M. Quigley '62, '63
S. H. Hill '64, '68
Dr. S. O. Ellis, Sr '68, '76
E. H. Bramlet '76, '78
HUMBOLDT.
A.J. Heustis '55, '56
E. H. Howard '57, '58
H. H. Seaverns '59, '60
Eev. W. L. Jones '61, '68
*J. B. Brown . '68, '74
E. C. Cummings '74, '78
INYO.
€. M. Joslin '68, '69
J. W. Symines '70, '78
KLAMATH.
R. P. Hirst '60, '61, '63
J. H. Twombly , '62
E. Lee '64, '65
James Gould '68, '69
H. P. Scott '71, '72
KERN.
E. W. Doss '68, '69
J. H.Cornwall '70, '74
*L. A. Bearsdsley '74, '78
LAKE.
W. E. Mathews '61, '66
*A. P. McCarty '66, '67
*Mack Mathews 68, '74
Eev. Louis Wallace '74, '78
LASSEN.
William Young '64, '65
A. A. Smith '66, '70
L. M. Grill '70, '71
L. N. Spaulding '72, '76
S. A. Doyle '76, '78
LOS ANGELES.
Charles Johnson '57, '58
J. W. Shore '59, '63
L. J. Eose '64, '65
Eev. E. Birdsall '66, '67
H. D. Barrows '68, '69
*W. M. McFadden '70, '74
*Geo. H. Peck '74, '75
*Thos. A. Saxen '76, '78
MARIN.
John Simms '57, '58
John Shore '59, '60
James Miller '61, '63
J. W. Zuver '64, '65
A. Barney '66, '70
* Samuel Saunders '70, '78
MARIPOSA.
A. Reynolds '57, '60
J. E. McCready '60, '65
D. W. Washburn '66, '67
W. C. Hill '68, '69
J. W. Simmons '70, '71
David Egenhoff '72, '76
Eichard Kane '76, '78
MENDOCINO.
A. L.Brayton '59, '61
C. E. Bucld '62, '63
J. L. Broaddus '64, '65
*C. C. Cummings '66, '70
T. B. Bond '70, '71
*J. W. Covington '72, '73
* J. H. Seawell '74, '75
*J. C. Euddock '76, '77
MERCED.
J. W. Eobertson '56
B.F. Howell '57, '58
F. J. Woodward '58, '61
E. B. Huey '61, '65
T. O.Ellis '66, '67
M. C. Munroe '68, '72
J. K. Law '72, '73
B. F. Fowler '74, '78
MONO.
M. S. Clark '70
A. W. Crocker '71, '72
J. S. Kirkendale '73, '74
E. E. Miner '75, '76
*Miss Alice Walker '76, '78
220
LIST OF COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS.
MODOC.
W. F. Estes '74, '78
MONTEREY.
J. H. Gleason '57, '58
T. S. Koberts '59, '60
G. W. Bird '61, '64
W. M. K. Parker '64, '65
Thomas Bralee '66, '67
*T. W. Clay '69, '70
E. M. Alderman '70, '71
*S. M. Shearer '72, '73
E. C. McCroskey '74, '78
NAPA.
J. E. Herron '57
Jas. Corwin '58
J. M. Hamilton '59, '60
Bev. A. Higbie '62, '70
Kev. G. W. Ford '70, '76
L. Fellows '76, '78
NEVADA.
W. B. Ewer '56, '57
C. T. Overton '58, '60
J. A. Chittenden '60, '63
M.S. Deal '64, '68
*E. M. Preston. '68, '69; '76, '78
* Augustus Morse '70, '71
*B. J.Watson '72, '73
* Frank Powers '74, '75
PLACER.
T. B. Hotchkiss '56
P. C. Millette '57, '58
S. S. Greenwood '59, '60
* A. H. Goodrich '60, '66
S. E. Case '66, '70
J. T. Kinkade '70, '76
Eugene Calvin '76, '78
PLUMAS.
M. D. Sawyer '59
J. C. Church '58, '59
H. S.Titus '60 '66
G. W. Meybert '66 '70
*S. S. Boynton '70 '72
J. A. Edmon '72, '73
*W. S. Church . . .'74 '78
SACRAMENTO.
Dr. F. W. Hatch, '55, '56; '59-63-
'66, '67.
Nelson Slater '57, '58
*Sparrow Smith '64, '65
Dr. A. Trafton '68 '72
*S. H. Jackman '73, '74
Dr. G. E. Kelley '75, '7$
*F. L. Landis . ..'76 '78
SAN BENITO.
*H. L. Morris '76 '78
SAN BERNARDINO.
H. A. Skinner '55 '57
E. E. Pearce '58
Ellis Eobbins '59, '60
A. F. McKinney . . '60 '64
W. S. Clark '64, '65; '68, '69
W. L. Eagsdale '66, '6T
H. C. Brooks '70, '71
John Brown, Jr '72, '73
*Henry Goodcel, Jr '74, '75
C. E. Payne '76 '78
SAN DIEGO.
Frank Ames '56, '57
J. M. Estudillo. . '58-'62; '64, '65-
Geo. Pendleton '62, '63
Marcus Schiller '68, '69
H. H. Dougherty '70, '72;
B. S. McLafferty '73, '74
J. H. S. Jamison '75, '76
*F. N. Pauly '76/78
SAN FRANCISCO.
*John C. Pelton, Co. Sup't. . .'54
City and Co. Sup't.... '55
CITY AND COUNTY SUPEEINTENDENTS.
E. A. Theller '5&
Henry B. Janes '57, '58
* James Denman, '59, '60; '68, '69,
'70; '74, '75
*Geo. Tait '61, '62, '63, '64*
*John C. Pelton ..'66, '67
J. H. Widber '71, '72, '73
*H. N. Bolander '76, '78
LIST OF COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS.
221
SAN JOAQUIN.
*L. C. Van Allen '58, '59, '60
*Cyrus Collins '60, '64
^Melville Cottle '64/70
*W. E. Leadbetter '70, '74
*T. O. Crawford '74, '75
*S. G. S. Dunbar.. .:... .'76/78
SAN LUIS OBISPO.
P. A. Forrester. .'58-' 60; '66-'68;
'70, '74
Alex. Murray '60, '68
J.H. Gooch '68, '69
J. M. Felts '74/78
SAN MATEO.
*W. C. Crook '62/66
Bobt. Greer '66, '67
*H.N. Nutting '68, '72
Bev. H. E. Jewet '73, '74
*C. G. Warren '75, '76
G. P. Hartley '76, '78
SANTA BARBARA.
A. B. Thompson '64 '70
Bev. J. C. Hamer 7(L76
G. E. Thurmond 'if '78
SANTA CLARA.
*Ereeman Gates '55, '56
Mathew Mitchell '56, '60
S. S. Niles '60, '64
"Wesley Tonner '64, '67
*J. B. Brierly '68
*J. H. Braly '68, '69
*N. Furlong '70, 71
*Geo.F. Baker '72,73
*J. G. Kennedy '74, '75
*E. Bousseau '76, '78
SANTA CRUZ.
D. J. Haslam '59, '63
Bev. P. Y. Cool ;64, '65
*H. P. Stone '66/67
*H. E. Makinney '68, '74
*W. H. Hobbs '74, '78
SHASTA.
*Y. N. Chappelle '55
H. A. Curtin '56
*Grove K. Godfrey '57, '64
J ohn Conmy '64, '65
W. L. Carter '66, '74
*G. W. Welch '75, '76
*Mrs. D. M. Coleman. . . .'76, '78
SIERRA.
Bev. W. C. Pond '61, '66
J. M. Haven '67, '68
*J. H. Thorpe '68, 72
A. M. Phalin 72,78
SISKIYOU.
G. F. Price '57, '58
B. S. McEwan '59, '60
*Thos. N. Stone '62, '68
*Grove K. Godfrey '68, 74
*Wm. Duenkel 74, 78
SOLANO.
Bev. S. Woodbridge '58, '6l
Bev. J. W. Hines '61, '6^
*Geo. W. Simonton '64, '68
*Milton Wasson '69
*W. H. Fry 70, 74
*C. W. Childs 74, 78
SONOMA.
*Charles G. Ames '61, 70
*G. W.Jones 70, 74
*A. C. McMeans 74, 78
STANISLAUS.
A. B. Anderson . ..'61, '64
G. W. Schell '64, '65
T. T. Hamlin '68, 72
James Burney 73, 74
W. B.Howard 76, 78
SUTTER.
C. Wilcoxon '56, '58, '61
A. S. Long '59, '60
J. E. Stevens '62, '63
*N. Furlong '64, '65
*J. H. Clark 70,74
*M. C.Clark 74, 78
TEHAMA.
W. L.Bradley. ..'59, '60
W. H. Bahney '61, '66
*Geo. F. Morris '67, '68
G. W.Jeffries '68, 72
F. A. Vestal 73, 74
C. D. Woodman 75, 76
E. S. Campbell 76, 78
222
LIST OF COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS.
TRINITY.
M. Euch '57/60
Henry Martin '61
F. Walter '62, '63
David Gordon '64, '70
C. W. Smith '70, '71
Wm. Lovett '72, '73
H. H.Bragdon '75, '76
* Mary N. Wadleigh '76, '78
TUOLUMNE.
G. S. Evans '57, '58
B. A. Mardis '59, '60
K.E. Gardiner '61
Charles Pease '62, '63
* John Graham '64, '65
J. Spencer '66, '67
W. J. Clark '68, '69
*C. L. Metzger '70, '71
* John York, Jr '72, '73
John Murman '75, '76
* Kose E. Morgan '76, '77
TULARE.
O. E. Smith '59, '6O
T. O.Ellis '61, '64
M. S. Merrill '64, '68
J. W. Williams '68, '70
S. G. Creighton '70, '74
E. P. Merrill '74, '78
VENTURA.
T. S. S. Buckman '76, '78
YOLO.
Henry Gaddis '57, '65
*M. A. Woods '66, '68
E. E. Darby '68, '72
* G. N. Freeman '72, '7&
YUBA.
Eev. E. B. Walsworth . . . .'57, '61
W. C. Belcher '62, '66
*D. C. Stone '67, '68
* Isaac Upham '69, '70
Eev. A. A. McAllister. . . .'71, '72
*Thos. H. Steel '72, '78
NOTES. — Among the County Superintendents distinguished
for long terms of office, or for educational labors may be
named :
Dr. F. W. Hatch, for ten years Superintendent of Sacramento
County; a careful and popular officer, whose reports rank among
the best.
Chas. G. Ames, for ten years Superintendent of Sonoma
County; an accurate and capable school officer.
Eev. A. Higbie, of Napa County, seven years; and Eev. G.
W. Ford, six years.
Grove K. Godfrey, six years in Shasta County and six years
in Siskiyou.
Eev. W. C. Pond, Sierra County, five years.
George W. Simonton, Solano County, four years.
David Gordon, Trinity County, six years.
W. C. Belcher, Yuba County, four years; and Eev. E. B.,
Walsworth, same county, four years.
Eev. W. T. B. Lynch, Alameda County, six years.
PRESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. 223
! UNIVERSITY OF
PART III.
PRESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM.
I. SCHOOL SUPERVISION.
I. State Superintendent of Public Instruction.
II. State Board of Education,
III. State Board of Examination.
IV. County Superintendents.
V. City Superintendents.
VI. City Boards of Education.
VII. Boards of District School Trustees.
VIII. County Boards of Examination.
IX. Board of Regents of the State University.
X. Board of Normal School Trustees.
I. STATE SUPERINTENDENT. — Elected every four years, at the
Special Judicial Election, in the October following the General
Election for Governor and other State officers in September.
Salary, $3,000 a year; traveling expenses, $1,500 a year. Dep
uty Superintendent : salary, $1,800 a year. Clerk : salary,
$1,500.
II. STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION. — It consists of the Governor,
State Superintendent, Principal State Normal School, and the
County Superintendents of San Francisco, Sacramento, Santa
Clara, San Joaquin, Alameda, and Sonoma. Powers. — To issue
life diplomas; to prescribe rules and regulations and a course
of study for all schools, except those in incorporated cities; to
adopt a State series of text-books.
[The power of adopting text-books repealed by the Legislature
of 1876.]
Board required to meet at least four times a year. No salary,
but traveling expenses allowed.
III. STATE BOARD OF EXAMINATION. — It consists of the State
Superintendent, and four professional teachers appointed by
him. Salary, $200 a year. Powers. — To prepare questions for
224 PRESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM.
the examination of teachers for county and city examinations;
to issue State diplomas, valid for six years; first grade cer
tificates, valid for four years; second and third grades, valid
for two years — all on county and city examinations. Also to
issue certificates on State Normal School diplomas of any State
Normal School in the United States, and on life diplomas of
other States.
IV. COUNTY SUPEKINTENDENTS. — Elected every two years, at
the general election.
Powers. — To apportion school moneys, draw warrants for the
payments of teachers, conduct examinations of teachers, to visit
schools, conduct County Institutes, and make a biennial report
to the State Superintendent.
Salary.— From $200 to $1,800 a year; average, $830.
V. CITY SUPERINTENDENTS. — Elected, in general, by direct
vote of the people, for two years. They have the usual powers
of superintendents in other cities in the United States.
Salaries.— San Francisco, $4,000; Oakland, $2,400; San Jose,
$1,200.
VI. CITY BOARDS OF EDUCATION. — Elected by direct vote of
the people, either at general or special elections, and consisting
of from five to twelve members, elected for two years.
Powers. — To build schoolhouses, employ teachers, and manage
school affairs generally.
No salary.
VII. BOARDS OF DISTRICT SCHOOL TRUSTEES. — Elected at
special school elections, for a term of three years, one trustee
being elected each year.
Powers. — To build schoolhouses, employ teachers, and
manage local school affairs generally.
No salary.
VIII. COUNTY BOARDS OF EXAMINATION. — Consist of County
Superintendent, and of not less than three professional teachers,
appointed by him.
Salary. — Three dollars a day, and traveling expenses.
Powers. — To hold quarterly examinations, using the questions
prepared by the State Board of Examination, on the first Wed-
PRESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. 225
nesday in the mouths of December, March, June, and Sep
tember, and to issue 1st, 2d, and 3d grade county certificates.
IX. EEGENTS OF THE STATE UNIVERSITY. — Composed, partly,
of ex-officio members, State officers; partly of members ap
pointed by the Governor, for terms of sixteen years; and partly
of members elective by the appointed members.
Powers. — To manage the affairs of the State University.
No salary.
X. BOARD OF STATE NORMAL SCHOOL TRUSTEES. — Consists of
the Governor and State Superintendent, and five members ap
pointed by the Governor, for a term of sixteen years.
No salary.
ORGANIZATION OF DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION, 1876.
I. OFFICE OF STATE SUPERINTENDENT.
Office located at the State Capital, Sacramento.
State Superintendent Ezra S. Carr.
Deputy Mrs. E. S. Carr.
Clerk.. ..H. A.Moses.
H. STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION.
Office at Sacramento.
Gov. William Irwin President.
Supt. E. S. Carr Secretary.
Chas H. Allen Prin. State Normal School.
COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS, EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS.
H. N. Bolander San Francisco.
T. L. Landis Sacramento.
W. F. B. Lynch Alameda.
E. Kousseau Santa Clara.
A. C. McMeans Sonoma.
S. B. S. Dunbar San Joaquin.
HI. STATE BOARD OF EXAMINATION.
Place of Meeting, Sacramento.
Supt. E. S. Carr Chairman.
Chas H. Allen San Jose.
John Swett San Francisco.
Miss M. J. "Watson Sacramento.
Mrs. Mary E. Michener Sacramento.
226 PRESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM.
IV. COUNTY SUPERINTENDENTS.
Holding office from the first Monday in March, 1876, to March, 1878,
COUNTIES. NAMES. POBT-OFFICK.
Alarneda Rev. W. F. B. Lynch East Oakland.
Alpine R. H. Ford Silver Mountain.
Amador W. H. Stowers Plymouth.
Butte Arthur McDermott Oroville.
Calaveras Charles R. Beal San Andreas.
Colusa Samuel Houchens Princeton.
Contra Costa A. Thurber Pacheco.
Del Norte Max Lipowitz Crescent City.
El Dorado John P. Munson Placerville.
Fresno R. H. Bramlet Fresno.
Humboldt E . C. Cummings Rohnerville.
Inyo John W. Symmes Independence -
Kern L. A. Beardsley Bakersfield.
Lake Louis Wallace Lakeport.
Lassen , S. A. Doyle Long Valley.
Los Angeles Thomas A. Saxon Los Angeles.
Marin Samuel Saunders San Raf ael.
Mariposa Richard Kane Mariposa.
Mendocino John C. Ruddock Ukiah.
Merced B. F. Fowler Merced.
Modoc W. T. Estes Cedarville.
Mono Miss Alice Walker Bridgeport.
Monterey R. C. McCroskey Salinas City.
Napa L. Fellers Napa City.
Nevada E. M. Preston Nevada City.
Placer Eugene Calvin Auburn.
Plumas W. S. Church La Porte.
Sacramento F. L. Landes Sacramento.
San Benito H. Z. Morris Hollister.
San Bernardino Charles R. Paine San Bernardino.
San Diego F. N~ Pauley San Diego.
San Francisco H. N. Bolander San Francisco.
San Joaquin S. G. S. Duubar Stockton.
San Luis Obispo J. M. Felts , Cambria.
San Mateo G. P. Hartley Spanishtown..
Santa Barbara G. E. Thurmond Carpentaria
Santa Clara E. Rousseau Santa Clara.
Santa Cruz W. H. Hobbs Soquel.
Shasta Mrs. D. M. Coleman Shasta.
Sierra A.M. Phalin Port Wine.
Sisldyou William Duenkel Yreka.
Solano C. W. Childs Suisun City.
Sonoma A. C. McMeans Santa Rosa.
Stanislaus W. B. Howard Modesto.
Sutter M. C. Clark Yuba City.
Tehama E. S. Campbell Red Bluff.
Trinity Mary N. Wadleigh Junction City.
Tulare R. P. Merrill Visalia.
Tuolumne Rose E. Morgan Columbia.
Ventura F. S. S. Buckman San Buenaventura.
Yolo H. B. Pendergast Woodland.
Yuba Th. H. Steele Marysville.
PRESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. 22T
II. SCHOOL REVENUE.
_ The school revenue is derived from the following sources :
I. Interest on the State School Fund.
II. State School Tax.
III. County School Tax.
IV. City School Tax.
V. District Taxes voted at Special School Elections.
I. THE STATE SCHOOL FUND is derived from the proceeds of
the sales of the 500,000 acres of land, granted by Congress to
the State, for the purposes of internal improvement, and set
apart by the State Constitution as an inviolable school fund,
and from the sales of the 16th and 36th sections of township
lands, consolidated into a general State fund.
It amounts to $1,737,500, invested in six per cent, and seven
per cent. State bonds. The Endowment Fund of the State Uni
versity consists of $1,500,000, yielding an annual revenue of
about $128,000. ,
II. A DIRECT STATE PROPERTY TAX is required to be levied
annually, sufficient, with the interest on the State School Fund,
to amount to $7 per census child, from 5 to 17 years of. age.*
State apportionment, 1875, $1,210,808.
III. COUNTY SCHOOL TAX. Eate determined by each County
Board of Supervisors. Maximum rate, not to exceed 50 cents
on each $100. Minimum rate, not less than $3 per each census-
child. Amount of County Taxes, 1875, $1,115,530.
IV. CITY SCHOOL TAX. The rate is determined, in some
cases, by the Board of Education, and in others, by the Com
mon Councils, or Boards of Supervisors. In San Francisco,
the amount required is $35 per child, on the average daily
attendance for the preceding school year. Amount raised by
City Tax, 1875, $391,364.
V. THE DISTRICT TAXES are voted at special school elections,
generally for building purposes. Maximum rate, $1 on each
$100. Amount raised in 1875, $315,000. Total School Beve-
nue, 1875, $3,390,359. Total amount expended for Public
Schools, from 1850 to 1876 inclusive, $25,000,000.
228 PRESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM.
III. GENERAL PROVISIONS OF THE SCHOOL LAW.
AETICLE X.
SCHOOLS.
SECTION 1662. Who may be admitted to.
1663. Schools to be graded.
1664. To be taught in the English language.
1665. Course of instruction.
1666. Other studies.
1667. Instruction in manners, etc.
1668. Physical exercise, etc.
1669. Schools for Negro and Indian children.
1670. How established.
1671. Governed by same rules as schools for whites.
1672. Sectarian books and teachings prohibited.
1673. Duration of daily sessions.
SEC. 1662. Every school, unless otherwise provided by special
statute, must be open for the admission of all white children be
tween five and twenty-one years of age, residing in the district; and
the Board of Trustees or Board of Education have power to admit
adults, and children not residing in the district, whenever good
reasons exist therefor.
SEC. 1663. All schools, unless otherwise provided by special stat
ute, must be divided into first, second, and third grade. Each
County Superintendent must, under instructions from the State Board
of Education, determine the respective grade or class of schools in
his county.
SEC. 1664. All schools must be taught in the English language.
SEC. 1665. Instruction must be given in the following branches —
in the several grades in which each may be required — viz: reading,
writing, orthography, arithmetic, geography, grammar, history of
the United States, physiology, natural philosophy, natural history,
elements of form, vocal music, and industrial drawing.
SEC. 1666. Other studies may be authorized by the State Board of
Education, or Board of Education of any city, or city and county;
but no such studies can be pursued to the neglect or exclusion of
the studies in the preceding section specified.
SEC. 1667. Instruction must be given in all grades of schools,
and in all classes, during the entire school course, in manners and
morals.
SEC. 1668. Attention must be given to such physical exercises for
""the pupils, as may be conducive to health and vigor of body, as well
as mind, and to the ventilation and temperature of school rooms.
SEC. 1669. The education of children of African descent, and of
Indian children, must be provided for in separate schools; provided,
that if the directors or trustees fail to provide such separate schools,
then such children must be admitted into the schools for white
children.
SEC. 1670. Upon the written application of the parents or guar
dians of such children, to any Board of Trustees or Board of Edu
cation, a separate school must be established for the education of
such children.
PRESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. 229
V~ — --- • — -
SEC. 1671. The same laws, rules, and regulations, which apply to
schools for white children, apply to schools for colored children.
SEC. 1672. No publication of a sectarian, partisan, or demonina-
tional character, must be used or distributed in any school, or be
made a part of any school library; nor must any sectarian or denomi
national doctrine be taught therein. Any school district, town, or
city, the officers of which knowingly allow any schools to be taught
in violation of these provisions, forfeits all right to any State or
county apportionment of school moneys; and, upon satisfactory evi
dence of such violation, the Superintendent of Public Instruction
and School Superintendent must withhold both State and county
apportionments.
SEC. 1673. No school must be continued in session more than six:
hours a day; and no pupil under eight years of age must be kept
in school more than four hours per day. Any violation of the pro
visions of this section must be treated in the same manner as a vio
lation of the provisions of the preceding section.
ARTICLE XI.
PUPILS.
SECTION 1683. Pupils, how admitted.
1684. Must submit to regulations.
1685. Suspension and expulsion of.
1686. Defacing school property, liabilities for.
1687. Experienced teachers for beginners.
SEC. 1683. Pupils must be admitted into the schools in the order
in which they apply to be registered.
SEC. 1684. All pupils must comply with the regulations, pursue
the required course of study, and submit to the authority of the
teachers of said schools.
SEC. 1685. Continued willful disobedience, or open defiance of
the authority of the teacher, constitutes good cause for expulsion
from school; and habitual profanity and vulgarity, good cause for
suspension from school.
SEC. 1686. Any pupil who cuts, defaces, or otherwise injures any
school house, fences, or outbuildings thereof, is liable to suspension
or expulsion; and on the complaint of the teacher or trustees, the
parents or guardians of such pupils shall be liable for all damages.
SEC. 1687. In cities having graded schools, beginners shall be
taught, for the first two years, by teachers who have had at least
four years experience; and such teachers shall rank, in point of
salary, with those of first grade.
ARTICLE XII.
TEACHERS.
SECTIOK 1696. General duties of teachers.
1697. School month, in relation to salary of teachers, defined.
1698. Appeal allowed from order removing teacher for incompetency.
1699. Appeals in other cases.
1700. No warrant to be drawn in favor of a teacher unless he performs
his duties.
1701. Nor unless he hold certificate, and was employed.
1702. Teacher's duty in regard to teaching morality, etc.
230 PRESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM.
SEC. 1696. Every teacher in the public schools must:
First — Before assuming charge of a school, file his certificate with
the County Superintendent;
Second — On taking charge of a school, or on closing a term of
school, immediately notify the County Superintendent of such
fact;
Third — Enforce the course of study, the use of text-books, and
the rules and regulations prescribed for schools;
Fourth — Hold pupils to strict account for disorderly conduct on
the way to and from school, on the play-ground, or during recess;
suspend, for good cause, any pupil in the school, and report such
suspension to the Board of Trustees or Education for review. If
such action is not sustained by them, the teacher may appeal to the
County Superintendent, whose decision shall be final;
Fifth — Keep a State school register;
Sixth — Make an annual report to the County Superintendent at
the time, and in the manner, and on the blanks prescribed by the
Superintendent of Public Instruction. Any school teacher who
shall end any school term before the close of the school year, shall
make a report to the County Superintendent, immediately after the
close of such term; and any teacher who maybe teaching any school
at the end of the school year, shall, in his or her annual report,
include all statistics for the entire school year, notwithstanding any
previous report for a part of the year;
Seventh — Make such other reports as may be required by the Su
perintendent of Public Instruction, County Superintendent, or Board
of Trustees or Education.
SEC. 1697. A school month is construed and taken to be twenty
school days, or four weeks of five school days each.
SEC. 1698. In case of the dismissal of any teacher before the ex
piration of any written contract, entered info between such teacher
and Board of Trustees, for alleged unfitness, or incompetence, or
violation of rules, the teacher may appeal to the School Superin
tendent; and if the Superintendent decides that the removal was
made without good cause, the teacher so removed must be reinstated.
SEC. 1699. Any teacher whose salary is withheld may appeal to the
Superintendent of Public Instruction.
SEC. 1700. No warrant must be drawn in favor of any teacher,
unless the officer whose duty it is to draw such warrant is satisfied
that the teacher has faithfully performed all the duties prescribed in
section sixteen hundred and ninety-six.
SEC. 1701. No warrant must be drawn in favor of any teacher,
unless such teacher is the holder of a proper certificate, in force for
the full time for which the warrant is drawn, nor unless he was em-
plo}red by the Board of Trustees or Education; provided, that
nothing in this section shall interfere with any special school laws
now in existence for the counties of Trinity, Shasta, or Inyo.
SEC. 1702. It shall be the duty of all teachers to endeavor to im
press on the minds of the pupils the principles of moralit}r, truth,
justice, and patriotism; to teach them to avoid idleness, profanity,
and falsehood, and to instruct them in the principles of a free gov-
ernme^it, and to train them up to a true comprehension of the rights,
duties, and dignity of American citizenship.
PRESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. 231
AKTICLE XIII.
DISTRICT LIBRARIES.
SECTION 1712. Library Fund, how expended.
1713. Of what Fund consists.
1714. Same.
1715. Control and location of library.
1716. Who may use.
1717. Accountability of trustees for care of library.
SEC. 1712. The Boards of Trustees and Education must expend
the Library Fund, together with such moneys as may be added
thereto by donation, in the purchase of school apparatus, and books
for a school library.
SEC. 1713. Except in cities not divided into school districts, the
Library Fund consists of ten per cent, of the State School Fund,
annually apportioned to the district, unless ten per cent, exceed
fifty dollars, in which event it consists of fifty dollars, annually taken
from the fund so apportioned.
SEC. 1714. In cities not divided into school districts, the Library
Fund consists of the sum of fifty dollars for every five hundred
children between the ages of five and fifteen years, annually taken
from the State School Fund apportioned to the city.
SEC. 1715. Libraries are under the control of the Board of Trus
tees or Education, and must be kept, when practicable, in the school
houses.
SEC. 1716. The library is free to all pupils of a suitable age, be
longing to the school; and any resident of the district may become
entitled to its privileges by the payment of such a sum of money for
life membership, or such annual or monthly fee as may be pre
scribed by the trustees.
SEC. 1717. The trustees shall be held accountable for the proper
care and preservation of the library, and shall have power to assess
and collect all fines, penalties, and fees of membership, and to make
all needful rules and regulations, not provided for by the State
Board of Education, and not inconsistent therewith; and they shall
report annually to the County Superintendent, all library statistics
which may be required by the blanks furnished for the purpose
by the Superintendent of Public Instruction.
IV. CLASSIFICATION OF SCHOOLS.
I. State University.
II. State Normal School. *
III. High Schools.
IV. Summary.
I. THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. — Location, Berkeley, five
miles from Oakland. Value of buildings, grounds, etc., $500,-
000. The University embraces seven courses of study, com
monly called "Colleges," namely: In Science — Agriculture,
Mechanics, Engineering, Chemistry, Mining, and Medicine.
In Letters — Classical and Literary.
232
PRESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM.
It is a free institution, open to young men and young women.
The number of students in attendance from the beginning is as
follows :
YEAES.
Science.
Letters.
Special and
at large.
Total.
Ladies.
18(59-70
14
21
5
40
1870-71.
28
24
26
78
y
1871-72
75
28
50
153
97
1872-73.
93
44
48
185
39
1873-74
100
44
47
191
22
1874-75.
90
76
65
237
40
1875-76.
162
139
65
366
II. STATE NORMAL SCHOOL. — Value of buildings, grounds,
etc., $350,000. Free to both men and women. Number of
students, 1876, 325. Annual appropriation for support, $23,000.
III. HIGH SCHOOLS. -
are as follows :
-The principal High Schools in the State
Pupils.
1. San Francisco, Girls' High 650
2. San Francisco, Boys' High 25p
Oakland, Boys' and Girls
Sacramento, Boys' and G rls' High 101
Stockton,
Los Angeles,
Marysville,
8. Santa Clara,
9. Vallejo,
10. San Jose,
11. Petaluma,
12. Grass Valley,
13. Nevada,
14. Santa Cruz,
15. Alameda,
High.
135
65
57.
21
1&
77.
25.
52
20
2Q
25.
15
Total.. . 1532
Teachers.
21
8
4
4
2
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
1
1
52
In addition to the pupils in the schools specially classed as
"High Schools," there are about 1,800 pupils in "First Grade
Schools," pursuing an advanced, or partial, high school course.
SUMMARY OF CLASSIFICATION, 1875.
Number enrolled in State University 366
Number enrolled in State Normal School 350
Number enrolled in the High Schools, or the Advanced Grade 3,243
Number enrolled in Grammar, or First Grade Schools 16,177
Number enrolled in Intermediate, or Second Grade Schools . . . 30,820
Number enrolled in Primary, or Third Grade Schools 79,532
Total.. .130,488
PRESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. 233
V. SUMMARY OF SCHOOL STATISTICS, 1875.
Population of California (estimated) 800,000.
Number of children between 5 and 17 171,563
Number that attended school 116,896
Average daily attendance in public schools 78,027
Attendance at private schools 15,000
CLASSIFICATION.
1. Attending State University 366
2. Attending State Normal School 350
3. Attending high schools, or in " advanced grades" 3,243
4. Attending grammar schools 16,177
5. Attending intermediate on second grade school 30,820
6. Attending primary or third grade schools 79,532
SCHOOLS AND TEACHERS.
Number of school districts e 1,579
Number of schools 2,190
Number of male teachers 1,033
Number of female teachers 1,660
Average length of school in months 7.47
Number of teachers, graduates of some normal school 275
TEACHERS HOLDING STATE CERTIFICATES.
1. Holding life diplomas 292
2. Holding educational diplomas 421
3. Holding first grade certificates 615
4. Holding second grade certificates 210
Total 1,538
5. Number of graduates of the California State Normal
School now teaching 240
SALARIES.
Average monthly salary paid men $84 93
Average monthly salary paid women 68 00
Average annual salary paid men 672 00
Average annual salary paid women 543 00
Annual cost per scholar in average daily attendance 28 67
Annual cost of tuition per scholar in average daily attend
ance 21 59
15
234 PEESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM.
FINANCIAL.
RECEIPTS.
Balance on hand at the beginning of the school year $387,761 11
Received from State apportionments 1,210,808 49
Received from county apportionments 1,115,530 06
Received from city and district taxes 315,682 66
Received from miscellaneous sources (sale of bonds,
rents, etc.) 360,576 98
Total receipts from all sources $3,390,359 30
EXPENDITURES FOE SCHOOL PURPOSES.
Amount paid for teachers' salaries 1,810,479 62
Amount paid for rent, repairs, fuel, and contingent
expenses 381,806 62
Amount paid for school libraries 33,962 72
Amount paid for school apparatus 10,713 02
Total current expenses $2,236,961 98
Amount paid for sites, buildings, and school furni
ture 421,279 36
Total expenditures of all kinds $2,658,241 34
VALUATION OF SCHOOL PROPERTY.
Valuation of sites, school houses, and furniture .... $4,879,328 39
Valuation of school libraries 138,564 64
Valuation of school apparatus 50,785 27
Total valuation of school property $5,068,678 30
Total expenditures for school purposes
up to date $24,542,775 00
L * n R" I
T ~\r r T"*' r •
PRESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM?" 235
I P A 1 * ' -.
V OxijLf! lf ; /
VI. SCHOOL STATISTICS BY COUNTIES, 1875.
COUNTIES.
Census of
Children 5 to 17
years old.
Average daily
attendance.
Whole Number
Enrolled.
No. of
Teachers.
Alameda 9,330
Alpine 85
Amador 2,381
Butte 3,481
Calaveras 2,216
Colusa 2,346
Contra Costa 3,047
Del Norte 448
El Dorado 2,335
Fresno 1,398
Humboldt 2,863
Inyo 397
Kern 997
Lake 1,369
Lasseii 667
Los Angeles 7,787
Marin 1,647
Mariposa 930
Mendocino 2,808
Merced 1,171
Modoc 846
Mono 112
Monterey 3,286
Napa 2,822
Nevada 4,705
Placer 2,519
Plnmas 834
Sacramento 6,482
San Benito 1,456
San Bernardino 1,971
San Diego 1,834
San Francisco 41,021
San Joaquin 5,212
San Luis Obispo 2,012
San Mateo 2,340
Santa Barbara 2,282
Santa Clara 8,410
Santa Cruz 3,212
Shasta 1,517
Sierra 1,115
Siskiyou 1,705
Solano 4,63Q
Sonoma 7,003
Stanislaus 1,909
Sutter 1,549
Tehama 1,425
Trinity 642
Tulare... 2,837
Tuolumne 1,872
Ventura 1,122
Yolo 2,566
Yuba 2,609
Totals . . 171,563
4,458
42
1,382
1,537
1,054
963
1,357
232
1,248
457
1,248
159
328
637
390
2,049
642
360
1,243
527
441
57
1,356
1,251
2,356
1,338
431
'2,695
592
675
440
20,830
2,897
679
815
608
3,480
1,367
694
649
906
2,229
3,437
1,016
710
603
316
956
1,058
388
1,273
1,171
6,261
69
2,069
2,642
1,702
1,787
2,439
387
1,995
939
2,320
283
543
1,210
544
4,237
1,073
707
2,399
1,119
604
102
2,415
2,111
3,774
2/262
738
4,785
1,037
1,375
818
32,075
5,620
1,134
1,439
1,229
5,786
2,426
1,205
969
1,387
3,594
5,900
1,813
1,423
1,107
443
1,992
1,577
842
2,156
2,067
121
4
39
62
38
43
69
10
44
30
60
9
14
27
14
72
28
16
52
26
24
5
44
78
63
52
23
106
22
22
25
507
93
26
37
22
105
47
33
25
39
78
132
46
38
29
17
42
28
16
53
48
78,027
130,930
2,693
236 PRESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM.
VII. RESUME OF THE CONDITION OF THE SCHOOLS.
1. BUILDINGS. — In general, the school houses are comfortable,
are furnished with modern styles of desks, and fairly supplied
with maps, charts, and simple school apparatus.
2. LENGTH OF SCHOOL. — The average length of school is 7J
months in the year, an average exceeded by only two or three
States in the Union. There were only 34 schools in which the
length of term was less than 6 months. In nearly. 800 districts
the length of term exceeded 8 months. The provision in mak
ing the county apportionment by which the minimum amount
for each school, however small, is $500, has extended the
means of education to the most remote settlements.
3. TEACHERS. — Of the 2800 teachers, 240, or nearly one tenth,
are graduates of the California State Normal School. There
are 21)2 holders of life diplomas; that is, about one tenth, who
may be ranked as "professionals." There are about 400
holders of educational diplomas who have had at least 5 years'
experience. In all, about one third of the teachers may be
considered skilled in their profession, the remaining two
thirds being mainly made up of " raw recruits."
4. INSTRUCTION. — There is a good course of study laid out by
the State Board of Education; but, of course, this is carried
out in the country districts to a very limited extent only. In a
majority of the schools, the teaching consists of text-book
recitations, with little or no instruction by the teacher.
5. LIBRARIES. — Each school is supplied with a small library,
purchased by an annual appropriation of 10 per cent, of the
State appropriation, not to exceed $50 yearly. The amount
expended last year was about $50,000.
The libraries constitute one of the best features of the
system.
6. SECULAR INSTRUCTION. — "With a few unimportant exceptions,
the schools are purely secular. The provisions of the State
law are generally interpreted to exclude the reading of the
Bible and prayer. In the State University, in the schools of
PRESENT CONDITION OP THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. 237
San Francisco, Oakland, and most other cities, and in most of
the country districts, there are no religious exercises whatever.
The State Normal School is the only notable exception;
there, the school is opened with prayer and the reading of
the Bible.
7. DEFECTS. — There are two weak points in the system. 1.
The short terms of school officers. 2. The frequent change
of teachers.
Everywhere, except in San Francisco, the New England
system of electing teachers annually is in full force and effect.
Hence, a majority of the teachers are " circuit teachers."
The frequent change of school officers renders uniform and
steady progress out of the question.
The most notable defect in the instruction given in the
schools is the lack of thorough mental training, the work of the
pupils consisting largely in memorizing text-book recitations.
The reforms of the next century will consist in the employ
ment of skilled teachers, in common sense methods of teach-
iDg, and in the adaptation of courses of study to industrial
pursuits.
8. EXPENSES. — The total amount expended for school pur
poses, during a quarter of a century, is, in round numbers,
twenty-five millions of dollars. This is the best investment the
State has ever made. Had fifty millions been expended, the
State to-day would be the richer for it. Men, not money, make
the true wealth of a nation.
9. WHAT WE NEED. — The following extract from an address by
Hon. Ezra S. Carr, before the State Agricultural Society, Sep
tember, 1875, outlines a want to be supplied during the next
century :
CHILD CULTURE.
Our progress during the last six years is due to our increased
facilities of travel and transportation. So many are now busy with
plans for increasing immigration, that it may be useful to have one
voice directing the public mind to the solution of a more important
question, viz. : how to grow a crop of sound-bodied, right-minded,
clean-hearted children, who will " take to work " as naturally and
kindly as a duck takes to water. I hold that the end of the crop is
the eater; the end of labor the betterment of the laborer; and that
human improvement is as legitimate a subject for discussion in agri-
238 PRESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM.
cultural societies as that of colts or chickens. We have hitherto left
this subject pretty much to the doctors — doctors of the body and of
the soul — whose occupation will be gone when man truly reflects the
Divine image. And although we need the help of these doctors still
in the work of human improvement, and although we are immensely
indebted to them for what has already been accomplished, I think it
is better to pay them for the ounce of prevention than for the pound
of cure/' Nature herself protests when a lean, dwarfed apology for a
man calls himself master of the noble brute creatures, which have be
come more than half human in their intelligence and beauty, through
careful selections, breeding, and nurture. '-'An organization like this,
having for its object the improvement or the farmer, as well as the
farm, will not love a horse less because it loves a child more. The
interests of agriculture are bound up with those of education, espe
cially in that modern form of it which is denominated " technical."
The farmer's children are "the best working stock on the farm;"
and" the value of skill, intelligence, and good character applied there
is more and more highly appreciated. This is the lowest, most ma
terial view of the subject, but it is one that the political economist
will not overlook. Do our schools, do any of them, meet the great
demands of agricultural and mechanical industry? Hundreds of the
best and most progressive teachers say they do not; thousands and
tens of thousands of anxious parents say they do not.
In a recent meeting of a State agricultural society in the East, it
was said: fe "What we want is not mere culture, but culture applied,
culture realized, culture put at work, and demonstrating, day by day,
its uses." The masses of our people have little time to pursue
branches of study which have not some direct bearing upon their
callings or avocations. Aside from the elements, which all should
receive, the importance of special knowledge, bearing upon special
work, is paramount. Our system should be changed, so that from
the highest classes in the country schools to the University, by un
broken gradations of the most liberal training in the acquisition of
knowledge and skill, men and women should be fitted worthily to
perform their appointed service in the industrial state.
It is fifteen years since the Massachusetts State Board of Agricult
ure asked the legislature for the passage of an act authorizing, as
the first step in furnishing an agricultural education to the people —
FIRST — " The engrafting upon her common school education the
study of elementary geology, animal and vegetable physiology, and
botany; to be taught in the usiial form, by manuals, with suitable
illustrations, simple and inexpensive; so prepared that it will not
altogether depend upon the knowledge of the instructor -to make
them of use to the learner. With a slight change in their studies,
our children would learn something which would every day become
more deeply implanted in their minds by what they see going on
around them." " These studies," they said, " cannot be commenced
too early, for they are the germs of all future development, the
vitality of which is never lost; they must be planted early if it is
hoped to reach a full harvest."
SECOND — They asked for an agricultural school with a farm attached
to it, where the practice of agriculture in its several departments,
PKESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. 239
and the best methods of farm management could be practically
learned. The committee, among whom I find the names of Marshal
P. Wilder and George B. Loring, said: "If a person, who had the
ability to perform whatever he undertook, should offer to the people
of this commonwealth a secret, by which in twenty years the pro
ductive value of the lands throughout the whole State would be
doubled, what would that secret be worth ? The diffusion of general
agricultural education would accomplish that object; nay, go far
beyond it, in less time than has been named, and at an expense
that would be trifling in proportion to the benefits that would flow
from it."
Other States have taken similar action. The farmers of the West
have recommended a revision of the school course, with this object
in view.
In Illinois, an able defender of industrial education said: "We
take the child out of God's natural industrial university and send
him to school, where, at best, only a fraction of his entire manhood
can be properly developed; and, after all, we do not fit pupils for
actual life, even in those elemental studies after forty weeks' school
per annum, as well as they were fitted in ten weeks, half a century
ago. One prime cause of this is, that the bookmakers and publishers
have assumed about as absolute control of our public schools as the
politicians have of our post-offices. Rich publishing houses have
offered as high as $70,000 for the introduction of a single text-book
into a State. And yet not one of those books teaches us the things
which it is our chief interest to know, and our protracted school
drill leaves little time for anything else."
"I wish," says Professor Turner, "to make room for some of the
subjects which underlie the industrial arts, botany, entomology, and
zoology, for instance. The State of Illinois spends, say $12,000,000
a year on her public schools, and loses from $10,000,000 to $20,000,-
000 from obnoxious insects. Now, I would have every one of these
insects, about a hundred in all, with pins in their backs, put up in
a show-case in every public school in the State; and I would have
every child know them as well as he knows his father's cows and
horses; instead of having one or two lone men looking after them,
1 would turn millions of intelligent young eyes upon them, and
thus prepare for their extermination. I would have this, whether
the child knew there was such a word as ' en-tom-ol-o-gy ' or not !
"The hard-working American people want to know something
about our continent — our life-work, our bodies, and bones, and
souls, our duties and destinies in the great republic in which we
live.
" I look upon the agricultural classes to lift us out of this monkey-
dom of precedent, into the true freedom of American citizenship.
All that is needed is that every man should quietly set about im
proving his own school, in his own district, as fast and as fully as
he can."
I shall make no apology for quoting these educational authorities.
I warn all those classes who do not believe in industrial education,
that Broderick's words are fast coming to be true, that —
240 PRESENT CONDITION OF THE SCPIOOL SYSTEM.
The State Superintendent of Public Instruction in Connecticut,
Mr. Northrop (and he has been saying these things from that office
a good many years), says: " Every child's education is deficient who
has not learned to work at some useful form of industry. Labor
aids in disciplining the intellect, and energizing the character.
Especially does farm work task and test the mind, leading a boy to
plan and contrive to adapt means to ends. With all our improved
gymnastics, none is better than manual labor, cheerfully and intelli
gently performed, especially farm work. The ambition for easier
lives, and more genteel employments, and the silly but common no
tion that labor is menial, that the tools of the trades and the farms
are badges of servility, have greatly lessened apprenticeships, and
ought to be refuted in our common schools.
"Our youth should there be taught the dignity and necessity of
labor, and its vital relations to all human excellence and progress,
the evils of indolence, the absurdity of the present fashion for city
life, and the wide-spread aversion to manual labor. A practical
knowledge of some industrial pursuit is an important element in
intellectual culture."
I fully indorse these sentiments. " "Whatever you would have ap
pear in a nation's life must be put into its schools/' is a Prussian
motto, and we put the same idea into section 1702 of our code,
which makes it "the duty of teachers to instruct pupils to avoid
idleness, and to train them to a comprehension of the rights, duties,
and dignity of American citizenship." But Prussia enforces her
principles in the most universal system of "real," or technical
schools, which turn out able young farmers, carpenters, black
smiths, and housekeepers, and nurses, while with us it all ends in an
admonition to "avoid idleness."
The State must go further than this; it must fit its children for
their places in the industrial ranks. The nation has two technical
schools — one for training of navy, the other of army, officers. Each
State has one for the training of teachers, and a few have real train
ing schools or colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts. If
these are what they should be, they will do for those pursuits what
West Point and Annapolis do for the army and navy, viz. : make
men who are proud of their business. I wish some of the kid glove
gentry who think the base-ball club and the boating club furnishes
a more dignified employment for the muscles of our young men
than manual labor, could have been with me at the annual examina
tion of one of the nation's training schools, wThere high born and low
born, without distinction of nationality or religion, learn — what?
To scrub a deck, to furl a sail, to use every tool in the carpenter's
shop, in the blacksmith's shop, to make and to mend everything
that belongs to a ship, to be considerate, gentlemanly, orderly, to
command themselves and others, to obey, to love their country's
flag, and to die for it without a murmur, to go down with the ship
if need be — all this while they learn everything that is required in
literature and science for an education of the first class.
And must one be a soldier, or a sailor, to be thus furnished for
PEESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM.
his countiy's service, for bis own service in the industrial state ?
Shall a man be trained in all manliness to walk the quarter deck,
worthy of all obedience because he understands what he requires,
and has himself performed, not once, but a thousand times, all that
he exacts from subordinates; and may he not have an equal train
ing for the post of foreman in a mechanic's shop, for the manage
ment of his own broad acres, and the laborers he requires to culti
vate them ? Do you suppose they would put a man in charge of
the Naval Academy, or tolerate a single professor in West Point,
who thought practical education in war and navigation would prove
" a failure" — was, at best, a doubtful experiment? No; that isn't
the way they manage. Those old admirals and army officers are
seamen and soldiers through and through, from boots to buttons;
they believe in their business. The men who lead in industrial
education must believe in it also.
The kind of education wanted to-day is not that which has passed
current, and which has proved a dead failure in making a generation
of nobler youth, stronger in body, clearer in mind, and firmer in
conscience, than the half-schooled frontier gave us a hundred years
ago. Don't take this on my authority, but look through the Gov
ernors' messages and State Superintendents' reports. Why, only
last year the Education Committee of the Massachusetts Legislature
said: " The public school system of Massachusetts fails to meet the
demands of modern civilization." Why and how? Civilization
now demands skilled, intelligent labor; and, as Scott Russell says,
"Occupations which require no skill, but only brute force, will
necessarily be vacated by human hands." The substitution of
steam culture for hand labor has thrown thousands of English
workmen out of employment.
" Society, in the march of improvement, is as certain to do with
out the unskilled, the unintelligent, and uneducated, as it is to do
without wild plants and animals. Nor will the laws be unjust
which forbid those who cannot create their food to subsist on the
labor of others."
Governor Hartranf t, of Pennsylvania, calls attention to the scarcity
of skilled labor in that State, and says, that although $10,000,000
are annually expended for education, none of the children who
complete their terms in the public schools have any special fitness
for trade, and few become artisans. He recommends schools where
boys can be instructed in trades, and urges compulsory education.
I might amplify this' testimony almost indefinitely, but I turn to
other aspects of the question.
I am not one of those who think a thing must be good because
it is baldheaded with antiquity. Education is essentially conserva
tive. You cannot make a move in the way of improvement with
out disturbing somebody, and we shall have to disturb a good
many people sitting in comfortable chairs before we get our educa
tional stream to turning mills and grinding corn.
While I do not think that bodily labor is specially desirable for
its own sake, I think any scheme which leaves physical education
out of the account is radically defective. If you can have this with
training in useful arts, so much the better, but have it wre must.
242 PEESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM.
There was a training in those primitive New England times when a
fellow had to lie down to his Lindley Murray before a fire of pine
knots, after milking the cows, cutting the wood, and doing the
" chores;" when the girl added the daily skein to the festoons of
yarn for the family clothing, which is hard to get in these days.
As soon as a child was old enough to pick up a basket of chips,
it became an element in the productive wealth of the home. Surely
it was none the worse for it to be taught by the statutes of law
and filial duty that service was due for the care and support of its
helpless years. These views may seem sordid, but the looseness
with which children grow up to think their parents and the rest of
the world owe them a living is filling our streets with hoodlums
and with animated fashion plates, ready to be blown away by the
first ill wind of temptation. What is a hoodlum? A boy gone to
waste, rotten before he is ripe,' because society does not know
enough to preserve and economize him.
The education required by a people is not a fixed quantity, either
in kind or degree, and the condition and circumstances of laboring
men of every class have greatly changed since the idea of public edu
cation first dawned. Why, do you know that the experiment is
historically so recent that a good many countries have not had time
to make it ?
The history of education fully explains why it is not more practi
cal. Colleges and seminaries grew up out of the monasteries, which,
for a long time, treasured all the learning there was in the world.
Learning was a monopoly; first of the priest, then of priests and the
nobles, then of these and the judges, and finally, and not without
hard squeezing, the leech or doctor got into this good company, and
then came the printed Bible to carry the art of reading wherever
religious zeal could take it. There was nothing but literature for
education to use; it covered the whole field, except mathematics.
Columbus invented geography, and Galileo and Copernicus astron
omy, long after the great European universities wrere founded. In
England, where our college system came from, the aristocratic
classes only were benefited by it, and it suited them very well.
And when the common school got started, it simply took a few of
the first leaves out of the college book. It is not so very long since
men learned to read and spell in the Universities of Oxford and
Cambridge. It took several centuries of human progress to bring
rulers to consent that common folks should learn the alphabet; and,
again, to get permission for women to tamper with the dangerous
thing. It took a good while to get a spinning-jenny, and a power
wheel, and a steam plow; and the education of the Oxford time
don't suit the spinning-jenny age, as England has learned to her
cost.
Until about the time of the gold discovery in California, England
was domineering over the rest of Europe, through her commercial
supremacy, and her command of the supplies of raw materials, which
enabled her to take the lead in manufactures. These advantages she
was likely to retain. But France and Germany, by the most mag
nificent provisions for technical schools, set themselves to compete
with her on her own ground of manufactures, and not only dis-
PRESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. 243
tanced her completely, but almost drove her from the field. The
Exposition of '67 proved that Germany could make better steel, and
France better locomotives; " that England was beaten, not only on
some points, but, by some nation, on nearly all the points on which
she had prided herself." The English government then sent eighty
skilled workmen over to the Continent, to find out the causes of
defeat. The unanimous reply was: " Their industrial education has
caused it."
Lord Stanley addressed the most careful inquiries to all the foreign
Consuls in France, Prussia, Saxony, Switzerland, Belgium, and
got the same answer, "industrial education." And lately there
comes a plan from England for a national system of industrial in
struction for the whole people, beginning in primary schools, and
ending in a great " central technical university" for training pro
fessors and teachers of institutions of lower rank, devoted to raising
the standard of industrial well-being. Instead of believing that
money is the root of evil, the Englishman believes it to be the root
of industry, and so of all good, and this change in the direction of
popular education is due to the lesson the English nation received
at Paris and Vienna.
The great natural advantages which we possess will not give us
industrial supremacy, unless we follow these examples. The " In
ternational Magazine " emphasizes our duty and our opportunity in
strong language: " With an agricultural wealth to which no limit
can be assigned, with mineral riches everywhere bursting through
the surface, with water power which no mills can exhaust; not to
advance, not to rival the skilled industry of Europe, is not a loss
merely, it is a crime." The California wheat-grower and wool-
grower must compete in the Liverpool market with the wheat and
wool of the world. Competition, in every branch of industry, has
become world- wide, and unless the American farmer and manufac
turer does his best, he is sure to take the lower place in the world's
market.
AYitli gold and silver mines that supply all nations, with forests
shading our hillsides, with flocks, and vineyards, and great valleys
teeming with their abundant harvests, we cannot be rich or great,
unless we can compete in the enlightened employment of these
natural means and forces. The experience of all Europe teaches,
" Industrial supremacy is the prize of industrial education."
Let us lay the foundation of this supremacy in
OUR PRIMARY SCHOOLS.
Carry it forward by a well-devised system of secondary technical
schools, and complete it in a University where prominence is given
to different branches of learning, according to the directness and
value of these as applied to the occupations and pursuits of our
people.
Perhaps there was never a time when the relations of the Gov
ernment to education need to be discussed so thoroughly, and yet so
temperately. That universal intelligence is the only guarantee of
universal liberty, is one of the fundamental ideas of the American's
political faith; but the right and duty of the State to educate has
been better stated in monarchical Germany than in republican
244 PRESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM.
America. The great Fichte said: "The end of the State is not only
to live, but to live nobly/' And the clearest of writers upon the phi
losophy of education, Karl Rosencranz, said: "The idea that the
Government has the right to oversee the school, lies in the very idea
of the State, which is authorized and under obligations to secure the
education of citizens, and cannot leave their fashioning to chance.
The separation of the school from the State would be the destruc
tion of the school."
With us it would be the destruction of the State; for here the di
versity of the materials which form the State, requires the unifying
influence of a broad and comprehensive system of public education.
The work of the State in education may be divided into three sec
tions. The first is elementary and general (and should be universal
and free), making every child familiar with reading, writing, draw
ing or picture writing, with elementary arithmetic and natural his
tory, and with the geography and history of his own State and
country. In the second stage, separation and specialization should
begin, which will necessarily grow and perfect itself with the growth
of culture, and the more perfect organization of the forces of civili
zation. We now specialize only in regard to classes of unfortunates,
the deaf, dumb, blind, etc. ; by and by we can specialize as to uses,
and make our country schools more preparatory to agriculture, hor
ticulture, and the like; while our city schools, by vacation classes,
half-time schools, and other agencies, at first, and afterwards by
special schools, render the same service to the mechanic and manu
facturing arts. The certainties of science are swiftly taking the
place of the hap-hazard pursuit of those arts, and a great part of
secondary instruction should be in the simpler applications of scien
tific principles.
In the third, or University stage of education, the one-sidedness
of a particular or strictly technological training is rounded off by a
survey of the relations and value of each specialty to others, without
losing sight of a specific individual purpose. The University is as
necessary a part of public instruction as the elementary or technical
school, and should be the crown and complement of these. Below
this point the States say everjr child shall be furnished with the
means for the rational development of his physical, moral, and in
tellectual powers; to this, instruction should be added which will
enable the child to apply those powers in obtaining a livelihood;
while at the gates of the University the State confers a privilege,
and says to the youth: You may go up higher, and contend for the
prizes of thought and activity. The University says: Here you shall
find the natural sciences carried up into the science of nature; that
the phenomena of society, of industry, of trade, of finance, of poli
tics, are subject to fixed laws. The University is an organic ency
clopedic representation of all the sciences, with their connections
and relations. And this is equally true of the arts, architecture,
music, painting, the drama — are like the sciences, bound together in
a Universifas Arcium.
While this is the true conception of a University, and should not
be lost sight of in laying the foundations of an institution for all time,
it is not immediately practical or adapted to the wants of young and
PRESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM. 245
growing States. The reason of this is, that the lower stages of public
education are yet imperfect and unorganized. To expect to have a
great University without a good proportion of high schools, and be
fore we have a single technical school, seems to me preposterous.
"We may have students crowding into our University to get what
other colleges give — liberal literary or scientific education — without
getting a step nearer the ideal University, while numbers of the stu
dents of older colleges are found among us seeking for second-rate
clerkships, in threadbare clothes; but when we get the feeders to our
University in running order, we shall find its utmost usefulness
realized in the production of educated power instead of
EDUCATED HELPLESSNESS.
" We thank you," said the Troquois Chief (in the year 1774) to
the Government of Virginia, which had offered to educate some of
their young men; " we have already had experience of your edu
cation, and some whom you have educated in all your sciences
come back to us bad runners, ignorant of woodcraft, unable to trap
a deer, snare a fish, to build a wigwam; we cannot accept your
offer, though we appreciate your good will, but we will take a few
of your sons and make men of them."
Something like this the people have been saying to the Universi
ties founded upon the munificence of the State and nation, not
because they do not appreciate education, but because they do.
They know that it costs more to hang a man, to board and lodge
a man at San Quentin, than it would to teach him the duties and
responsibilities of American citizenship, and how to get an honest
living; that it costs far more to maintain a system of demagogy than
of pedagogy! They know that where five agricultural scientists
could obtain employment, five thousand skillful, intelligent farmers
are needed to-day in our own State. The friends of the so-called
higher education should be willing to see the University filling the
present need of technical training in agriculture and the arts, mak
ing practical workers, as well as thinkers, of its students, thus sup
plying the means of its ideal perfection.
The technical school in which wre are most directly interested, is
that which gives us teachers. "Without the right kind of teachers,
no reform is possible. The one business which it should be the
special concern of the State to maintain in honor, which should
be kept free from political or sectarian influences, which should be
entered into with zeal and consecrated ability, and never as a make
shift — is education. The educator, whether of the school or the
press, stands at the point of power, and holds the highest office in
the social economy.
The work of organizing the national education is now claiming
the attention of scholars and patriots. Such an organization, in its
higher and lower stages, will be impartial in its bearings upon in
tellect and industry, impartial as to sex, making a boy's training
preparatory to a man's work, and girl's to a woman's, wife's,
mother's work, and in both will recognize the intrinsic dignity of
self-support.
The graduate of the National School of Pedagogy, or Normal
246
PRESENT CONDITION OF THE SCHOOL SCHOOL.
School, will have the same relation to the Government that the
graduate- of West Point or of the Naval Academy has, and thus step
by step the hitherto unrewarded and despised profession of teach
ing shall be exalted and ennobled. Do I believe in this good time
coming ? Most assuredly I do. The time has already come when
war is no longer a necessity, and that nation is the most civilized
which can most easily dispense with it. The reign of words, too,
is almost over; dogmas, religious or political, no longer fetter the
nations; thought is free as air. Literature must take the back seat;
while the arts, leading science, make the circuit of the world. Be
tween the standing armies of soldiers, which tell how imperfect still
is human government, and the sitting armies of sophists, whose
mission it is to perpetuate existing evils, another great army is
being drilled — the army of labor — in which we shall find the most
practical philosophy, the broadest intelligence, and the most Chris
tian patriotism.
Little more than two hundred years ago, Sir William Berkeley,
Governor of Virginia, said: "Thank God, there are no free schools
nor printing presses here, and I hope there will be none for an
hundred years, for learning has brought heresy and sects into the
world, and printing has divulged these and other libels." The
ghost of Sir William flits in a few remote corners of our land, but
the spirit of modern inquiry forbids that it shall be materialized.
With conscious pride, the farmers and laboring men of America
are building a commonwealth whose spirit shall be peace on earth
and good will to man; whose weapon, suffrage; whose conservatism,
education; whose objects are freedom, order, and economy within
our own boundaries, and an eternal brotherhood with those who
are our wider neighbors. •
LIBRARY
1 UNIVERSITY OF
CALIFORNIA.
EBRATA,
Page 20, Sec. 8, read "approved May 3, 1852," instead of "approved May 3,
1862.'*
Page 24, See. 15, read "1855," instead of "1856."
Page 25, Sec. 17, read "seventh," instead of "seventeenth."
OMISSION.
In the section of legislation, 1874, on page 65, no mention is made of the Com
pulsory Education Bill passed during that year; but as the law has proved a dead
letter, the omission is of little consequence,
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