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(sinc Quarterly Journal, of 
The Florida Academy of Sciences 


A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research | 


H. K. Watziace, Editor 


VOLUME Il - /&. 


Published by 


THe Froripa ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Tallahassee, Florida 
1949 


Dates of Publication 


Number 1 — March 22, 1949 
Number 2-3 — September 28, 1949 
Number 4 — January 31, 1950 


CONTENTS OF VOLUME Il 


NuMBER lL 


Probable Fundamental Causes of Red Tide off the West Coast 
feeeremea. By F.C. Walton Smith. 


A Preliminary Report on the Young Striped Mullet (Mugil 
Cephalus Linnaeus) in Two Gulf Coastal Areas of Florida. 
ene an Gz) fajita tore Ne OE eee ee 


A Preliminary List of the Endemic Flowering Plants of Florida. 
RCnORROTES EE TUT ICT. se 


Relationship of Recently Isolated Human Fecal Strains of 
Poliomyelitis to the Lansing Murine Strain. By Beatrice 
F. Howitt and Rachel H. Gorrie 


News and Comments 


Research Notes 


NuMBER 2-3 


An Ecological Reconnaissance of the Biota of Some Ponds and 
Ditches in Northern Florida. By J. C. Dickinson, Jr 


The Organizational Structure of Industrial and Independent 
Labor Groups in the Petroleum Industry. By T. Stanton 
_ i037 = eee ere estos Metre? teat ak. 

A Preliminary List of the Endemic F lowering Plants of Florida. 
Part Il. By Roland M. Harper 


The Peep Order in Peepers; A Swamp Water Serenade. By 
Coleman J. Goin 


Check List of the Algae of Northern Florida. C. S. Nielsen 
and Grace C. Madsen 


News and Comments 


Research Notes 


NUMBER 4 
Taxes are Everybody's Business. By Kurt A. Sepmeier 


The Plight of Korea. By Annie M. Popper 


The Flowers of Wolffiella floridana (J. D. SM.) Thompson. 
By Herman Kurz and Dorothy Crowson 


An Annotated List of the Fishes of Homosassa Springs, Florida. 
By Earl S. Herald and Roy R. Strickland 


Preliminary Check List of the Algae of the Tallahassee Area. 
By C. S. Nielsen and Grace C. Madsen 


Determination of the Physical Condition of Fish 
I. Some Blood Analyses of the Southern Channel Catfish. 
By A. Curtis Higginbotham and Dallas K. Meyer 


An Abandoned Valley Near High Springs, Florida. 
By Richard A. Edwards 


News and Comments 


Membership Drive 


Quarterly” Journal 


of the 


Florida Academy 
of Sciences 


Vol. il March 1948 (1949) No. I 


Contents 


SmMItTH—PROBABLE FUNDAMENTAL Causes oF RED Tipe Orr THE 
re E GCE QRIDA  < o)52o8 os)a 3 oo bw oc eiweiven be ceca ] 


Kitpy—A Pretiminary Report oN YouNG StrRiIpED MULLET 
(MUGIL CEPHALUS Linnzus) In Two Gutr Coastat AREAS 
OF FLORIDA.. “gs aE MT ES RTT PR ERA Ea ght ROIS 


Harper—A Prentiminary List oF THE ENDEMIC FLOWERING 
fmm ProrimnaA. PART 1.2...) conde vo ok cc ce cccccccecen 25 


Howitt AND GorRIE—RELATIONSHIP OF RuEcENTLY ISOLATED 
Human Fecazt Strains oF PoLIOMYELITIS TO THE LANSING 
PTE SEL TEE: STE Lai 22 2 RSS ee aS 


News AND CoMMENTS.... 2 'C.1e 26.6 8 ee oe Se g © S See GS TUL 6: 8.6 @.8 € 6. eo 6 49 


Vol. 11 MARCH 1948 (1949) No. 1 


QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF 
THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research 


Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences 
Printed by the Rose Printing Company, Tallahassee, Florida 


Communications for the editor and all manuscripts should be addressed to Frank 
N. Young, Editor, or Irving J. Cantrall, Asséstant Editor, Department of Biology, 
University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida. Business communications should be 
addressed to Chester S. Nielsen, Secretary-Treasurer, Florida State University, Talla- 
hassee, Florida. All exchanges and communications regarding exchanges should be 
sent to the Florida Academy of Sciences, Exchange Library, Department of Biology, 
University of Florida, Gainesville. 


Subscription price, Three Dollars a year 


Mailed March 22, 1949 


THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE 
FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Vol. 11 MARCH 1948 (1949) No. 1 


PROBABLE FUNDAMENTAL CAUSES OF RED 
TIDE OFF THE WEST COAST OF FLORIDA! 


F, G. Watton Smira 
Marine Laboratory, University of Miamz 


The recent outbreak of Red Tide and the consequent death of very 
_ large numbers of fishes on the west coast of Florida were subjects of 
investigation by the scientific staff of the Marine Laboratory during 
the first half of the year 1947. The results of these investigations are 
published in detail elsewhere (Gunter, Davis, Williams, and Smith 
1948). These results together with the observations of a number of 
other observers have also been summarized by Galtsoff (2948). 

As a result of the above investigations it has been established that 
the immediate cause of the Red Tide was an enormous and rapid but 
intermittent increase in numbers of a dinoflagellate which has been 
described in detail by Davis (4948) and named by him Gymnodinium 
brevis. 

It was further established that a toxic material associated with the 
swarims of this organism was responsible for the death of fish in the 
area. The underlying cause of the dinoflagelate bloom has not been 
established, however. It may therefore be of value to discuss the fac- 
tors which could reasonably account for this phenomenon, in the light 
of the conditions actually known to be present. 

The enormous growth in numbers of planktonic organisms was not 
limited to Gymnodinium brevis, but, immediately after the loss of red 
colour due to the death of this species, large numbers of various other 
species were found. In all the samples of sea water examined at the . 


1 Contribution No. 24 from the Marine Laboratory, University of Miami. 


WAR 2s iSabe 


2 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


time of, or shortly after, the outburst, the wet volume of plankton 
was very considerably in excess of samples taken on the west coast of 
Florida by members of this Laboratory on occasions previous to ap- 
pearance of the phenomenon. Unpublished studies of waters in the 
Florida Keys over a period of several years which have been made by 
R. H. Williams indicate a low plankton content combined with a low 
content of inorganic phosphorus as the normal condition in these wat- 
ers, at all times of the year. Wherever the presence of sewage has 
gteatly increased the inorganic phosphorus content, the volume of 
plankton has also been found greatly to increase, although not to the 
extent characteristic of the Red Tide. It is therefore reasonable to as- 
sume that inorganic phosphorus is the principle factor limiting growth 
of plankton in these waters at all times. This is in agreement with the 
general body of observations on tropical or sub-tropical waters. The 
great growth of organisms during the Red Tide must consequently be 
associated with a considerable increase in the nutrient phosphorus 
available. The fact that the inorganic phosphorus content as determ- 
ined at the time was too low to be detectable is of no consequence, 
since this element was probably by then completely used up by the 
plankton growth. Ketchum’s observations here are particularly valu- 
able since they show that the rorat phosphorus, dissolved organic, 
inorganic, and particulate was very considerably greater than that 
ever found previously under normal conditions in ocean water (Ketch- 
um 1948). It is also interesting to note that R. H. Williams has de- 
tected phosphate phosphorus in a range of concentration of from 4 to 
12 pg-atoms /liter in the Tampa Bay area, away from sources of human 
contamination during June 1946 (personal communication). The prob- 
lem remains to account for the presence of this excess. (See Table I.) 
Ketchum has suggested that the organisms may utilize the phos- 
phorus over the entire water column and, by subsequent migration to 
the surface, concentrate the phosphorus there. Unfortunately, no plank- 
ton and chemical analyses were made of water at different depths, so 
that no direct evidence is available to support or refute this suggestion. 
There are several observations that may have an indirect bearing on 
the problem, however. As Ketchum has pointed out, unless the organ- 
isms have a facility for developing with far greater nitrogen deficiencies 
than ever measured previously or a remarkable ability to utilize at- 
mospheric nitrogen, there must have been present in the water not 
only greatly increased quantities of torat phosphorus but also of 
total nitrogen. The swarming theory would satisfactorily account for 


FUNDAMENTAL CAUSES OF RED TIDE 5) 


simultaneous concentration of both. The intermittent appearance and 
disappearance characteristic of the Red Tide would be readily ex- 
plained under these conditions by the effect of winds, current, tem- 
perature changes and other factors promoting turbulence, which would 
quickly restore the phosphorus and nitrogen to the entire water column 
and thus bring conditions back to normal. In resolving the problem of 
the source of phosphorus this theory, unfortunately, presents a new 
difficulty. It now becomes necessary to explain why the swarming oc- 
curs at infrequent intervals separated by thirty years or more, and to 
explain what condition may stimulate or make possible swarming 
during Red Tide years alone. Without further knowledge of the life 
history, behavior, and physiology of Gymnodinium brevis this may 
be impossible to answer. 

Phenomena such as upwelling of nutrient-rich deep water would 
satisfactorily explain an increase of nitrogen coincident with the 
phosphorus increase, but as Ketchum has pointed out the amount 
actually present was far in excess of what is normally present in deep 
water. 

The measured amount of phosphorus present was so far above normal 
as to dispose of a previous suggestion by the present author (Gunter 
et al. 1948) to the effect that dissolved organic phosphorus might 
under certain conditions become more readily available. 

A further possibility depends upon the presence of nutrient salts in 
bottom muds. The experience of Raymont (1947) and many other 
workers in adding fertilizer to bodies of water has been that a large 
proportion of the phosphorus added disappears from solution in an 
amount greatly in excess of the amount utilized by plankton growth 
-and must necessarily have become incorporated with the bottom de- 
posits. Unpublished observations of the present author have shown 
bacteria present in the calcareous muds of sponge grounds to the 
number of several million per cubic centimeter. Thus, while direct 
evidence is lacking, there is good reason to believe that both phos- 
phorus and nitrogen may be present in the bottom deposits in quan- 
tities more than sufficient to account for Red Tide phenomena. Once 
more, however, a further problem arises of establishing the condi- 
tions or events which might release the nutrient salts from bottom 
deposits at infrequent intervals. Certainly no unusually heavy weather 
was associated with the Red Tide years (Gunter et a/.). Furthermore, 
in normal years the waters in question, close to shore, contain con- 
siderable quantities of sediment originating from the bottom. 


4 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


A possibility which cannot be ruled out completely is that the 
excess nutrient has its origin in mineral deposits. Florida is a major 
soutce of rock phosphate and it is not inconceivable that river drain- 
age has brought increased concentrations of this into the ocean. The 
difficulty in this explanation lies in the fact that the Red Tide phe- 
nomena were observed near Key West and Cape Sable, which are at 
considerable distances from rivers which drain areas where phosphate 
deposits are known to exist. The prevailing drift of ocean water even 
at a distance of thirty miles from the west coast of Florida appears to 
be to the north (Smith, F. G. Walton 1941, and Marine-Laboratory, | 
University of Miami, 1948). It would be difficult therefore to explain 
how phosphates emptying into the ocean from rivers between Naples 
and Tarpon Springs could later appear near Key West. On the other 
hand, our knowledge of the surface wind drifts and alongshore circu- 
lation in this area is very inadequate and this possibility cannot be 
precluded. 

The transport of phosphates to a wide area of ocean would be more 
teadily explained on the basis of submarine deposits of the mineral 
which might become exposed periodically as a result of shifts in the 
bottom currents, which are known to be quite strong (Marine Labo- 
ratory, University of Miami, 1948). Virgil Sleight of the University 
of Miami Geology Department informs me that there is nothing in 
the literature which would rele out the presence of such deposits. 

Other theories advanced previously have been so at variance with 
the facts that no useful purpose would be served in quoting them. It is 
also evident that theories of mineral origin suffer from their failure 
to account for nitrogen excess as well as phosphorus excess. The pos- 
sibility of an ability on the part of Gymnodinium brevis to fix atmos- 
pheric nitrogen or to grow under conditions of extreme nitrogen defi- 
ciency has not been disproved, however. These theories, along with 
those previously mentioned cannot therefore be discarded before a 
careful study has been made. This should include not only observations 
on the physiology, behavior, ecology and life history of Gymnodinium 
brevis carried out under controlled laboratory conditions, but also an 
oceanographical chemical and biological survey of the Gulf waters 
near the west coast of Florida, and an examination of the bottom 
deposits in the area. The bottom deposits are particularly worthy of 
study in view of Nelson’s recent findings (Nelson 1948). 

Studies of the streams reaching the Gulf on the northern part of 
Florida’s west coast are, it is understood, already in progress. In order 


FUNDAMENTAL CAUSES OF RED TIDE 5 


that the part played by mineral deposits may be thoroughly exam- 
ined it is hoped that these may be extended to the ocean and that 
the necessary experimental work outlined above will also be under- 
taken by competent investigators. 


TasLE I—PnHospHATE PHospHoRUS DETERMINATIONS 


Location Date uw gram-atoms Liter 


North side of Big Bird Key, Terra Ceia Bay, R. H. 
0 UAUES 2 June 3, 1946 4.80 


Middle of Terra Ceia Bay, R. H. Williams......... June 3, 1946 3.60 


East side of Green Key, Hillsborough Bay, R. H. 
LETTS. ~ s5 ee June 4, 1946 12.0 


One mile west of Green Key, Hillsborough Bay, 
Oo. Be EATS ee June 4, 1946 8.4 


Neighborhood of Sarasota, B. H. Ketchum........ July, 1947 4.5 to 7.4 


LITERATURE CITED 
DAVIS, C.. C. 
1948. Gymnodinium brevis sp. nov., a cause of discoloured water and animal mortality 
in the Gulf of Mexico. Botanical Gazette, 109, No. 3: 358-360. 


GUNTER, G., WILLIAMS, R. H., DAVIS, C. C., and SMITH, F. G. WALTON 
1948. Catastrophic mass mortality of marine animals and coincident phytoplankton 
bloom on the West Coast of Florida, November 1946 to August 1947. Ecology 
Cin press). 
GALTSOFF, PAUL S. 
1948. Red Tide. A report on the investigations of the cause of the mortality along 
the West Coast of Florida conducted by the United States Fish and Wildlife 
Service and cooperating organizations. United States Fish and Wildlife Service. 
Special Scientific Report No. 46. 


KETCHUM, BOSTWICK H., and KEEN, JEAN 
1948. Unusual phosphorous concentrations in the Florida ‘‘red tide’’ sea water. 
Journ. Marine Research, 7, No. 1. 
MARINE LABORATORY, UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI 
1948. Report on a survey of the sponge grounds north of Anclote Light. Florida . 
State Board of Conservation, January 1948. Mimeographed. 


6 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


NELSON, THURLOE C. 
1947- Some contributions from the land in determining conditions of life in the 
sea. Ecological Monographs, 17 :337-346. 
RAYMONI, J. E.G. 
1947. A fish farming experiment in‘Scottish sea lochs. Journ. Marine Research, 6, 
No. 3. 
SMITH, F. G. WALTON 


1941. Sponge disease in British Honduras and its transmission by water currents. 
Ecology, 22., No. 4. 


Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 11(2) 1948(1949). 


- A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE YOUNG 
STRIPED MULLET (MUGIL CEPHALUS Linnaeus) IN 
TWO GULF COASTAL AREAS OF FLORIDA! 


Joun D. Kirpy 
University of Florida 


~The common striped mullet of commerce in Florida forms the base 
for a multimillion dollar fishing industry. Anderson and Power (1948: 
165) fix the value of the 1940 catch at $1,188,185.00. This sum repre- 
sents more than one-third of the value of all Florida fish taken during 
that year. The next most important species listed is the red snapper, 
which had a value of less than one-third that of the mullet. Besides 
supplying thousands of tons of food for man and being a favorite bait 
fish, the mullet is also an important food for many of the game and 
commercial fishes of the state. Jordan and Everman (1908: 253) pre- 
sent an interesting account of the economic importance of the mullet 
to Florida. 

In view of its commercial value and the universally admitted de- 
sirability of its conservation and perpetuation as a natural resource of 
the state, it might be assumed that the life history of the mullet is 
well known. Such an assumption, however, would be in error, be- 
cause little has been published on the young, and specimens less than 
16 mm. in standard length are apparently unknown. A detailed study 
by Gunter (1945) on the behavior of mullet along the Texas coast sum- 
marizes the observations of Hildebrand and Schroeder (1928), Hig- 
gins (1927), and Breder (1940). Jacot (1920) reports on the growth and 
characters, particularly scale development, of M. cephalus and M. curema 
collected in North Carolina. Gunter (op. cit.: 51-2) states that: 


Young first appeared in the minnow seine catches in December, 1941, on the Gulf 
beach and in lower Aransas Bay. In 1942 they were first taken on the Gulf beach in No- 
vember. They were 24 to 25 mm. long.* In January, 1941, they appeared in huge numbers 
and had by that time spread into Copano Bay. These small mullet continued in minnow 
seine catches in large numbers until March. They grew rapidly. A few were caught in 
April. Some of the small fish, especially in the later months, may have been Mugél curema 


- 1} Contribution from the Department of Biology, University of Florida. 
* Length expressed as the distance from tip of snout to tip of longest caudal ray. A 
25 mm. specimen on this basis has a standard length of approximately 20 mm. 


8 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


for the young of the two species are difficult to separate in the field.3 In June, 1941, the 
largest of the young were 33 to 103 mm. long. In November, the small mullet, in all 
likelihood the same group, ranged from 103 to 148 mm. long. They were then about 
one year old. 

In summary, the large mullet go to the Gulf in the fall and congregate near the passes 
on the outside beaches. Spawning takes place there and extends from late October to 
early January, with the peak probably falling in late November and early December. Young 
mullet first appear on the Gulf beach and the lower bay in November and December and 
soon spread all over the shallow areas of the bays. They were taken most abundantly in 
January. After spawning the large mullet scatter out again and large numbers of them 
return to the bays. : 

This rather simple picture of mullet spawning and movements of the old and young - 
observed here is essentially the same as that reported in Florida by Captain J. L. Sweat 
(Hildebrand and Schroeder, 1928). It also corresponds with observations of Higgins (192.7) 
and scattered observations of other workers throughout the years. Schroeder (see Hilde- 
brand and Schroeder, op. cit.) says mullet spawn in Florida in November and December. 
Hildebrand and Schroeder (op. cét.) said that the mullet did not spawn in Chesapeake 
Bay, but that spawning could not have been far away, for small fry came into the bay 
in April. Breder (1940) observed mullet spawning in inside waters in Florida in Febru- 
ary. He did not mention the salinity, but in all probability it was quite high. 

_ This summary indicates the small amount of available specific in- 
formation on which to base a sound, long term program of conserva- 
tion for Florida mullet. The principal measures in practice at present 
consist of a closed season between December 1oth of one year and 
January 20th of the next, and regulations governing the gear used in 
fishing operations. 

During the period from June, 1947, through December, 1948, the 
writer made a series of fish collections in the Gulf coastal marshes 
along the northern third of the Florida peninsula in the vicinities of 
Cedar Key and Bayport. These localities are some 100 miles and 50 
miles north of Tampa Bay, respectively. Approximately one hundred 
and eighty collections were made and, of these, sixty contained mullet. 
The 2,024 specimens of young mullet from the Cedar Key area and the 
210 from the Bayport area range in size from 16 mm. to 103 mm. stand- 
ard length measurement. This material and the data assembled on the 
habits and habitats of the mullet afford information which may be 
of interest to both the fisheries conservationist and the ichthyologist. 

The collections resulting in the mullet catches are part of a study 
primarily designed to discover which fishes, and to what extent these 
fishes, occur in the Gulf coastal marshes as represented by the Cedar 

’ Some of the specimens in the present study may have been young of Mugil curema 


but, if so, preserved Florida specimens of the two species are extremely similar—more, 
perhaps, than Jacot (op. cét.) describes for North Carolina representatives. 


PRELIMINARY REPORT ON YOUNG STRIPED MULLET 9 


Key and Bayport areas. A secondary aim is to investigate the role 
which salinity plays in the distribution of these marsh fishes. It is 
planned to report on these studies at a later date. The present paper is 
concerned with a limited amount of the data assembled on the mullet. 


AREAS STUDIED 


Collections were made in, and adjacent to, the zone commonly re- 
ferred to as salt or coastal marshes bordering the Gulf of Mexico. In 
addition, exploratory, but not intensive, collecting was done in the 
shallower waters of the open bays and in fresh water close to the 
margins of the marshes. 

The Cedar Key and Bayport marshes are fairly representative of many 
thousands of square miles of coastal marsh occurring on both the 
Atlantic and Gulf shores of Florida. Such areas are particularly exten- 
sive neat estuaries and in the vicinities of the larger bays and sounds. 
They constitute a very definite zone separating the open waters from 
the lands above high tide matk. Along the Gulf Coast, marshes are 
absent in some localities where the beach is adjacent to high land, 
but in most areas they are present and may reach a width of several 
miles. : 
Typically, the marshes are dissected by watercourses which empty 
into the bays and sounds. Between these watercourses are, usually, some 
areas of open water which frequently have soft, muddy bottoms. 
Some of the smaller open areas were found to contain young mullet; 
these situations are described in detail later. 

The dominant, emergent vegetation of the marshes at Cedar Key 
and Bayport is Juncus romerianus and Spartina alterniflora, with the 
latter pioneering almost to extreme low tide level and occupying, in 
general, the areas barely covered by water at normal low tides. Juncus 
romerianus tends to favor slightly higher situations which are in- 
undated only at high tide. Mangrove islands are not uncommon and 
usually are established along shorelines and on the more elevated 
oyster bars. 

The maze of watercourses interconnects all parts of the marshes. 
Flooding of the entire marsh at high tide covers the whole area with 
one vast sheet of water. At such times fish may pass freely through 
the stands of emergent plants which are only partially covered by the 
water at normal high tide. Field observations indicate that the fishes 
inhabiting the marshes penetrate the vegetated areas at all times that 
water covers them. As the water recedes the fish are consequently re- 


10 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


stricted more and more, and on extremely low tides are confined ‘to 
the deeper holes in the bayous, along the shores of the bays, and 
especially in the small tide pools of the marshes themselves. It is at 
such times of concentration that effective seining is possible. During 
periods of high tides the fishes readilv escape the net by taking refuge 
in vegetated areas where it is impossible to catch them in numbers. 
Consequently, most of the collecting of the present study was ‘ac- 
ee at low tide. 


MertTHops 


The most frequently used net was a minnow seine of one-quarter 
inch mesh, ten feet long, four feet deep, and equipped with a four 
foot bag in the center. A similar net twenty-five feet long was used in 
bodies of water too large to be spanned by the shorter net. Supple- 
menting these two seines were tea strainers, D-type dip nets with 
fine mesh, and ‘‘Common Sense’’ seines of approximately one-eighth 
inch mesh. 

Whenever possible, the seine hauls were planned so that the body 
of water being worked was covered by the net from shore to shore, 
and seine hauls were repeated until it was believed that all, or at 
least nearly all, species of fish present were represented in the collec- 
tion. Care was exercised to keep the lead line either on or below the 
bottom and the cork line floating or even raised above the surface of 
the water. The seining through the soft, bottom mud netted many 
fish which would otherwise have escaped due to the habit of a number 
of species of burying themselves in the mud when disturbed. Mullet, 
for example, were caught by hand in crab holes approximately e1 SEs 
inches below the mud surface. 

Preservation of specimens was accomplished by placing the catch in 
ten percent formalin. All specimens caught were preserved except when 
the haul netted very large numbers of individuals. Then from one to 
six quatts of the fish were preserved by simply scooping them into the 
pteservative with no attempt to select specimens on the basis of size 
or species. A card bearing the identifying name‘ of the station and a 
field catalogue number was placed in the container with the speci- 
mens. The same number was then entered on a field catalogue card on 
which was recorded data principally as follows: location and descrip- 
tion of station; water conditions including depth, temperature, density, 


4 Names for stations were employed in the field. Later each station was designated by 
a number and this simplified the handling of data, cf. Figs. 1 and-2. A 


PRELIMINARY REPORT ON YOUNG STRIPED MULLET 11 


turbidity, and color; tide conditions; time of day; and collecting 
methods. 
Salinities were calculated in the laboratory from data collected in the 
field. A sample of the water of the station was taken within three or 
four inches of the surface as a consistent practice, because so often 
it was necessary to take the sample there due to the shallowness of 
the water at many of the stations. Within minutes of taking the water 
sample, its temperature was recorded from a centigrade thermometer 
and the density determined by the use of a sea-water hydrometer grad- 
uated in thousandths. The temperature and hydrometer readings were 
taken simultaneously and used to establish the salinity of the sample 
substantially in accordance with the specific gravity method employed 
by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey and described by Schureman 


Yo 
(1941: 81-5). 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 


~The field and laboratory work, as well as the organization and 
writing of this report on a part of it, has been made a pleasure by the 
unreserved assistance rendered the writer by nearly every member of 
the Department of Biology at the University of Florida. Staff members 
and students have been of material assistance by their contributions in 
seining operations, planning and organizing the field work, and the 
accumulation and interpretation of data and criticism of the manu- 
script. The list is too long to allow the specific listing of these aids by 
individuals. However, at this limited opportunity, particular thanks 
are extended to the members of the writer's Graduate Committee for 
their assistances which extended far beyond the call of duty; to Miss 
Esther Coogle whose skill was painstakingly employed in the produc- 
tion of the plate and text figures; to the Board of Conservation and to 
the Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission of Florida for necessary 
collecting permits; and to Dr. Adrian C. Coogler and family who 
made the work at Bayport possible by generously furnishing quarters, 
boats, and motors for use there. 


HasiraTs 


The young mullet were obtained almost exclusively from two rather 
distinct habitats. Small specimens (246 mm.—27 mm., but chiefly 17 mm.— 
I9 mm.) were caught within feet, and usually within inches, of the 
water line of the open Gulf beaches having either sand or mud bottoms. 
These beach mullet were in definite groups of from five to about fifty 


12 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


individuals, and showed well developed schooling behavior. On one 
occasion during low tide (November 8, 1947), a dozen schools were 
watched over a period of several hours.. All the schools kept close 
inshore and none could be found in nearby deeper water, although 
much searching was done for them. When undisturbed the fish ap- 
peared to be following the shore, and since they kept so close to the 
water's edge it appeared almost certain that the next high tide would 
lead them into the marshes beyond. 

Small (17 mm.), as well as larger specimens (up to 103 mm.), were 
found in mud-bottomed, shallow tide pools of the marshes themselves. 
The proximity of the pool to the open Gulf varied from a few yards to 
several miles. The pools which produced maximum catches were in- 
vatiably small pockets from approximately six feet wide to about 
thirty-five feet wide. All of these pools had ooze-mud bottoms into 
which a seiner would sink from slightly less than a foot to as much 
as three feet in some softer spots. At low tide the depth of the water 
in those pools having a direct outlet to bayous or other marsh water- 
courses would be reduced to as little as three inches in the deeper 
parts; other pools with no direct connection to lower levels would 
retain up to two feet of water even during extremely low tides. Around 
the edges of the pools dense growths of Spartina alterniflora, and oc-. 
casionally some Juncus romerianus, wete present and, when partially 
inundated by high tide, provided a well protected refuge and, quite 
possibly, feeding area for the pool fishes. 

Temperatures and salinities of the marsh waters fluctuate widely 
and vary from pool to pool. This is to be expected in such shallow 
waters where the effects of tidal action, precipitation, evaporation, 
radiation, and other factors would soon be noticeable. The extent of 
these changes is indicated by data recorded as each collection was 
concluded. 

Thus, as expected, the salinities vary widely from station to station 
and from month to month. Fig. 1 shows graphically the salinities of 
stations at which mullet were taken. The lowest reading is 1.1 °/oo 
(part per thousand) taken in a marsh pool (station 3) in the Bayport 
area or! March 20, 1948. This same pool showed a salinity of 24.7 oo 
on May 22 of the same year. The difference between these extremes was 
equaled at a beach station (Cedar Key No. 3) where the salinity ranged 
from 6.2 /oo in November, 1947, to 29.8 °/oo in December, 1948. A 
reading of 35.6 oo on May 16, 1948, at Cedar Key constituted the 
highest recorded during the study at a time mullet were found to be 


PRELIMINARY REPORT ON YOUNG STRIPED MULLET 13 


present. This record was made at station 7, a small, shallow pool near 
the mainland edge of the marsh. 

Temperatures show a similar fluctuation as is indicated by Fig. 2, 
but here seasonal changes are more in evidence. The low recorded for 
a time and place that mullet were taken was 13°C. at Cedar Key (sta- 
tion 5) on November 29, 1947. The high, also at Cedar Key, was 34.5°C. 
recorded at two stations, Nos. 1 and 5, on June 27, 1948, and at station 
No. z on October 20, 1947. The greatest range of temperature for a 
station containing mullet (Cedar Key No. 5) extends from the low of 
13°C. in November, 1947, to the high of 34.5°C. in June, 1948. This 
pool is approximately six feet in diameter at normal low tide and re- 
ceives ebb tide water from approximately one-half acre of open or 
sparsely vegetated mud flat nearby, where water depths are measurable 
only in inches at normal high tide and do not exist at low tide. The 
relatively few readings made (59 each for temperature and salinity) 
certainly donot represent the true extremes of either factor in the area; 


Oct'47|Nov hall Jan'48 Feb'48 |Mar'48 Apr.'48 May’ 


a a 


ol 
oO 


Ss 
= 
oS 
o 
s 
° 
= 
Ti 
_— 
@® 
Qa 
7) 
— 
Py 
So 
a 
= 2, 
= 15 10 2 
= ': 
7) ) na 
e 12 
= tO ; 
o 2 . ‘ 
(op) -4 rq i 
3 6 H 
5 1S cay Gi 3 
12 % 
13 +3] Lo: 
3 
(@) 


Fig. 1. Salinities for stations at Cedar Key (solid lines) and Bayport (broken lines). 
Points on the bars show salinities recorded; numbers opposite the points identify the 
stations. Only data for stations having mullet at the times indicated are included. 


14 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


however, they do indicate that a wide range of both are tolerated by 
young mullet. : 


CoMPARISON OF HaBiTATs AT Capar Key anp Bayport 


The habitats of the young mullet are very similar in the two areas 
studied, but some observable differences exist among the stations most 
frequently seined. The marshes of the Cedar Key area border, in gen- 
eral, a much ramified, shallow, mud-bottomed bay abounding in 
oyster bars. The shallower parts of the bay-are exposed at normal 
low tide, and, on those occasions when winds combine with lunar - 
effects to drive the tide level to extreme low, little open water exists 
except in the deeper channels and a limited number of pools. No 
sizeable streams empty into the bay, although the mouths of several 
small creeks are to be found. 

The Bayport marshes are much less extensive than those of Cedar 
Key, and receive the output of two rivers, the Mud and the Weeki- 


Oct.'47, Nov.47, Dec’ 47, Jan'48 Feb: 48 Mar 48 Apr 48,May 48 Jun'48|Jul'48,Aug 48Sep.48, |Dec'4e 
35) 
PS Rs) 
14 2 5 

ed “12,7 a ie 

2 13 bo +3 L3 a 

om 30 73 7 Le 

= 8 8,9 

o : 6 ae 

oO, ! 12 "2 

oe ; eo “4 
Lo i 15 10 las 3 3 
i @- 4 

lO 2 
le i} 12 
oo is) 
jo 20 
| e k2 ! 
] = 
ic 3 r$ 
ese D iQ Ly 6 
ta 5 

[6 7s : 

it 

| 

is 3 

| | 

ee ea 

10 


Fig. 2. Water temperatures (CC.) for stations at Cedar Key (solid lines) and Bayport 
(broken lines). Points on the bars indicate the temperatures recorded; numbers oppos- 


*° ité the points identify the stations. O 


times indicated are included. 


nly the data for stations having mullet at the 


PRELIMINARY REPORT.ON YOUNG STRIPED MULLET O15 


watchee. Both streams are of spring origin and receive some contribu- 
tion from runoff along their courses. The faintly brackish water from 
both rivers tends to reduce salinities in the marshes of the bay and 
also, because of the relatively constant temperature of the springs, 
partially stabilizes the temperature of the diluted water. 

In addition, the collection stations at Bayport producing the bulk of 
the mullet caught there were slightly deeper than those of the Cedar 
Key area. Natural obstructions formed by the banks of the pools at 
Bayport prevented serious loss of water during extremely low tides. 
Thus the tairly constant water levels, plus the moderated temperatures 
of high tide water flowing into the pools, probably tended to reduce 
the range of the temperatures recorded. These temperature differences 
are shown graphically in Fig. 2. 


DEscRIPTION OF YOUNG 


Plate 1 illustrates, at about life size, specimens in formalin of young 
mullet of standard lengths @) 17 mm., (@) 39 mm., (¢) 63 mm., and 
(4) 82 mm. The drawing of the largest specimen shows detail; the 
other three show only the general body shape and the ‘pigmentation 
pattern visible in preserved specimens. The eye is drawn more as it 
appears in life for the sake of clarity. 

Living individuals are of a brilliant silver ventrally and laterally 
and show no pattern on the sides. Dorsolaterally the silver becomes 
progressively duller until the color reaches a dusky tan on the dorsal 
surfaces of the head and body. All surfaces are irridescent and show 
flashes of pale, whitish blue as the light strikes the-fish from different 
angles. A conspicuous irridescent spot is usually present between the 
eyes of individuals of about 40 mm. or less in length. 

Atop the head on the mid-dorsal line at a point between the posterior 
margins of the eyes, a conspicuous orange-red spot is present in indi- 
viduals up to about 35 mm. in length. In larger specimens the spot 
tends to become whitish, and in the largest specimens it is not dis- 
cernible. - 

The golden pigmentation of the iris and the blue spot at the base 
of the pectorals described for Texas specimens by Gunter (1945: 52) are 
not evident in the specimens from either Cedar Key or Bayport. These 
differences warrant further study. 

The pupil is jet black and is surrounded by a silver-white iris. Ad- 
jacent tissues are silver and mask the remaining eye tissues except on 
‘very small specimens, which are sufficiently translucent to permit the 


16 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Plate x. Fig. a, b, c, d. Mugil cephalus showing general body shape and development. 
Standard lengths: (2) 17 mm., (4) 40 mm., (c) 63 mm., (d) 82 mm. First three figures 
show pigmentation of preserved specimens—scales have been omitted. Fig. d shows 
both scales and pigmentation of preserved specimen. 


PRELIMINARY REPORT ON YOUNG STRIPED MULLET 17 


outline of the whole eye to be seen. The adipose eyelid develops as 
descrited by Jacot (1920: 205-6). 

In formalin the silvery coloration rapidly fades, and in a few days 
the fish are dull and dusky. Heaviest pigmentation is on the dorsal 
surface as illustrated by the drawings in Plate 1. Specimens less than 
about 40 mm. standard length rarely show even a hint of the striped 
condition of the adult, but as the size increases from 40 mm. the stripes 
become more evident. Specimens of 60 mm. are well striped as indicated 
by the two larger specimens represented on Plate 1. 

The scales are in full evidence and appear well developed on the 
smallest (46 mm.) specimens examined. Their development is described 
and illustrated by Jacot (op. cit.). 


GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG MULLET 


Figs. 3 and 4 show, by months,the range in the standard lengths of 
young mullet collected at Cedar Key and at Bayport respectively dur- 
ing the period May 11, 1947-December 19, 1948. The range of the 
lengths of the specimens is indicated by dark, radial lines placed at the 
approximate dates of the collections made during the year October, 
1947, to October, 1948; the hollow bars represent all other collections. 
Table 1 lists all young mullet collected at both areas by standard 
lengths and dates of collection. 


Cepar Key: The largest specimens (Table 1 and Figure 3) in the 
October and November collections from Cedar Key probably repre- 
sent individuals of the 1946-47 spawning and are presumably eight 
months to a year old. Very small specimens are apparently present 
from late October to the middle of May and indicate an extended 
breeding season of about that duration, but starting as much earlier 
as it takes a fertilized egg to develop into a 16 mm. fish. The season is 
probably from early October to early May if this year is at all typical 
of the normal situation. 

Although regular collections were conducted at Cedar Key stations 
which had contained mullet in the preceding months, none was found 
during July, August, and September of 1948. Apparently the young 
mullet had sought deeper water, possibly of the bays, and this move- 
ment was anticipated by what appeared in the data as an abnormal 
reduction in the expected number of fish more than 70 mm. in length. ~ 
It is thought that as the fish teach sizes from about 60 mm. to 100 mm. 
they move to deeper water, and that during July all fish remaining 


18 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA “ACADEMY OF SCIENCES ..~ 


in the marsh pools move to the bays regardless of their size. Relatively 
high water temperatures may constitute the principal cause of the July 
exodus from the marshes. If this is the case, the critical point may be 
between 30°C.-35°C. The range of temperatures for the period under 
consideration is graphically represented in Fig. 2. i 


ft 


WO UILY ae) 


Ak. x 


Fig. 3. Number and size range of young mullet collected from the Cedar Key area October, 
1947-September, 1948, represented by dark, radial bars (hollow bars are shown for 
May, 1947,-and December, 1948, collections). Numbers at ends of bars show sizes of 
samples. . D ete: 


PRELIMINARY REPORT ON YOUNG STRIPED MULLET 19 


Bayport: Fig. 4 and Table 1 show that at Bayport young mullet 
were collected during all months of the year except October. ‘The large 
specimen of 83 mm. taken in November, 1947, probably represents a 
stray individual from the 1946-47 spawning. The presence of specimens 
21 mm. or less in length in only the month of October may indicate 
a shorter spawning season than the one at Cedar Key where such 
specimens were collected over a period of eight months beginning in 
October, 1947. However, the number of specimens collected at Bay- 
port is insufficient to be conclusive. 

The presence of specimens in July, August, and September collec- 
tions at Bayport constitutes another point of interest when compared 
with Cedar Key collections and lends support to the assumption that 
temperature may determine, in part at least, the length of stay of 
young mullet in marsh pools. As previously mentioned under the dis- 
cussion of temperature, Bayport mullet were taken in pools which 
did not show as high temperatures as those at Cedar Key (Fig. 2.) 


GrowtH Rate: Allowing for the differences in the size of samples 
and the actual dates of collection in a given month, the growth rate 
of young mullet appears to be approximately equal for the Bayport _ 
and Cedar Key areas. Assuming that the larger specimens collected in 
succeeding months represent the larger specimens of preceding months, 
it appeats that a given specitnen of 18 mm. 1n October may reach ap- 
proximately 27 mm. by late November, 35 mm. by the latter half of 
January, 54 mm. by mid-March, and 6; mm. by mid-April. Data for 
larger specimens is even less sufficient, and therefore does not warrant 
further projection of the growth rate. However, comparison with the 
monthly size ranges given by Gunter (op. cit.: 51) suggests a close 
similarity between growth of Florida and Texas specimens. 


CONSERVATION RECOMMENDATIONS 


Although the data here clearly indicate the need for additional 
study of the mullet in Florida waters, two facts seem sufficiently well 
established to be useful in conservation practices or research pro- 
grams: 

i Lhe very young mullet make extensive use of the small, mud- 
bottomed pools in the Gulf coastal marshes. Continued reduction in 
the number of these habitats by the constructions of man may have 
a marked effect on the survival’ of the young mullet. On the other 
hand, an increase in the number of such pools by artificial means may 


20° JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


offset the loss so evident in and around many of Florida’s coastal 
towns and Cities. 

Pools similar to those which contained the majority of the speci- 
mens collected during the present ‘study should be relatively easy to 
create in suitable marsh areas. It is believed that explosives could be 
used to advantage in approximately the same manner presently em- 
ployed in blasting ditches through marsh areas. A few sticks of dyna- 
mite placed at a depth of about two feet in the soft mud of the marsh, 


s 


JUNE ‘48 JULY ‘48 


a | f 
——— ee ; 
—~ a 


'? 


APR.' 48 


FEB.'48 


JAN.'48 


Fig. 4. Number and size range of young mullet collected from the Bay port area Cctober, 
1947-September, 1948, represented by dark, radial bars (the hollow bar represents a 
June, 1947, collection). Numbers at ends of bars show sizes of samples. 


PRELIMINARY REPORT ON YOUNG STRIPED MULLET 21 


arranged to form a pattern over an area of about ten teet in diameter, 
and detonated simultaneously, should accomplish the desired effect. 
The dynamite can be planted with a dibble in a matter of minutes, and 
proper spacing of the sticks can be determined for a given marsh after 
a few trials. In the event blasting is used, it is suggested that it be 
done during the late summer when the mullet are normally in deeper 
water. 

It is believed that the new pools should meet thé following require- 
ments: 

a. The depth should not be less than twelve inches nor greater 
than three feet at normal low tide. Complete drainage of a pool 
at low tide would force the fish concentrated there to seek other 
waters. 

6. The width should not exceed 35 feet. Larger pools may be 
as useful, but the data collected to date, at least, indicate a greater 
use of the small ones by the young fish. (In the event the blasting 
method is employed, it will be difficult to create pools larger than 
from ten to fifteen feet in diameter, but these should be adequate.) 

c. The bottom should be of soft mud. This will be accomplished 
automatically if the pools are constructed in those portions of the 
marshes where the ground is basically mud rather than shell, 
sand, or some other component. 

d. The marsh adjacent to the pool should be covered fairly regu- 
larly by high tide to a depth of at least several inches. It is not 
necessary that channels connect the marsh pools to permanent 
watercourses of the marsh. 

2. In addition, the rather long breeding season noted for mullet at 
Cedar Key and the possibly shorter one for those at Bayport is sug- 
gestive. The present closed season (December 10-January 20) designed 
to coincide with the spawning period may not actually be of sufficient 
duration for a given locality, yet may be too long, or at the incorrect 
time, for others. Much useful data concerning this problem could be 
obtained by determining the roe development in fish caught for market. 

Further study is clearly indicated for all major mullet producing 
areas. 


SUMMARY 


A total of 2,234 specimens of young striped mullet were collected in 
or immediately adjacent to the coastal marshes near the towns of © 
Bayport and Cedar Key, Florida, over a period extending from May 11, 


22 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


1947, through December 19, 1948. Specimens ranged from 16 to —_ mm. 
in standard length. 

The primary habitat in the maps consisted “ats ceaaiie itor 
pools having soft mud bottoms. Exclusive of an cccasional individual , 
the young fish were not found in the marsh streams or in other waters 
where a noticeable current was present nor in the larger bodies = 
water of the marshes. 

Salinities, determined by the specific gravity method, at times bie 
places where the mullet were collected, showed a range of from 1.1 /oo 
to 35.6 “Joo. There was little evidence that the salinity changes, which - 
appeared to be fairly rapid at times, had any effect on the mullet’s 
choice of habitat in the marshes. Fresh waters adjacent to the marshes 
into which the young mullet could have penetrated, and which often 
contained adult mullet, never were observed to contain the young. 

Water temperatures in the marsh pools containing young mullet 
showed a range of between 13°C. and 34.5°C. Water temperatures re- 
corded showed a greater fluctuation at Cedar Key stations than did 
those in the Bayport area. The stabilizing effect of a rather significant 
volume of spring water flowing into the Bayport area coupled with 
the mullet’s occurrence in deeper pools there are considered the main 
factors contributing to this difference. 

Mullet at Cedar Key of 21 mm. or less in standard length feeeatcd 
in collections over the period October, 1947, to May, 1948, and indi- 
cated an extended breeding season for that area. At Bayport, collec- 
tions during the same period netted mullet of the 2z mm. (or less) 
size only in December and suggest that a much shorter season May 
exist there than at Cedar Key. 

Growth of the young mullet appears to be comparable in 7 ese areas 
studied. A 17 mm. specimen in October apparently may reach a size 
of slightly more than 60 mm. by the following April. Present data‘on 
larger specimens are too scattered to watrant further projection of the 
growth rate. 7 : 

During months when mullet of the 60-65 mm. size zand greater were 
expected to be numerous, relatively few of these larger fry. were pres- 
ent. It is assumed that the individuals reaching about 60 mm. move 
out of the marshes into deeper waters. Further, in July, August, and 
September, 1948, repeated seining in the marshes of the Cedar Key area 
failed to result in the finding of mullet of any size. Possibly ‘their 
absence was associated with the relatively high temperatures of the 
marsh pool waters. Bayport pools, on the other hand, had water 


5 AND Bayport. 


} 


Totals 


ar Key ? 60 | 61 | 62 | 63 | 64 | 65 | 66 | 67 | 68 | 69} 70| 71 | 72 | 73 | 74 


Total Cedar Key; 2024 


Total Bay port 


71, 79mm. 


TABLE I.—Numper oF YOUNG MULLET IN EACH SIZE GROUP SHOWN BY DATES OF COLLECTION ror Cepar Key AND Bayport 


Date STANDARD LENGTH IN MILLIMETERS 


Totals 
= 16|17| 18} 19) 20} 21} 22 | 23) 24| 25 | 26| 27} 28] 29) 30] 31| 32] 33| 34| 35 | 36 | 37| 38 39| 40| 41] 42] 43 44] 45 | 46] 47| 48| 49] 50) 51|52| 53] 54|55| 56] 57/58 


59 60} 61 | 62 | 63} 64 | 65} 66] 67| 68| 69] 70) 71 | 72| 73 | 74 


i —| i 


ete |e 
99)118}115} 88} 58 7 
42) 43] 15) 2) 2 eee 
23) 12) 19} 33} 37) 42) 23) 17) 
4 1 
9 2) 
1 1 


ie} 
a 
wn 
~) 
=) 


Dieta | erste | ed | 
16) 35} 22) 14 


@e2ouu 
EN 
wWouUneHe: 
E eae 
aS 


Total Cedar Key| 2024 


Unne: 


1 A ed ata dR Sv ee dl Ie I SL eet aI le ST SD bade dbedoed hs Welk. pedbeall athedbeche-[s. lee at 
Toral Bayport 210 
Totals include: 1 1, 80mm.; 1, 89mm 21,102mm. #1,103mm. 41, 86mm 51, 80mm €], 82mm.; 1, 88mm. 71, 79mm. 


PRELIMINARY REPORT ON YOUNG STRIPED MULLET 23 


temperatures lower than those at Cedar Key and contained young 
mullet up to the latter part of November. 

Color and pattern descriptions of the young mullet are given, and 
four specimens of 17 mm., 39 mm., 63 mm., and 82 mm., respectively, 
are illustrated to show pertinent features. 

Accurate determination of the duration of the spawning season at 
various localities, and the expecimental construction of pools similar 
to those in which young mullet have been found, are recommended as 
important fields for conservation research. 


LITERATURE CITED 
BREDER, C. M., JR. . 
1940. The spawning of Mugé/ cephalus on the Florida west coast. Copeia 1940(2): 
138-139 
GUNTER, GORDON 
1945. Studies on marine fishes of Texas. Pub. Inst. Marine Science, Vol. 1,(2): 1-190, 
11 figs., 75 tables. 
HIGGINS, ELMER 
1927. Progress in biological inquiries in 1926. App. VII, Dept. U.S. Comm. Fisheries, 
1927. Bur. Fish. Doc. 1929: 517-681. 
HILDEBRAND, SAMUEL F., and SCHROEDER, WM. C. 
1928. The fishes of Chesapeake Bay. Bull. U.S. Bur. Fish. 43 (Part 1): 1-366, 211 figs. 
JACOT, ARTHUR PAUL 
1920. Age, growth and scale characters, Mugél cephalus and Mugil curema. Trans. Am. 
Micro. Soc. 39: 199-229, 7 figs., 7 plates. 
JORDAN, DAVID STARR, and EVERMANN, BARTON WARREN 
1902. American food and game fishes..1-+- 572. Doubleday Page and Co., New York. 
SCHUREMAN, PAUL (Prepared by) 
1941. Manual of tide observations. U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Coast and Geod. Surv. 
Special Pub. No. 196, Rev. (1941) Ed. iv + 92, 30 figs. 


> 


Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 11(1) 1948(1949). 


alee. ty via. 


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, Parsi: t'r'é 
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F f gy) 
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A PRELIMINARY LIST OF THE ENDEMIC 
FLOWERING PLANTS OF FLORIDA 


Rotanp M. Harper 
University, Alabama 


Part I—INTRODUCTION AND History oF ExpLORATION 


Florida probably has more species of endemic plants than any other 
atea of similar size and shape in the United States, and more than any 
other state except Texas and California, which are much larger and 
mote diversified. According to recent estimates Georgia and Ala- 
bama, which are about the same size as Florida, each have only ap- 
proximately 25 endemic species of flowering plants. The present study 
has been confined to the flowering plants, largely because it is primarily 
based on a book that includes only the Spermatophytes, and also 
because our present knowledge of the cryptogams is too limited to 
warrant definite statements about their distribution. 

There are three principal reasons for the many endemics in Florida. 
First, most of the state is a peninsula, relatively isolated from other 
land masses. Second, it projects southward from the continent, and 
there is no land near with climates similar to those of the southern 
part, if we except the Bahamas, which are relatively small, and differ 
greatly in soil from most of Florida. If the Florida peninsula extended 
eastward instead of southward its flora might be much like that of 
southern Georgia. Third, Florida has more sandy soils than any other 

state, and considerable areas of limestone in the central and southern 
portions. If the red hills of Georgia extended all the way down the 
peninsula and across the width of it, the numerous local species that 
characterize the dry sand areas could not exist. There are, however, a 
number of endemics in northern Florida, not so easily accounted for. 

No final or complete list of Florida endemics will ever be possible. 
If we make our list as complete as possible this year, it may be changed 
next year, as has often happened in the past, by the discovery in other 
states and countries of plants now known only from Florida, by the 
discovery of new species within the state, or by the dividing of pre- 
viously described species into two or more forms. It has happened 
several times that the Florida representatives of what was supposed to 
be a fairly widely distributed species have been found to differ decidedly 


26 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


from those in other states or in tropical America. Some of the latter 
cases will be specially mentioned tarther on. 


A Brier History OF THE Discovery, oF Froripa ENDEMICS 


As the number of known Florida endemics has increased greatly since 
the early days, it would be of considerable interest to ascertain just 
where, when, and by whom each species was discovered and described. 
Tt would also be of interest to discuss the known distribution of each 
endemic species, and point out just how it is supposed to differ from its 
nearest relatives; but with so many species involved that would make 
quite a book. A complete history of botanical exploration in Florida 
would be rather voluminous, even without mention of particular 
species or bibliography, but the present study would be incomplete 
without some account of the men who discovered most of our en- 
demic species. 3 

The principal botanists who have contributed to the list of ddebn: 
plants of Florida are mentioned in the next few pages, together with 
notes on their travels and writings. Much of the information about 
them has been obtained trom an article entitled “Some American 
Botanists of Early Days,’’ by Dr. John Hendley Barnhart (Journal New 
York Botanical Garden, August 1909), and from numerous biographical 
footnotes by him in various narratives by Dr. John K. Small, in later 
volumes of the same journal. Several other publications on Florida 
plants, not cited here because no new species ate described in them, 
ate cited in the bibliographies in the 3rd, 6th, and 18th Annual Reports 
of the Florida Geological Survey, the last of which brings the record down 
to about twenty years ago. 

Mark Catesby (1679-1749), an English naturalist, published a large 
work with colored plates, in instalments from 1730 to 1748. His work, 
entitled Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands, is 
often referred to by later workers. The title would seem to imply that 
he visited Florida, but if he did he missed a splendid opportunity for 
discovering many plants no other botanist had ever seen. As far as I 
know, there is no specific reference to Florida in his work, nor even a 
description or figure of any plant now known only from Florida. Lin- 
naus used Catesby’s work, but apparently had no specimens or records 
from Florida. 

John Bartram (1699-1777), of Philadelphia, said to have been ie 
first native American botanist, made a tour of exploration through 
the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida in 1765-1766, collecting seeds and 


PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS 27 


plants to send to botanical gardens in England. In Florida he worked 
in the vicinity of St. Augustine, and the St. Johns River as far south 
as Lake Harney. He is said to have been a man of limited education, 
and did not consider his work of enough importance to publish a 
formal account of his-discoveries; but various fragments of his journal, 
taken from letters, etc., were published soon after his death by some 
of his English friends. A more complete manuscript of his was un- 
earthed in Philadelphia a few years ago, edited by my brother, Francis 
Harper, and published by the American Philosophical Society in 
December, 1942. Bartram is credited by Small (Journ. N.Y. Bot. Gard., 
22:127. July, 1921) with being the discoverer of Zamia integrifolia, the 
first species on our endemic list. 

William Bartram (1739-1823), the son of John Bartram, accom- 
panied his father on his Florida journey and remained in Florida about 
two years, but at that time was chiefly interested in farming. He 
visited Florida and other southern colonies again in 1773 and later, 
with the primary purpose of botanical exploration, although he also 
made interesting and valuable observations on animals, Indians, etc. 
He published an interesting account of his work in his well-known 
volume of Travels, first printed in Philadelphia in 1791, and later 
reprinted in London and elsewhere and translated into other lang- 
uages. He seems to have gotten no farther south in Florida than his 
father did, but covered more ground, and got as far west as the Suwan- 
nee River, and later to Pensacola by way of Mobile. He discovered 
among other things the types of our endemic genera Salpingostylis and 
Pycnothymus, and one ot mote species of Pityothamnus, although these 
genera were not described until long after his death. An unpublished 
journal of William Bartram’s, giving numerous details not in his 
Travels, was edited by Francis Harper and published by the American 
philosophical Society in November, 1943. 

Andre Michaux (1746-1802), a Frenchman, traveled widely in the 
eastern United States a few years after the Revolution, and got into 
Florida far enough to discover a few new species, which were described 
in his Flora Boreali—Americana, published in Paris in 1803, after his 
death. The well-known genus Lespedeza is said to have been named 
by him-(by a misprint) in honor of Vicente Manuel de Cespedes, 
Spanish governor of Florida at the time of his visit. (See P. L. Ricker, 
Rhodora 36:130-132, April, 1934). 

Dr. William Baldwin (4779-1819), a navy surgeon, native of 
Pennsylvania, visited northeastern Florida in the spring of 1817, 


28 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


and is credited with the discovery of Zamia umbrosa, one of our 
endemics, among other things. (See article by Small cited above under 
John Bartram.) 

Thomas Nuttall (1786-1859), an Englishman, lived in the United 
States from 1808 to 1841, with his headquarters in Philadelphia or 
Cambridge for most of that time. He traveled widely, often on foot- 
but the records of his travels in the southeastern states are very scat, 
tered. Dr. Francis W. Pennell pieced them together in Bartonia, De- 
cember, 1936, and found that he passed through West Florida in the 
spring of 1830, and then northeastward across Georgia. He also de- 
scribed before and after that a few species of plants collected in Florida 
by others. 

Nathaniel A. Ware (17802-1854), probably a native of Massachu- 
setts, made a.collection of plants, probably the most complete Florida 
collection up to that time, in East Florida in the fall of 1821. Ware’s 
specimens came into the hands of Nuttall; who published a report on 
themin the American Journal of Science in 1822, in which was included 
descriptions of six of the species now known only from Florida. The 
genus Warea, with four known species—three confined to Florida and 
tlie other a little more widely distributed—was named for Mr. Ware. 
(Only one of the species of Warea appeared in Nuttall’s 1822 list, and 
that under a different generic name.) Nuttall described a few more new 
species from Florida in the Journal of the Philadelphia Academy of Na- 
tural Sciences in 1834, and described the genus Warea in the same paper. 

Hardy B. Croom (1797-1837), of New Bern, North Carolina, owned 
plantations near Aspalaga, and later one near Tallahassee, and spent 
his winters in Florida from about 1832 to 1836. He discovered the tree 
now called Tumion taxifolium near Aspalaga (a now extinct settlement 
on the Apalachicola River in Gadsden County), but took it for a Taxus 
and thought that it did not differ much from the English yew. (See 
Amer. Journ. Sci., 26:314, 1834; 28:165, 1835.) He also discovered Bap- 
tisia simplicifolia near Quincy. One of his most interesting finds at or 
near Aspalaga was the type of the genus Croomia, but that is now known 
also from several places in Georgia and Alabama, and one or two other 
species of the genus have been found in Japan. He published some inter- 
esting articles about his observations in Florida and elsewhere in the 
American Journal of Science, and Dr. Chapman (mentioned below) pub- 
lished some reminiscences of him in the Botanical Gazette for April, 1885. 

Lieut. B. R. Alden (1811-1870), of the United States Army, who was 
stationed at Fort Brooke (near Tampa) and Fort King (near Ocala) in 


PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS 29 


1832-33, during the Seminole wars, sent botanical specimens to Dr. 
John Torrey of New York (mentioned below). Apparently Lieut. Alden 
was not the discoverer of any of our endemics, but the genus Aldenella 
was named for him. 

M. C. Leavenworth (1796-1862) and G. W. Hulse (1807-1883) were 
both army surgeons in Florida in 1838, and they sent plams to Dr. 
Torrey. One species named for Dr. Leavenworth appears in our list, 
and he discovered a few other species in Florida and other states, de- 
scribing some of them himself. Dr. Hulse is believed to have been the 
discoverer of one of our species of Zamia. 

Dr. J. L. Blodgett (1809-1853), a druggist from Massachusetts, lived 
in Key West about the last 15 years of his life, and was practically the 
first botanical explorer of the Florida Keys. He discovered a consider- 
able number of new species there, several of which were named for him. 
Some of these appear in the following list, while others were later 
found also in the West Indies, and are therefore excluded from the list 
of Florida endemics. 

Drs. John Torrey of New York and Asa Gray of Cambridge, who at 
that time had never been near Florida, began the publication of a flora 
of North America, about 1838. In the next three years enough parts had 
been published to make two volumes, about halt of the projected total, 
but that was as far as it got. They had access to collections made by all 
or nearly all the Florida botanists already mentioned, and also some 
from Dr. A. W. Chapman, who had then been in Florida only a few 
yeats. One of our endemic genera, hee was first described in 
their Flora. 

Ferdinand Rugel (1806-1878) traveled widely in on southern states 
in the early 1840's and discovered several new plants in Florida and 
elsewhere. Most of these were named by R. J. Shuttleworth, an English- 
man living in Switzerland. About eight of Rugel’s discoveries appear in 
the following list. 

Prof. John Darby (1804-1877), about whom little is known except 
that he taught at Macon, Georgia, in the ’4o’s and at Auburn, Ala- 
bama, in the ‘50's, published a Botany of the Southern States in 1841, te- 
vised it in 1855, and reprinted it in 1860. This work is notable chiefly 
for being the first flora of the southeastern states as such. In the 1855 
edition only about a dozen of our Florida endemics can be recognized. 
A genus of shrubs was named for Prof. Darby by Asa Gray. 

Dr. A. W. Chapman (1809-1899), a native of Massachusetts, was a 
physician interested in botany. He came to Florida about 1835 and prac- 


30 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA’ ACADEMY OF SCIENCES - 


tised medicine for awhile in Quincy and Marianna, and finally for most 

of his long life in Apalachicola. In 1860, evidently encouraged and 

assisted by Dr. Gray, he published his book, entitled Flora of the Southern 
United States, but covering only the states east of the Mississippi River 

from North Carolina and Tennessee southward. é 

Although at that time about’ 95% of the area of Florida was virgin 
country, teeming with rare and interesting plants, most of Dr. Chap- 
man’s tite was naturally taken up by his professional duties; and his 
facilities for exploration were very limited. Neither Quincy, Marianna, 
not Apalachicola had a railroad at the time he lived in those places, and 
when Dr. Gray visited him in 1875 Apalachicola was connected with 
the rest of the United States by a river steamboat once a week and by 
occasional coastwise vessels. (See reminiscences of Chapman by Miss 
Winifred Kimball, an Apalachicola neighbor, in the Journal of the New 
York Botanical Garden, January, 1921.) : 

Despite all these difficulties, however, Dr. Chapman made good use 
of his limited opportunities. Besides his own collections in West and 
Middle Florida, he had access to specimens collected in other parts of 
' the state by the men mentioned above, or at least had information 
about them from Dr. Gray. In his book he did not undertake to give 
the distribution of any native plant outside of the United States, so 
that many species also known from the West Indies were credited by 
him to Florida only. 

So Chapman’s Flora by itself is of little use in counting the number 
of Florida endemics known to him, but we can pick them out of Small’s 
southern floras, published in the present century, and then trace them 
back through the various editions of Chapman’s work. Even then, 
however, there is some uncertainty, because some of the species de- 
scribed by Chapman can not be identified in Small’s works, which do 
not give enough synonyms. Very likely most such plants were not good 
species, but all of them should not be dismissed without investigation. 

Making the best possible allowance for these uncertainties, it would . 
seem that 62 species of flowering plants now known only in Florida 
were known to Dr. Chapman in 1860, although some of them were 
treated by him as varieties, and a few he did not even consider worth 
naming. Without making a special count, I would-guess that about 
half of these 62 were Dr. Chapman’s own discoveries. 

Botanical activity in Florida Le during the Civil War, but was 
resumed in the ’7o’s. 

Allen H. Curtiss (1845-1907), a Virginian, came to Flonida in n 3875, 


PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS 31 


and in the next 25 years traveled extensively over the state, collecting 
many sets of plants, which were distributed to the leading herbaria 
of the world. Several of the species were new, and named for him, and 
some of these appear in the following list. After 1900 he extended his 
explorations to other southern states, and to the West Indies, but 
continued to make occasional discoveries in Florida. He did not de- 
scribe any new species himself, but published several interesting articles 
about his travels, and notes on particular species or groups of plants. 

Dr. A. P. Garber (1838-1881), a Pennsylvanian, visited Florida for 
his health in 1876 and later, and discovered several new plants. He 
seems to have worked mostly in the northeastern quarter of the state, 
but got as far south as Miami at least once. The genus Garberia and 
several species bear his name. 

Dr. William T. Feay (18032-1879), of Savannah, seems to have 
visited Florida in the late ’70’s, but not much is known of his itiner- 
aty. He was the discovered of Asclepiodella Feayi, Palafoxia Feayi, and 
Lobelia Feayana, and a few other species that are more widely dis- 
tributed. 

Dr. Chapman published descriptions of several new species col- 
lected by himself and others, in the Botanical Gazette in 1878, and in 
1883 a second edition of his Flora. Most of that was identical with the 
first edition, but it contained a 71-page supplement with separate 
index, describing many additional species. That brought the total 
of known Florida endemics up to 100, if I have counted correctly. In 
1892 he published another edition, with a small second supplement; 
but that work is quite rare, and I have not had access to it in pre- 
paring this study. 

Around 1890 Joseph H. Simpson (1841-1918), who in his younger 
days was a coal miner in his native state of Illinois, explored some 
little-known parts of South Florida, particularly around Manatee and 
on the Keys, and discovered a few new species, some of which bear 
his name in the following list. Several of his specimens, distributed 
by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, were cited in Hitchcock’s 
list Gmentioned below). He settled near Bradenton, and at one time, 
when land was cheap, owned considerable property there; but he 
was tricked out of it, and when I called on him, in the spring of 1909, 
he was living in poverty and ill health. At that time he did not even 
have a copy of Small’s Flora. 

In the middle and late ’g0’s several enthusiastic young botanists 
from the North, born since the publication of the first edition of 


32 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Chapman’s Flora, took advantage of recently constructed railroads 
and growing towns, especially in the central parts of the state, to 
make some more important discoveries. Among these were George V. 
Nash (1864-1921), A. S. Hitchcogk (1865-1935), P. H. Rolfs (1865- 
1944), Herbert J. Webber (1865-1946), and W. T. Swingle (still liv- 
ing). Mr. Nash, connected with the New York Botanical Garden 
during most of his professional life, soon attracted considerable atten- 
tion for his discoveries around Eustis, and later for his work on grasses; 
and he wrote the chapter on grasses for = first and second editions of 
Small’s Flora. 

About the same time a few other men of about the same age, or a 
little younger, who had not yet visited Florida, studied specimens 
from. various parts of the state in northern herbaria, and found some 
previously unsuspected novelties among them. Some of the new 
species discovered in the ’90’s were very distinct, but had been over- 
looked before because they did not grow near the older routes of 
travel. Dr. Chapman seemed to be very skeptical about the work of 
these ‘“‘young upstarts,’’ and admitted only three or four of their 
‘species to his last book, but intimated that others, if found valid, 
would be treated in future editions. 

The fourth and last Cmiscalled third) edition of Chapman’s Flora, 
completely revised, was published in 1897. Although he made little 
use of the work of the younger botanists just mentioned, additional 
discoveries by himselt, Curtiss, Simpson, and others since 1883 brought 
the total of Florida endemics then recognized to 121. 

Professor Hitchcock, then connected with the Kansas Agricultural 
College, later a grass specialist in Washington, made a few visits to 
Florida in the ’90’s. In the summer of 1898 he walked, mostly along 
railroads, from Monticello to Live Oak, Dunnellon, Brooksville and 
Bayport, trundling his plant press and other baggage on a wheel- 
barrow-like contrivance with a bicycle wheel, designed by him for 
that purpose. He published a brief account of that trip, with a pic- 
tute of his vehicle, in his college paper, the Industrialist, for Novem- 
ber, 1898. From that we learn that he walked 242 miles in 24 days, 
camped out every night. cooked his own meals, and his expenses aver- 
aged about 30 cents a day. (That may seem incredibly low to persons 
born since then, but at that time commodity prices were just about 
the lowest in the whole history of the United States, and steak could 
be bought for about ten cents a pound.) 

The plants collected on that trip and two earlier ones, and by sev- 


PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS 33 


eral other botanists with whom he exchanged specimens, made the 
basis of his List of Plants in My Florida Herbarium, published by the 
Kansas Academy of Science in two instalments, 1899 and 1901. This 
list enumerated about 1750 species of spermatophytes (of which 96 
species are now believed to be confined to Florida) and 32 pterido- 
phytes, with localities. It did not claim to be a complete flora of the 
state, but is useful for giving fairly definite localities, though often 
nothing more than the county, and with little or no indication of 
habitats (which mean little to the average taxonomist). 

Protessor Hitchcock wrote up the grasses for Small’s Manual, 1933. 
His last work, Manual of the Grasses of the United States, a 1040-page 
book published by the U.S. Department of Agriculture in 1935, con- 
tains descriptions of all the endemic grasses in the following list, and 
a few others not included because they were published after Small’s 
Manual. 

Professor S. M. Tracy (4847-1920), native of Vermont but long a 
tesident of Mississippi, traveled extensively in Florida in the early 
yeats of the present century, primarily to study forage plants for the 
U.S. Department of Agriculture, but also collecting as many other 
plants as possible, a considerable number of which proved to be un- 
described. His name is commemorated by Pityopsis Tracyi in the fol- 
lowing list, as well as by several species not confined to Florida. Some 
of his Florida plants were still being described after the publication 
of Small’s Manual (and are therefore not listed here), for example, 
Eragrostis Tracyi, known only from Sanibel Island, described by Hitch- 
cock in 1934. 

About the turn of the century a new and brilliant star was rising, 
so to speak, in the person of Dr. John Kunkel Small (1869-1938), of 
New York. He began exploring the southern states about 1893, and 
made his first trip to Florida, with Mr. Nash, in the fall of 1901. On 
that trip he stuck pretty closely to the east coast most of the time, 
but got as far south as the Upper Keys, and the unfinished grade ot 
the Florida East Coast Railway on the mainland below Miami. After 
that he visited Florida practically every year, and sometimes two or 
three times a year. He wrote narratives of each trip, and various other 
observations on Florida plants, for the Journal of the New York Botanical 
Garden, and described many new species in other magazines. 

At the New York Botanical Garden he had access to the most com- 
plete collection of sovthern plants in the world, and he made good 
use of it in his 1362-page Flora of the Southeastern United States (North 


34 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Carolina to Texas), published in the summer of 1903. This work 
listed about 400 species of flowering plants apparently confined to 
Florida; but he and his enthusiastic associates and contemporaries 
had evidently carried species-splitcing too far in some groups, especi- 
ally Paspalum, Panicum, Sisyrinchium and Crategus, and many of these 
were dropped trom his later works. At the same time he was less 
diligent then than later in ascertaining the distribution of his species 
outside of the United States, so that quite a number now known 
also in the West Indies were attributed to Florida only, as they had 
been by Chapman. The total number of Florida endemics in Dr. Smail’s 
first book which stood his later tests was 227, if I have counted cor- 
rectly; but even that was nearly twice as many as Dr. Chapman had 
included six years before. 

Dr. Small published a second edition of his Flora in 1913. Most of 
this edition was identical with the first, but several pages scattered 
through the book were revised to include more species—the descrip- 
tions being shortened for that purpose—and a 53-page supplement 
was added. This brought the total of supposed Florida endemics up 
‘to 259. In the same year he published four small books on Florida 
plants, namely, Florida Trees, Shrubs of Florida, Flora of Miami, and 
Flora of the Florida Keys. All of these of course contained descriptions 
of some of our endemic species, but none additional to those in his 
large book of the same date. 

About that time some of the thinly settled parts of the state, especi- 
ally in the southern half, were being made more accessible by new 
railroads and highways, and Dr. Small made good use of these, and 
sometimes of trucks and boats furnished by wealthy patrons who 
owned winter homes in South Florida and assisted his researches in 
the last twenty years of his life. (Some of his Florida narratives of 
that period were written in rather exuberant language, as if to enter- 
tain the men who helped him, who were flower-lovers of a sort, but not 
profound students of botany.) Some of the Florida endemics described 
by him were named for these men, as can be seen in the following 
list. 

With these added facilities for travel Dr. Small accumulated new 
material so fast that twenty years elapsed between his 1913 book and 
his last one, Manual of the Southeastern Flora (North Carolina to eastern 
Louisiana). In the meanwhile many of his discoveries were published 
in Magazines; but quite a number made their first appearance in his 
Manual, which, unlike his two previous Floras, was restricted to 


PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS 35 


flowering plants. If I have counted correctly, it lists 427 Florida en- 
demics (including a few near-endemics, discussed farther on), besides 
about a dozen species attributed to Florida only which have been as- 
certained from other sources to occur in tropical America. 

A few younger botanists have made significant contributions to our 
knowledge of the Florida flora during the present century, but their 
work can perhaps be appraised better after it has been completed. In 
order, however, to make clear my own connection with the work, for 
the benefit of those who may have come into the state since 1931, I 
may say that my first records of Florida plants were made in August, 
1903. At that time I visited River Junction, as Dr. Gray had done 
about 28 years before, to see the Torreya |Tumion| in its native haunts, 
and I tried to trace it up into Georgia, where I was then work- 
ing. Cin that I was unsuccessful at the time, but I had better luck 15 
years later.) 

In the fall of 1908 I began working for the Florida Geological Sur- 
vey, continuing intermittently until 1931. During that time I visited 
every county, and made the acquaintance of about fifty of the endemic 
species listed below. In the 6th, 13th and 18th Axnual Reports of the 
survey, all published between Small’s second and third books, I classi- 
fied the commoner plants of northern, central, and southern Florida 
by regions or habitats, or both, and a few of the endemic species were 
included in these lists. In the last report I gave some statistics on the 
endemics of South Florida, by regions. 

It was my good fortune to discover two of the endemic shrubs, 
Prunus geniculata in Lake County in 1909, and Grossularia Echinella in 
Jefferson County in 1924. (See Torreya, March, 1911, and June, 1925.) 
But the former turned out to have been collected long betore but not 
recognized, and Dr. Herman Kurz shared in the discovery of the latter 
by taking me to the place on the day of discovery, February 29, 1924. 
I collected some specimens of the monotypic endemic genus Litrisa 
near Fort Pierce in August, 1923, about a year before Dr. Small described 
it, and soon sent some of them to him. 

It may also be worth putting on record here that I knew all the bot- 
amists mentioned in the foregoing narrative, beginning with J. H. 
Simpson, and read manuscript, or proof, or both, of Dr. Small’s three 
large books. 


(To be Continued) 


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RELATIONSHIP OF RECENTLY ISOLATED HUMAN 
FECAL STRAINS: OF POLIOMYELITIS TO 
THE LANSING MURINE STRAIN’ 


Beatrice F. Howrrt gud Racnet H. Gorrie? 


During the summer of 1946 fecal specimens and blood sera were 
obtained by the epidemiological division of our Public Health station 
in Montgomery from human cases of poliomyelitis at Florence, Ala- 
bama. The fecal specimens were inoculated into monkeys and several 
strains of poliomyelitis virus were isolated. These strains fulfilled 
the ctiteria proposed for the identification of the poliomyelitis virus; 
namely, (1) the monkeys became ill within the required incubation 
period, showing fever, irritability, tremor and flaccid paralysis of one 
or more limbs and occasionally complete prostration, (2) histopatho- 
logical sections of the cord showed the typical lesions of acute anterior 
poliomyelitis, and (3) the virus could be transmitted to other monkeys 
by the intracerebral route but not to mice or guinea pigs. 

In 1939 Armstrong (1939) had adapted the Lansing strain of polio- 
myelitis to cotton rats. In 1940 Haas and Armstrong (1940) determ- 
ined that neutralizing antibodies to the Lansing mouse adapted polio- 
myelitis virus could be demonstrated in many human sera. Early and 
late bleedings were not tested, however. Turner and Young (1943) 
showed that antibodies to the Lansing virus were. present in 45 per- 
cent of the sera of the poliomyelitis patients studied but since they 
wete found both early and late in the course of the disease, no par- 
ticular significance could be attached to their presence. They decided 
that the test was of no value as a diagnostic aid. Recently, in 1947, 
Brown and Francis (1947) determined the antibody titers during the 
acute and convalescent stages in the sera from several groups of polio- 
myelitis cases obtained from outbreaks in various parts of the country. 
In only 5 out of 35 cases were the sera negative in the acute stage and 
positive after recovery. Likewise Hammon, Mack, and Reeves (1947) 
found that 84 out of 102 sera from poliomyelitis cases had a high 
titer at onset of the disease. 

Because the blood samples had been obtained from the Florence 

1 Contribution from the United States Public Health Service, Communicable Disease 


Center, Laboratory Division, Montgomery, Alabama. 
2 Bacteriologists, United States Public Health Service. 


38 - JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


cases, some of them in pairs of early and convalescent bleedings, it 
was thought of interest to test these sera for neutralizing antibodies 
against the Lansing murine virus, and also to determine any relation- 
ship between these recently isolated strains of poliomyelitis and the 
murine adapted type after experimental studies in monkeys. Since very 
little has been done in determining the development of antibodies 
for the Lansing virus in monkeys that have recovered from a polio- 
myelitis acquired by the inoculation of human feces nor on the determ- 
ination of the amount of cross immunity that might be found between 
these strains in monkeys, the results of a few neutralization and ex- 
perimental tests are being presented. 


MetHops 


Virus Strains: Several strains of poliomyelitis virus were used in 
the following experiments. These included three human strains re- 
cently isolated from fecal material; the old MV or monkey .passage 
strain kindly sent by Dr. H. Howe of Johns Hopkins; the Lansing 
mouse adapted strain also sent from the same laboratory and origin- 
ally isolated by Dr. C. Armstrong, and the Y-SK murine adapted polio- 
myelitis virus kindly sent by Dr. J. L. Melnick of Yale Medical School. 
Each of these strains was made into a 10 per cent brain suspension and 
kept frozen in ampules at —60°C until needed. They were then thawed, 
removed from the ampules and used either for intracerebral inoculation 
of the monkeys to be tested for immunity or for the neutralization 
tests in mice with the sera to be tested for antibodies. In testing for 
immunity, the MV virus was usually administered in 0.5 ml. and the 
Lansing and Y-SK viruses in 1.0 ml. amounts into the brain tissue of 
the monkeys through a small opening made in the skull under light 
ether anesthesia. Daily temperatures were taken on the animals and 
they were exercised regularly for the appearance of symptoms. They 
were kept under observation for from two to three weeks. 


Neutralization Tests: All neutralization tests on either animal or 
human sera were performed with the Lansing mouse adapted polio- 
myelitis strain and with a few modifications were based on the work 
of both Young and Merrell (1943) and Morgan (1947) who have 
carefully evaluated the most reliable methods for this test with the 
Lansing virus. The so-called ‘‘screen test,’ using one dilution of 
virus against the undiluted serum was employed initially in order to 


HUMAN STRAINS OF POLIO AND LANSING MURINE STRAIN 39 


roughly determine which sera contained neutralizing antibodies. If a 
more quantitative estimate was desired, the positive sera were either 
diluted out and used against one dilution of virus or the nutralization 
index was determined by using the undiluted serum against several 
dilutions of virus. : 

Equal quantities of the appropriate dilution of serum or virus were 
mixed and held overnight in the coldrcom at 6 to 8°C. They were 
then inoculated intracerebrally into 4 weeks old mice, allowing 8 mice 
for each dilution. A known positive as well as a known negative 
serum was included with each series of tests. Daily observations were 
made for three weeks. All fatalities within this period were recorded 
and the degree of neutralization determined. A serum was considered 
negative if of the 8 mice 2 or less survived and as positive if 2 or less 
died. The test was called 1+ or weakly positive if between 3 and 4 of 
the 8 mice died. 


NEUTRALIZATION JEsSTs ON. HUMAN SERA 


Neutralization tests against the Lansing murine virus were per- 
formed on the sera of 38 of the poliomyelitis patients from Florence, 
Alabama. The virus of poliomyelitis had been isolated from the fecal 
specimens of 6 of these cases, so that there was no doubt that the virus 
Was present in the community. Early and late sera were tested from 
13 of the 38 patients. In only 2 instances (15.3%) was there a definite 
rise in antibody formation between the first and second bleedings, 
although 3 of the 13 sera (23%) were negative at the first bleeding and 
showed very weak antibodies after the second. A total of nine of the 
38 patients showed strong neutralizing antibodies, while 12 (31.5 %) 
wete only weakly positive. The latter are included with the sera taken 
in the acute and convalescent stages. The remaining 17 sera did not 
show the presence of antibodies. The poliomyelitis virus had been 
isolated from the feces of 3 of these cases. Only one patient with a 
positive virus isolation had definite antibodies for the Lansing strain. 

Neutralization screen tests were likewise made on the sera of seven 
of the laboratory personnel, one of whom had a history of poliomyelitis 
in early childhood and was left with residual paralysis. All except one 
serum showed neutralizing antibodies for the Lansing virus. Two, 
however, were only weakly positive. The older ages of this group as 
compared with those of the recently recovered poliomyelitis patients 
may have accounted for the larger percentage of positive results. 


40 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


ExPERIMENTAL DATA 


Monkeys that recovered after having developed poliomyelitis from inocu- 
lation of fecal specimens: Six morkeys were on hand that had been 
inoculated with the strains of poliomyelitis from the feces of six dif- 
ferent human cases. Two of them G/3 and #37) had received the feces 
directly by the intranasal and intraabdominal routes and showed 
definite paralysis. The other four animals had been inoculated intra- 
cerebrally with cord suspensions from monkeys that became paralyzed 
after receiving the fecal material from four different human cases. One 
of these four monkeys developed slight symptoms but the others all 
remained well. | 

About a month after recovery M#3 (Allen) was given an intracere- 
bral injection of the MV virus. No symptoms of poliomyelitis were 
noticed. On January 31, 1947, all six of the animals were tested intra- 
cerebrally with a 10 per cent mouse brain suspension of the Lansing 
virus. These injections were done three months after the last inocula- 
tion for M#3 and about two months after the initial dose for the other 
monkeys. M#3 withstood the inoculation of the MV monkey passage 
virus but succumbed to the Lansing strain. All except one of the 
others developed paralysis and two died G56 and #57) after receiving 
the latter virus. The control animals in each instance showed com- 
plete paralysis. About two and one-half months later the surviving 
monkeys #37, #42, and #49 were reinoculated intracerebrally with a 
Io pet cent mouse brain suspension of the Y-SK murine virus. All 
remained well. | 

Blood was drawn from all of these animals at different time inter- 
vals. The sera were tested for neutralizing antibodies against the 
Lansing strain. All of the tests were negative until after the inocula- 
tion of the Lansing virus into the animals, when antibodies developed 
in the blood of two of the three survivors. 

From these observations it was found that neutralizing antibodies 
for the Lansing virus wefe not developed in monkeys after either a 
partial paralysis due to inoculation of fecal human strains of polio- 
myelitis virus or after attempts at a second passage of freshly isolated 
‘strains. The four monkeys that had been given the second passage ma- 
terial either died or were paralyzed after intracerebral injection of the 
Lansing virus, indicating that even though they may have had a 
subclinical infection after the human strain, no immunity was de- 
veloped for the Lansing virus. Protection was develpoed for the 


HUMAN STRAINS OF POLIO AND LANSING MURINE STRAIN 41 


Jatter, however, in one monkey (#37) that was a post paralytic after 
the fecal inoculations. The reverse was true with M73 which sur- 
vived the fecal and MV injections but became completely paralyzed 
after the intracerebral inoculation of the Lansing virus. 


Experiment 1: Eight Rhesus monkeys were inoculated with fecal 
specimens from two human cases of poliomyelitis, using four animals 
for each specimen and two different methods of inoculation. The fecal 
specimens had previously given positive results in monkeys when 
introduced intranasally and intra-abdominally, although the strains 
of virus were not highly active after isolation. In this experiment the 
same fecal materials were again used both by the older method of Paul 
and Trask used previously (1941) and by another method recently 
developed by Bodian (1947). By the former a portion of a fecal sus- 
pension was left untreated to be instilled intranasally over a five to 
six day period and the remainder was treated with 15 % ether and left 
overnight in the cold to inhibit bacterial growth. After centrifugation 
the supernatant fluid was then inoculated intra-abdominally in 10- 
15 ml. amounts for several days or until about 30 ml. were given. By 
the Bodian method 0.5 ml. of a fairly thick fecal suspension was placed 
in each nostril and delivered onto the cribriform plate while the ani- 
mal was held with head down and under ether anesthesia. Material 
from two different patients was used. 

Only two animals showed symptoms of poliomyelitis and these 
wete inoculated by the first method. Blood was drawn from all the 
animals both before injection and at different intervals later as shown 
in Table 1. Neutralization screen tests were performed against the 
Lansing strain of poliomyelitis virus using these sera. The results were 
all negative. 

The monkeys were then inoculated intracerebrally with 0.5 ml. of 
a 10 ! dilution of the Lansing virus. Five of the 8 animals as well as 
the control monkey, became completely paralyzed and were sacrificed. 
This included M#75 which had shown muscular weakness after the 
fecal inoculations. M#72 and #78 which had not developed any previous 
symptoms of poliomyelitis remained well but M#76 showed definite 
paralysis even though it was the only animal that had manifested 
marked symptoms after the fecal inoculations. Blood was removed 
from the survivors about two months later. The neutralization tests 
against the Lansing virus were positive for monkey #72 but negative 
for the others. 


42 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


According to this experiment no neutralizing antibodies against the 
Lansing strain of poliomyelitis virus were developed after inoculation 
of eight monkeys with fecal specimens from two human cases of 
poliomyelitis. Two animals, however, withstood an intracerebral 
injection of the virus even though they had not previously shown 
any sumptoms to the human virus. 

Experiment 2: Six Cynomolgus monkeys were inoculated with one 
of the newly isolated strains of poliomyelitis GGonce). Two animals 
(#82 and #83) were given intracerebral injections of second passage 
brain suspensions, while the other four were inoculated with the 
original fecal material from the same patient. Two of the latter mon- 
keys were given the feces intranasally and intra-abdominally by the 
Paul and Trask method while the remaining two received the un- 
treated feces by way of the cribriform plate according to the Bodian 
method. 

All animals developed typical poliomyelitis (Table 2) but differed 
in the degree of severity. Two showed slight muscular weakness, one 
of the left arm and the other of the left leg. Both recovered. The other 
monkeys were sacrificed. Blood was removed from the surviving two 
animals at different intervals up to five weeks after recovery. 

All neutralization tests on the sera were negative for the Lansing 
poliomyelitis virus even those from convalescent monkeys. The re- 
sults were in accord with the other tests performed. 


Discuss1oNn 


The need tor some simple method of determining immunity to polio- 
myelitis among the human population has long been realized. Serum 
neutralization tests had previously been made by inoculation of 
monkeys with mixtures of human serum and a monkey passage strain 
of virus or viruses recovered from human cord taken at autopsy. Be- 
cause of the scarcity and high cost of monkeys this method was of 
necessity greatly restricted. It was also statistically unsound because 
of the small numbers of animals employed for each serum. When it 
was found that a particular strain of virus isolated from a human case 
of poliomyelitis could be adapted to small animals such as the cotton 
rat and white mouse, there was hope that the determination of neu- 
tralizing antibodies for this virus in human sera might be ot diagnostic 
value. Such antibodies were found not only in the serum of recovered 
poliomyelitis patients but in large numbers of the normal population as 
well. However, this wide distribution of neutralizing antibodies had 


HUMAN STRAINS OF POLIO AND LANSING MURINE STRAIN 43 


likewise been observed when using the older monkey inoculation 
method. Because tests with this Lansing mouse adapted virus were 
more readily performed, reports have been made by several workers. 

Although Hammon and Izumi (1942) in 1942 observed a rise in 
antibody titer during convalescence in 9 out of 23 (9.1%) sera from 
poliomyelitis cases, the more detailed studies by Turner and Young 
(1943), Turner, Young and Maxwell (1945) and Brown and Francis 
(1947) have failed to observe any consistent difference in antibody 
formation between acute and convalescent sera. Antibodies were rarely 
found in the sefa of healthy young children and the number of positive 
tests increased with age. Turner, Young and Maxwell (1945) in study- 
ing the sera of healthy children demonstrated an increase of antibodies 
for the Lansing virus from 15% in the 6 to 11 months period to 86% in 
the 10 to 14 year group. Brown and Francis (1947) furthermore found 
a lower percentage of positive tests in 234 sera of acute cases between 
the ages of 1 and 15 years than in Turner’s group ot healthy children. 

One of the main outcomes of this interest in the mouse adapted 
Lansing poliomyelitis strain has been the realization that the human 
clinical disease is probably not confined to one type of virus and that 
not only in different localities but in the same area, the same clinical 
manifestations may be elicited by closely related though antigenically 
dissimilar neurotropic viruses. This idea was well demonstrated in 
1943, when Schlesinger, Morgan and Olitsky (1943) were able to isolate 
two serologically unrelated poliomyelitis viruses from one epidemic 
occurring among the Middle East Forces of the British Army. One 
of these could be transferred to cotton rats and mice and was sero- 
logically related to the Lansing strain, while the other could be 
transmitted to monkeys and failed to produce antibodies for the 
Lansing virus. 

Although antibodies to the murine strains of poliomyelitic virus 
seem to be generally present, largely among the adult population, 
and are probably indicative of some contact with this variety, yet the 
disease clinically recognized as poliomyelitis is mainly caused by 
another strain which is not adaptable to the rodents. For this reason 
large scale neutralization tests on human sera against the Lansing 
virus would not have much epidemiological significane as tar as the 
usual variety of the disease is concerned. Development of antibodies 
to the Lansing strain after inoculation of chimpanzees with the human 
virus has been reported in the literature (Melnick and Horstmann, 
1947) but without satisfactory explanation. 


44 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


In the present study no antibody formation to the Lansing strain 
was observed after inoculation of monkeys with the human fecal 
specimens from this one epidemic of poliomyelitis, although clinical 
symptoms of poliomyelitis were produced. These human fecal strains 
were not adaptable to mice. Since neutralizing antibodies for the Lan- 
sing strain were present during the early stages of the disease as well 
as later, in the majority of acute and convalescent human sera tested, 
one can conclude that this epidemic of poliomyelitis was not pri- 
marily due to the strains easily adapted to small rodents, and that the 
presence of these neutralizing antibodies was not an indication of the 
immunity to poliomyelitis in this region. 


SUMMARY 


1. Neutralization tests against the Lansing mouse adapted polio- 
myelitis virus were done on the sera otf 38 poliomyelitis patients and 
on those of 7 normal adults among the laboratory personnel. One of 
the latter had the disease in childhood. 

2. Nine (23.6%) of the 38 recovered patients had strongly positive 
neutralizing antibodies for the Lansing virus while 12 (g1.5%) were 
only weakly positive and 17 or 44.9% were negative. Ot the 13 pairs 
of early and late sera, only 2 (15.3%) showed a definite rise in anti- 
body formation while 3 of the 13 sera (23%) were weakly positive 
on the second bleeding. 

3. All except one of the 7 sera of the laboratory personnel showed 
some degree of neutralizing antibodies for the Lansing poliomyelitis 
virus. ) 

4. Neutralizing antibodies for the Lansing virus were not developed 
in any monkeys recovered from the poliomyelitis produced by inocu- 
lation of human feces. They were found only in monkey sera after a 
definite attack of the disease due to the Lansing strain or after hyper- 
immunization with the later virus. This observation may be inter- 
preted as indicating an antigenic difference between the Lansing 
strain of virus and that responsible for the human disease. 

5. Four out of 5 monkeys that recovered from an attack of polio- 
myelitis of human origin showed symptoms of poliomyelitis after an 
intracerebral inoculation of the Lansing virus. The fifth animal sur- 
vived. | 

6. From the results of these neutralization and tissue immunity tests, 
further evidence is presented to corroborate the work of others that 
the neutralization test against the Lansing murine strain of polio- 


45 


HUMAN STRAINS OF POLIO AND LANSING MURINE STRAIN 


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46 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


myelitis virus is not of diagnostic significance in an outbreak of polio- 
myelitis. 

7. Moreover, because antibodies are so prevalent in the sera of the 
general population without evidence of disease, one would have to 
test both acute and convalescent blood of a suspected case, and quan- 
titatively determine any rise in titer before making any decision as 
to its significance. One must likewise bear in mind the probable occur- 
rence of a multiplicity of virus strains that may be responsible for the 
same clinical disease in man. 


LITERATURE CITED 
ARMSTRONG, C. 


1939. Successful Transfer of the Lansing Strain of Poliomyelitis Virus from the 
Cotton Rat to the White Mouse. Public Health Reports, 54, 2302-2305. 


BODIAN, D. 
1947. Personal Communication. 


BROWN, G. C., and FRANCIS, T., JR. 
1947. The Neutralization of the Mouse-Adapted Lansing Strain of Poliomyelitis 
Virus by the Serum of Patients and Contacts. Journal of Immunology, 57, 1-10. 


HAAS, V. H., and ARMSTRONG, C. 
1940. Immunity to the Lansing Strain of Poliomyelitis as Revealed by the Protec- 
tion Test in White Mice. Public Health Reports, 55, 1061-1068. 


HAMMON, W. McD., and IZUMI, E. M. 
1942. Poliomyelitis Mouse Neutralization Test, Applied to Acute and Convalescent 
Sera. Proceedings of the Socéety for Experimental Biology and Medicine, 49, 242-245 


HAMMON, W. McD., MACK, W. N., and REEVES, W. C. 
1947. The Significance of Protection Tests with the Serum of Man and Other Ani- 
mals Against the Lansing Strain of Poliomyelitis Virus. Journal of Immunology, 
57, 285-299. 
MELNICK, J. L., and HORSTMANN, D. M. 
1947. Active Immunity to Poliomyelitis in Chimpanzees Following Subclinical In-. 
fection. Journal of Experimental Medicine, 85, 2.87-303. 


MORGAN, I. M. 
1947. The Role of Antibody in Experimental Poliomyelitis. I. Reproducibility of 
Endpoint in a Mouse Neutralization Test with Lansing Poliomyelitis Virus. 
American Journal of Hygiene, 45, 372-378. 
PAUL, J. R., and TRASK, J. D. 
1941. The Virus of Poliomyelitis in Stcols and Sewage. Journal of the American Med- 
ical Assn., 116, 493-497. 
SCHLESINGER, R. W., MORGAN, I. M., and OLITSKY, P. K. 


1943. Transmission to Rodents of Lansing Type Poliomyelitis Virus Originating in 
the Middle East. Scéence, 98, 452-454. 


HUMAN STRAINS OF POLIO AND LANSING MURINE STRAIN 47 


TURNER, T. B., and YOUNG, L. E. 
1943. The Mouse Adapted Lansing Strain of Poliomyelitis Virus, I. A Study of 
Neutralizing Antibodies in Acute and Convalescent Serum of Poliomyelitis 
Patients. American Journal of Hygiene, 37, 67-79. 


TURNER, T. B., YOUNG, L. E., and MAXWELL, E. S. 
1945. The Mouse Adapted Lansing Strain of Poliomyelitis Virus. IV. Neutralizing 
Antibodies in the Serum of Healthy Children. American Journal of Hygiene, 
42, 119-127. 
YOUNG, L. E., and MERRELL, M. 
1943. The Mouse Adapted Lansing Strain of Poliomyelitis Virus. II. A Quantitative 
Study of Certain Factors Affecting the Reliability of the Neutralization Test. 
American Journal of Hygiene, 37, 80-92. 


Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci. 11(1) 1948(1949). 


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NEWS AND COMMENTS 


The 1948 Annual Meeting of the Florida Academy was held at the 
University of Miami in Coral Gables on November 19 and 20 as an- 
nounced in the last issue of the Journal. More than fifty papers were 
presented in the sectional meetings and in the general sessions. The 
local committee and the University of Miami are to be commended 
on the fine arrangements for the meetings and the excellent field trips 
and other entertainment provided for the members of the Academy 
and their guests. The fine organization and excellent program of the 
Junior Academy arranged by Dr. J. D. Corrington, is especially to be 
commended. 

The Council of the Academy voted to accept the invitation to hold 
the 1949 Annual Meeting at John B. Stetson University, DeLand, 
Florida. 


OFFICERS OF THE FLorripA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


1948 1949 
President: George F. Weber President: J. E. Hawkins 
University of Florida University of Florida 
Vice President: Garald G. Parker Vice President: J. D. Corrington 
U.S. Geological Survey University of Miami 


Secretary-Treasurer: Chester S. Nielsen 
Florida State University 


Chairmen of Sections 


Soctal; Rev. C. W. Burke, O.P, Soctal: Paul F. Finner 
Barry College Florida State University 
Biological: John H. Davis, Jr. Biological: A. M. Winchester 
University of Florida John B. Stetson University 
Physical: A. A. Bless Physical: H. H. Sheldon 
University of Florida University of Miami 


Member of the Council for 1948-1949: E. M. Miller, University of Miami 
Member of the Council for 1949-1950. George F. Weber, University of Florida 
Historian: George F. Weber, University of Florida 

Librarian: Coleman J. Goin, University of Florida 

Publicity Agent: Raymond F. Bellamy, Florida State University 

Editor: Frank N. Young, Jr., University of Florida 

Assistant Editor: Irving J. Cantrall, University of Florida 


50 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Dr. Marcus W. Collins of John B. Stetson University was awarded 
the Florida Academy of Sciences Achievement Medal for 1947 for his 
paper entitled “‘Race, Caste, and Motbility—A Study of the Negro in 
the Santee-Cooper Project Area of South Carolina.’’ His paper was 
published in shortened form in the Quarterly Journal under the title 
“Life, Labor, and Sorrow—A Study of the Caste System in the Santee- 
Cooper Project Area of South Carolina.”’ 

We regret to announce the death of Dr. Winslow S. Anderson, 
President of Whitman College, Walla Walla, Washington, and former 
Dean of Rollins College. Dr. Anderson died in Rochester, Minne- 
sota, on November 13, 1948, following a major operation. 


ResEarcH Notes 


RANGE EXTENSIONS OF TWO BATS IN FLORIDA—To the growing knowledge 
of the distribution of bats in Florida (@éde H. B. Sherman, 1936, Proc. Fla. Acad. Sci. 
1:106-109, and 1945, op. cét., 7:193-197 and 201), it is desired to contribute the following 
records which extend known ranges of two-species. 

Corynorhinus macrotis, big-eared bat. A.E. Glatfelter captured two individuals of this species 
in the basement of his house on the campus of the Hampden-DuBose Academy at Zell- 
wood, Orange County, Florida, in June, 1946. He preserved one of them, a female, which, 
after two years in alcohol, measures 99-41-11-29 and forearm 46 mm. This constitutes 
the fourth locality record for the big-eared bat in Florida, and extends its range 60 miles 
south from the nearest previously reported locality, Satsuma, Putnam County (the writer, 
in press). 

Dasypterus floridanus, Florida yellow bat. James I. Moore of Miami, Dade County, Florida, 
was given a female bat of this species by a friend who had captured it in that city when 
it fell from a palm tree with a dead frond blown down by the hurricane on September 17, 
1947. This specimen measures 115-55—10-10 and forearm 51 mm. Since the Florida yellow 
bat has been previously known only from as far south as Punta Gorda, Charlotte County 
(O. E. Frye, Jr., 1948, Journ. Mammalogy 29:182), this information extends its known 
range 140 miles southeast. 

These two specimens have been placed in the mammal collection of the Department 
of Biology of the University of Florida (catalog numbers 267 and 268, respectively ).— 
JOSEPH CURTIS MOORE, Department of Biology, University of Florida. 


x 
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Quarterly Journal 


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Vol. ll June-September 1948 (1949) Nos. 2-3 


Gontents 


DickINSON—AN EcoLtoGicaAL RECONNAISSANCE OF THE BIOTA OF 
Some Ponps AND DitcHEes IN NorTHERN FLORIDA......... I 


DietrRicH—THE ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF INDUSTRIAL AND 
INDEPENDENT Lasor Groups IN THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY. 29 


HarperR—A Pretiminary List or THE ENpDEMIC FLOWERING 
Seeremseee REORIDA, PART ID... 2s cence cee been ee ee 39 


Goin—Tue Peep Orper IN Peepers; A Swamp WaTER SERENADE 59 


NEILSEN AND Mapsen—CuHeck List or THE ALG# or NortTH- 
fe ME ORDELY AEE Rie on fa? 2c sania onc 2 aati s clctre S ctle Gates 63 


Vou. 11 JUNE-SEPTEMBER 1948 (1949) Nos. 2-3 


~QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF 
THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research 


Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences 
Printed by the Rose Printing Company, Tallahassee, Florida 


Communications for the editor and all manuscripts should be addressed to H. K. 
Wallace, Editor, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, 
Florida. Business communications should be addressed to Chester S. Nielsen, 
Secretary-Treasurer, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida. All ex- 
changes and communications regarding exchanges should be sent to the Florida 
Academy of Sciences, Exchange Library, Department of Biology, University 
of Florida, Gainesville. 


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Mailed September 28, 1949 


ime QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE 
BeORIOA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Vaz. 11 JUNE-SEPTEMBER 1948 (1949) Nos. 2-3 


AN ECOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE OF THE BIOTA OF 
SOME PONDS AND DITCHES IN 
NORTHERN FLORIDA? 


J. C. Dickinson, Jr. 


University of Florida 


The present paper is concerned with a biological reconnaissance 
of a group of ponds and more or less permanently inundated ditches 
in the region of Gainesville, Florida. This part of Northern Penin- 
sular Florida presents a very fertile field for limnological investiga- 
tion. Situated between latitudes 29° North and 80° North, it is 
approximately 600 miles south of those regions in North America 
where aquatic life has been intensively studied. Here the greater 
penetration of insolation through the water's surface not only pro- 
vides more solar energy for metabolism but there is an average 
growing season of approximately 300 days, and the periods of 
freezing temperature are so short and relatively mild as to permit 
active existence on the part of a large proportion of the aquatic 
biota throughout the year. 

A certain amount of work has already been done on the limnology 
of Florida. Carr (1940), Trogdon (1934), Townsend (1935), Pierce 
(1947), Harkness and Pierce (1940), have made more or less de- 
tailed studies of various lakes, rivers and ponds; H. H. Hobbs (1936, 
1942), L. Berner (1949), C. F. Byers (1930), F. N. Young (1940, 
1942), and others have dealt with various groups of aquatic arthro- 
pods; Goin (1943) published the results of his research on the 
cold-blooded vertebrate fauna found in association with water 


1 Contribution from the Department of Biology, University of Florida. 


OCT 4 - 1948 


pu JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


hyacinths. However, these works, as a part of a general reconnais- 
sance of Northern Florida’s fresh-water habitats and biota, have 
omitted or only incidentally been concerned with the very char- 
acteristic semi-permanent small ponds and ditches that border 
nearly every roadside and are widely distributed throughout most 
of the extensive “flatwoods”. Barbour (1944), has remarked upon 
the importance of these habitats in the maintenance and distribu- 
tion of many of Florida’s characteristic animals and plants. 

Incidental observations and the field work of classes in limnology 
at the University of Florida have shown that these small and often 
temporary situations have a surprisingly rich fauna. When one con- 
siders in detail the abundance and variation of the biota, it is quite 
evident that these environments provide an important fraction of 
Florida’s aquatic life. 

Since this paper was accepted for publication Roman Kenk 
(1949) has published the results of his studies of very similar sit- 
uations in southern Michigan. A comparison of the faunal lists in 
the two papers reveals some interesting parallels and diversities. 
Some of the differences are no doubt due to the fact that we did 
not have the same facilities for identification available. In both 
localities Coleoptera are the most numerous in species represented, 
the may flies are represented by the same two genera, and there 
is great similarity in the lists of Hemiptera in the two localities. 
Chemically the Florida stations present a greater diversity than 
those in Michigan, while physically the reverse is true. 


METHODS 


Since, at the time the study of these ponds and ditches was first 
planned, it was not possible to determine which would be most 
suitable for study or which would provide a typical range of con- 
ditions, it was decided to select a large number and then as their 
various characters became evident, to concentrate on a few selected 
examples that appeared to be representative. For practical reasons, 
it was desirable that the selected series of stations should be so 
located that regular field trips would be practicable. With this in 
mind, two roads south of Gainesville were selected. (Map 1). 

Twenty-two stations, ranging from an open pond of several acres 
to pools of a few square yards extent, and from unquestionably 


AN ECOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE 3 


permanent to clearly ephemeral situations were reconnoitered and 
mapped along the twenty-two miles of this circuit. 

Observations were begun in early June, 1940, and continued into 
March of 1942, except for the months of July and August of 1940. 
Work was finally concentrated on Stations 1, 4a, 7, 12 and 16. Data 
available on the remainder of the stations are included. 

An effort was made to visit all of the stations weekly throughout 
the study. However, vagaries of weather and other conditions oc- 
casionally disrupted this schedule. 

Records of all field work on the diminishing series of stations 
were kept in the form of a Journal in which the following data 
were recorded: Direction and velocity of air movement, depth of 
water, turbidity and color of water. Hydrogen ion concentration 
was taken in the field with the Beckman Laboratory Model pH 
Meter. Free carbon dioxide was determined according to the 
method outlined in the manual of the American Public Health As- 
sociation (1936). Dissolved oxygen determinations were made in 
the laboratory with samples previously treated with potassium 
permanganate in the field according to the Rideal-Stewart modifica- 
tion of the Winkler method as outlined in this same manual. Tem- 
perature was recorded with centigrade mercury thermometers. 


Semi-circular dip nets with %#” mesh scrim were used with great 
success in most of the ponds for collecting the larger animals. They 
proved to be the best tool for taking crayfish, tadpoles, the larger 
Odonata and some of! the fish. Very productive collections were 
made by “scooping” through detritis and algal mats, dumping the 
contents of the net into a large white enameled pan, and searching 
through this materia] in the field. When this was not practical, I 
found it possible and productive to dump the contents of the net into 
a one gallon jar, bring the jar into the laboratory and examine the 
contents there at my convenience. The latter method also brings 
to light many of the smaller forms that are usually missed in the 
field examination. Seines, 4’ mesh, were used in those ponds in 
which the rooted aquatic vegetation did not prevent their proper 
functioning. Material taken in the seines was handled by the same 
technique as noted above for the dip nets. A standard Birge 
Plankton Net was used to obtain the smaller plankton organisms 
as well as the non planktonic micro-crustaceans that rest on sub- 
merged vegetation. The Birge Cone that forms the distal end of 


4. JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


the plankton net was used with some degree of success in those 
ponds in which it was not possible to use the tow net because of 
excessive vegetation. Small plankton dip-nets, constructed of $16 
bolting silk, were found to be more practical than the Birge Cone 
because they were more easily handled in small open areas and 
because they did not become clogged so rapidly with filamentous 
algae. Strainers, about 4” in diameter, made of 16 to 20 mesh 
. screen wire were used in the areas where it was impractical to use 
a net of greater size. With these strainers, one can be very selective 
in the micro habitat collected. The Goin Dredge, (Goin loc. cit.) 
was used on several occasions. This is undoubtedly the best ap- 
paratus now available to use in areas that are overgrown with 
water hyacinths. 


THE Ponp AS A HABITAT 


Some of the ponds are natural solution depressions—others are 
essentially “borrow pits’—shallow, usually rectangular depressions 
from which road building material has been excavated down to an 
impervious hardpan. Many of the ditches are actually elongate 
borrow pits; others were constructed to drain a road-bed or to 
prevent inundation from bordering flatwoods and sloughs during 
the prolonged rainy seasons. 

As aquatic habitats, these’ situations show all degrees of per- 
manence. Many become dry with each normal dry season, others 
persist through the usual dry seasons and become dry only after 
very prolonged drouths, still others persist as aquatic habitats 
throughout even abnormally dry years. Any clear-cut classification, 
on the basis of permanence, is difficult because of the vagaries of 
Florida climate and drainage. Although more or less definite rainy 
and dry seasons may be recognized in northern Florida, the dry 
season is very variable in both duration and intensity, and the rate 
at which rainfall is lost into the soil is greatly influenced by con- 
siderable local fluctuations in the water table. Moreover, it is not 
always possible to determine by an inspection of the fauna and 
flora whether or not a pond is permanent or temporary. Even 
though a pond or ditch may include fish and Paleomonetes, typical 
inhabitants of permanent bodies of water, it may have been dry 
a few days previously and then refilled and restocked instanter by 


AN ECOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE 5 


the rise and spread of water from a flooded stream bed that lies 
several hundred yards away. 

One of the prime causes for the existence of the habitat is the 
geology of the region; flat or gently rolling lands provide for slow 
drainage of surface waters. The variableness of underlying soils 
results in differing degrees of permanence of the ponds and ditches. 
Low spots in sandy soil, underlain with strata which permit rapid 
absorption of water result in ponds which persist for short periods; 
the same situation when occuring in clay soil or with sub-strata of 
impervious formations may exist as an aquatic habitat for quite 
long periods, without refilling rains. The Gainesville region has in 
addition to these soil conditions numerous “sink-hole” ponds. In 
most of this area a hard formation, Hawthorne, lies over a soluble 
formation, Ocala Limestone. In many cases, owing to solution pro- 
cesses, there has been a collapse of the undermined hard roof or 
erosion has occurred along a fissure in the Hawthorne in such a 
way as to result in the formation of a nearly circular, fairly deep 
“sink-hole” pond. If the plugging of the drainage outlet into the 
Ocala formation is complete, the cavity will probably exist as a 
permanent pond. If this plugging is incomplete or temporary, a 
pond may exist only during wet seasons when runoff exceeds the 
drainage capacity of the hole. Further, the hole may become dry 
at unpredictable intervals whenever the plugging material is washed 
out and/or dissolved away, or when a new drainage channel is 
formed, Scott (1910). 3 

The average rainfall of the region, though not excessive by 
standards set for truly tropical regions, is high. An annual mean 
of about fifty inches of rain is distributed over the twelve month 
period. If the rainfall was actually evenly distributed, many of the 
ponds that now become dry in the prolonged rainless periods would 
exist as permanent habitats in spite of the variability of the soils. 
Even distribution is not the case, however, and temporary ponds 
are more abundant as the result. A further cause for great varia- 
bility is the spotty distribution of local rainstorms. Ponds a few 
hundred yards apart often do not receive the same amount of 
rainfall. Records of the Agricultural Experiment Station on the 
campus of the University of Florida illustrate the great variability 
of precipitation in this region. During May, 1941, rainfall totalled 
1.77 in.; in June, 10.57 in. In 1940, during these same months the 


6 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


record was 3.34 inches and 5.77 inches respectively. In October, 
1940, .09 inches of rain fell. However, during the same month in 
1941, 15.78 inches was recorded; of this total, 9.93 inches fell in a 
single 24 hour period on October 21st. Variation of this sort can 
be found in most months, although extremes have been indicated 
for purposes of illustration. Not uncommon downpours of 4-9 inches 
provide for prompt and complete refilling of dry pond basins and, 
by flooding streams and ditches, sometimes provide a means of 
adding to or completely renewing the fauna. Still another factor 
which affects the conditions of aquatic habitats is the frequent 
excessively prolonged dry periods. Although comparable figures are 
not readily available for the Gainesville region, the records for 
Jacksonville, Florida are indicative of the conditions found in 
Gainesville. Dry periods of 22-30 days per month for the months of 
October through May are not at all uncommon. Truly, most of 
these prolonged dry periods occur during the winter months, but 
they are not exceptional in the early spring as well. 

The effect of these variables on the overall biota of the region 
is obviously great. Those animals that can survive dessication (as 
eggs, larvae or adults) are best fitted for survival; those that find 
it possible to move to other localities as the water disappears are 
also well adapted for life in temporary habitats. In recently filled 
ponds, populations of some forms rapidly developed as blooms which 
lasted until other, more slowly developing animals took their place 
in the food chains. The fairy shrimps, Phylopoda, insofar as I was 
able to determine, owe their very existence to the temporary nature 
of some of the ponds. They were recorded only from those ponds 
and ditches that had previously been dry. The drying of the ponds 
permits the essential dessication of the eggs. 

In the small temporary pond, Station 1, it was noticed that clado- 
cerans and copepods flourished in greatest numbers very soon 
after refilling and just prior to complete drying of the basin. This, 
I believe, is partially the result of the absence of the animals that 
utilize them for food. The fact that they are able to mature and 
lay eggs before their number is depleted by the arrival of predatory 
forms is assured by the high biotic potential of the species, pro- 
ducing an abundant population in the early stages of development 
of the newly filled pond. In the last stages of drying, many preda- 


tors, such as the aquatic Hemiptera depart, seeking a new pond. 


AN ECOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE 7 


The volume of water is decreased constantly and as a result per- 
fectly amazing concentrations of these less vagil forms are found. 

In 1940, the fall months received well below the average amount 
of rainfall and consequently nine of the stations studied were dry 
on November 18th. The water table of the entire region was lowered 
considerably and many deep wells in the area went dry for the 
first time in many years. Several light rains fell during the remain- 
ing days in November and in early December, but none was large 
enough to cause water to stand in any of these ponds. On December 
19th, rain began to fall and continued almost steadily from this 
date to December 25th. Investigations on December 25th revealed 
such tremendous populations of copepods, cladocerans and volvox 
that the water was colored. On January 7, 1941, fairy shrimp were 
discovered in five of the stations. In four of these, Streptocephalus 
sealii, Eubranchippus sp., Limnetis sp., and Eulimnadea sp. were 
present in large numbers. In the fifth only a few shrimp, S. sealii, 
were present. This difference may be explained, I believe, by the 
presence of numerous individuals of several species of carnivorous 
fish which had entered the pond by way of a connecting ditch 
and flooded stream. Gambusia affinis holbrookii and Chaenobryttus 
coronarius were the most abundant forms present. On January 7th, 
copepods in all stages of development from nauplii to adult females 
with eggs were present. At Station 1, a small depression well out 
in the surrounding pasture that had not previously contained water 
was swarming with copepods, cladocerans and volvox. It is un- 
fortunate that it was not possible to make quantitative studies of 
these populations, but I am certain that the numbers far exceeded 
any that I have ever seen in permanent bodies of water. In addi- 
tion to the animals, many of the lower plant forms, especially the 
desmids and filamentous algae, became reestablished with great 
rapidity. The latter seemingly keeping pace with the micro- 
crustaceans. 

In some cases, for example the crayfish and salamanders, it is 
probable that some individuals burrowed down into the soil of the 
pond bed and remained there until the pond refilled; both of these 
forms were found soon after refilling. Frogs seem to locate the 
ponds with surprising rapidity, for on January 7, 1941, the larval 
forms of two species, Rana grylio and Acris gryllus were present 
in Station 1. On this date, mayflies, damselflies and dragonflies had 


8 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


laid eggs and the nymphal stages of these forms were found in 
all of the formerly dry ponds. I noted “a large beetle larvae seen 
swimming with a Conchostracan in its mandibles”—balances were 
becoming established. 

Having decided that the ponds owe ° their origin and existence to 
a variety of circumstances, it is of interest to consider the great 
variety of faunal associations that are present in the various situa- 
tions. Aquatic habitats which seem to be much alike in origin and 
appearance may have very different assemblages of animals. The 
faunal list which follows bears out the known fact that many species 
are limited to specific habitats and it is reasonable to assume that 
there is some cause for this delimitation. Amount of shade, depth, 
hydrogen-ion concentration, dissolved oxygen, free carbon dioxide, 
temperature, type of bottom, type of plant associations present in 
and near the pond, types and numbers of predators, amount of 
food, turbidity, degree of permanence, percentage of open to closed 
water, amount of silt, silica content, and iron concentration are only 
a few of the many factors that may vary with season, with type 
of pond, and within certain specific localities within the pond. 
Most of the factors mentioned have long been recognized as having 
some effect on the existence of various animals and plants. It would, 
of course, be desirable to follow the rhythmic variation of many 
of these factors in the environment, but this would require a con- 
siderable staff of trained field workers and technicians. 


SOME CHEMICAL CONSIDERATIONS 


In Station 1, over the period covered by this study, the tempera- 
ture varied from 11° C. on January 15, 1941, to 32° C. on May 2nd 
of the same year. pH varied from 5.9 in January, 1941, to 8.87 in 
June. Dissolved oxygen varied from 1.1 ppm. to 9.9, while carbon 
dioxide concentration varied from 2.0 to 12.0 ppm. 

It is interesting to note that the extreme figures obtained in regard 
to carbon dioxide and dissolved oxygen content were obtained on 
May 2, 1941. On this occasion, samples were taken at the surface 
and on the bottom. The surface sample revealed a concentration of 
oxygen and carbon dioxide of 9.9 and 2.0 ppm. respectively, whereas 
the sample taken near the bottom showed concentrations of oxygen 
and carbon dioxide of 1.1 and 12.0 respectively. At this time, the 
surface temperature was 32° C., while the sample on the bottom 


AN ECOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE 9 


was 22° C. This definite stratification in a body of water less than 
2 feet deep is surprising, and it is probable that it existed for only 
a few days. This also points to the fact that it is vitally important, 
in a study of this kind, that the samples must be taken in the same 
area on each occasion; surface and bottom samples in this case 
giving entirely different pictures of the physical conditions existing 
in the pond. Even with the precaution observed, the samples in- 
dicate the condition of these environmental factors only in respect 
to a given place at a particular time. 

It is also interesting to note the changes that take place in these 
factors immediately before the pond becomes dry. If it is assumed 
that water level in the pond was normal or average in February, 
1941, when the oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations were 5.2 
and 8.0 ppm. respectively, it will be seen that immediately prior 
to drying the oxygen concentration dropped sharply and the car- 
bon dioxide concentration increased. Sample taken on June lI, 
1941, when Station 1 was almost dry, indicated a concentration of 
oxygen and carbon dioxide of 2.0 and 18.1 respectively. 

The records of chemical change for Station 4a reveal that the 
temperature varied from a low of 11° C. on January 7, 1941, to a 
high of 23° C. on June Ist of the same year. pH varied from 5.9 
in Jannuary to 7.0 in February and March. Dissolved oxygen 
reached its lowest level of 4.0 ppm. on October 28, 1940, when 
the pond was almost dry. On December 27, following the heavy 
rains, the oxygen content had reached 6.0 ppm., the highest re- 
corded. Free carbon dioxide in the same station varied from a 
low of 5.0 ppm. on October 28th to a high of 12.0 ppm. on February 
25th. The water in this station remained clear throughout the course 
of the study. 

Station 7 appears to have the physical and chemical character- 
istics of a small lake, these factors in this station showing little 
variation throughout the year, the temperature varying from 17 to 
25° C.; pH showing a variation of 5.9 to 7.5; dissolved oxygen varied 
from 8.7 to 9.0, while carbon dioxide showed a variation from 1.5 
to 2.1 ppm. 

In stations 10 and 12, dissolved oxygen determinations seemed 
to bear out the fact that organisms demanded less oxygen during 
periods of low temperature. In both cases, as temperature decreased, 
dissolved oxygen content decreased. Other factors remained fairly 


10 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


constant throughout the study. Station 12 showed a temperature 
variation from 11° C. to 30° C., a pH variation from 6.0 to 7.69, 
dissolved oxygen from 8.7 to 9.8, carbon dioxide from 5.9 to 7.0. 
The water in Station 12 was cloudy throughout the course of the 
study. | 

With the possible exception of the low hydrogen-ion concentra- 
tion in Station 16, it is not felt that any chemical or physical factor 
has been demonstrated as controlling the presence of any organism. 
In Station 16, temperatue varied from 15° C. to 24° C. , pH from 
4.2 to 5.65, oxygen from 8.7 to 10.2 and carbon dagen from 7.9 
to 8.1. The water in Station 16 was uniformly clear. 

The data obtained on chemical factors, indicate that these may 
vary greatly from time to time and place to place within a pond. 
The extremes of variation of these factors is as great within a given 
pond as from pond to pond. The organisms present, therefore, must 
be plastic enough to withstand this range in order to survive. 

Physical factors are, on the other hand, clearly demonstrated as 
being the controlling factor for many species. Station 1, with silty 
water that covered the basin with a thin layer of mud, did not 
contain sponges. Permanent ponds did not contain fairy shrimp. 
Fish were present only in permanent ponds, with the exception of 
stations 4a and 4b, where the fish populations come in with the 
floods. The neuston was much richer in species and individuals in 
stations’ such as 1, 4a and 10, where the marginal growth offers 
protection and food. Goin (1943), has shown that the water hya- 
cinths have a fauna associated with the physical aspect of the 
hyacinths, as cover, resting place and food. 

In general, it appears that temporary ponds show much greater 
variability in regard to chemical change than do ponds of permanent 
character. 


DESCRIPTION OF STATIONS STUDIED 


Station 1: (Plate I, Upper and Lower).—A small pond located 
about ten yards from the west side of the Old Ocala Road, 0.3 miles 
from McDonald’s Corners? and in a pasture that is often heavily 


2 This is the local designation for point where the Old Ocala Road branched 
south from the old Gainesville-Archer road, just east of the point where the 
latter made its second crossing of the Seaboard Railroad, some 3.4 miles 
southwest of Gainesville. This will be used as the reference point for locating 
all ponds and ditches that are included in this paper. (See Map 1.) 


AN ECOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE 11 


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Map 1: Map showing the locations of the stations studied, num- 
bers in circles. Mileages in the text are from the intersection of roads 
near Daysville on State Road 24. 


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AN ECOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE 13 


stocked with cattle and horses. The pond is roughly circular in out- 
line and has the broad shallow contours of a watch glass. The surface 
of its east quadrat was hidden in summer during the period from 
June, 1940, to March, 1942, beneath a dense mat of a nearly pure 
stand of the spiny aquatic perennial, Nama quadrivalve. By 1945, 
however, most of this growth had been replaced by Persicaria sp. A 
few scattered clumps of two species of Juncus are found in this 
emergent growth as well as along the margins. The remainder of the 
pond is practically devoid of any permanent vegetation except for 
small patches of Persicaria sp. along the north and south margins. 
The water is usually muddy (Sechi disc disappeared at less than one 
foot on several occasions), due, no doubt in large measure, to the 
fact that the bottom is composed of soft clay that is repeatedly 
stirred by the horses and cattle as they use it as a water hole. On one 
occasion, nearly forty horses were observed in the pond at one time. 
These animals doubtless contribute greatly to the fertility of the 
pond. The pond was completely dry on two occasions during the 
twenty months covered in the study, once for a period of some weeks 
during November and December, 1940, and once for two days in 
June, 1941. This pond is permanent throughout most “normal” 
years. 

Station 2: <A pond of definitely artificial origin that was located 
between the forks of the Old Ocala Road and the Rocky Point Road. 
It is believed that it was formed by excavations for road material 
not later than 1922, and had certainly assumed an appearance of 
permanence in June of 1940. By September of 1940, however, when 
I resumed field work on the ponds, it was dry and had large fissures 
over most of what was formerly its bottom. These cracks were from 
two to four inches deep and broke the mud into large polygonal 


Plate I: Upper; Station 1, June 21, 1940, looking south south-east. 
Wading horses and cattle were a continued factor in the economy 
of the pond. Compare the marginal clumps of Juncus with those 
shown in lower figure of this plate. 

Lower; Station 1, June 1, 1941, looking south south-east. Note 
the browsed clumps of Juncus around the “normal” margin. The 
residual pool was choked with living Notonecta, Buenoa, Plea and 
various Corixidae. Volvox was sufficiently abundant to give a green 
cast to the water and the copepods and cladocerans were tre- 
mendously concentrated. A few days later the pond was dry. 


14 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


blocks. In December it was again full of water, but in January it 
was destroyed by being filled with waste limerock in the course 
of further road construction, and so had to be dropped from my 
series of ponds. Its vegetation prior to its destruction, comprised 
a good growth of Cephalanthus occidentalis, with various species of 
Potomageton, Spyrogyra and Persicaria. 

Station 8: A small temporary pond, known locally as “Pony 
Puddle”, in a natural depression on the west side of the Old Ocala 
Road, 2.1 miles from McDonald’s Corners. It is completely choked 
with Sagittaria and Pontederia. Since it was completely dry early 
in September of 1940, and because of the almost impossible collect- 
ing conditions produced by the plant growth, its active study was 
abandoned early in October of the same year but it was kept 
under observation until March, 1942. 

Station 4a: A small pond located on the west side of the Old 
Ocala Road, 3.2 miles from McDonald’s Corners. I am in some 
doubt as to the origin of this pond. It may have well existed before 
the ‘construction of the present road, from which it is separated by 
a roadside ditch and shoulder. It -has a natural-looking shrub and 
tree-grown margin and the well-developed submerged and emergent 
flora could hardly have been developed in a pond of recent origin. 
It is probable that the pond was formerly a part of Payne’s Prairie, 
which borders the road on the east, the construction of the road 
simply isolating it as a separate pond. In fact, Station 4a and Station 
4b on the east side of the road appear to be remnants of a single 
pond near the outer edge of the fluctuation zone of Payne's Prairie, 
artificially separated by the construction of the road fill. The two 
ponds are now not at all similar, but the period of time that has 
elapsed since the road was built might well account for the differ- 
ences between them. It was thought at the beginning of this study 
that a comparison of the biota of these two situations would be of 
interest, but the subsequent drying of the east pond made any 
comparison impractical. 

This pond is approximately ninety feet long and thirty feet wide, 
with a maximum depth of four feet at normal water level. The 
banks on the east side are fairly steep with the roots of willow and 
buttonbush festooning into the water below. The banks on the west 
side shelve gradually into the water and here the marginal flora, 
though nearly the same in species, is much more dense. A few 
medium sized loblolly pines, P. taeda, occur on the west bank. The 


AN ECOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE 15 


margins are spotted with clumps of Pontederia and Sagittaria inter- 
mingled with maiden-cane and a few scattered individuals of water 
hyacinth. Submerged aquatic plants, chiefly Potomageton and 
Cabomba are very abundant, at times almost filling the pond. The 
growth along the shore is sufficiently dense to provide most of the 
pond with partial shade and parts, particularly near the west bank, 
are continuously shaded. The water is free of sediment, but coffee- 
colored from organic infusions. Even during low water periods and 
just prior to drying, the water remained un-muddied and well 
areated. The pond was completely dry on only one occasion during 
the whole period of my studies, then for a period of some five weeks 
during November and December, 1940. Its refilling was very differ- 
ent from that of any of the other temporary ponds in this series for 
it almost immediately had a fairly normal fish population. This 
was because only a low divide separates the pond from a nearby 
roadside ditch which connects in turn with a small stream about 
one hundred yards to the south. 

Station 4b: The temporary body of water that lies on the east 
side of the Old Ocala Road directly opposite pond 4a. It is about 
60 feet in diameter, and has a maximum depth of about eighteen 
inches. The entire surface is covered by a compact mat of water 
hyacinths that in June, 1940, seemed to be well on its way to com- 
pleting the extinction of the pond. Later events proved this not to 
be the case. As indicated in the discussion of Station 4a, this pond 
was formerly the end of an outlying arm of Payne's Prairie. It is 
now isolated from the latter by the construction of a railroad spur. 
During the exceptionally dry season that occurred throughout the 
latter half of 1940, the pond was dry a large part of the time, but 
the hyacinth mat was not markedly dessicated during the dry 
periods. Like Station 4a, this pond’s connections with the other, 
more permanent bodies of water, via roadside ditches and culverts, 
provide for a prompt repopulation by a fauna characteristic of 
permanent waters as soon as it is flooded. Intensive study of this 
pond was discontinued during the first year of the survey and only 
incidental notes concerning it were kept thereafter. 

Station 5: A typical button-bush pond on the east side of the 
Old Ocala Road, 4.2 miles from McDonald’s Corners. Study of this 
pond was discontinued soon after the beginning of these studies 
because its owner cleared it of all major vegetation. 


16 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Station 6: A small, almost Square temporary pond that appears 
to be of artificial origin. It is located on the west side of the Old 
Ocala Road, 4.6 miles from McDonald’s Corners. The pond is ap- 
proximately 40 feet wide on each side, with very shallow water 
above a deep layer of very fine black muck. The water and muck 
were sc completely choked with water hyacinths during all of 1940 
that it waz impossible to do any effective collecting and regular 
collecting was discontinued after January, 1941. 

Station 7: A pond located in a pasture on the west side of the 
Old Ocala Road, 4.9 miles from McDonald’s Corners. It is one of the 
two largest bodies of water included in the present study, and ap- 
pears to be permanent. Almost circular in outline, and about 250 
feet in diameter, it reaches a maximum depth of 8 to 9 feet near 
its center. Although this pond has apparently been enlarged through 
the damming of its former overflow by the present road, there is 
considerable evidence that a small sink-hole pond was in existence 
before the construction of the road in 1922. This is indicated by the 
bottom contours of the pond, by the presence of two nearby sink- 
hole ponds, and by the presence of several other old lime-sink de- 
pressions in the vicinity. In other words, it is very probable that 
this is an old sink-hole pond that has been enlarged by subsequent 
damming. The margins are very sparsely grown with button-bushes, 
rushes and maiden-cane, while the open water is filled with a lux- 
uriant growth of Ceratophyllum. About a dozen old stumps project — 
above the water line near the shore and possibly date from the 
lower water level that existed before the present road was built. 
The banks have a good sod of carpet-grass which extends unbroken 
into the surrounding pasture and aids appreciably in preventing 
washing following rains. The runoff from approximately six acres 
drains into the pond. 

Station 8: A large pond on the east side of the road 5.3 miles 
from McDonald’s Corners. It is located near the edge of Paynes 
Prairie and when the latter was a lake, this pond was a local de- 
pression in the lake bottom. The draining of the lake established 
Station 8 as a separate pond, but in excessively wet periods, it again 
joins with the flooded prairie. The surface of the pond is covered 
with water hyacinths. It receives the run-off from a large pasture 
and the banks of the north side are bare of woody plants. On the 
west and south side, the banks are covered with button-bush and 
willows. 


AN ECOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE 17 


Station 9: A hammock pond about 100 yards in diameter lying 
in a natural solution depression on the east side of the road 6.1 
miles from McDonald’s Corners. It is circular in shape and the 
entire central portion is grown up with large willows and button- 
bushes. The pond is in almost complete shade throughout the day, 
due to the typical hammock trees that line the shores on all sides. 
The water is clear and coffee colored despite the mud bottom. In 
some areas there is a covering mat of duck-weed and the water 
under the trees in the center of the pond is covered with water 
hyacinths. a 

Station 10: (Plate II, Upper). A series of roadside ditch pools 
that lies between the road and the “T. and J.” railway embankment. 
The ponds probably owe their origin to the construction of the 
latter. These pools are located 7.3 miles from McDonald’s Corners. 
It was decided to treat them all as a single station in that they are 
close together and at times are joined by the rise that follows a 
heavy rain. The series varies from pools that remain wet in periods 
of extreme drought, to pools that regularly become dry in normal 
dry periods. This variety of permanence is due, I believe, to the 
difference in structure of the underlying soils, the ditches which 
dry up regularly lying in sandy soil, and the one retaining moisture 
underlain by a local clay bed. Vegetation in the series of pools 
varies considerably, from sections that are covered with water hya- 
cinths and thickly grown with Sagittaria to others that are prac- 
tically barren. Cattle and hogs have access to this series of pools 
and their depredations alter the floral conditions almost overnight 
on some occasions. 

Station 11: A fairly large permanent pond on the south side of 
the road 10.0 miles from McDonald’s Corners. It lies between the 
road and Ledwith Prairie and its origin is probably similar to sta- 
tions 4, 4b and 8. The pond is about 300 feet in diameter and al- 
though its central portions were never explored, I do not think 
depth exceeds more than six or eight feet. Almost the entire central . 
portion is grown with button bush and willows. All of the surface is 
covered with water hyacinths and duckweeds. 

Station 12: (Plate Il, Lower).A small pond that is apdagell in 
origin. It is a typical borrow pit, about 60 feet long and 40 feet 
wide. The surface soil has been removed down to the hardpan, 
providing a firm bottom that has a thin covering of silt. It is located 
on the south side of the road 10.2 miles from McDonald’s Corners. 


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AN ECOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE 19 


The vegetation is composed mainly of Typha, which covers almost 
half of the east end of the pond. The water level remains fairly 
constant during all seasons and maintains a depth of about four 
feet in the central portions. The water is discolored by the silt 
present and at times a bloom added to the turbidity and the color 
of the water. The north bank shelves gently into the center of the 
pond, but the south bank is precipitous with deep water extending 
to the shoreline. 

Station 13: A small hammock pond on the south side of the 
road 10.6 miles from McDonald’s Corners. No collections were made 
at this station, although a casual record was kept in regards its 
fluctuations in water level throughout the study. 

Station 14: A small temporary roadside ditch on the east side 
of the Old Ocala Road, 14.4 miles from McDonald’s Corners. 

Station 15: A small button-bush pond on the south side of the 
road that circles Lake Wauburg, 15.1 miles from McDonald’s 
Corners. 

Station 16: <A pond located on the east side of the road that 
circles Lake Wauburg. The pond in reality is a sphagnum-choked 
slough that once formed an arm of Lake Wauburg, and that in 
recent years has been effectively isolated from the lake by the con- 
struction of a graded road. There is no culvert under the road at 
this point and the water considered in this study is no longer 
directly connected with Lake Wauburg. Station 16 is approximately 
half circular in shape with the road forming a comparatively steep 
bank along its west side. The area is approximately 400 feet wide 
in its greatest west-east dimension and 600 feet wide in its north- 
south. The depth of the water ranges from 0 to about 5-6 feet in the 
central portions. This deeper area is readily recognizable by the 
lack of emergent vegetation. The bottom is covered by an excep- 
tionally thick layer of detritis, ranging from a few inches to 3-4 feet 
in depth. In some parts of the pond, this soft chocolate-brown 
layer reaches almost to the surface of the water where it is covered 


Plate II; Upper; Station 10, June 21, 1940. This ditch pond did not 
become dry any time during the study. It apparently lies in a on 
bed and has a flora that is numerous in species. 

Lower; Station 12, June 21, 1940. The water in this station re- 
mained cloudy throughout the study. The principal vegetation, 
Typha, appears in the fore-and-background. 


20 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


by a living layer of sphagnum moss. Marsh gas is liberated in great 
quantities when it is even slightly disturbed. It is evident that this 
layer is very largely almost dead and decaying sphagnum on the 
way to peat formation. The pH of ‘the water has been constantly 
low, ranging from 3.9 to 4.2. This is the lowest pH record that I 
have obtained in the whole series of ponds. Dissolved oxygen was 
consistently rather high, ranging from 6.7 to 10.1 ppm. Carbon 
dioxide was also consistently high, usually around 8.0 ppm. 

The flora of this pond is not extensive. The huge mass of sub- 
merged and partially emergent sphagnum is varied by clumps and 
individuals of Castalia, Decadon, Hydrocotyle, and an unidentified 
aquatic grass. Castalia is limited to the deeper regions. Decadon 
occurs randomly scattered over most of the area. Sphagnum is 
found in those areas in which other rooted aquatics afford protec- 
tion and support. It is so thick in most parts of the pond that it 
floats to the surface during the day when oxygen production is at 
its maximum, and then sinks during the night. The sphagnum is 
so abundant that it must be a decidedly restricting factor for other 
submerged aquatics for it very effectively shades a major portion 
of the suitable area and the submerged plants are absent in this 
region. Hydrocotyle sp. is found sparingly along the edges of the 
shallow water. 

Station 17: A series of sphagnum filled ditches on the west side 
of the road, 16.2 miles from McDonald’s Corners. 

Station 18: A small shrubby ditch on the west side of the road, 
16.6 miles from McDonald’s Corners. 

Station 19: A cat-tail filled pond on the north and south sides of 
the road, 16.8 miles from McDonald’s Corners. This is a few hundred 
yards west of the railroad station at Ascot, Florida. 

Station 20: A large prairie on the south side of the road 17.4 
miles from McDonald’s Corners. 

Station 21: A duckweed covered sink hole on the north side of 
the road, 17.5 miles from McDonald’s Corners. The pond is about 
thirty yards in diameter and the surface is completely covered 
with duck-weeds of various types, providing almost complete shade 
for the entire pond. 

Station 22: A small ditch-pond on the south side of the road, 
18.0 miles from McDonald’s Corners. 


AN ECOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE 21 


ANNOTATED LIST 


In the list which follows, the various forms recorded are divided 
into large groups, usually families or orders, and the species in 
each group listed. In order following the species name are the 
numbers of the stations in which it was taken and the months in 
which it was present. This information is followed by comments 
on abundance, habitat, preference, etc. 

The list does not purport to be a complete list of the organisms 
present in the stations studied. Many groups were omitted for vari- 
ous reasons, such as difficulty of collection, preservation, and iden- 
tification. A quantity of unidentified material has been deposited 
in the collections of the Department of Biology at the University 
of Florida and at some future date these records may be appended 
to this report. 

CHLOROPHYCEAE 

The following forms were taken in Station 4a in April, 1941: Encapsis sp., 
Staurastrum sp., Ankistrodesmus sp., Tetraedron sp., Ulothrix sp., Tribonema 
sp., Scenedesmus sp., Pediastrum sp., Golenkinia sp., Oedigonium sp., Cheto- 
phora sp., Bulbochaete sp. and Zygnema sp. 

Chara sp.: A bed of this algae extended out into the center of the pond 


from the west side and was present during all months. The refilling of the 
pond was followed shortly by its appearance. 


BACILLARIACEAE 

Closterium sp., 1, 4a, 12, 16, January-October; Micrasterias sp., 1, 4a, 4b, 
7, 10, 12, 16, all months; Spyrogyra sp., 1, 2, 8, 4a, 4b, 7, 9, 10, 12, 16, all 
months; Ankistrodesmus sp., 1, 4a, 4b, 7, 10, 12, 16, all months. 


SARCODINA 


Arcella vulgaris, 1, 4a, 9, 10, 12, 16, all months; this form becomes apparent 
soon after refilling of a dry pond or ditch; Centropyxis sp., 1, 4a, one collection 
made in April, 1941; Difflugia sp., 1, 4a, 12 (1 and 4a in April and in 12 in 
a June collection). 


MASTIGOPHORA AND INFUSORIA 


Euglena sp., 1, 10, 12, 16, March-July and September. The abundance of 
this form, probably several species, on some occasions resulted in a reddish 
discoloration of the water. The animals were apparently confined, at least in 
large numbers, to the upper 8-4 inches of the water and in some cases seemed 
to form a film. 

Mallamonas sp., 1, recorded from this station once in April. 

Eudorina sp., 9, 10, 12, all months. This form along with Pleodorina and 
Volvox was present in all months their numbers at times approaching a 
“bloom” condition. This followed a few weeks after the stations were filled 
with water. Undoubtedly their presence contributed much to the great abun- 
dance of planktonic crustacea at such times. 


22 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Pleodorina sp., 1, 12, (See Eudorina); Volvox sp., 1, 4a, 4b, 7, 9, 12, 16, 
(See Eudorina); Ceratium sp., 1, 4a, 4b, 7, 9, 10, 12, 16, taken in plankton 
towings in all months of the year; Vorticella sp., (All stations; recorded in all 
months from detritis along the margins and on the stalks of marginal vege- 
tation); Stentor sp., 4a, 12, 16, taken in March-August. The species in Station 
16 is a large blue-green one; Episiylis sp., 1, 12, taken in August and Sep- 
tember. 

PORIFERA 

Meyenia crateriformis, 12, recorded in April but probably present in all 
months; Heteromeyenia ryderi, 4a, recorded in April but probably present in 
all months; Heteromeyenia repens, 4a, April, probably present throughout the 
year. 

HYDROZOA 

Hydra sp., 4a, 9, 10, 16 (the genus, probably represented by more than a 

single species was found in these stations during the months April-November). 


TURBELLARIA 
Flatworms were recorded in all stations, found principally in the marginal 
detritis they must make an important contribution to the life of the pond or 
ditch. It is unfortunate that the Turbellarian fauna of Florida has been so little 
studied. Only one form was partially identified. 
Planaria sp., 4a, 4b, 9, 10, 12, 16, April to October. 


ROTATORIA 
The following forms found in plankton samples are another group that have 
had little attention in Florida and for this reason, the identification given is 
tentative, made on the basis of keys and figures in Ward and Whipple (1918). 
Furcularia forficula, 1, 2, all months; Rattulus sp., 4a, 7, 16, all months; 
Notholca sp., 4a, 7, 12, 16, all months; Conochilus sp., 1, 12, 16, all months. 


GASTROTRICHA 
Chaetonotus sp., 4a, taken in detritus in April. 


OLIGOCHAETA 

Nuis sp., 10, found in great numbers on the mud margin in all months; 

Dero sp., 1, 4a, 4b, 7, 9, 10, 12, 16, an inhabitant of the marginal detritis in all 
months; Bdellodrillus sp., 4a, 16, June. 


HIRUDINEA 
Hirudinid and Glossyphonid forms were taken in all stations in all months. 


PHYLLOPODA 
Eubranchipus sp., 1, 3, 4a, January through March; Streptocephalus sealii, 
1, 3, 4a, January through March; Eulimnadea sp., 1, 3, 4a, January through 
March; Limnetis sp., 1, 8, 4a, January through March. Insofar as I am able 
to determine confined to temporary ponds. Collections in other ponds in the 
Gainesville area indicate that they may occur at any season. 


CLADOCERA 
Daphnia sp., all stations (recorded in plankton samples in all months.) 
Apparently more than one species is found in these situations but unfortunately, 
identification could be carried no further than genus. 


AN ECOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE 23 


Simocephalus sp., all stations (recorded for all months.) This form, larger 
and heavier bodied was more or less confined to the shallows and marginal 
vegetation. 

Bosmina sp., 8, 4a, 12, 16, an inhabitant of the plankton this micro-crustacean 
was found throughout the year. 


COPEPODA 

The copepods along with cladocerans and phyllopods were the principal 
forms involved in the rapid repopulation of the temporary stations. Apparently, 
the eggs of all forms recorded, except Argulus, are able to withstand consider- 
able dessication and their abundance in temporary ponds within a few days of 
refilling is really phenomenal. 

Diaptomus mississippiensis, 1, 38, 4a, 4b, 10, 12, 16, taken in plankton 
samples and along the margins in vegetation in all months; Diaptomus dorsalis, 
1, 3, 4a, 4b, 12, all months in the same areas as D. mississippiensis; Cyclops 
ater, 8, 4a, 10, 12, 16, all months; Cyclops albidus, 4a, 4b, 10, 12, April-July 
and October-November; Cyclops phaleratus, 3, common from April to July; 
Cyclops serrulatus, 1, very abundant in this temporary pond; Argulus sp., 4a, 7, 
16, all months in those stations with larger fish. 


OSTRACODA 

Cypris sp. A, 1, 4a, 10, designated as Species A, this form was not eae SO 
common as the succeeding one. Taken in March-July. 

Cypris sp. B, 1, 4a, 4b, 7, 9, 10, 12, 16, all months. 


MALACOSTRACA 

Procambarus paeninsulanus, all stations, common in all months and with 
P. fallax, capable of withstanding prolonged periods of drought; P. fallax, all 
stations (see P. paeninsulanus); Hyalella sp., 4a, 4b, 7, 10, 12, 16, found in all 
months. This crustacean is associated with duck-weed and water-hyacinth asso- 
ciations, but is not limited to them. Found pommcnly in marginal vegetation 
and detritis. 

Paleomonetes palludosa, 4a, 4b, 7, 9, 10, 12, 16, found in all months in those 
ponds of permanent character or dip to connection with permanent bodies 
of water. 

HYDRACARINA 

I feel reasonably sure that at least two species of hydrachnids were taken in 

stations 1, 8, 4a, 4b and 16. One of these was also taken in station 10. 


EPHEMEROPTERA 

Caenis diminuta. all stations, taken in all months. Common in marginal 
detritis. 

Callibaetis floridanus, 1, 3, 4a, 4b, 9, 10, 12, 16, common in all months in 
marginal vegetation principally. 


ODONATA 

Gomphus pallidus, 1, 4a, 9, 10, 12, March to August; Gomphus minutus. 
1, 9, 10, March to August; Coyphaeschna ingens, 1, 3, 4a, 4b, 7, 10, 12, 16, 
taken in all months—by far the most conspicuous dragonfly in these stations; 
Anax junius, 1, 3, 4a, 4b, 7, 9. 10, 12, 16, all months; Anax longipes, 4a, 4b, 
7, 10, 12, 16, June and September; Celithemis eponina, 4a, 12, 16, April, June 


24 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


and September; Libellula auripennis, 4a. 7, 12, 16, April, July and September; 
Libellula lydia, 1, 8, 7, 10, March; Erythrodiplax minuscula, 4a, 7, 10, March; 
Pantala flavescens, 4a, 7, 10, 16, April and July; Pachydiplax longipennis, 1. 
4a, 7, 9, 10, 12, all months; Lestes forctpatus, 1, 8, 7, 10, March through 
August; Lestes vidua. 1, 4a, 4b, 10, 16, March, April and July; Nehallenia sp., 
7, 10, 16, February; Ischnura credula, 1, 8, 4a, 4b, 7, 9, 10, 12, 16, all months; 
Ischnura posita, 1, 3, 4a. 4b, 7, 9, 10, 12, 16, all months; Enallagma traviatum, 
1, 3, 4a, 4b, 7, 10, 12, 16, all months; Enallagma sp., 1, 10, a single record in 
March. 
HEMIPTERA 


Ranatra australis, 1, 4a, 7, 10, 12, May through July, and August; R. drakei, 
1, 4a, 4b, 10, 16, May through July; Belostoma lutarium, 1, 4a, 4b, 7, 9, 10, 12, 
16, January through March and May through July; Benacus griseus. 1, 4a, 10, 
12, April through August; Hydrometra myrae, 1, 4a, 4b, 9, 10, 12, 16, February 
through November; Hesperocorixa interrupta, 1, 4a, 10, 12, all months; H. nitida, 
1, 4a, 10, 12, all months; Hesperocorixa sp., 1, March; Sigara hubbelli, 1, April; 
Notonecta indica, 1, 8, 10, 12, February through October; Buenoa margaritacea, 
1, 10, 12, April through September; Gerris canaliculatus, 1, 4a, March through 
August; Plea sp., 1, 4a, 10, 12. all months; Pelocoris sp., 1, 3, 4a, 5, 7, 9, 10, 
12, all months; Velia sp., 1, 4a, 4b, 9, 10, 16, all months; Mesovelia sp., 1, 4a, 
10, all months; Microvelia sp.. 4a, 9, 10, March through October; Rhagovelia 
sp., 4a, 9, 10, 16, March through October. 


TRICHOPTERA 


All of the stations contained caddis-flies; however, it was not possible to 
have identifications made. They were confined insofar as was determined to 
the littoral regions, constructing their cases of detritis. 


COLEOPTERA 


The stations investigated in this work proved to be exceedingly rich in 
aquatic beetles. The number of species listed is rather lengthy, partially due to 
the completeness of identification and collecting, certainly reflecting the im- 
portance of these small bodies of water in relation to the water beetles. Station 
1, was by far the most outstanding one in regards the number of species and 
concentration of individuals found. 

Suphisellus gibbulus, 1, 7, 10, 12, 16. January, April and August; S. puncti- 
collis, 1, 4a, 4b, 7, 10, 12, 16, March and August; S. floridanus, 4a, March and 
August; Hydrocanthus n. sp.,3 1. 16, March; H. oblongus, 1, 4a, 16, January, 
March and August; Agabus punctatus, 1, 4a, 10, 12, 16, March, June and July; 
Bidessonotus pulicarius, 4a, 4b, 10, 16, March through September; B. longo- 
valis, 1, 4a, 16. January, March and July; Bidessus affinis, 7, 10, January, March 
and July; B. floridanus, 1, 7, 12, March through June; B. granarius, 16, March 
through June; Anodochilus exiguus, 1, 16, January, March and July; Coptotomus 
i. obscurus, 1, March; Hydrovatus compressus, 4b, 7, January, March and June; 
Desmopachria granum, 4a, 16, March through October; D. mutchleri, 1, Jan- 
uary, March and August; Graphoderus liberus, 1, 12, 16, March through June; 


3 Being described by Frank N. Young. 


AN ECOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE 25 


Hydroporus falli, 1, 4a, 10, 16, March through June; H. lynceus, 1, 4a, 12, 16, 
March through July; H. hebes, 4a, March through July; Laccophilus fasciatus, 
1, 7, March through June; L. gentilis, 1, 4a, 16, January, March and July; 
L. proximus, 1, 4a, 4b, 7, 10, January, March and July; Rantua calidus, 1, 
March through June; Thermonectes basilaris, 1, 3, 4a, 7, 10, March through 
June; Copelatus chevrolati, 1, March through June; Dineutus carolinus, 1, 4a, 
4b, 7, 9, 10, 12, 16, February through November; Gyrinus elevatus, 1, 4a, 4b, 7, 
10, 16, February through December; G. pachysomus, 1, 4a, 4b, 10, 12, 16, 
February through October; G. rockinghamensis, 4a, 4b, February through 
December; Peltodytes floridensis, 1, 4a, February through December; Berosus 
infuscatus, 1, 4a, 16, January, March and May; Paracymus nanus, 4a, 16, Jan- 
uary, March and May; P. despectus, 1, January; Eonchrus ochraceus, 4a, 16. 
April and June; E. cinctus, 16, April and June; E. nebulosus, 4a, April and 
June; E. consors, 1, 4a, 16, April and June; Enochrus sp., 1, 7, 12, April and 
June; Helochares maculicollis, 1, 16, April through July; Haliplus annulatus, 1, 
January; Hydrochus simplex, 1, 16, January through March; H. scabratus- 
rugosus, 4a, 16, April through July; H. foveatus, 1, 4a, April through June; 
Tropisternus glaber, 1, 4a, 7, 10, 16, April, June and September; T. striolatus, 
1, 4a, 7, March; T. lateralis, 1, 4a, 4b, 7, 10, 12, 16, January through March; 
T. blatchleyi, 1, 4a, 16, March; Helodes sp., (larvae), 16, March; Pelonomus 
obscurus gracilipes, 1, 7, 12, March; Ega sallei, 1, 12, March; Stenus sp., 1, 8, 
4a, 4b, 7, 10, 12, 16, January, March through October; Osorius sp., 4a, March. 


DIPTERA 

Limonia (D.) distans, 1, 4a, 16, an inhabitant of the neuston, this form was 
taken from June through November; L. (D.) divisia, 1, 4a, 16, found in the 
same areas as above, recorded from June through November; L. (G.) rostrata, 
1, 4a, another of the forms recorded from the neuston during June through 
November; Polymera georgiae, 1, 16, October and November; Piloria arguta, 
1, 4a, 16, March; Erioptera (M.) caloptera, 1, July; Gonomyia pleuralis, 4a, 
March; G. (G.) sulphurella, 10, 12, July; Dolichopeza (O.) subalipes, 4a, June; 
Megistocera longipes, 4a, June through October in the neuston; Psychoda sp., 
4a, 16, neuston in June; Chironomus lobiferous, 1, 4a, 4b, 10, 12, 16, February 
through September; Orthocladius sp., 4a, June; Pentaneura sp., 4a, June; 
Tanytarsus sp., 1, September; Palpomya sp., 1, in the algae film in September. 


BRYOZOA 


Plumatella sp., 1, 4a, 4b, 7, 9, 10, 12, 16, all months attached to stems of 
submerged vegetation and on detritus. 


MOLLUSCA 
Lymnaea sp., 4a, 4b, 5, 7, 9, 10, 12, 16, all months; Planorbis sp., 4a. 7, 9, 


10, 12, 16, all months; ee sp., 5, 7, 10, 12, all months; Pomacea sp.. 5, 12, 
16, all months; Sphaerium sp., 1, 4a, 10, all months. 


PISCES 
Note: All the forms recorded below were taken during all months. 


Lepisosteus osseus, 9, 16; Amia calva, 7, 9, 16; Erimyzon s. sucetta. 7. 9. 16: 
Notemigonus chrysoleucus bosci, 16; Schilbeodes mollis, 4a, 7, 12, 16: Esox 


26 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


niger, 16; Chriopeops goodei, 16; Fundulus crysotus, 16; Jordanella floridae, 
4a, 4b, 7, 12, 16; Heterandria formosa, 4a, 4b, 7, 10, 16; Gambusia a. holbrookii, 
8, 4a, 4b, 7, 10, 12, 16; Enneacanthus gloriosus, 10, 16; Chaenobrytus coro- 
narius, 7, 9, 12, 16; Lepomis m. microlophus, 16; Lepomis macrochirus pur- 
purescens, 16; Huro salmoides, 4b, 7, 16; Elassoma evergladei, 4a, 7, 9, 16; 
Hololepis bavratti, 9, 16. 

AMPHIBIA 

Triturus v. louisianensis, 4a, 4b, 7, 9, 10, 12, 16, February through Sep- 
tember; Acris gryllus dorsalis, all ponds during all months; Hyla c. cinerea, 4a, 
7, 9, 12, 16, all months; Hyla crucifer bartramiana, 4a, 9, April, May and June; 
Rana catesbeiana, 1, 4a, 4b, 9, 10, 12, 16, the larval form of this species was 
taken during all months; Rana grylio, in and around all Hae during all months; 
Rana clamitans, 9, June; Rana pipiens sphenocephala, 1, 3, 4a, 4b, 7, 9, 10, 12, 
16, all months. | 

: REPTILIA 

Alligator mississippiensis, 16, apparently present throughout the year; Sterno- 
therus odoratus, 1, 4a, 7, 9, 10, 12, 16, all months; Pseudemys nelsoni, 9, 10, 
16, all months; Dirochelys reticularia, 4a, 9, 10, 16, all months; Natrix sipedon 
pictiventris, 4b, 9, 12, taken in August but probably present year-round; Semi- 
natrix pygea, 4b, April and June; Liodytes alleni, 4b, April; Agkistridon p. 
piscivorous, 7, November. 

AVES 

The forms recorded below include only those which are felt to be of some 
importance in the over-all economy of the pond habitat. 

Podilymbus p. podiceps, 7, 16, January through June, and August through 
December; Phalacrocorax auritus floridanus, 7, all months; Anhinga anhinga, 
7, a single bird noted in April; Ardea herodias wardii, 7, 16, April and August, 
probably an irregular visitor during all months; Casmerodius albus egretta, 4a, 
4b, 7, 10, 16, March through September; Egretta t. thula, 4a, 4b, 7, 10, 16, 
March through September; Hydrassna tricolor ruficollis, 4a, 4b, 7, 9, 10, 12, 16, 
all months; Florida c. caerulea, 1, 4a, 4b, 7, 9, 10, 16, all months; Butorides v. 
virescens, 4a, 16, April through August; Nycticorax nycticorax hoactli, 9, all 
months; Nyctanassa v. violacea, 9, a single bird recorded in June; Ixobrychus e. 
exilis, 16, several birds seen in May; Guara alba, 4b, several birds seen feeding 
in April; Anas f. fulvigula, 7, April; Ionornis martimca, 16, March through July; 
Gallinula chloropus cachinnans, 16, all months; Fulica a. americana, 16, De- 
cember. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 


I am indebted especially to Dr. J. Speed Rogers, Director of the 
University of Michigan Museum of Zoology, formerly head of the 
Department of Biology at the University of Florida, under whose 
direction this study was carried out. In addition, he kindly furnished 
identifications of the aquatic Diptera. 

I am grateful to the following persons for determination of the 
indicated organisms: C. F. Byers (Odonata), F. N. Young (Cole- 


AN ECOLOGICAL RECONNAISSANCE 27 


optera), T. H. Hubbell (various Arthropoda), M. A. Brannon 
(Algae), A. M. Laessle (Flowering Plants), S. K. Eshleman, III 
(Pemtera), H. H. Hobbs, ‘Jr. (Crayfish), A. F. Carr, Jr. (Pisces, 
Reptilia, Amphibia ), Lewis Berner (Ephemeroptera ), R. W. Dexter 
(Phyllopods ). 

Credit is also due Staff Artist Esther Coogle for turning some very 
average photographs into Plates I and II. 

A great number of my fellow students and colleagues have aided 
in ways too numerous to tabulate—I take this opportunity to express 
my gratitude to them. 


SUMMARY 


This study was undertaken as an ecological reconnaissance of a 
series of ponds and ditches in the region of Gainesville, Alachua 
County, Florida. Details of methods of procedure in carrying out 
the study are given. Such ponds and ditches show all degrees of 
permanence as aquatic habitats, are very charactertistic of Northern 
Florida, and are one of the chief sources of the rich aquatic fauna 
of the area. A description of the stations studied is given followed 
by a list of species present, with notes on such correlations of 
seasons and habitat preferences as seemed particularly striking. 


LITERATURE CITED 


AMERICAN PUBLIC HEALTH ASSOCIATION. 
1936. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Sewage, 
Eighth Edition. Amer. Pub. Health Assoc., N. Y.: 1-309. 


BARBOUR, T. 
1944, That Vanishing Eden, a Naturalists Florida. Little, Brown and 
Company, Boston, 1939, 1-237. 


BERNER, L. 
1949. The Mayflies of Florida, University of Florida Press (In Press) 


BYERS, C. F. 
1930. A Contribution to the Knowledge of Florida Odonata. University of 
Florida Bio. Sci. Ser. 8 (1): 1-310. 
CARR, A. F., JR. 
1940. is Contribution to the ees of Florida. Univ. Fla. Bio. Ser. 
8(1): 1-118. 
GOIN, C. J. 
1948. The Lower Vertebrate Fauna of the Water Hyacinth Community 
of Northern Florida. Proc. Fla. Acad. Sci. 6(3-4): 148-154. 


28 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


HARKNESS, W. J. K. and E. L. PIERCE 
1940. The Limnology of Lake Mize, Florida. Proc. Fla. Acad. Sci. 5: 
96-116. 


HOBBS, H. H., JR. 
1936. The Crayfishes of the Gainesville Region—With Special Reference 
to Their Life Histories and Ecological Distribution. (Unpubl. 
Master’s Thesis, Univ. of Fla. Library, 1936: 1-74). 
1942. The Crayfishes of Florida. Univ. Fla. Bio. Ser., 8(2): 1-179. 


KENK, ROMAN | 
1949. The Animal Life of Temporary and Permanent Ponds in Southern 
Michigan. Univ. Mich., Mus. Zool., Misc. Publ., No. 71: 1-66. 


PIERCE, E. L. 
1947. An Annual Cycle of the Plankton and Chemistry of Four Aquatic 
Habitats in Northen Florida. Univ. Fla. Studies, Biol. Sci. Ser. 4: 
No. 3, 1-67. 


SCOTT, WILL 
1910. The Fauna of a Solution Pond. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 26: 395-442. 


TROGDON, R. P. 
1934. A study of the Seasonal and Ecological Distribution of the Macro- 
scopic Invertebrate Fauna of Wauberg Lake. (Unpubl. Master’s 
Thesis, Univ. Fla. Library, 1934: 1-22.) 


TOWNSEND, H. T. 
1935. The Biota and Environmental Conditions of a Northern Florida 
Sink-Hole Pond: (Unpubl. Master’s Thesis, Univ. Fla. Library, 
1985; 1-32.) 


WARD, H. B. and G. C. WHIPPLE 
1918. Fresh-Water Biology. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, 1918: 
j-1111. 


YOUNG, F. N. 
1940. The Dytiscidae of Alachua County, Florida—A Taxonomic Study 
with Reference to the Distribution and Habitat Preferences of the 
Species. (Unpubl. Master’s Thesis, Univ. Fla. Library, 1940: 1-178.) 
1942. The Water Beetles of Florida: A Taxonomic and Ecological Study. 
(Unpubl. Doctoral Dissertation, Univ. Fla. Library, 1942: 1-663). 


Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 11 (2-3), 1948 (1949) 


THE ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE 
OF INDUSTRIAL AND INDEPENDENT LABOR 
GReurs IN THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY 


T. STANTON DIETRICH 
Florida State University 


Essential to the structure of any labor organization are its com- 
mon objectives and purposes. In a large measure, these determine 
the collective action directed toward satisfying labor's group needs 
and desires. The manner in which the labor group is formally 
organized, and the procedures established for the process of collec- 
tive bargaining are fundamental to the organization and character 
of industrial relations. Industrial relations are dynamic and are 
construed here to be that system of social relationships arising from 
the interaction in the bargaining process between representatives 
of management and labor.+ 

The historical development of industrial relations throughout 
American industry, and the increasing consideration being given 
to labor as a human factor and not simply as an economic factor 
of production have been due “to the pressure of trade-union activ- 
ity, either in the form of organization drives or strikes in the trade 
or vinicity."* This has also been true of the program of industrial 
relations in the petroleum industry. The latter has had for its his- 
torical background one of the bitterest and most merciless conflicts 
in the history of American labor: the so-called “Ludlow Massacre” 
of 1913-1914. This tragic incident took place on the property of the 
Colorado Fuel and Iron Company, a company in which John D. 

1 There is still some disagreement among various sociologists whether in- 
dustrial relations can be concerned only with management-labor relations. Cf. 
Herbert Blumer, “Sociological Theory in Industrial Relations”, American Soci- 
ological Review, XII (June 1947), 276; Wilbert E. Moore, “Current Issues in 
Industrial Sociology”, American Sociological Review, XII (December 1947), 


651; also Moore’s Industrial Relations and the Social Order (New York: Mac- 
millan Company, 1947), p. 6. 


2 Florence Peterson and Joseph J. Senturia, “Characteristics of Company 
Unions”, Monthly Labor Review. XLVI (April 1988), 822. 


30 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Rockefeller, Jr., was the principal stockholder. Coming as the 
strike and violence did at a time when public opinion was still 
aroused and incensed over the monopolistic practices of his father’s 
Standard Oil Trust, young Rockefellér hurriedly called upon Mac- 
kenzie King, then Minister of Labor in Canada, who suggested an 
employee-representation plan, one of the major features of which 
were the joint committees composed of representatives from both 
management and labor. This plan later served as the model for. 
the employee-representation plan subsequently adopted by the 
Standard Oil Company (New Jersey) and its subsidaries.* It is 
noteworthy that the management of the Jersey Company was dom- 
inated by the same Rockefeller interests involved in the disastrous 
experience in the Colorado coal mines. Yet, a few years later, de- 
spite this experience, the management of the Jersey Company 
steadfastly refused to bargain with its petroleum workers. The re- 
sult was again violence and bloodshed during the riotous strikes 
of refinery workers at Bayonne, New Jersey during 1915-1916.° 

As a result of this era of labor unrest, an employee-representation 
plan closely patterned after the one instituted at the Colorado Fuel 
and Iron Company was submitted to, and approved by, the board 
of directors of the Jersey Company. This plan, drawn up and ap- 
proved in 1918 without any consultation with the workers, was 
hailed by the Jersey Company as “a kind of Magna Charta for 
Jersey's employees, foremen and top management. ® It was ap- 
proved despite the antagonistic attitude of John D. Rockefeller, Sr. 
toward any form of labor organization: “My ideas about them 
(trade unions) are not those held by some others. But my son will 
see; others will see; things change very little. It is hard to under- 


3 Report on the Colorado Coal Strike (vols. I, Il), Hearings before a sub- 
committee on Mines and Mining, House of Representatives, 63rd Congress 
(Washington: Government Printing Office, 1916). 

4 See Clarence J. Hicks, My Life in Industrial Relations (New York: Harper 
Bros., 1941), pp. 44-51. Note: Following the practice of the Standard Oil 
Company (New Jersey), reference to this corporation henceforth will be. 
shortened to “Jersey Company” or “Jersey Standard”. 

5 Stuart Chase, Generation of Industrial Peace (New York: Standard Oil 
Company (New Jersey), 1946). 

6 Frank W. Pierce, employee relations director of Jersey Same “Talking 
Things Over in An Organization”, an address before the Summer Institute on 
Community Leadership (Syracuse University, July 1946), p. 8. 


AN ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE 31 


stand why men will organize to destroy the very firms or companies 
that are giving them the chance to live and thrive; but they do it. 
.. . Soon the real object of their organizing shows itself—to do as 
little as possible for the greatest amount of pay.”” 

Organization of labor in the petroleum industry on a fairly ex- 
tensive scale by outside unions is a development only of the past 
ten or fifteen years, and generally speaking, widespread unionization 
is found only among the larger petroleum corporations.’ Along with 
the growth of the large vertically integrated petroleum corporation 
that depends so heavily upon mass production techniques and 
huge financial investments, the organization of labor in the industry 
has also undergone considerable change and has become a very 
complex social group. 

Of the three major types of union organizations (craft, industrial 
and independent), the largest group throughout the industry from 
the standpoint of the number of workers covered by collective 
agreements is the Oil Workers International Union, a C. I. O. in- 
dustrial organization with collective agreements covering approxi- 
mately sixty per cent of all union members. Independent organiza- 
tions include about thirty-five per cent of the workers, while the 
various A. F. of L. unions cover the remaining five per cent. Pres- 
ently, therefore, labor of the petroleum industry is characterized 
by its organization into two large and opposing labor groups: the 
industrial union and the independent association.® 

Basic differences between the respective constitutions of the in- 
dustrial union and the independent association will have a signifi- 
cant effect upon the industrial relations in the company or the plant 
where one or the other of these labor groups is recognized as the 
bargaining agency. Consequently, these constitutional differences 
tend to be reflected in the kind of agreements negotiated between 
management and labor. In this connection it is important to keep 
in mind the distinction between constitutions and collective agree- 


7 Alan Nevins, John D. Rockefeller: The Heroic Age of American Enterprise 
(New York: Charles Scribners’ Sons, 1940), Vol. II, p. 675. 

8 Cf. Joe E. Brown and C. Wilson Randle, Earnings in Southwestern 
Petroleum Industry, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U. S. Department of Labor 
(Washington: Government Printing Office, 1944), p. 20. 

® Philomena Marquardt, Union Agreements in the Petroleum Refining In-. 
dustry in Effect in 1944, Bulletin No. 828, Bureau of Labor Statistics, U. S. 
Department of Labor (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1945), p. 2. 


32 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


ments. The constitution embodies the rules and regulations that 
provide the formal structure under which the labor union operates. 
The collective agreement, on the other hand, is a contract between 
management and labor whose conditions have been determined and 
agreed upon only after a process of negotiation. 

Unfortunately it is not possible within the limited scope of this 
discussion to consider in detail the important and dynamic process 
of collective bargaining. The following discussion must necessarily 
be limited; hence the emphasis will be upon an analysis of the 
constitutional provisions with respect to the structure and function 
of the industrial union and the independent association. The pro- 
cedure will be to contrast the Oil Workers International Union, the 
largest single industrial union in the petroleum industry, with one 
of the typical independent associations of the Jersey Standard. In 
1940, the Jersey Company had agreements with fifty-five separate 
independent associations covering 35,884 (or ninety-eight percent ) 
of its 36,722 workers who were eligible for union membership.*® 
These agreements, with minor variations such as the name of the 
independent association, are indentical in many respects. There- 
fore, in the following discussion, unless otherwise noted, evidence 
for the differences between the industrial union and the independ- 
ent association will be taken from two sources: the Constitution and 
By-laws of the Oil Workers International Union (C.1.0), 1947-1948 
(hereafter referred to as OWIU), and the Constitution and By-laws 
of the Independent Industrial Workers Association, 1947 (hereafter 
referred to as IIWA). The latter association is the labor organization 
for the Esso-Standard Refinery (a fully-owned subsidiary of Jersey 
Standard ) at Baton Rouge, Louisiana. 

As a consequence of structural changes in the original employee- 
representation plan, or company union, of the Jersey Company 
(largely the result of federal legislation and court decisions ),'1 the 
independent association appears in many respects to approximate 
the characteristics of the industrial union. This is especially true 
if its external structure is observed only casually or superficially. 
It is obvious, however, upon a more careful scrutiny that the two 
types of labor organizations are fundamentally quite varied, es- 


tO Chase, Of “cit, pat 
11 Chase. on. cit., pp. 14-17 


AN ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE 33 


pecially with regard to the structure and functioning of their in- 
ternal operations. 

One of the basic differences between the formal organization of 
the two labor groups is the manner in which their respective ob- 
jectives are stated. The industrial union “believing it to be the 
natural right of those who toil, that they shall enjoy to the fullest 
extent the wealth created by their labor, and realizing that it is 
impossible to obtain the full reward of labor, except by united 
action and through organization founded upon sound principles 
along economic, cooperative lines ...” has been organized “into a 
Union for the purpose of collective bargaining and other mutual 
benefits; it shall be the object of this organization to work for the 
reduction of hours of toil, the establishment of equitable conditions, 
and to adjust and establish a high standard of conditions and com- 
mensurate wage, thereby assuring to all workers in the industry 
just compensation and time to share in the benefits flowing from 
the organization. (OWIU, Art. I, Sec. 3, pp. 3-4). Compared with 
these objectives, those of the independent association seem to be 
less vigorous and forthright: “To act as a bargaining agency be- 
tween employees and the management . . .; to promote cooperation 
between employees and the management; to give employees advice 
in matters of mutual interest, including wages, hours of work, safety, 
sanitation and working conditions; to provide an orderly and ex- 
peditious procedure for the prevention and adjustment of differ- 
ences; and to accord a means through which employees may be 
furnished information of mutual interest by management; and to 
promote and advance its welfare; to bring into closer association 
the members of this association and to negotiate and sign agree- 
ments with the management. .. .” (IIWA, Art. II, Sec. 1, pp. 1-2). 
It would appear, from the respective objectives of these two labor 
organizations, that the independent association still contains much 
of the phraseology and philosophy so often expressed in the con- 
stitutions of earlier company unions.'? 

The two labor groups are likewise in sharp contrast with respect 
to the limitations placed upon their respective memberships. The 
industrial union invites all persons engaged in any branch of the 
petroleum industry, or allied industries associated with the oil in- 
dustry, who are below the rank of supervisory employees to become 


12 Peterson and Senturia, op. cit. 


34 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


members: “no person shall be refused membership because of race, 
color, creed or sex” with the exception that anyone “accepting mem- 
bership in the Communist or Fascist organizations shall be expelled.” 
(OWIU, Art. f, Sec. 1, p. 3).. The independent labor group under 
consideration in this discussion confines its membership to the work- 
ers below supervisory rank who are employed only in certain de- 
partments of the manufacturing division of a local refinery. Further- 
more, the employees eligible for membership in the independent 
association are segregated into White and Negro sections “with 
each section electing its own officers and committees.” (ITIWA, Art. 
ly Seewd spa). 

As a result of limiting its membership to a single department or 
plant, the independent association has little opportunity for contacts 
with other organized groups. Thus the lack of knowledge or in- 
formation concerning the activities of organizations similar to its 
own (even within the same corporation), or about the prevailing 
conditions in other companies and plants doing essentially the same 
kind of work, may very easily prevent the independent association 
from performing one of its most important functions: that of bar- 
gaining for the adoption of improved standards that may be in 
force elsewhere in the industry or locality. While segregation of 
membership into racial groups may be the result of conforming to 
the culture pattern in the region, such a practice, nevertheless, may 
be fraught with the inherent danger that management is in the 
position of being able to play off one group against the other. 


Closely related to membership eligibility is the matter of financial 
dues and assessments as provided for in the respective constitutions 
of the two labor organizations. Other things being equal, differences 
in initiation fees and dues may be an important factor enhancing 
competition between rival labor organizations and may very well 
be the determining factor in the choice of the worker as to which 
group he will join. The industrial union, for example, has initiation 
fees ranging from $2.00 to $25.00, and monthly dues of $2.50 to 
$3.00. (OWIU, Art. X, Secs. 8, 6, pp. 28-30). On the other hand, 
the independent association charges its members no initiation fee, 
and its dues “shall be no more than fifty cents per month.” (IIWA, 
Art. XIV, Sec. 2, p. 15). Not only are its per capita dues small and 
its assessments limited, but the treasury of the independent is fur- 
ther restricted by terms of its constitution which states: “when the 


AN ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE 35 


membership per capita fund of ten dollars shall have been ac- 
cumulated in the treasury, such dues shall be suspended, and no 
greater amount will be allowed to accumulate.” (IIWA, Art. XIV, 
sec. Ep. 15). 

While primarily the function of the labor union is to obtain ben- 
efits for its group through peaceful means of collective bargaining, 
the fact remains that the principal and most powerful weapon of 
the labor organization is the withholding of its services; namely 
through the medium of the strike. If financial means for supporting 
a strike are unavailable, the bargaining power of the labor group 
is seriously weakened; it can wield nothing more effective than a 
rather impotent threat of a strike. This is the position that obtains 
in the case of the independent association. Without adequate funds 
to support a strike of any considerable proportion or duration, the 
independent association generally is forced either to capitulate or to 
accept a compromise more favorable to management in its collec- 
tive bargaining on a controversial issue. It is forced into a position 
of having to wait until management is willing to concede the gains 
won elsewhere by the industrial union. On the other hand, if the 
independent should carry out its threat to strike, it would almost 
certainly result in failure. It would have no allied group upon which 
it could call for assistance, nor would it have sufficient resources 
with which to combat the full resources of such a giant corporation 
as Jersey Standard. 

In addition to its important function as a bargaining agency for 
collective security, another and equally important function of the 
labor organization is to serve as a social group by means of which 
the membership may satisfy the fundamental human needs of group 
association and the opportunity for self-expression. One measure 
of the social effectiveness of a labor organization, since activities 
are normally carried on under leadership of its officers, is the degree 
to which the rank and file members have the opportunity to make 
known their ideas, wishes and opinions on matters concerning the 
welfare of the group. The value of the labor organization to its 
members is considerably enhanced if the group meets regularly and 
the membership is afforded the democratic privilege of choosing 
its officers and representatives in a free election by secret ballot 
following ample opportunity for full debate. 

Of the two types of labor organizations under seeties fea, the 


36 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


importance and recognition of the need for the members to meet 
frequently for a free and full discussion of its problems is better 
realized by the industrial union. The latter is very specific in its 
insistence that a local union hold regularly scheduled meetings not 
less than once a month upon the penalty of forfeiting its charter. 
(OWIQU, Local Art. I, Sec. 4, p. 57). The only provisions in the 
constitution and by-laws of the independent association for meet- 
ings of the full membership are those providing for “an annual 
meeting prior to the annual election’, and the special meetings 
called by the president of the council “when requested by the 
council or in written request of not less than 100 members of the 
Association.” (ITWA, Art. XI, Sec. 1, pp. 11-12). In the independent 
association being discussed here, there had been no regular meeting 
called of the full membership for several years. (One member of 
the Independent Industrial Workers’ Association who has been a 
representative for five years stated there had been no general meet- 
ing of the association during the time he held office. ) 

There are also notable differences between the industrial local 
union and the independent association with regard to the organiza- 
tion of their governing bodies. The industrial local, of course, is 
subject to the rules and regulations of the international union to 
which it belongs. Officers of the international are nominated at a 
convention where each delegate is entitled to vote an equal pro- 
portion of his local’s membership. Nominations are reduced by 
secret ballot until there are only two candidates for each office. 
These nominations are then submitted to the individual members 
of all locals; thus each member of the union eventually participates 
directly in the election of the international officers. (OWIU, Art. 
I.) See...) pri), 

The independent association has no such provision for a direct 
election of its officers by the entire membership. Its procedure is for 
the membership to elect representatives annually on the basis of one 
representative for every one hundrd employes of a voting division. 
Nominations for representatives are obtained in two ways: either 
a candidate may nominate himself by signing a written notice of 
his candidacy thirty days prior to the election, or the name of a 
candidate may be placed on the ballot of his voting division pro- 
vided twenty-five per cent of that division makes such a request in 
the form of a signed petition. (IIWA, Art. IV, Secs. 2-4, pp. 4-5). 


AN ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE 37 


Curiously enough elections of the independent association for the 
past several years have been conducted by mail with a limitation 
of fifteen days in which to return the ballot.1? The administrative 
body of the independent association is the Council composed of the 
elected representatives which operates almost independently of the 
Association. Its actions are not subject to the approval or disapproval 
of the full membership of the association, for the constitution pro- 
vides that “the action of the Council shall be final in all matters.” 
(IIWA, Art. XII, Sec. 6, p. 13). The constitution likewise implies 
that the proceedings of the council are not published nor made 
known to the full membership since a council member may be 
“charged” for disclosing confidential information “to others outside 
the Council.” (ITWA, Art. XII, Sec. 7, p. 13). It is also worth noting 
that in the meetings of the council “members of the Council shall 
speak no more than twice on any subject in debate and shall be 
limited to five minutes unless given special privilege which shall 
require a request to the chair and a majority vote of the Council.” 
(IIWA, Art. XII, Sec. 4, p. 13). 


In summary then, labor in the petroleum industry is found to 
be represented by two widely divergent types of organizations; the 
industrial local, affiliated with the Oil Workers International Union 
and the independent association whose membership is confined to 
the eligible employees of a single company, plant, or department. 

Presumably the primary function of a labor union is to bring 
together individual workers in order to increase the relative eco- 
nomic position of the workers through the process of collective bar- 
gaining. The objective of collective security presupposes, at least 
theoretically, a labor organization entirely independent of manage- 
ment. However, in the case of the Jersey Company its policy has 
been to deal individually with a number of autonomous inde- 
pendent associations. This practice not only has enabled the com- 
pany to resist every effort on the part of outside labor groups to 
organize its workers, but has also enabled it to to exercise consid- 
erable influence over the functioning of the independent associa- 
tions. As Pierce points out concerning the early employee- 
representation plan of the Jersey Company, “its spirit still broods 


13 Cf. Morning Advocate, Baton Rouge, Louisiana newspaper, May 19, 1948, . 
p. 6A. The fifteen day limitation apparently is a Council ruling for the con- 
stitution has no such provision. 


38 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


over the contracts negotiated in 1946. The basic provisions appear 
and reappear throughout thirty years of peace.”7* 

The above comparison of the two labor groups remeale that the 
independent association, because .of its structural organization, 
tends to be under much greater handicaps in its negotiations with 
management. 

First of all, the independent association still suffers from the con- 
stitutional limitations inherent in the earlier company union or 
employee-representation plans from which .it evolved. Originally 
the company union or the employee-representation plan was con- | 
ceived, developed, and financed for many years by management 
and it is not surprising that present day independent associations, 
as implied from its constitutional provisions, are not yet entirely 
free from at least indirect control or supervision by management. 
It is also significant that the subsequent development of the inde- 
pendent association has not been the result of spontaneous employee 
action or initiative, but rather its present form has been a direct 
consequence of legislation and judicial decisions that have com- 
pelled the company to abandon its direct control over former com- 
pany unions. 


Limited to a single company, plant or department, and having 
no contact with other labor organizations, the independent asso- 
ciation is unable to acquire adequate knowledge of existing condi- 
tions or comparative wage scales. The independent association is 
further handicapped by its practices whereby each department 
executes its own agreement with management, and its membership 
is segregated into separate White and Colored sections. Such prac- 
tices tend to make it very difficult to obtain one hundred percent 
cooperation on controversial issues except in such cases where all, 
or the majority, of the several sub-divisions of the association are 
directly involved. These handicaps, together with the limitations 
imposed upon the size of its treasury, seriously curtail the effective- 
ness of the independent association as an agency whose principal 
function is to bargain and negotiate with management for the 
collective security of its members. 

Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 11 (2-3), 1948 (1949). 


14 Chase, op. cit., p. 1 


A PRELIMINARY LIST OF THE ENDEMIC 
FLOWERING PLANTS OF FLORIDA 


RoLAnp M. Harper 
University, Alabama 


Part I]—List oF SPEcIEs 


The endemic species of Florida plants recognized by Small in the 
1933 edition of his “Manual of the Southeastern Flora” are listed 
in the following table in the same order as they appear in the 
“Manual,” and with the same names, though I do not necessarily 
agree with all his splitting of genera and species. Some forms which 
he called distinct species might be regarded by more conservative 
botanists as only subspecies or varieties; but Small recognized very 
few varieties, and apparently never described a new one’ himself. 
The names of endemic genera are printed in small capitals. 


The following tables have seven columns of letter symbols ta 
show which of the species are represented in Chapman’s three 
works, Hitchcock’s list, and Small’s three floras. The letters indicate 
the status of the species at different times: 


N—indicates that it had the same name that Small used in 1933. 

R—means that it was known to the author in question, but referred 
by him to a more widely distributed species. In a few cases 
the symbol (R) is used to indicate that Small in 19083 or 1918 
or both attributed to the same species a range extending out- 
side Florida. 

S—means that the present specific name was used, but under a 
different genus; a natural consequence of the more or less 
justified splitting of genera as knowledge of them increased, 
or of nomenclatorial discoveries and changes of rules. 

V—means that the plant was treated as a variety, usually, but not 
always, with the same name now used for the species. In a few 
cases, mostly in Chapman’s first edition, the author recognized 
the plant as a variety, but did not feel sure of it enough to 
give it a name. (V) indicates a few cases where a plant was 
regarded as doubtfully distinct, not even a variety. 


40 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


X—means that the plant had a different specific name, sometimes 
in the same genus and sometimes in another; such changes are 
usually brought about by changes in the rules of nomenclature, 
or by the author unwittingly using a name that had been used 
before. | 

?—indicates doubt as to whether an earlier author had the same 
species. . 

...-indicates that the plant was not known or not distinguished at 
the time. 


The cases marked “S” or “V” should be self evident, or nearly so, 
to anyone possessing the books named; but most of the “R” and 
“X” cases are explained in the notes following, which are numbered 
to correspond with the indices in the table. 

A few species of exceptional interest are included, although their 
range extends slightly outside Florida. It is not very scientiiic to 
attach too much importance to a political boundary, and a species 
should not be completely disbarred, as it were, for slightly over- 
stepping the boundary. It would have been very interesting to indi- 
cate the known distribution and habitat of each species, but that 
would have made the table too long, and might well be the subject 
of future studies. 

Two important 19th century botanical explorers of Florida were 
overlooked when the first instalment of this was published, in 
March. 

Prof. Alphonso Wood (1810-1881), of West Farms, N. Y., pub- 
lished several editions of descriptive manuals of the flora of the 
eastern United States (at first only the northern portion), which 
were serious competitors of Grays manuals for the northeastern 
states, and later of Chapman’s Flora for the southeastern states. 
(At the University of Georgia in the 90’s the students seemed to 
use Wood's books for identifying plants as much as if not more than 
Chapman’s.) He was not the equal of Gray in scientific ability or 
accuracy, but’ he wrote clear descriptions, which made his books 
easy to use, and he had plenty of energy and ambition. He traveled 
pretty widely, and was assisted by many correspondents. 

Although he is not known to have discovered any new species in 
Florida, there are some interesting notes on his work in the state 
in his “Class Book of Botany” (1861 and later editions), which 
probably few modern readers have noticed. In the preface he says: 


PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS Al 


“Dr. A. W. Chapman of Apalachicola, Fla., presented us with 
many of the more rare plants of Florida, on the occasion of our 
recent visit to his own familiar walks. .... 

“The southern peninsula of Florida is neglected in consequence 
of the author's inability to visit that region hitherto. During his 
extended tour southward in 1857, the Seminole war rendered the 
route to the Everglades unsafe, or at least undesirable. The species 
omitted are generally unknown northward of Key West..... 

“Mr. William Wright of Bainbridge and Prof. N. H. Stuart of 
Quincy, Florida (since deceased), also contributed to the consum- 
mation of our work by many facilities afforded us in our laborious 
researches in their respective precincts, and by the shelter of their 
hospitable mansions.” 

On page 626 of the book Wood tells of finding a single specimen, 
not typical, of Euphorbia mercurialina, “a very obscure and long- 
lost species” (now known chiefly from Tennessee and Alabama), 
ten miles south of Tallahassee (habitat not indicated) in 1857. 

We have no way of knowing what Dr. Chapman may have told 
Prof. Wood about his forthcoming southern Flora, when they met 
in Apalachicola in 1857, but he evidently did not tell him every- 
thing he knew about Florida plants. Most of Wood's edition of 
1861 must have been written before Chapman's Flora, dated 1860, 
was available, for apparently the only one of Chapman’s Florida 
species mentioned by him is Carex Baltzellii, on page 757. Of the 
62 species of flowering plants which we now know only from 
Florida, and were known to Chapman in 1860, Wood apparently 
knew only 17, and a few of those were attributed by him also to 
Georgia, or some other state. And several rare species from other 
states, known to Chapman in 1860, were not listed by Wood in 
1861. 

However, he may have confined his descriptions mainly to plants 
he had seen himself, for, as noted in his preface, he left out a 
number of subtropical species on account of his inability to visit 
South Florida. Some of them, especially those discovered by Dr. 
Blodgett, had already been described by Torrey and Gray, whose 
work seems to have been one of Wood's principal sources of | 
information. 

An edition of Wood’s Class Book published shortly before his 


42 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


death, in 1881, contains a supplement of about ten pages, listing 
many additional species. For that of course he did not have the 
benefit of Chapman's supplement of 1883, and he apparently over- 
looked several species from F lorida and elsewhere published by 
. Chapman and by Gray in the late 70’s. That supplement adds three 
ferns from Florida (all now known from the West Indies, but they 
are not considered in the present study anyway), and apparently 
only two flowering plants (Castalia flava and Lobelia Feayana) 
to the list of Florida endemics, as compared with 38 added by 
Chapman in 1883. 

S(amuel) Hart Wright (1825-1905), of Penn Yan, N. Y., seems 
to have spent several winters in Florida, around 1880. (His son 
Berlin Hart Wright, who was more interested in astronomy and 
conchology than in botany, was living in Lakeland about 25 years 
ago.) I do not have much information about his work in the state 
at present, but he is chiefly noted for the discovery of Hartwrightia, 
a monotypic endemic genus of Carduaceae, described by Gray in 
1888. It seems to be quite rare. I have never found it, but his son 
showed me a specimen of it, from Volusia County I believe, in 1926, 
and Prof. Hitchcock cited one from Macclenny, collected by Curtiss. 

Mr. Wright also discovered a monotypic genus of Cyperaceae, 
and described it in 1887, as Websteria. It was thought for a time to 
be confined to Florida, but later it was found to be the same as a 
species previously described from Cuba and referred to Scirpus. 
So it does not appear in my list of endemics, though the genus 
Websteria seems to be still valid, and represented by a single spe- 
cies. It too seems to be rare, and I have never found it. 


PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS 


List OF FLORIDA 


ENDEMICS 


43 


(Names according to Small, 1933. Symbols explained in text.) 


EEE 
CYCADACE 

Zamia integrifolia Ait. (1) 
“  silvicola Small 
umbrosa Small 


OF. COG Wea Gio t OFOEd Geo 10h 
Clute lwaeteplaiat (0) (=) +)fel s).s, 1c) ais ©) e466 slic « 


“6 


= coc 6 CROCE a) Go Ol ORMOND yO tonOrc rOmumre dy 


PINACEZ 
Pinus clausa (Chapm.) Vasey (2) 


TAXACEA 
Tumion taxifolium (Arn.) Greene (3) 
Taxus Floridana Nutt 


Pr OC ie OPO ONG 


ZANNICHELLIACEA 
Potomogeton Floridanus Small 
$ Curtissii Morong 


~ NAIADACE 
Naias gracilis (Morong) Small 


Sima eons ile \s (wile Ja: e, 6: sia. .0) he 


ALISMACE 
Sagittaria Kurziana Gluck (4) 


ELODEACEA 
HaJophila Baillonis Aschers 
<4 Engelmanni Aschers 


erzrerseer rete eee ze ese se 


POACE 
Tripsacum Floridanum Porter (5) 
Manisuris tuberculosa Nash 
Andropogon longiberbis Hack.............. 
m brachystachyus Chapm 


COO CO CrICh-OF Cie CO 


CnC ORO ie OOO te ONG oll fos 


eee es 2 ee ew wt elie 


oh @abanisnwHack.. . 55... ete. 

45 FING BARTS 01002 | 0100 ee eee 

ce loridanus ScmOn.. 2... 5.2.2.5. +6: 
Syntherisma pauciflorum Hitch............... 
. a Hlordanwm Hitech, . 2... 42)... . 
gracillimum Scribr. (Nash)....... 
Eamcum flabriiohum Nash................-. 

7 malacon Nash 


Chapman 
1860 | 1883 | 1897 
Nee Nee IN 

VN VE 
S| tS os 
ING INGTON 

2 2 t 
serene ne N 
Serena: N 

N|N 
eons) eae N 
Visi NN WeN 


©) moze liiepel el eiiie) ailente 


Hitchcock 


1899-1901 


wo ep =) ee 


s}]e ¢ © 2 2 » e[[e 2 © a] oe 2 o © 


ee se ee eo 


a3 /o.Neol le) feMey is, 


Sid ses eget int ei aric! s\\s/ 6.1 e Le) ieiiia: ei io /« \iiel,a; | «fe (eel stews! tele Na) (wire 


1903 


1913 | 1933 


N 

N 

XN 
N|NIN 
N/|NIN 
NIN|N 
N|NIN 
N|NIN 
N|NIN 
Fee ok (OH) 
eal N 
N|ININ 
(R)| (R)| N 
N|NIN 
NININ 
N|NIN 
(R)| (R)| N 
N|NIN 
N|NIN 
elas N 
ee N 
N|N|N 
N|N|N 
a ee N 
sok eee N 
a ee N 


a4 JOURNAL OF F LORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


List oF FLorma ENDEMics—( Continued ) 
(Names according to Small, 1933. Symbols explained in text. ) 


f Chapman Hitchcock | 
| 1860 | 1883 | 1897 || 1899-1901 || 1903 | 1913 193° 

Anstida patula ‘Chapm, (6).0. 72315 aeons ee eee N-; N | N 

of £<CenuispicawiGcli. yaf sh) Vek ee cee Heaven] s ae [ete Sef eae Loud 

Calamovilfa Curtissii (Vasey) Scribn.......... » eal ge aes N| NIN 

Spartina Bakeri Merrill (7).................. (ery meer coca) Ca N 

Stipa avenaceoides Nash..................... coil ee 2 eee N{|N{|N 

Campulosus Floridanus Hitch................| oe eale ds aes. are h Ceaete N 

Chloris neglecta Nash............... eerie? wens] sk N i:N | N. 

Gymnopogon Chapmanianus Hitch.........:..||...:|. -a.}ee |r N 

Eracrostis-acuta, Blit¢he: 2.8... ho-4 eae ere |. 2+. :la. cele Lo = N 

CYPERACEA Sayi'ce 

Cyperus Careys Britton... . d.4.-b Ae ae less eee el N|N|N 

‘{  itoreus (Clarke) Britton. ............1)...\)))25)ieeee ‘DRL ass N 
‘* < Winkleri Britton & Small............i)....|: : 0/22. S] een N 
* Nashii Britton...) 0.30. «65.2.5. 7.| 2. «[2 ee N N 

Eleocharis uncialis Chapm. (8).......... POMPE AER bie 5 - Be cet ae N 

Dichromena Floridensis Britton ..........<....||....|/e.0). Joe N ON. 

EWR ECU Careyana Fernald.............]]....|. SE EEE RR ieee 2 ING 

Rappiana Smiall...|....55...0. 4). 0.15 eee ge | ae N 

« intermedia (Chapm.) Britton..../ V | V | V pate. No WN 

eg Curtissi: Britton. 22) 8, 244 alles cel. ie ee Ni NIN 

m pinetorum Britton & Small... .I..:.|...-) ee N 

i Edisoniana Britton. ../......../....|... 1) 3 rn N 

" decurrens Chapm.............. N ||. IN. oN eae N{NiIN 

Scleria Curtissii Britton .’-. 0). .4)..6. 2.5.5. .<5lle «2s iw | N“| N 

Girex Balt: ellii Chapm: (9)t.). 2. 9 ee N iN See N | N /(R) 

“*) .Chapmanii Steud. (9)... i..5.4.....2 09. ool ee er ee ee N 

**; -magmifolia Mackenzie: .... 6:5 .00.0.06 Hii, Oe rrr NON 

ARECACEZ ee ah nae de 

Sabal ‘Etonia Swingle (10)........: 000.05... : J DOME? | ee Mt ed 

‘t;  Jamesiana Small({11).0.0.00.25..000..0. 2.4). 2: se er wet N 
ERIOCAULACE/ , 

Lachnocaulon Floridanum Small.............. | rs ethel lle) tei N|N 2D 
a digynum Koern. (12)........... ess tte (R)} (R)| N 
ee eciliatum Small. /: 6... | £01) 2 ee Ni} NIN 

COMMELINACEE | 

@uthbertia ornata Sarglls : 3. )- 225 se) ae, | eit je OR JE sof | epee N 

TRADESCANTELLA Floridana (Wats.) Small..... fee fp StS aes N. | N.|.N 

@ommelina Gigas Small. ..2...:...0..55.5-.. ee lies a ee nee Bes ee aE 

| | 


PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS A5 


List oF FLoripa ENpDEMics—( Continued ) 
(Names according to Small, 1933. Symbols explained in text. ) 


Chapman Hitchcock Small 


1860 | 1883 | 1897 || 1899-1901 || 1903 | 1913 | 1933 


BROMELIACE 
Remeber IAM ASIAN eee ee ole oe Beg Le te es late AG epal N 
ee RPomIces NLT ae ewes oc. IIb and Mga Salli wie yaya MOMS aes N 

E See SHAE een Nala. foi. ofa all's = ealeueacaliays dele ec lle Bae etetss N 


MELANTHACEA 
Veratrum intermedium Chapm. (13).......... IN ING A IN Slee etic N 


DRACENACEE 
Bene ratpacanps Bartlett)... ..).. 2.2.0.5 eel. odafe es. [e cele. oe. cle ee: 
Setseuranigne Nash. 4... ek ce cee ws ile seeds n cole oe ARMITEAD N 


LEUCOJACEA 

(Ep 1 SLSR TES) 2 ea | Cece (ee | N N 
© STEVE) [SLETI SC eee on | re ea | a N | N 
Atamosco Simpsoni (Chapm.) Greene.........|)....}.... N) NS) N N 
rf Treatie (Wats.) Greene............ KO th AS Pata REY N N 
Hymenocallis Keyensis Small (14)............|).... Re tak R R | N 
; ee Ser NSM 4h ees Mess AREY DI ee eee oe Pallettap ws lles Sel) aN 
N 

N 

N 

N 


Bi MGinmsaliveenomiall bos ao ie alloc in Clits ola ec BEM re Me raralll cows og | toe 
ta tridentata Small...............]).. ss (ey A a epee aCe Lod eb es 
Br CDT) (Scr | AM et MPR eiaieeal erie | aaerr || arenas fea A a IE 
axel PERIENCE oo. 0! Re oa soe Steele ca st NG DB ND Taha N 


 EXTACE 

Benen eomiloridana omall (15)... 0c... 2. 2.|). eden. [|e ) deleteardbalens He aulsN 
SALFINGOSTYLIs ccelestina (Bartr.) Small...... te aR Stag lp econ (R) 
Sisyrinchium xerophyllum Greene........... 0.2 ...[... 0/002 0H. Soe. N 
“f Miondaniumebickwell 02... occ t ce le eat lbakeeh wa N 

UP MEMEMCOPAITIS SMM yl kgs es alga Sates los dale belle gen calle oodles cas N 
Sumereramacmnesmially os. fh es eda eee lens los. Glan ea alleeorlk So N 
bia aTeratiyea invalid. ke le ce ean alleee a Wate Ves PEM Ee cect ical ast ec ae ee N 


ORCHIDACEZ 
Fepnarigiottis, Chapmanii Small...............]....)...-)2. awa N 
Metidor pinetorum small... .. 62.0.6. 64.2. an. e| coe eters aan os selicf: 
Encyclia Tampensis (Lindl.) Small (16)....... VRS Meee tS S S 


nA Zz 
Zz 


PIPERACEA 
Micropiper leptostachyon (Nutt.) Small.......].... Si ye S S 
Rhynchophorum Floridanum Small (17).......|.... Ee aielx R R 


hd ™| 
ZZ, 


46 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


List oF FLoripaA ENDEMics—(Continued ) 
(Names according to Small, 1933. Symbols explained in text.) 


Chapman Hitchcock Small 
1860 | 1883 | 1897 || 1899-1901 || 1908 | 1913 1933 


JUGLANDACEA 
Hicoria .austrina Small... . io... eee | 2 N 
‘«. --Hloridana (Sarg.) Small... 2202.2... 0 all eal N 
SALICACEA 
Salixcamphibianomall’(c4. ) ee ota = eee eee ee ar | Sabet ennai Se N 
FAGACEA 
Quercus Rolfsii Small... ...........4...0.0.-]/) 09 3 NIN: 
URTICACEA 
Parietaria nummularia Small........4:....... i. 22). 25 alae ee N 
Boehmeria decurrens Small... 2.2.2... 4.2.2... 2.2.50 ee Ni NIN 
ULMACEA 
Trema Floridana Britton (18)........... tate fe Roi N{i| NIN 
POLYGONACE: ; 
Eriogonum Floridanum Small (19)............ R|;R:| RB N|N/IN 
Rumex fascicularis Small. ..................:|v...|: 23) N{|N{IN 
Polygonella macrophylla Small......... PM |e tes ollssoesis.0 2, « N|N/|N 
i brachystachya Meisn............. N | No)" Gi see N;i|N|N 
DENTOCERAS myriophylla Small. ;...32....:. I. ..4). 23/92 ee N 
Delopyrum ciliatum (Meisn.) Small........... S | Ss) Ss) eee Se | N 
basiramea Small... 0.2.0.0... 00000.1)... 0)... be Bee IN 
Thysanella robusta Small................-.- |} ol oe ae, ee ea N|N 
AMARANTHACE/ 
Acnida Floridana Wats......................(). 03. NN ee N|I|N|N 
CORRIGIOLACEA 
Nyacuta pulvinata Small.....:......255. 56. clo. s|. oo e|ee Se te IN’ 
Odontonychia interior Small. ...............sil.-. =|. 22. \h- | eee Sie N 
PISONIACEA . 
Torrubia globosa Small... 0. 20)... ae pe oe ee eee N 
~ Florndana Britton: ... 02.5%. 8.00. 8 Oe Se Sec N 
RANUNCULACEA: 
Clematis micrantha Small. ..........4.2..00]/ 2107 212) a ee N° 
Viorna Baldwinii T.&G. Small.............-. Shee fh yp as Ne eN UN 


PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS 47 


List oF FLoriA ENDEMiIcs—( Continued ) 
(Names according to Small, 1933. Symbols explained in text.) 


Chapman Hitchcock Small 
1860 | 1883 | 1897 ||1899-1901 |] 1903 | 1913 | 1933 
ANNONACEA 
Pityothamnus reticulatus (Shuttl.) Small (20)../....) S | S Sei aN 
ch pyzm-ceus (Bartr:) Small....... <I... .)2..- vat S| N 
ceiramernis omall. 3... ke Hot ote ne es Certs Meee || ae 7 | eee N 
SS abovatus CWilld:) Small: ......./) 5...) 02: ea S|N 
DEERINGOTHAMNUs pulchellus Small........../]....].... ee A earn co cl ee N 
iy Rugelii (Robinson) Small. .|/....}.... Saath ee ee S| N 
MAGNOLIACEA 
mncunmeparvitiorum Mx, (21). .............+. Nis N GND iS aie xe N|N 
NYMPHAACEA 
Nymphea ulvacea Miller & Standley (22)...../....]....}..../ Rood... de... N- 
‘= maaeEOMyMaTOMAM. . sf ts eae cp bonle ses les N|N 
Castalia flava (Leitner) Greene............... EN esl ael | wht) N|N 
PAPAVERACEA 
Argemone Jeicarpa Greene................... JR || Bs N|N 
BRASSICACE 
Cardamme curvisiliqua Shuttl]................ Sele NG aN N|N 
Sete ATHEEMOMIA I Ce oc) k lk ee cee cw ws les eM. COD. Item es... N|N 
| Semeecsiinolia Nash. 2). 6.2.0. eo ee ee eles se ckebalh Oe N|N 
paeeamplexaona Nutt. (23).............3.. ING ey Ni ING 
PARNASSIACEA 
Parnassia Floridana Rydb. (24).............. URRY OR Med dariacl lteter N|R 
GROSSULARIACEA 
esse eeninelia Coville... o2.. 2.2... Wee be ws | Oe Slee N 
MALACEA 
DR UEREES TEEN OT aS (SE ye || WE | || N 
¢ freirletitea Sales <0 oes se heen Se cccallee of | Be Ph oe lll Shri te N|N 
ry eremmaniesta SMA 8s hs ous cone elie ae | Saas cast [gamers oo N|N 
AMYGDALACEA 
emma eLTIVIGRMAUNGUS OMIA 3) 02 $n. tas he alec dlfleas [os ape flee teas. oa N 
“LDR GEG irae sy 02) a ee | a (PP mn Tere pana N|N 
MIMOSACE/ 
See AB CHINSU LUIS SING Was. 42.4. Aire as os alle oa tes oS ENCE See of. oo N 
SES ARIS OMIA Eon ce cites ee ee alee niaia slew weds aay see ion be N 


48 -- JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


List oF FLoripaA ENpDEMics—( Continued ) 


(Names according to Small, 1933. Symbols explained in text. ) 


Chapman Hitchcock 


1860 | 1883 | 1897 ||1899-1901 
Leptoglottis Floridana (Chapm.) Small (25). -2 "27.3 s S 
Fe angustililiqua Britt. & Rose.......))...-|....]..-. 


CASSIACE As 
Chamecrista Keyensis Pennell..............- 
v7 Deeringiana Smal] & Pennell..... 


FABACE 


= (@ ie mice) "*, @) 7 


so) ee we fe ee 


Baptisia simplicifoha Croom (26)............. 
elliptica, Smalli(26)22 2 0) ay. ¢ 2/22 ain en eee ae caer 
calycosa Canby............ tit, Soc kull a 
hirsuta: Small (26)... 00... 6. ics ee ill Sie ee 


ef 


ce 


¢¢ 


ZAAz” 


Crotalaria Linaria Small... .....0.....9.4... 02 N. v2. Sl as pated ey dvsdl 
Lupinus cumulicola Sriva ll ig oc4 cece cag fens ell ee eee Jtisth alge 8 


f Weatianus’Small.. .. 62... 2. ees alle. alle siya 
Amorpha Dewinkeleri Small............ ee 
crenulata Rydb..................6.. 
fe Floridana Rydby.).fo2 M4. os eed 
a Bushey db mene. be oe eine 
Parosela Floridana Rydb..................-.- 
Kuhnistera truncata Small............. uh a : 


we adenopoda (Rob.) Rydb...........\|....|..+:|0.- 3], Hee . 


Indigofera Keyensis Small (27)............-.-}.--- 
Cracca‘latidens Small ..0.¢..04. 2.00.5. sole 
fl Mohit Radb; oo ..025.. 01.5025 ee). lle a] ee een 
‘ - Rugelit (Shutt!.) Heller....-......--.:1,.- |. (ae ae ee 
rf Chapmanii (Vail) Small (28).......... 
i gracillima (Rob.) Heller..... Peas, 
corallicola Smalls iat eee oe ae 
ie Curtiss Smally@s)ie o. 2) aceon ee ee 
angustissima (Shuttl.) Kuntze......... 
Rhynchosia Michauxii Vail (29)............--. 
- cinereaNASh soo eck cen eoeee 
ies “Lewtonii (Vail) Small............ 
Erythrina arborea (Chapm.) Small (BO) eee ee 
Galactia brachypoda T. & G..............-.- 
a iprostrata Small... . 0.00.05 00.5 004i): oe, | 
minetorummcmall yo ae eee > het alle See 
i fas cleMlatal Natl okt che eee phan ya cuca | a ee nlite: N 

if parvifolia A. Rich. (81)............../(VW)| R | R 
Bradburya arenicola Small.................-. RPO rman Me. 
ay Floridana Britton........... Peal aie oo see 

Martiusia fragrans Small..........--.-..--- | ely i 


ce 


Cece yeu it) ech are 


Cs 


We! cergetire, oa Ze} fo 


+ © © ef e ee 2 


Arrisiblbs “wutie: 6! 8. 16 


s © eo eto eo oe 


Za 


poco) elm hs ie) ee 


ZAZnz2 


eee ele eo 


ech Vine iV eG 


ABZRnN 


ol im feo Hite ye ow, fe 


AAAAACAAZAAAAAARBZAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAYAAY 


PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS 


List oF FLoripa ENpdEmMics—( Continued ) 


49 


(Names according to Small, 1933. Symbols explained in text. ) 


Chapman | Hitchcock Small 
1860 | 1883 | 1897 || 1899-1901|| 1903 | 1913 | 1933 
Pmascoius smilacifolius Pollard... 2.02.2: 0:2 .h as i/o atoe. N Ni NIN 
micenymomene pratensis Small.........: 2.225 ccHccules PEE ee Woe. INN 
Stylosanthes calcicola Small..................]. 0.0)... ial hee ge ae se | N 
CHAPMANNIA Floridana T. & G. (82).......... N;{|N|N N Nis HN ne NG 
VSO G BITE re | N|N N NININ 
LINACEA 
Sensrionnium arenicola Small. ......: 22:22. :flece. be. ei eH 2. N joNee 
A WSEEerU OMAN oe. ede es fh ge eS RAD ey NIN 
RUTACEA 
Prelea baldwin T.& Goo. eo ING» (PING) INGE sores No PN teN 
POLYGALACE 
Peemem leioues (Blake) Small... 0.5.0.0... ess llee ooh inte Oe. OO N 
= CP CTEREE RDN SVT RU ee | oe ne eae | SO | N 
Ren Neer SMAI ke ee pec el oes eee N 
ib Memiromiiemallc ke te ee Wee dees lees idee no N|N|N- 
“ EIMEN DEI TIT) (CUNO EN FS ARS | ere a ee | |, N 
I EE JOS OTL, as Oe eee ae a ne pe Ue oe Aa a Rae N|N 
Pepolaniawemicainiomall a)... lees eee the ee a SiN 
Bareia(Shuttl.) Small... .. 2.5... .|)ese. S |S S S|SIN 
EUPHORBIACEA 
PiyuentaunGeroer Small; .. 0... 0.0... cafe. de ee ee NaN |_N 
Seg pibylepic small...) se a Pee ef | A Pee N|N 
(DT SPE TRS CIT TS) 003) | es | ee a | (R)|(R)| N 
Seeeenonfel ams MereUSsOM ci. kk ee lee ate ce hac walle atee oe ING? | OND aN 
“a mearenicola pmall... 72.6... oe eee hele lator SATEEN ae NIN 
Mian Glousettii(Lorr.) Pax (3)............/ S | S 1.8 j....... NININ 
“EEDA GEIL) TS) ae | eR en Ire | Ls NN | N 
linea anpustifolia (Terr.).Wats:... 2. ode ee dencde ee clh os bo. NiININ 
sg ARE TS SETGSHI. oo oP ERIS RRR Saar tere ag ets setae (| eee | ee Ie N 
eaameesece-cumulicola Small... of. ec Pee OPE N 
i‘ @inegenes Smallieinsd) 2 fel Serb ale Pale 2 INF ENTE IRENE 
a irs hana bits. oo sg so sttecrstora tls ae Si eC Bae Ni NIN 
“ Betecrggpcaasoiiels  } ates a MER AD BAO 0 LR NiININ 
i Masierioimalle ss 08 be oa ws ans [eo a ae ye ER aeons alto ee |e N 
hg Garberi (Engelm.) Small..........]....| S | § S N|INI|N 
“6 Benpyliam pma lla gs te Pie orale: cleo see Rk LY N 
‘ aobeerens omally arg ke te oe odes s HOU ROT) CUE Bek Pn aL N 


50 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


List oF FLoria ENDEMics—( Continued ) 
(Names according to Small, 1933. Symbols explained in text. ) 


Chapman Hitchcock Small 


1860 | 1883 | 1897 ||1899-1901 || 1903 |.1913 | 1933 
eee deltoidea (Engelm.)Small........./|.... Seles) NIN 
Porteriana Smiall....5 0.0 0... 2 3 3. oe NosiGN 
scoparia Smalh.... 2... -.+s-s2+ ile. ss]. . > lane eee 
adicioides Small. 4.1.4)... 005. yale a ease N 
Keyensis Small. ........05..0.54,- 05 1. o) al al rrr 
pinetorum Small... . 2.5... 2. Me. 2. | ee 
e Mathewsil Small..... 20.00.0600...) ca): of Jee 
o conferta, Small (84); .. 0.6.25... .4... 9). (Shee ee R 
3 adenoptera (Bertol.) SmalJ......../).... Sis N 
Tithymalopsis polyphylla (Engelm.) Small.........|.... S N 
exserta Small. ... 3... 0...5 0 5.lls. alle a alee N 
N 
N) 
S 
S 


Z 


Z 


ra discoidalis (Chapm.) Small...... 
Galarhceus inundatus (Torr.) Small........... 
ie telephioides (Chapm.) Smal]....... 


66, 


we) oe) aWiwy an 


DRRRN 
RM 


austrinus Small 


@% © 0 © 0 le ee 8 6 ee ee 8 8 ew He ee wih) ns) (ml ie ie! ie Celt lieth We ene et nT 


ZAAAAAAAANYAAAAAAY 


RNNDAAAAA 


CYRILIACE 
Cynilla arida Small 


Z 


CeCe ee a ee eC ee eS! | Ce eC MCE WI Ao Odi kL a llaug Bog 


AQUIFOLIACE 
Ilex Curtissii (Fernald) Small é 
: Buswelli Small; 0. 6052 Yo chee s+ «(les + [al gervelie ot cee eeieee ts | a N 
cumulicola Small... 00. 33..0. 0.46.05 2- ll. oe N 


ce 


DODON AACE 
Dodonza microcarya Small... ......5....... ll... 21. 22 Jee N 


VITACE® 
Vitis Simpsonu Munson... .:.. 6.00..82 <2065- 4) ele ee N NININ 


TILIACEA 
Tilia porracea Ashe 


MALVACEA® 
Sida rubromarginata, Nash... 52... 2265.) cee ele ee N N 
Hibiscus semilobatus Chapm. (35) ae 2a teat tame eee Xo) ON 
Kosteletzkya smilacifolia (Shuttl.) Gray....... 


Pe 
ZAM Z 
Z 


HYPERICACEA® 
Ascyrum Hdisonianum Smaill.................\\c- 2}. 2 Slee N 
SANDIOPHYLLUM cumulicola Small 


PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS 


List oF FLoripA ENDEMIcs—( Continued ) 
(Names according to Small, 1933. Symbols explained in text. ) 


Chapman 
1860 | 1883 | 1897 
TURNERACEA 
Piriqueta glabrescens Small.................. 1B || dey |) by 
4 SCRANTON DL eas eo cy ca tani Sn 3p Se) Bucnrsoaite ee leved sh callats, Seal MERE 
CISTACEA 
Crocanthemum Nashii (Britton) Barnhart.....]....|....).... 
“ tyrsoideumiparnharts «2... scile. |. 22 clon - 
Lechea prismatica rina ras see Rice ence eeameral hue can le 2 a 
SMC MSETEAV OMIT. ne Se cd cere see aslo a eller ee eof oe Pe woe 
CEASA Ds) Ais a tc yi ated coon oe ea cffeed osdasatela cl 
SememiyMopnyiia Small. 7... 0.0.00. bees 
VIOLACEZ: 
Naola Plomdana Brainerd... 2... 0.0.00...) 40-03 ere ae 
TRIES, SITET Re nf se | | 
OPUNTIACEZ 
ee AMCCHARSTINAN iy gs Wa See ndre Saks alle aeuot SS PR 
PIscHORMMs Small, 7.28 6 5 ss oe ee sole oP IE 
memecourmepma small: 4.2... 6 cee celle. he 
ememcchrocent’a SINAall:......e.c ssc tee eles echoes 
peerettrocapensis small)... cc. ds ee ce elle ele oe Pee 
G Lanias PSramey Oe eo RII ies eriareate a vere nr aeras | ae en | ame 
RMRETIECNAAV OMAN Gs acc cules s cad evee ctloe clea asleen 
mepOheatpayomaliien, f.. 6... tee eee el a el esos 
SMMEEMIGCTISHOINA aly cn ac gels walle oe wl es nade ces 
SMEAIIGETAM AT OMAN 6000 es ee kee ell ela ae choos. 
SemciInaUicola Small... c 26.0. se cee elle nels as ole ese 
eeinmaophita Small s8 ob... ese te ee cle ae ee. 
SEBECONCNSIS STIGtOM. «5.0.4 6k ds oe elec alleediole Bethetee. 
i PTL ORAS INA ee A tele ie dae oh a < tele ss elles che aaa 
em VCMT CAG OMA lar ay eps ils ei iaie ha cle Gree bdlies gece or amne 
I ZO CANA OTA eng PAREN ies cee So ao eal ee cil ae clea.’ 
Soucalcarcorallicola omall a... foe ce ee ee ey eee 
Acanthocereus Floridanus Small.............-])....)..../.... 
Peace NWOnIP INI Smalls oc.c.. oe. wes eles cle ann l eee. 
SEND SOMi STEN oo. i acs ee ee ae Mou. 
A REACTANT SE OT eM et. ats tone rs coal eer alte 2 alee s: 914 
@ephalocereus Deeringii Small................))....). 2024) 04 
is Keyensis Britton & Rose.......|)....{....].... 


Hitchcock 


1899-1901 


O40. G80) 0.00100 


ee} ts;itentel elite 
O oo to) ONG 
O00 O00 cg d.4 


Cod oO CF 
O10 Osc nclod 
don jo 2 'O 
aiatralve=lelieite 
OOO 6 O8O.6 
Cc Oo loulo oro 


O aro to oO Goollin co 6.5} o 6-06 


51 
Small 

1903 | 1913 | 1933 
N;|; NIN 
ING NG EN 
Se Sae en 
iS fe iS |] oN 
N 

N 

N 

N 

So AW cheers | N 
Ne sail 
-N 

N 

N. 

RAE os N 
N 

N 

NEL eae Glee N 
Jeet N 
eS eee N 

N | NN. 
Pen aad ee N 
0 2 ae | N 
CEE Nahas N 
N 

N 

=e Ht aa N 
Pearle te: N 
ee NE Oa N 
Se nat © N 
Fa Hieec OE N 
CEA ee N 
SEEDS EG N 
N|N 


52 


JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


List oF FLorma ENpDEmics—( Continued ) 


(Names according to Small, 1933. 


LAURACE/ 
Tamala littorahs Small 
‘* humilis (Nash) Small 


MELASTOMACE: 
Rhexiatparvitiers Chapm yy 20 gc... e 7 eee 
LYTHRACE 
Lythrum flagellare Shuttl. (36) 
Parsonisa lythroides Small (87)............... 
MYRTACE 
Eugenia anthera Small 
Anamomis Simpsonii Small 
F dicrana (Berg.) Britton 


COI OMI Chay wou Cet) bund ciety crete cer ac 
Cy Ce) Oat Oe ren Pacers eid) Omer 


OV Oy es Lele) ship) sige! @niele®) 


EPILOBIACEA 
Isnardia intermedia Small & Alex............. 
3 spathulata (T. & G.) Small 
Ludwigia Curtissii Chapm 
“*  spathulifolia Small 
‘* Simpson Chapm 
Gaura simulans Small 
‘*  Eatonii Small 


NYSSACE 
Nyssa ursina Small 


AMMIACE/ 
Eryngium cuneifolium Small 
a Floridanum C. & R 
Sium Floridanum Small 


MONOTROPACEA 
Monotropsis Reynoldsiz (Gray) Heller. . . 


ERIACEA 


ARMERIACE/® 
Limonium obtusilobum Blake 


Symbols explained in text. ) 


Chapman 


1860 | 1883 | 1897 


es ie ee COCR a ite urn Se 
Ls | ih dee a ae Nn ay Are Pe Be 


Oa ace, ae 


e.8 ee fe ee oie cee, ellie = = (9 inlet i ute eee enter 


Me PCC MECH PO min et 


De Ca Ceca CO s| oy iS 


oe @ ele le eles a: ial il ce gi ellie eal eemante Tn iua ie 


rr ie el aCe Oe eve ee) Comey i) yh = 


(V) | 


Se wo ee Oe elie ea ee ee 


PRELIMINARY. LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA’ PLANTS 53 


List OF FLoripA ENDEMICS—( Continued ) 
(Names according to Small, 1933. Symbols explained in text. ) 


EBENACE 


Misspyres wiosieri Small... 0... ee Phe 


~SAPOTACEA 
Bumelia rufotomentosa Smal] 


se 


OLEACE: 


Forestiera porulosa (Mx.) Poir (38) 


66 


pinetorum Sri ee 
Slomlamsyomalles sau. 2 ee a 


Ginengntnus pygmea Small................. | ee | eee | 7 | | | 
Osmanthus Floridana Chapm. (89)............]....[.... 


Amarolea megacarpa Small 


Sth Cet By OO" Oo ig tC) Ash so 10s Hil ao 


SPIGELIACE 
Ceelostylis loganioides T. & G..... Did Ferner 
Spigelia gentianoides (Ci) 00 Oa eee eee 


GENTIANACEA 
Sabbatia grandiflora (Gray) Small....... AEM 


Dasystephana tenuifolia (Raf.) Pennell (40)... .| 


- APOCYNACE 
Urechites pmetorum Small................... 
Rhabdadenia corallicola Small................ 
ASCLEPIADACE/ 
Asclepias viridula Chapm 


OR OF O89 Fa Oo ea sy ala ado 


OxypTeRyx Curtissii (Gray) Small............1.... 
ASCLEPIODELLA Feayi (Chapm.) Small ........||....|.... 
Odontostephana Floridana (Vail) Alex......... aa 


CONVOLVULACE/ 


Bonamia grandiflora (Gray) Heller............|).... 


Stylisma villosa (Nash) House 
Evolvulus macilentus Smal]..............00... 
Jacquemontia Curtissii Peter 
Convolvulus Nashii House 


Ory CoD Bou ee CO CHO “Chichi 


Peat CIC. CMC OP CeO ONO 


Sipes Si ianiestsl el lel /alssi.a: .s) sv leis. (f (¥ip6 


SMEPAPOCEA OMA 2.75 6. es ess eee eee | eee 
_DECINID, (SUNG 10 ge 2 aes Se i ea ee Hh 


| Chapman Hitchcock Small 


1860 | 1883 | 1897 


1899-1901 || 1903 


a >) 


| 


1913 | 1933 


ZZ ZZ 


ZAZAZz7 


ZAZAAZAAz” 


54 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


List oF Fioria ENpEmics—( Continued ) 
(Names according to Small, 1933. Symbols explained in text. ) 


Chapman Hitchcock Small 


1860 | 1883 | 1897 || 1899-1901 |] 1903 | 1913 | 1933 
SOLANACE® 
Pliysalis; Mloridana Eoydb. 7... -s-yae es sees 
arenicola Kearney... ss) .2. 55... 428 
‘- ginuata veya tvien, ee who ap ere eg 
Solanum Floridanum Shuttl. (41)............. 


Zw2Z 


HELIOTROPIACE 
Heliotropium phyllostachyum Torr............ 
oe Leavenworthii Torr............. 
as horirvontale Small............... 


ZAAZz 
Z 


VERBENACE/ 
Glandularia maritima Small.................. 
ie. | P@ampensis; (Nash) Smalley 45542 
Lantana depressa Small..................... 


ZDMDM 
Z 


LAMIACEA 

Trichostema suffrutescens Kearney........... 
Scutellaria arenicola Small................... 
tg glabriuscula Fernald............. At 
4 Hlorndana Chapmi: 2.5.00) 2..4.% , 
Macbridea alba Chapm...................... 
Dracocephalum leptophyllum Small........... 
Stachys lythroides Small..................... 
ie MidioniGanadOubilac. <8 ati. i ote ee 
Salvia Blodgettii Chapm..................... 
STACHYDEOMA graveolens (Chapm.) Small..... Sey ate 
Conradina grandiflora Small. ..............-.\|)...|.;. sl eel 
a puleruUla Smaart, Ae 3 weeny es . 
PYcNoTHyMUs rigidus (Batr.) Small........... hae 

Clinopodium macrocalyx Small (42). . 
cc dentatum (Chapm.) urine (43). 
4 Ashei (Weatherby) Small........ Ag ie & & Sate ye 43 


ZAAZAZANAAAAAY” 


AZAAAz” 
AZAZAAZAAAZA!AANAAANANANAYN 


RHINANTHACEA 
Ilysanthes grandiflora (Nutt.) Benth. (44)..... 
Hemianthus glomeratus (Chapm.) Pennell...../....|....) V |.......]....].... 
Agalinis Keyensis Pennell.................... 
‘* .” stenophylla Pennell... .. 22.5.2 ......|).. 0 cle . ee | 


AZAws 


ACANTHACE 
Tubiflora angustifolia (Fernald) Small......... 
Dyschoriste angusta (Gray) Small (45)........ 


na 
ZZ 


PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS 


List oF FLorma EnpEemics—( Continued ) 
(Names according to Small, 1933. Symbols explained in text.) 


Ruellia succulenta Small 
“LS LOT GLENS) Sa 00g) 0 Salar nes ea 
Gerardia Floridana (Gray) Small (46) 
dusticir crassitolia Chapm:........... 0.52... 
‘« ~ angusta (Chapm.) Small (47) 


PINGUICULACE: 
Calpidisca Standleyz Barnhart. . 


LORANTHACEA# 
- Phoradendron Fatoni Trelease............... 
ae macrotomum: Trel.....5......-% 


RUBIACEA 
Houstonia pulvinata Small................... 
Borreria terminalis SmaJl (48)................ 
Spermacoce Keyensis Small (49).............. 


CAPRIFOLIACEZ: 
Sambucus Simpsonii Rehder ..... 


Viburnum densiflorum Chapm. (50) - ; ; 3 | | } 7 | ; ) ene a 


“o IWashimomalls oe. 5s oboe bse 


ASARACE 
Hexastylis eallifolia Small..........0...025 0.5. 


CUCURBITACE 
Melothria crassifolia Small................... 
Pepo Okeechobeensis Small.................. 


CAMPANULACEA 


Rotantua Floridana (Wats.) Small........... ce 


Robinsiz Small (51). ¢@............ 


LOBELIACEA: 


Wobeliabeayana Gray....... 0.5.00... ce cee eee 


CARDUACE 


Meronia concinna Gleason... ....6..2824cc.cleceslevis lente 


a Blodgettii Small 
HarRTWRIGHTIA Floridana Gray............... 
Averatum littorale Gray..................033 


ono oo o oO Olio OG 


N 


oroOsorcHl oO Cg Ci 


59 


eee © we ollie os ew of ew 8 


COND G OF ON old oO 


AZAZAZAA7 


AZAAZAAZAz7” 


56 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


List oF Fiona ENpEemics—( Continued ) 
(Names according to Small, 1933. Symbols explained in text. ) 


Chapman Hitchcock Small 


1860 | 1883 | 1897 || 1899-1901 || 1903 | 1913 | 1933 
Osmia frustrata (Robinson) Small (52)......../).... R 
Eupatorium mikanioides Chapm.............. N 
i anomalum Nash: $7.00: don Jie ae Nl be ccc Saal tN 

o Chapman Small... 4.920%... [a]. ale oer N 
:) jucundum Greene... ov... 6.62. «ll. Oe ee alle 
Kuhnia Mosieri Small... 2.00.0 do A 2a 
Larrisa carnosa Small... 0.0. oe ce se all cl oe a 
Laciniaria chlorolepis Small (53)............../|....|. - 94) eteall eee en 
a Garberi (Gray) Kuntze..........s.||...; N 
Ammopursus Ohlingere (Blake) Smail (54)... ./)....)....]... 4.0... .0][e...1.... 
GARRERIA fruitcosa (Nutt.) Gray (55)......... 
Chrysopsis subulata Small. .........3...)..- 3). |] fag eee + opis eget Sala a 
SS sigantea, Small (56) i. 5.00. 4.004 5 all. . 2 alle Sele er (R) 
7) Janucinoss, omialli...qs4. 4. CP I Foca eee 
Floridana Small: ... 0... .0.0. 0.0553 s\n adele a N 
Ete latisquama. ‘Pollard’: .2.%...... TAs al. 0. a N | WN 
Pityopsis flexuosa (Nash)Small... 2.5... 5: .))).- See § S|. 
NS) 
N 


N 


<> STraeyi- Small... oo) 244 nade cv acemelle fa, oe ae Ss 
Solidago flavovirens Chapm.................. N | NoNG eee N 

a Edisoniana Mackenvie.............. 451)... .|. >. o/eetedl ee rr 

ef THita phism LEA SA Roe cea |}. +. e's <rei|a tall age 
Aster lineuiformis Burgess »......2..2.......-||;. 5). 5. 7 |e Nei oN 
“ fontinalis Alexander’. ...-)..0. 0....-2560ssil. 52]. 25/2.) ieee 
Simaulatus, omallign . 8) 7.0. a adhe tele 3) al ene ee a Ate, ce oe 
pluMass OMIA. bes she hee 2 aly ee oe al el -» Sillors? vee Goal ete aeiapaS 
Simmondsit Smalls." 3). oo a aR ele ee woe ih oe 2 re 
spatelliformis Burgess...........5......0l)....|.3. 4 N/|N 
pinifolius Alexander................5.0:l. 2. J]... 21) 7B ne 
“< . gracilipes (Wieg.) Alexander............||.....]..- 4]; Sell ene] eee 
brachypholis Smalls. 30 2.2 - “salle ee] Gus lee Alene 
Spinulosus Cha pmiivecch es sei pe ssl cate N|N N 
ei@hapmaani: Ded Ge. pads eae Be er Nahe Nei N. aN N N 
Ploches longifolia, Nash) 26/42 2.6... os lp ae eee N N 
Silphium Simpson Greenes. 2.2... fas. js sees 2 als oe el eee N 
N- 

N 

N 


Berlanciera, mumilismomially oe eb ces /e oa. eal ee eel eee . SESS 
i subsacaulis Niutie peek ees. she N | NEN N 
Melanthera, parvirolia; Smalls. . jew yao cles eal ae “Oe 
ES PAG Ata nM ek ek, a eae! ea ee .. Se 
ae lioolata Smiadlir te. op sets dee 6 Seal ere ene eee . telly Oh agnallipee ¥ 
Rudbeckia heterophylla T. & G............... Nii No | Ned ieee N 
z pinnatiloba (T. & G.) Beadle.......] V | V 
Helianthus agrestis Pollard. ................ MN. . <0]... <1. 40,1 
PS vestitus E. Ei Watson: 6.00000. ..00. I ae i 


2 A AE NN A A A NSM AO NA A A AN A MeN 


PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS 57 


List oF FLORIDA Enpemics—( Continued ) 
(Names according to Small, 1933. Symbols explained in text.) 


Chapman Hitchcock Small 


1860 | 1883 | 1897 || 1899-1901); 1903 | 1913 | 1933 


RPeMIEOMSTEATMNOSUS SMA... ci. el Wee ee cae tee awe ok INE NeW aN 
3 RSUNTOSTISS OMA Se 8 | MAS: RU LAI, Se NOR os woe Soe ol N|N {IN 
PH@BANTHUS grandiflora (T. & G.) Blake (57).| S | S | S S Saeeom lien 
. tenuifolia (T. & G.) Blake......./ S | S | S N) Sap Seen 
Pterophyton heterophyllum (Chapm.) Alex.....]....; S | S S Ste Nl 
* pauciflorum (Nutt.) Alex. (58)..../ S | S | X ]....... S| 8S | N 
LUD ETI SIS LLG THO TES 00¥2 8 1 |AIRIAI Rare aD a eR | Ae PD | NON EN 
Palstamabedyi Gray... 56.6. oe i oe elle dee NIN N NiININ 
Hroveriaiatiolia (Johnston) Rydb............o...].. 2. dealin. calle os a fee ee N 
a Miawdamaioreiks JOMNStOM. 0% 5.0 2 SG Ailltmen ato Moet soe icd[ahe dong lied a |ieleces N 
Mesadenia Floridana (Gray) Greene..........||..../.... S NS) Nene eN 
mercmnmiitatiaaromalll:: (60 sr rebate ko eased vie alk rs) | NT 
CICHORIACE 
iieracumrarcyreum small: . 2... few lew cele elle ke es N|N {IN 


(To be concluded) 


Quait. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 11(2-3), 1948 (1949) 


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CHUA einen 


THE PEEP ORDER IN PEEPERS; A SWAMP 
WATER SERENADE 


CoLEMAN J. GOIN 
University of Florida 


Anyone who has ever heard spring peepers calling knows that 
the chorus has a characteristic structure which makes it recognizable 
as far as it can be heard. It has further been recorded that the call 
is approximately two octaves above middle C, that there is variation 
from frog to frog, and that an occasional trill is heard in every 
chorus. (See Pope, C. H., Amphibians and Reptiles of the Chicago 
Area, 1944, 98. ) 


For the past three seasons, individuals of the southern spring 
peeper, Hyla crucifer bartramiana, have bred in a pool in my yard 
near Gainesville, Florida. This has enabled me to listen to choruses 
as they developed and I have found not only that there is a definite 
composition to the chorus which gives it a characteristic quality, 
but also that the chorus develops each time in the same manner. 

Typically three frogs sing as a group and a large chorus seems 
to be nothing more than a number of these trios calling from the 
same breeding site. Furthermore, each of these trios develops in 
the same manner. The call is initiated by a single individual sound- 
ing the note of A for a varying number of times. After a brief rest, 
if he does not have an answer, he gives a trill. This trill apparently 
acts as a stimulus since it usually results in another individual 
starting to call on the note of G ¢. When this happens the two 
individuals continue giving their respective notes — A, G ¢; A, 
G tt; etc. — for an indefinite number of times. If a third individual 
does not start calling, they stop their alternating calls, rest, and 
one of them — usually (and perhaps invariably) the one that is 
calling G + — gives the trill. At the sound of the trill, the third 
individual of the trio starts giving his call which is a B. Thereafter, 
the three continue to call, each giving its respective note in the 
order indicated, A, G +, B, for an indefinite number of times. 

The trill mentioned above is apparently given only as an appeal 
to another individual to start calling since when a frog that is 
sounding the A note comes to a pause and gives his trill, if a second 


60 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


individual does not answer him, he repeats the performance over 
and over until he does have a reply. Furthermore, when two indi- 
viduals (A and G ¢) are calling, and one of them gives the trill, 
if the call from the third is not soon férthcoming, they repeat their 
duet ending with a rest and a trill until the third individual takes 
part to form the trio. Once the trio is established the trill is no longer 
given. 

The notes sounded by the individual frogs seem to be fairly 
constant. The most variation has been heard when a single frog 
begins calling the note of A. In this case the note may drop as 
much as a quarter tone and thus approach G ¢, but it is neverthe- 
less best illustrated musically by the note A. After the trio has 
developed the note seems to be rather constant at A. 


Apparently it is these trios which give the chorus of the spring 
peeper its characteristic quality. When a small chorus is first start- 
ing, it is easy to ascertain that the frogs invariably sing in threes 
and after a little practice it is possible to recognize that even a 
large chorus is composed simply of a number of trios. Occasionally 
the individual trios sing more or less in unison and this, I believe, 
is what has been referred to in the literature as the rhythm some- 
times discernible in a chorus of the spring peeper. 

I have not been able to determine whether or not there is any 
correlation between the development of the individual trios of a 
chorus. On some occasions I have heard one trio completely estab- 
lished before another starts and I have likewise heard two trios 
starting off at about the same time in neighboring portions of the 
pond. When there are just a few frogs calling I have seen indi- 
viduals as much as fifteen feet apart enter into the same trio. I 
presume that any frog is capable of taking any part in the trio but 
I have not yet been able to demonstrate this point. 

When an aggregation of frogs resumes full chorus after having 
been interrupted the procedure outlined above is much shortened. 
Here again it is the A of each trio which is sounded first but often 
the G ¢ and B are heard by the time the A has been repeated just 
a few times. In such cases the trill is of course omitted. 

A frog singing the note A can be heard quite distinctly in part I 
of Voices of the Night (Albert R. Brand Bird Song Foundation at 
Cornell University. Comstock Publishing Co., 1948). In this case 
apparently the recording did not continue long enough to include 


THE PEEP ORDER IN PEEPERS 61 
the trill which usually follows. It is of interest that the notes of the 


northern race, H. c. crucifer, as recorded in this album, seem to be 
identical with those of the southern subspecies. 


Sl a ae | 
eae AS A a 
Se Se ae [Se Ra ew Se, Se ae 


The score indicates the origin of an individual trio with the trills 


indicated in the appropriate places. I am indebteded to Mrs. H. 
K. Wallace for the musical interpretation. 


Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 11 (2-3), 1948 (1949). 
Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 11 (2-3), 1948 (1949). 


ra] 


, i 
ON 


Meee EIST OF THE AEGAE OF NORTHERN 


FEORIDAG 


C. S. NIELSEN AND GRACE C. MADSEN 
Florida State University 


The first check list of algae of the northern area of the state of 
Florida listed 102 species (1). The collections for the present report 
were made from July 1, 1948 to December 15, 1948. These speci- 
_ mens are in the cryptogamic herbaria of the Florida State University 
and the Chicago Natural History Museum. 


The following stations with exact locations are only briefly desig- 
nated in the check list: 


I, 


2. 


6. 


7. 


Club Spring is one-half mile north of Phillips picnic grounds at 
Newport, Wakulla County. 

The following stations are located in Saint Marks Wildlife Refuge, 
Wakulla County: (a) Salt Marsh near lighthouse; (b) Spillway Dam 
at Phillips Pool, and (c) Mounds Pool. 

The Saint Marks River at Little Natural Bridge, one-half mile west 
of Natural Bridge. 

The Woodville area, Leon County (a) Woodville Swamp, one mile 
north of Woodville on Highway U. S. 819 and (b) Natural Well, a 
limestone cave, one mile northeast of Woodville. 

Six Mile Pond, Apalachicola National Forest on U. S. Highway 319, 
Leon County. 

Heart Leaf Pond, Highway Florida 10, 16 miles northwest of Talla- 
hassee, Leon County. 

Florida Caverns State Park at Marianna, Jackson County. 


Grateful acknowledgment is made to Dr. Francis Drouet, of the 
Chicago Natural History Museum, for the determinations of all spe- 
cies listed, and for his helpful suggestions and criticisms. 


CHROOCOCCACEAE 


Coccochloris stagnina {. rupestris (Lynbg.) Dr. & Daily 
Natural Well, (590). 


STIGONEMATACEAE 


Stigonema hormoides Born & Flah. 
Judge Andru’s Magnolia Forest at Lake Iamonia, (887). 


1C. S. Nielsen and Grace C. Madsden, Preliminary Check List of the Algae 
of the Tallahassee Area, Quarterly Journal of the Florida Academy of Sciences, 


1949. 


64 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


NOSTOCACEAE 
Anabaena sphaerica Born. & Flah. 

Little Natural Bridge, (554). 
Nostoc ellipsosporum Born. & Flah. 

Natural Bridge, (577). 


SCYTONEMATACEAE 
Scytonema figuratum Born. & Flah. 
Natural Well, (590). 
Scytonema guyanense Born. & Flah. 
Natural Well, (588); Florida Caverns State Park, (327,328); 
Apalachicola River flood plain at Bristol, (480). 
Tolypothrix lanata Born. & Flah. 
Six Mile Pond, (604, 607, 609); Crane Lake, (629). 


OSCILLATORICEAE 
Lyngbya contorta Lemm. 
Lake Eagle, Winter Haven, (154). 
Microcoleus vaginatus Gom. 
Oven’s Woods, Magnolia Hts., Tallahassee, (417). 
Oscillatoria amphibia Gom. 
Clearwater, Old Tidwell Place, (463). 
Oscillatoria proboscidea Gom. 
Apalachicola River flood plain at Bristol, (431). 
Bellair, (466). 
Oscillatoria tenuis var. natans Gom. 
Highway Florida 71, two miles south of Marianna, (338- 341); Apalachi- 
cola River at Ciateaipeckes: (281); Ochlockonee River-Lake Iamonia 
- Channel on Meridian Road, (366); Apalachicola River flood plain at 
Bristol, (438). | 
Phormidium autumnale Gom. 
Highway U. S. 90, Wayside Park, Marianna, (310); Highway Florida 71, 
five miles south of Marianna, (345); Experiment Station Greenhouse, 
Lake Alfred, (452). 
Plectonema terebrans Gom. 
Natural Bridge, (574, 575). 
Porphyrosiphon Notarisii Gom. 
Apalachicola River flood plain. at Bristol (433). Apalachicola River at 
Chattahoochee, (293). 
Schizothrix Friesii Gom. 
Highway Florida 81, five miles north of Red Bay, (448). 
Schizothrix purpurascens Gom. 
Highway U. S. 90, Chipley, (444). 


VOLVOCACEAE 
Eudorina sp. 
Wakulla Road at Woodville Swamp, (90). 


CHECK LIST OF THE ALGAE 65 


ULOTRICHACEAE 


Stichococcus flaccidus (Kutz.) Gay 
Highway U. S. 90, ten miles west of Sneads, (296). 


CHAETOPHORACEAE 
Pseudendoclonium submarinum Wille 
Club Spring, (215). 
TRENTEPOHLIACEAE 


Trentepohlia aurea (L.) Martius 
Judge Andru’s magnolia forest at Lake Iamonia, (392); Florida Caverns 
State Park, Marianna, (329, 333); Natural Well, (591). 


CLADOPHORACEAE 


Rhizoclonium riparium (Roth) Harv. 
Clearwater, Old Tidwell Place, (462). 


ULVACEAE 
Ulva Lactuca L. 
St. Petersburg, (265). 
HYDRODICTY ACEAE 
Pediastrum tetras (Ehrenb.) Ralfs. 
Mounds Pool, (488). 
OOCYSTACEAE 


Dictyosphaerium pulchellum Wood. 

Lake Eagle, Winter Haven, (153). 
Tetraedron minimum (A.Br.) Hansg. 

Mounds Pool, (489). 
VAUCHERIACEAE 


Vaucheria sessilis (Vauch.) DC. | 
Florida Caverns State Park, Marianna, (325). 
MESOTAENIACEAE 
Mesotaenium macrococcum (Kutz.) Roy 
Little Natural Bridge, (550). 
Spirotaenia sp. 
Ochlockonee River-Lake Iamonia Channel, Meridian Road, (643). 


DESMIDIACEAE 

Closterium sp. 
Lake Bradford Road, (61); Meridian Road, sixteen miles north of Talla- 
hassee, (859). 

Cosmarium sp. 
Old Quincy Highway, six miles west of Tallahassee, (98); Six Mile Pond, 
(608). 

Desmidium Aptogonium Breb. 
Highway U. S. 90, seven miles east of Marianna, (299, 301-303); High- 
way U. S. 90, ten miles west of Sneads, (297, 298). 


66 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Gymnozyga moniliformis Ehrenb. 

Highway U. S. 90, five miles west of Sneads, (295). 
Micrasterias sp. 

Spillway Dam, (120). 5 
Staurastrum sp. 

Old Quincy Highway, six miles west of Tallahassee, (97). 
Tetmemorus sp. | 

Highway U. S. 90, seven miles east of Marianna,‘ (807). 
Triploceras gracile Bailey 

Thomasville Hunting Club, Lake Iamonia, (404).. 


OPHIOCYTIACEAE 
Ophiocytium sp. 
Pond on Meridian Road, five miles north of Tallahassee, (5). 


. TRIBONEMATACEAE 
Tribonema minus (Wille) Hay. 
Little Natural Bridge, (553). 


BOTRYDIACEAE 
Botrydium granulatum (L.) Grev. 
Apalachicola River at Chattahoochee, (276). 


EUGLENACEAE 
Euglena sp. 
Heart Leaf Pond, (208, 209); Judge Andru’s at Lake Iamonia, (401); 
Natural Bridge, (580). 
Trachelomonas sp. 
Wakulla Road at Woodville steer, (90). 


ERYTHROTRICHIACEAE 


Compsopogon coeruleus (Balbis) Mont. 
Natural Bridge, (571). 


SPHAEROCOCCACEAE 
Gracilaria confervoides (L.) Grev. 
Salt marsh, St. Marks Wildlife Refuge, (52). 
Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 11 (2-3), 1948 (1949). 


NEWS AND COMMENTS 


With this issue the editors of the past two and one-half years fold 
their tents and depart. We are very sorry that we have not pleased 
everyone, nor published every paper submitted for publication. 
Some of this failure has been our fault; some of it has been due 
to lack of funds. The Florida Academy needs more members to 
give the Journal a larger operating budget. Dr. E. Ruffin Jones, re- 
cently appointed chairman of the membership drive committee, of 
the Biology Department, University of Florida, would appreciate 
your cooperation in this regard. If you have any prospects for new 
members send in their names. 

We wou!d like to introduce your new Editor, Dr. Howard Keefer 
Wallace, who is usually addressed as “H. K.” Dr. Wallace has 
taken an interest in the activities of the Academy for many years, 
and we are sure that you will find in him an outstanding editor. 
We know from personal experience that he combines those quali- 
ties of scholarship, attention to detail, and perseverance which 
should make his editorship highly successful. 

Dr. Irving J. Cantrall, who recently resigned as Assistant Editor 
of the Journal will leave Gainesville July 1 for Ann Arbor, Michigan, 
where he will assume the position of Assistant Professor of Zoology 
and Curator of the E. S. George Reserve of the University of 
Michigan. Dr. Frank N. Young, Jr., who terminates with this issue 
his editorship of the Journal, will leave about September 1 for 
Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, where he will be As- 
sistant Professor of Zoology. 


RESEARCH NOTES 


EXTENSION OF THE RANGE OF THE SHEEPSHEAD KILLIFISH, 
CYPRINODON HUBBSI CARR—The small cyprinodont minnow, Cyprinodon 
hubbsi, was described by Dr. A. F. Carr, 1936 (Copeia, 3:160-163) from 
specimens collected in Lake Eustis, Lake County, Florida. In the same paper 
(p. 160) Dr. Carr states, “Although extensive seining has been done in 
similar situations in several neighboring lakes, including Lake Harris, C. hubbsi 
has not been taken outside of Lake Eustis.” 

I observed this form in Lake Weir, Marion County, Florida, in April, 1946, 
although none was collected at that time. In September, 1946, I returned to 
Lake Weir and collected and preserved many specimens. 


68 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Lake Weir is located approximately eighteen miles northwest of Lake Eustis. 
It is connected with the Oklawaha River by a recently constructed drainage 
canal three miles long. The Oklawaha River drains Lake Eustis and joins 
the St. Johns River. The canal contains spillways which probably prevent the 
movement of fishes between the river and Lake Weir. 


The situation in which C. hubbsi was collected is about fifty yards southeast 
of the recreation pier at Barnes’ Beach, Oklawaha, Florida. Ecologically, this 
locality seems to be quite similar to Lake Eustis in that moderate wave action 
has retarded an extensive growth of vegetation and has created a long, gently 
sloping beach zone. A few cypress stumps and sparse growths of maiden cane, 
Panicum hemitomum, comprise the conspicuous plant forms. Associated fishes 
consist mainly of Fundulus seminolis Girard, Lepomis macrochirus purpurescens 
Cope, Menidia beryllina atrimentis Kendall, and young Micropterus salmoides 
floridanus (LeSueur ). 

in Lake Weir, C. hubbsi is usually found at the very edge of the water 
where it washes onto the beach. Upon being disturbed, the fish scatter and 
scurry to deeper water where their light sandy dorsal coloration causes them to 
be practically indiscernable. 

The presence of C. hubbsi and Menidia beryllina atrimentis in Lake Weir 
would seem to attest to the thesis that this lake, like Lake Eustis, is a remnant 
depression from an ancient sea floor, since both the aforementioned species 
have close affinities with marine forms Carr, 1936 (Proc. Fla. Acad. Sci., 1:78). 
—GEORGE kK. REID, JR., Department of Biology, University of Florida. 


Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 11 (2-3), 1948 (1949). 


INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS 


FLormwA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


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aay 


FEB 1 4 1950 


Ne y a 
LLONALPRUSEUS 


Ts cc RR mgm ae 


Ouarterly Journal 


of the 


Florida Academy 
of Sciences 


Vol. lil December 1948 (1949) No. 4 
Contents 
SEPMEIER—l1Axrs ARE Everysopy’s BUSINESS...............00- 69 
eeeee CE LIGHT OF KOREA : . .. | 6 cee dee scce eased ne weas D 


Kurz AND CrowsoN—THE Flowers or WOLFFIELLA FLORIDANA 
PRI LTIOMPSON 0.) oh wos Saisie Ge Se wc sce eee 87 


HERALD AND STRICKLAND—AN ANNOTATED LisT OF THE FISHES 
BEMENSMOSASSA OPRINGS, PLORIDA.....+.0000000eseeecs0ee8 99 


NIELSEN AND MapsEN—PRELIMINARY CuHeEckK List oF THE ALGAE 
SoM WRMETATRASSEE, AREA5 5. 6c iacces oderecQ vetesiedecean 111 


HiIGGINBOTHAM AND MryYER—DETERMINATION OF THE PHYSICAL 
ConbDiITION oF Fiso. I. Some BLoop ANALYSES OF THE SOUTH- 
ERN CHANNEL CATFISH..... {Sct Ait Rae oe Ream ARM LR a 119 


Epwarps—AN ABANDONED V ALLEY NEAR Hicu Sprinocs, Froripa 125 


ir merericey CEG NER TER EES oe ok oo os SS lo le os Sila w lo date eek 133 


Vor, 11 DECEMBER 1948 (1949) No. 4 


QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF 
THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research 


Published by the F lorida Academy of Sciences 
Printed by the Rose Printing Company, Tallahassee, Florida 


Communications for the editor and all manuscripts should be addressed. to H. K. 
Wallace, Editor, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, 
Florida. Business communications should be addressed to Chester S. Nielsen, 
Secretary-Treasurer, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida. All ex- 
changes and communications regarding exchanges should be sent to the Florida 


Academy of Sciences, Exchange Library, Department of Biology, University 
of Florida, Gainesville. 


Subscription price, Three Dollars a year 


Mailed January 31, 1950 


Bre: QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE 
FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Vou. 11 DECEMBER 1948 (1949) No. 4 


TAXES ARE EVERYBODY'S BUSINESS 


Kurt A. SEPMEIER 
Florida State University 


Each year taxes are cutting into our ability to satisfy our increas- 
ing wants for more and better things for the American home. Who 
would not rather spend some of his tax money for payments on a 
new home, a new car, or a television set? But there appears the 
tax collector whose claims must be satisfied. 

Each year the head of the family is laboring diligently over the 
final draft of his income tax report to make sure that he will not 
pay one cent more than he is legally required to pay. Everybody 
would rather pay less and let the other fellow pay more. In 1948, 
when the law permitted a person to deduct, without specification, 
five hundred dollars from income for charitable purposes, he de- 
ducted five hundred dollars. But how many have actually contrib- 
uted that amount to charity? The president of the Goiden Rule 
Foundation of New York City reported recently that, while the 
nation had its highest income in 1948, it gave less to charity than 
ever before in its history. In 1948, only one per cent of the nation’s 
income went to charity. Even in the worst years of the depression, 
charity received about five per cent. 

This attitude is understandable. It is human nature to designate 
charity as some one else’s business. Taxes, however, are everybody's 
business. The number of our various taxes is staggering indeed. 
But not everybody pays an income tax. Aside from those who are 
legally exempt, there are the tax dodgers. Tax dodging has de- 
veloped into a game of vast proportions. It costs the Government 
approximately one billion dollars a year. According to reports from 
Washington, the House Appropriations Committee voted to add 
several thousand investigators in the Internal Revenue Bureau dur- 


FEB6 1950 


70 TOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


ing the Government's 1950 fiscal year. Officials of the Treasury 
have indicated that, so far, five billion dollars in evaded taxes are 
outstanding. If that is correct, the question might be raised whether 
the President's request for additional revenue for the expanding 
needs of our Government could not be shelved by our legislators, 
provided that we could collect what is owed already, and if tax 
dodging could be reduced or outlawed as the anti-democratic act 
that it is. 

Taxes are high. But so are our objectives for which taxes have 
to be raised. If taxes are everybody's business, our objectives should 
be everybody's business. One reason why individuals ponder over 
high taxes might be that not enough people are sufficiently ac- 
quainted with our national objectives. These require daily observa- 
tion and study. They are very involved and interdependent. Usually, 
they are not found in our comic magazines, or in Esquire, the 
Woman's Home Companion, Life, Look, or Seventeen. All such 
magazines have and deserve their markets. They delight us with 
stories and pictures. For the consumer of these magazines every 
day has its curves. But there are more angular things called charts 
which acquaint us with economic and social trends and objectives. 
They can be found mainly in business magazines, business journals, 
metropolitan papers and economic reviews. Some of them make 
dull reading. But they are important. Their study might make our 
occupation with tax problems less onerous, because they do help 
us to better understand our objectives and, as a result, our obliga- 
tions as taxpayers. 

The study of our objectives is fundamental. Most of us would 
rather skate along on the thin ice of our civilization without bother- 
ing with fundamentals. 

Let us consider briefly the broader implications of our objectives 
and money. Taxes are figured in dollars and cents, but they are 
not merely matters of dollars and cents. Tax expenditures are closely 
interwoven in our whole fabric of ideals and values that express 
our way of life. It may be startling to realize that nearly three- 
fourths of the Federal budget, or approximately 32 billion dollars 
—76 cents out of every revenue dollar—are required for costs of 
past wars and for the preparation of wars to come, while only 
some 10 billions are earmarked for all the other purposes of gov- 
ernment. In our society, government has grown into the biggest 


TAXES ARE EVERYBODY’S BUSINESS 


~) 


— 


business of our economy. Most government officials did not want 
it that way, but we have voted it that way. Government workers 
appointed to their tasks on the basis of impartial Civil Service 
examinations want to do their job as efficiently as possible. Dis- 
honesty and feather bedding are the exception rather than the rule. 
Honest workers everywhere are personally interested in the elimina- 
tion of waste and inefficiency. But the government worker starts 
his work with one strike against him. Too often he is called a bureau- 
crat regardless of what he may try to accomplish. Actually, a certain 
amount of bureaucracy is a part of every big business organization. 

Today, government operations are big because most of us want 
‘amore and better services from Government. If the majority of our 
people wants what has become known as the “Welfare State,” if 
most of us want more aid to agriculture, more social security, more 
old-age pensions, more and better education, more aid to less for- 
tunate people here as well as abroad, then we must understand 
that such combined objectives will require many public servants 
and money, more money. 

Now, an individual can easily see his own interest or that of his 
particular group and fight for it; but how many dare or are able 
to look understandingly at the complexity of our interdependence? 
How many of us really grasp the long range implications of our 
interdependent objectives? Most of us like to talk about our sus- 
taining and expanding economy, our dynamic society, our going 
forward together; but too often we mean only individual progress, 
individual success, in terms of higher personal income and lower 
operating costs. Some are wondering whether, in the forthcoming 
tax program, the middle income should start at $6,000 per year 
so that all those earning more should be asked to pay more for 
aiding the new p2ace-time spending program of our Government. 
President Roosevelt is remembered by his remark that, in his 
opinion, a twenty-five thousand dollar income .a year was enough 
for any man, thus implying that anything above that amount could 
be subjected to stiffer taxation. But does all this really matter? Is 
not all this somewhat beside the point? Again we are haggling 
about figures and money, very likely some one else’s money, with- 
out evaluating the objective for which tax money has to be raised. 
These objectives are broader than figures and money can express. 
They have become world-wide and are far fetched. Whether we 
care to admit it or not, we have made commitments for their realiza- 


72 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


tion in the past. Basically, they involve the preservation of peace 
and the continuity of all operations of our economy. 

Our individual security depends on the uninterrupted flow of 
goods and services on the basis of an expanding economy of mass 
production and mass consumption. Peace is essential because it 
means progress for each one of us. History tells us that progress is 
rapid wherever property is reasonably secure, government re- 
sponsible and stable, customs and manners sufficiently flexible to 
adjust to changing local or regional conditions. The realization of 
peace is expensive. But war, disruption, waste are more costly. Labor 
strife at home is wasteful and expensive. Modern war on a world- 
wide scale spells catastrophe for all. Is every one aware of this 
every day? It seems doubtful. The understanding of our national 
objective requires a much better public relations job on the part 
of our policy makers, and far more general education on the part 
of the public than we have achieved thus far. 

A better understanding is important because it will convince 
more people of their obligations, while they share the privileges of 
our-progressive society. Many have contributed and are contributing 
today to the preservation and expansion of our mixed-free enter- 
prise economy which is here to stay. However, individual initiative 
is often not enough to make our system work more effectively. It 
will take more and better cooperation, more peaceful settlements 
of our various grievances, a willingness to cooperate more fully 
with all those whom we have elected to represent us and our 
objectives in Government. 


Another reason why we, as individuals, fret a lot about the high 
cost of government is that we do know more about our individual 
business operations than we know about our economic interdepend- 
ence. We are more concerned with individual operating costs, with 
the high prices of the things we buy, the unsatisfactory prices of the 
things we sell, than with the relations of the services we want of 
government and the costs involved. The fact is that most of us 
know more about matters of business administration than about 
economics. Business administration deals with the multitude of 
methods and operating procedures so dear to us in the operations - 
of our own individual business. On the other hand, economics is 
more involved, less clear in its effects upon individual interests, 
harder to grasp in its overall ramifications and in its long-range 
consequences. Fundamentally, our national objectives are matters 


TAXES ARE EVERYBODY'S BUSINESS 78 


of economics rather than business administration. The knowledge 
of even the most progressive operating methods of individual busi- 
ness enterprise is no guarantee of a successful solution of highly 
interdependent economic problems. 

It is not generally realized that the study of economics is a time 
consuming process. Slow progress is to be expected, for the com- 
plications are many. Too often individual interests are clouding 
the overall picture. Thinking in terms of economics requires from 
each individual, patience to grow up slowly with the whole thinking 
pattern. 

Training in economics implies the assembling and study of many 
facts, an analysis of their cause and effect relationships under vari- 
cus conditions, and the evaluation of many factors which must be 
brought into the analysis from fields other than economics because 
they are important. Actually, the study of our modern interde- 
pendent economic problems requires longer individual training, 
more patience, a greater maturity of judgment and objectivity than 
many are willing to permit themselves. 

Our schools offer various training opportunities in the fields of 
economics and business administration. Many take courses in funda- 
mentals in both fields. But too many who begin with a consideration 
ot fundamentals in economics are attracted, too often and too early, 
by business administration subjects, because they seem to offer a 
better guarantee for individual business success than more training 
in economics. Too many tend to lose sight of the real significance 
of economics, sociology, and government in their training for ef- 
fective citizenship. No wonder that a lack of sufficient understand- 
ing of the interdependence of economics, sociology, and government 
is at the bottom of a lack to grasp the interdependence and the 
long-range implications of our national! objectives. If that be true, 
we could benefit from a better balanced training program which 
would lead to a better comprehension of our objectives and our 
obligations. The study of economics would broaden our under- 
standing, not of the short-run but of the long-run effects of eco- 
nomic and social forces in our home community, our nation, and 
in the community of nations. A better understanding of economics 
may not make us happier about prospects of paying high taxes for 
a long time to come. But it may offer reasonable explanations why 
high taxes are our lot. A better understanding of our objectives will 
help us to consider more intelligently whether our objectives should 


74 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


remain what they are today. If our objectives are everybody's 
business, it wouid seem that a more patient and more thorough 
study of economics is everybody's business. It might help us to 
decide whether we shculd continue to vote for high taxes in the 
future in support of existing objectives, or whether we should cast 
our vote in favor of a change in objectives which might mean lower 
taxes, but also less service to be expected on the part of- our 
Government. 


Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci, 11(4) 1948(1949) 


THE PLIGHT OF KOREA? 


ANNIE M. POPPER 
Florida State University 


Korea is a peninsula approximately 100 to 150 miles wide and 
400 miles long. It extends southward from Manchuria into the Sea 
uf Japan. Writers have often referred to Korea as a dagger hanging 
over Japan. Korea's natural resources and strategic position have 
roused the covetousness of Greater Powers again and again. No 
wonder that China, since the early days of our Christian era, per- 
haps even longer, has tried to extend her rule over Korea, not 
without at least partial success. Similarly, we hear of early attempts 
of japan to get control of Korea or at least of part of it. 

From the thirteenth century to the Sino-Japanese War of 1894, 
Korea was claimed by China as her vassal state though at times 
Korea paid tribute also to Japan. 

After Korea’s narrow escape from becoming Japan's vassal in 
the sixteenth century, in the days of the famous Japanese military 
hero Hideyoshi, Korea closed her ports to all foreign intercourse, 
except with her Chinese (Manchu) suzerain. It was not until 1876 
that Japanese military threats and Chinese diplomatic pressure 
moved Korea to abandon her policy of seclusion. 

Almost from the start the leading Powers, both oriental and occi- 
dental, rivaled in asserting their respective interests in Korea with- 
out regard to those of the natives themselves. The detrimental re- 
sults of the international play of power politics were aggravated 
by the fact that, as in ancient Athens and Sparta, domestic factions 
would ally themselves now with ene power, then with the other, 
thus enabling the enemies of their country to weaken its resistance 
by playing one faction against another. 

Renewed Sino-Japanese competition in Korea became evident in 
the 1870’s. The Chinese government, anxious to escape international 
responsibilities, allowed some of her claimed dependencies, includ- 
ing Korea, at times to slip from under her control and then began 
maneuvering to reverse the situation. In 1873, the Chinese minister 
told the Japanese envoy, who inquired about the political status of 


1 Russian sources on the Korean question are still rather scarce and 
were not available to the author of this paper. 


76 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Korea, that she was China’s vassal but had a free hand to make 
war or peace. Japan took advantage of this rather strange assertion 
and inserted the following statement in her first commercial treaty 
with Korea, 1876: “Korea, being an independent state, enjoys the 
same sovereign rights as Japan.” Strange to say, no protest was 
raised by China at the time, but in 1889, we find her assisting in 
the negotiations for an American-Korean commercial treaty. Why? 
In order “to kill poison with poison” and with the vain hope of 
obtaining the inclusion of a clause recognizing China’s suzerainty 
over Korea. 

The Sino-Japanese contest for Korea went on for decades. It 
caused several crises, notably the ones of 1882 and 1884-85, and 
finally led to the Sino-Japanese War of 1896, ending with Japan’s 
victory, the importance of the results of which can hardly be 
overrated. 

Korea was declared independent but again found herself the 
victim of power politics. Great Britain, Russia, the United States, 
and others entered the stage. In 1904 a new crisis reached its 
climax with the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War, at the eve 
of which President Theodore Roosevelt practically told Japan that 
he would not object to a Japanese protectorate over Korea. He 
supported this statement indirectly by warning Germany and France 
against steps to check Japan as they had taken in 1895. Under 
these circumstances, and with the Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902 
in her pocket, Japan could well afford to take definite measures 
towards the establishment of a protectorate even before her final 
victory. Symptoms of Korean aspirations towards independence 
only hastened her annexation by Japan in 1910. 

There followed nearly thirty-five years of Japan’s rule over Korea. 
It would, of course, be an exaggeration to say that everything the 
Japanese did was harmful to the Koreans, but they suffered greatly 
under a regime that suppressed their national aspirations and was 
calculated to benefit economically the foreign ruler almost 
exclusively. 

So far we have been concerned with Korea’s plight in the past. 
Let us now turn to her fate during World War II and since. The 
unfortunate conditions today in Korea, as well as in some other 
parts of the world, are due greatly to the elasticity permitted in the 
formulation and hence in the interpretation of commitments made 
among the powers under the pressure of events during the war 


THE PLIGHT OF KOREA Far 


against Hitler and later. The following declaration regarding Korea 
made by the United States, Great Britain, and China at the Cairo 
Conference, December 1, 1943, bears out my point: “in due course 
Korea shall become free and independent.” What does “in due 
course’ mean? 

About a year and a half later, July 26, 1945, this pledge was con- 
firmed by the so-called Potsdam Declaration and acceded to by 
Russia when she joined the struggle against Japan in conformity 
to the rather unfortunate Yalta Agreement of February of the same 
year.” 

A military decision made in the fall of 1945 designated Russia 
and the United States to receive the surrender of Japan in Korea 
north and south respectively of the thirty-eighth parallel. The 
American Assistant Secretary of State, John A. Hilldring, has re- 
ferred to this agreement as having been “in no sense more than a 
military expedient between two friendly powers.”? But Russia has 
interpreted it as authorizing her to make the thirty-eighth parallel 
an insurmountabie wall betweeen a Russian and an American zone 
of occupation, and she has acted upon that assumption from the 
start. 

Russia had the advantage of being close at hand when Japan's 
resistance collapsed in August 1945. The Japanese regime was 
liquidated in its entirety and Korean committees of law and order 
were permitted to remain part of the new puppet Korean govern- 
ment established in accordance with the Russian patterns as “The 
Executive Committee of the Korean People’—two weeks before the 
American troops had even landed! 

In the meantime, in the southern zone, patriots proclaimed a 
“Korean People’s Republic,” and a so-called National Congress of 
representatives from local committees chose the Korean leader 
Lynh Woon Hyung as its head. But when the American forces 
finally arrived the Korean People’s Republic was declared to be 
“in no sense a government. The Military Government is the only 
government in the South.” What the Korean people understood 
least and resented most was that their “liberators” allowed the 
Japanese administration to continue to function for several months 


2 The Yalta Agreement was the high price paid by the Allies for Russia’s 
promise to join eventually the fight against Japan. It amounted to a be- » 
trayal of their Chinese ally and has started already to bear its bitter fruits. 

3 Department of State Bulletin, March 28, 1947, p. 545. 


78 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


before the American Military Government displaced it entirely. 
We are perhaps not far from the right track if we seek a clue to 
these initial tactics in a regrettable lack of preparedness as to 
suitable personnel and definite policies for the solution of difficult 
problems that had to be found at a much earlier date than had been 
anticipated. : 

However, plans that were soon formulated for the American oc- 
cupation called explicitly for practical training of Koreans in ad- 
ministrative responsibilities. One of the results of this directive was 
the establishment in June 1946 of a Korean Interim Legislative 
Assembly (KILA), which did not meet until December 1946. Forty- 
five of the ninety members were elected (indirectly) and repre- 
sented all provinces of South Korea, while the other forty-five were 
appointed by the Commanding General. His choices, allegedly a 
“fair cross-section of Korean political thought in the best repre- 
sentative democratic tradition,’ gave rise to much dissatisfaction 
and apparently justified public criticism. 

The Kila existed about a year and a half. During this time it was 
given such tasks as passing on appropriate measures of taxation, 
collecting grain, and elections of anew assembly, of course, subject 
to approval by the Military Government. Because of its obvious 
incompetence and failure of being truly representative in its mem- 
bership, the Kila enjoyed little public prestige. It might be well 
to add here that while in theory operation of all government de- 
partments had been passed on to the Koreans themselves* by 
February 1947, actually their respective American advisors were 
not restricted to purely advisory functions but retained a consider- 
able amount of control in certain key positions. Thus, for all prac- 
tical purposes, the Interim Government in South Korea too was 
not much more than a puppet one. 

If the fulfillment of the promise by the Powers of freedom and 
independence to Korea was not to be postponed to a remote future, 
cooperation between the American and Russian commands, at least 
in other than strictly military affairs, seemed imperative. The iron 
wall which Russia had established at the thirty-eighth parallel soon 
began to show disastrous results, most keenly felt in the economic 
field at the early part of the period under consideration. The thirty- 

4 This transaction was started by instructions of General Hodge to the 


Military Governor, August 8, 1946. Foreign Policy Reports, October 15, 
1947, XXIII, 189. 


THE PLIGHT OF KOREA 79 


eighth parallel separates two-thirds of the total population of 
30,000,000 in the South from their brethren in the North. Eco- 
nomically the South is predominantly agricultural, the North pri- 
marily industrial. The South does have numerous small scale 
industries, but even for these it is dependent on the North, not 
only for raw materials but even for electrical power. Any success 
towards economic rehabilitation seems well nigh impossible so long 
as Korea remains divided; in fact the additional strain upon her 
economic life after nearly forty years of Japanese domination and 
exploitation mignt lead to a catastrophe of far reaching conse- 
quences. 

Since our Department of State, as has been pointed out before, 
never had intended the thirty-eighth parallel to become a barrier 
in any sense of the word, the initiative towards trying to bring about 
cooperation was taken by the American Commander. 

After several vain attempts of persuading the Russian Commander 
to. help restore Korea to a normal life by consenting to a removal 
of the restrictions enforced by him at the thirty-eighth parallel, the 
American Commander requested that the matter be considered by 
higher authorities. 

This led to the Conference of the Foreign Ministers of the United 
States, Great Britain, and Soviet Russia at Moscow, December 27, 
1945, at which decisions were made that have defied complete 
realization to this day. The principal objectives agreed upon were: 
Reestablishment of Korea as an independent state, creation of 
conditions for the development of Korea as an independent state, 
creation of conditions for the development of Korea on democratic 
principles (meaning not defined! ), and earliest possible liquidation 
of the unsatisfactory results of the Japanese domination of Korea. 

To implement these objectives a rather involved machinery was 
devised. Because of the important role it has played in the Korean 
question it is necessary to point out a few of the details: A Provi- 
sional Korean Democratic Government was to be established with 
the help of a Joint Commission to be composed of the United States 
Command of South Korea and the Russian Command of North 
Korea. In working out recommendations, the Joint Commission 
was to consult with the Korean democratic parties and social organ- 
izations. Here we have again one of those ambiguous phrases that 
was to cause endless trouble. Where is the line between democratic 
and undemocratic? Would the interpretation of the meaning of 


80 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


“democratic” by an American necessarily be identical with that by 
a Russian? 

Any recommendations were to be submitted for consideration 
to the four powers concerned (United States, Great Britain, Russia, 
and China ); final decisions, however, were to remain with the two 
governments represented on the Joint Commission. | 

Furthermore, under similar stipulations, a four power trusteeship 
for Korea was to be worked out for a period up to five years to 
promote her economic, political, and social progress and to help 
her develop democratic self-government and independence. 

Finally, a conference of the representatives of the Soviet and 
American commands in Korea. was to be convened within two 
weeks for consideration of urgent problems affecting both zones 
and for the elaboration of measures permitting coordination in ad- 
ministrative and economic matters between the two military 
commands. 

Due to the last stipulation a joint conference was held from 
January 16, to February 5, 1946. Results, however, were very 
disappointing. 

The Joint Commission fared no better. A deadlock was reached 
through the unyielding stand taken by both the Russian delegation 
and the American. The Russians insisted that parties and organiza- 
tions that had voiced disapproval of the Moscow provision for the 
four power trusteeship should not be consulted, even if they should 
be ready to make a written declaration of their willingness “to up- 
hold the aims of tae Moscow decision and to abide by the decisions 
of the Joint Comrnission for the formation of a provisional Korean 
government.” Nor should any party be represented by an individual 
who had opposed the trusteeship. In practice this meant that elec- 
tions would be very much restricted since there were not many 
groups in South Korea who had not voiced disapproval of the 
trusteeship. The United States representative maintained acceptance 
of the Russian standpoint would involve violation of the principle 
of freedom of speech. 

A long correspondence (May °46-February *47) opened by the 
American Commander with the Russian, in the hope of finding a 
common basis for a resumption of conferences of the Joint Com- 
mission, ended without having accomplished its purpose. 

Finally, through the intervention of the American Secretary of 
State, Marshall, and the Soviet Foreign Minister, Molotov, the 


THE PLIGHT OF KOREA 81 


impasse was overcome. As a result the joint meetings were resumed 
in May 1947. But the old controversy over the issue of broad con- 
sultation with Korean political parties and social organizations flared 
up anew. The members of the Joint Russo-American Commission 
could not even reach an agreement on a joint report on the status 
reached in their deliberations so far. 

Under these circumstances the urgently needed fulfillment of the 
Moscow Agreements seemed beyond the realm of possibilities 
through bilateral Russo-American action. On August 26, 1947, there- 
fore, the United States Government, through Mr. Lovett, Acting 
Secretary of State, took the initiative in presenting to Russia and 
the other two powers concerned an outline of proposals designed 
to accomplish the establishment of an independent Korean Gov- 
ernment and to be considered at a conference of the four powers 
concerned in Washington, D. C., beginning September 8, 1947.° 
When this move was approved by Great Britain and China but re- 
jected by Russia, Lovett notified Russia® and the other powers of 
his government’s intention to refer the problem of Korean inde- 
pendence to the General Assembly of the United Nations (Sep- 
tember 17, 1947). 

The very same day (!) Marshall addressed the General Assembly 
of the United Nations, calling its attention to two matters that con- 
cern us here: 

1. The desirability of creating a subsidiary organ of the General 
assembly.* 

2. The motives for his government's intention to refer the prob- 
lem of Korean independence with certain proposals for a possible 
solution of existing difficulties to the consideration of the General 
Assembly. 

The General Assembly referred both items for deliberation to its 
First Committee which adopted two resolutions. These were placed 
before the General Assembly on November 13. Mr. Andrei Gro- 
myko and Mr. John Foster Dulles took the floor and defended 
their mutually conflicting points of view. In spite of the strong 
disapproval on the part of Gromyko and his backers among the 


5U. S. Dept. of State, Korea, 1945-1948, Washington, U. S. Govt. 
Print. Off., 1948, p. 48 ff. 
6 Lovett to Molotov, Sept. 17, 1947. Korea’s Independence, p. 59f. 
7It was from this embryo that the Interim Committee of the General 
. Assembly, also called the “Little Assembly”, was born, Nov. 14, 1947. 


82 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


smaller states, the decisive resolutions adopted by the General As- 
sembly on the following day, were closely patterned, except for a 
few modifications, after the draft resolutions submitted by the 
United States. a , 

Outstanding features of these resolutions (adopted by a vote of 
43 to 0 with six abstentions) were: Absence of provisions for the 
restrictive qualifications for voters, so stubbornly insisted upon by 
Russia for many months. 2. Reasonable assurance of free elections 
of members for a Korean National Assembly designated to organize 
an independent democratic government. 3. Establishment of a Nine- 
United-Nations-Temporary Commission on Korea with consultative 
and supervising functions and- freedom to move all over Korea. 
4, Authorization of this United Nations Temporary Commission on 
Korea® to consult the Interim Committee of the General Assembly 
of the United Nations (if such should have been created), a most 
helpful and foresighted provision. 5. Recommendation of with- 
drawal of the occupation forces at as early a date as practicable 
(if possible after 90 days) upon agreement between the military 
commanders and the independent Korean Government. 

If some optimistic Koreans had expected that the intervention 
of the United Nations would work toward the immediate fulfillment 
of the long standing promise of independence, they were doomed 
to bitter disappointment. The appeal of the General Assembly to 
the nations occupying Korea to do everything in their power to 
facilitate the smooth and effective functioning of the United Nations 
Temporary Commission was entirely disregarded by Russia. Ignor- 
ing likewise pleadings from the UN Temporary Commission on 
Korea itself,2 Russia rendered, what must be termed more than 
passive resistance to the implementation of the resolutions of the 
General Assembly to which she had never given her approval. 
Restrictions, imposed upon communication and transportation ser- 
vices at the thirty-eighth parallel were not lifted, elections under 
the observation of the UN Temporary Commission on Korea were 
prevented in North Korea, and even a call on the Russian Com- 


8 One representative each from Australia, Canada, China, El Salvadore, 
France, India, The Phillipines, Syria, Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. 
The latter's place remained vacant because its representatives, like Gro- 
myko, had not voted on the creation of this Commission and therefore 
refused to serve on it. 


9 Korea 1945 to 1948, page 68 f. 


THE PLIGHT OF KOREA 83 


mander, suggested by the Chairman of the UN Temporary Com- 
mission on Korea, did not receive the slightest encouragement. 

Under these conditions the UN Temporary Commission on Korea 
decided to avail itself of its right, to which I have already drawn 
your attention, to consult the Interim Committee of the General 
Assembly of the United Nations.?° Briefly stated, the Interim Com- 
mittee held that under the terms of the General Assembly Resolu- 
tion IT of November 14, 1947,11 and in the light of developments 

. in the Korean situation since . . . it was incumbent upon the 
UN Temporary Commission on Korea to implement the original 
adopted program .. . “in such parts of Korea as are accessible to 
the Commission.” 

Consequently ithe United Nations Temporary Commission an- 
nounced that it would observe elections in all parts of Korea ac- 
cessible to it, not later than May 10, on the basis of adult suffrage 
and by secret ballot in “the free atmosphere wherein democratic 
rights of freedom of speech, press, and assembly would be recog- 
nized and respected.” 

A more formal announcement of the pending observation of 
elections was later made by the Commanding General of the 
American zone. 

When elections were held, May 10, it was reported that only in 
two or three districts in the South, on the island of Cheju-Do, were 
they disturbed by Communists to such a degree that they were not 
considered valid. The UN Temporary Commission on Korea went 
on record (June 25) that the results of the ballot of May, 1948, 
were a valid expression of the free will of the electorate in those 
parts of Korea which were accessible to the Commission and where 
the inhabitants constitute approximately two-thirds of the entire 
population of Korea.1? Thus the way was cleared for a Korean 
National Assembly which met on May 381, 1948. The members 
pledged themselves to establish a National Government, to prepare 
a Constitution,!* and to unite South and North Korea. 

The first two pledges have been carried out since. Mr. Syngman 
Rhee, an ardent champion of Korean independence of long stand- 


10 Ibid, p. 71. — 

11 Korea, 1945-1948, pp. 66-67. 

12 Tbid. p. 78. 

13 Constitution of the Democratic Republic of Korea, enacted July 12, 
1948: Ibid., pp. 78-95. 


84 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


ing, became chairman of the National Assembly and later first 
President of the Republic of Korea (July 24, 1948). A Constitution 
of the Democratic Republic of Korea was enacted July 12, 1948.14 
But how long will it take for the fulfillment of the recent vows of 
the members of the National Assembly and the first Congress of 
Korea to create a united, independent, democratic republic? Po- 
litically, socially, and economically Korea is in a rather desperate 
plight. Though some steps to mitigate the sufferings of the pop- 
ulation were taken by the occupying powers,. according to Soviet 
pattern in the North and along capitalistic lines in the South, those 
measures were but a drop in the ocean, they have not solved Korea’s 
fundamental problems. , 

Largely as a result of the military occupation Korea is being torn 
between opposite poles: American and Russian influences, capital- 
ism and communism, right parties and left parties, and rival claims 
by the Seoul and Pyongyong governments of representing the whole 
of the country.?° 

In the meantime (i.e. since this report was given orally), both 
occupation powers have “officially” withdrawn their troops’® with 
consequences that had been feared in many quarters; growing 
helplessness of the “National” Korean government which is faced 
with the increasing aggressiveness of Communists from both sides 
of the thirty-eighth parallel. The situation is threatening to develop 
into a civil war chiefly between Communists and anti-Communists, 
each faction being supported, in one way or another, by its Western 
patrons. 

Only quick economic recovery, if anything, can save the new 
Republic in her struggle for survival. Since, for obvious reasons, 
we are much interested in the future of Korea, President Truman 
recently asked Congress for $150,000,000 as an extension of our 
aid for Korea’s economic reconstruction. Acting Secretary of State, 
James E. Webb, told the House Committee on Foreign Affairs that 
three years of such aid might make Korea self-sufficient. Even if 
we assume that this extremely optimistic estimate will be realized, 


14 Korea, 1945-1948, pp. 78-95. 

15 Seoul is the capital of the government of the Republic of Korea cre- 
ated under the supervision of the United Nations Commission. Pyongyong 
is the capital of the People’s Republic of Korea, sponsored by Russia. 


16 Both Russia and the United States have left military advisors and 
equipment behind. 


THE PLIGHT OF KOREA 85 


is Korea likely to become a real bulwark of peace in the Far East? 
This is the avowed objective of both Russia and the United States 
according to the following statements by the Russian General 
Shlikow and the American Assistant Secretary of State, Hilldring, 
respectively: 

The Soviet Union has a keen interest in Korea being a true democratic and 
independent country, friendly to the Soviet Union, so that in the future it 
will not become a base for an attack on the Soviet Union.17 

Today a weak Korea, unable to sustain its own independence, would be 
fertile ground for some new disturbance by openly inviting rivalry for her 
control and later domination by some strong outside power. If we are io 
_ prevent Korea’s becoming a danger spot again, a cause of war and an aid to 
aggression, we must make certain the establishment of a free, democratic, and 
sovereign country which will become an active factor in maintaining stability 
in the Orient.18 


Will Korea, as a small nation not be apt to pass under a more 
or less veiled protectorate of one greater power or another? Why 
has the Korean question defied solution so long? Mainly because 
of the strained relationship between Russia and the United States 
in other regions of the globe: Berlin, Eastern Europe, the Near East, 
etc. in other words, at the bottom, the Korean question is part and 
parcel of the larger issues that divide the Nations at the present 
time, the conflicting interests of their power politics and ideologies, 
and—in the last analysis—of their search for security. 


Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 11(4) 1949(1949) 


17 Shtikov, General T. F. The Voice of Korea (Washington, D. C.), 
April 6, 1946, quoted in Foreign Policy Review, October 15, 1948, p. 186. 
18 “Korea—House Divided,’ Department of State Bulletin, March 23, 
1947, p. 544, quoted in Foreign Policy Report, October 15, 1948, p. 186. 


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THE FLOWERS OF WOLFFIELLA FLORIDANA (J. D. SM.) 
THOMPSON 


HERMAN Kurz AND DorotHy Crowson! 
Florida State University 


The smallest and simplest known flowering plants are the duck- 
weeks of the family Lemnaceae. These free floating aquatics rang- 
ing from 0.5 mm. to 10 mm. in size are represented by four genera 
—Spirodela Schleiden, Lemna L., Wolffia Horkel, and Wolffiella 
Hegelmaier. Saeger (1929) recognizes about 26 species in the 
family. Most of them flower rarely. As late as 1929 Saeger reported 
for the first time flowers in Wolffia papulifera Thompson. In re- 
viewing the records of flowering in species of Lemnaceae he found 
that at that time flowers of six species were still unknown: Wolffia 
microscopica Griif., W. cylindracea Welw., and the four species of 
Wolffiella. In fact, referring to the genus Wolffiella, Saeger wrote: 


Tt would be of interest to know whether the sexual method of reproduction 
has been entirely replaced by the vegetative method, or whether fertile flowers 
might still be produced under appropriate conditions. 


And Hicks (1932) commented: 


The ability to produce flowers apparently has been so completely lost that 
they are never produced by planis in nature. In Wolffiella floridana, (J. D. 
Sm.) Thompson,? at least, it is doubtful as to whether the flowering potentiality 
could be made to find expression as the result of favorable physiological 
conditions. 


FLOweERs oF W. OBLONGA AND W. LINGULATA 


Strangely enough, hard on the heels of these expressions, Giardelli 
(1935) described the flowers of Wolffiella oblonga (Phil.) Hegelm. 
which she discovered January 1935 in a small Lagoon near Dolores, 
Province of Buenos Aires, Argentina. Next, Mason (1938) described 
flowers of W. lingulata Hegelm. which he discovered in June of 
1937 and 1938. These plants were found in a slough of the marshes 
of Roberts Island in the deita of the San Joaquin River near Holt, 
California. 

1 Contribution from the Department of Botany, Florida State University. 
2 Authority will be cited only the first time the scientific name is pre- 
sented. 


88 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


FLOWERS OF W. FLORIDANA 


On April 8, 1940, I discovered numerous W. floridana plants — 
flowering in the Zull sunlight of a swamp near Tallahassee, Leon 
County, Florida. This swamp lies at the west end of the old Dale 
Mabry Airport and just north of the railroad overpass on the Jackson 
Bluff Highway 5 miles a little south of west of the Tallahassee Post 
Office. So within a short span of five years three of the four species 
had been discovering flowering. I reported this discovery at the 
annual meeting of the Florida Academy of Sciences at Gainesville, 
Florida, in November of 1948. 

In April of 1941 I again observed Wolffiella floridana flowering 
abundantly at the Dale Mabry Airport swamp. The same spring I 
found them flowering in a swamp about a mile northwest of the 
original airport locality. This second locality, dominated by Tupelo 
gum (Nyssa aquatica L.), I shall designate as Little Dismal Swamp. 
It lies 4.6 miles west of the Tallahassee Post Office on the Quincy 
Road, Federal Highway 90. In the interior under the large Tupelo 
trees aquatic vegetation was sparse, but around the better lighted 
margins Wolffiella grew in profusion, associated with Lemna minor 
L., Wolffia punctata Griseb., Ricciocarpus natans L., Riccia fluitans 
_L., and Azolla caroliniana Willd. For 1942 I have no records. Search- 
ing for Wolffiella again in 1948, I found the plants had all disap- 
peared from the original station of the swamp at the west end of 
the Dale Mabry Airport (by this time designated as Dale Mabry 
Air Base) as well as from the Little Dismal Swamp. Drainage, 
filling operations, and pollution had apparently rendered the hab- 
itats untenable for W. floridana and the associates referred to above. 

In the hope of finding the plant flowering elsewhere, I made 
several futile trips the same year to a small lake locally known as 
Crane Island Lake on the west side of the Meridian Road nine 
miles north of the Tallahassee Post Office. However, in July 1944, 
after a prolonged search, I did find a few old flowering plants 
floating free and isolated from tangled vegetative colonies in water 
shaded by Buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis L.). 

March and April of 1946 I again explored Little Dismal Swamp. 
The water was high during this time and showed little pollution; 
Riccia, Lemna, and Wolffiella had come back. Nevertheless, it took 
several trips for me to locate flowering plants of the latter. And 
these, strange to note, I found in a very shady situation of Tupelo 
gum saplings. 


THE FLOWERS OF WOLFFIELLA FLORIDANA 89 


In the winter of 1946 I collected water, bottom mud, and plants 
to set up as a culture in the greenhouse. By neglect the water had 
evaporated to a critically low level. To my surprise one day in late 
March or early April i noted the culture teeming with plants in 
flower. At least two conditions attended this blooming: (1) low 
water and (2) early spring, the time the plants had been caught 
in flower previously. Up to now this suggestive accident has not 
been followed with controlled conditions. 

On May 20, 1949 my attention was called to flowering Wolffiella 
which Miss Helen Harris, student in botany, had reportedly col- 
lected under a stand of Cypress (Taxodium ascendens Brongn.) at 
Lake Bradford. Encouraged by this find, I made three trips to Lake 
bradford and its connecting smaller lakes and ponds, but I was not 
successful in locating the species—flowering or vegetating. I im- 
mediately followed up by exploring six other localities where 
Wolffiella floridana abounded. In all these explorations I noted only 
two or three plants in flower; and these came from Little Dismal 
Swamp, one of the original sites of flowering Wolffiella floridana 
where the water was very low in late May and where plants were 
stranded everywhere. 

At Crane Island Lake, one of the six localities mentioned pre- 
viously where some Wolffiella had been found fruiting in 1944, 
the water was extraordinarily high and had been so for a year or 
more. Here the plants were growing in extravagant masses, but all 
very attenuated. I found no flowers in this high water. In the fore- 
going the reader will have noted that flowering plants had always 
been observed to bloom in March or April, but in a variety of 
environmental factors. Hicks (op. cit.) has endeavored to force 
blooming in species representing all four genera of Lemnaceae. 
Ultra-violet light, photoperiods, mineral starvation, nutrient solu- 
tions in varying combinations and concentrations, addition of various 
chemical substances were all tried with no success. It seems idle, 
therefore, to speculate which environment factor or factors are the 
critical ones that favor incipiency of sexual reproduction in Wolf- 

fiella floridana. 


VEGETATIVE PLANTS AND PROPAGATION 


In the vegetative state Wolffiella floridana grows in very charac- 
teristic colonies. Goebel (1921) has worked out Wolffiella gladiata 
Hegelm., a close relative of W. floridana, and described in great 


90 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


detail the manner in which daughter plants are formed from the © 
parents and the pattern that results by the coherence of successive 
generations one to the other. Mason (op. cit.) has shown vegetative 
propagation for W. lingulata. Yet the delineations of Wolffiella 
floridana in the manuals do not even suggest the real nature of the 
maneuvers of successive vegetative offspring and the unique colonial 
patterns that follow. For that reason: the manner of vegetative 
multiplication is illustrated in Plate I. 


FLOWERING PLANTS AND PROPAGATION 


The vegetating plants are not buoyant enough to rise above 
the surface tension film of water but in flowering they become 
light enough to break through. Individually the plants appear as 
small straps or scythes 4 to 8 mm. long. In general the flowering 
plants are slightly shorter, but wider and thicker at the base than 
the vegetative individuals. Mason (op. cit.) finds W. lingulata 
flowering plants somewhat smaller than vegetative ones. At flower- 
ing time individuals are disengaged from the colonies. The devel- 
opment of greater internal air spaces in the flowering area enables 
this part to break up through the surface tension film of the water 
so that stigma, anther, and adjacent area of the plant are exposed 
to the air, while the sterile tip and the extreme base remain dipped 
under. Correlated with this exposure to air, stomata are developed 
on the emergent portion. The average number of stomata for 25 
fertile plants was 9, but extremes ran from none in four cases to 
19 per plant. No stomata were found on the submerged parts of 
flowering plants or on purely vegetative plants. 

Accustomed to large, tangled, and submersed masses that the 
vegetative plants present, the observers eye is arrested by the 
polywog-like detached flowering singles with their expansive flow- 
ering basal ends riding the surface and their sterile attenuated tips 
dipping under. Closer observations reveal that the “singles” are 
really linear pairs arranged base to base, for in all cases examined 
flowering singles revealed a young shoot within the asexual pouch 
or ntorndaie from it. Indeed some flowering individuals produce 
two or even three daughter cells. 

Giardelli (op. cit.) found no spathe in W. oblonga; Mason (op. 
cit.) found none in W. lingulata; I saw none in W. floridana. In 
agreement with the results of Giardelli and with those of Mason, 
I found all flowers examined to be protogynous. The pistil and 


THE FLOWERS OF WOLFFIELLA FLORIDANA 91 


stamen appear in the floral chamber, the pistil being nearest the 
base. The stamen is posterior to the pistil, that is, on the side of the 
pistil which is nearest to the tip of the plant; really the pistil and 
stamen appear to originate from a common primordium. For that 
reason I consider the pistil and stamen as components of a single 
flower. The two components of this single flower are situated to 
one side of but parallel with the median axis of the plant. When 
the plants were all oriented in one direction, examined, and scanned 
from base to tip the flowers appeared to the right of the median 
in most cases while the vegetative pouch with its daughter plants 
was a little to the left. The actual count was 68 out of 68; in five 
the flowers were to the left. 


STRUCTURE OF PISTIL 


The pistil consists of a funnel-shaped stigma, style, ovary, and 
a stipe narrowing down to a mere width of one cell. With such a 
_ weak stipe the ovary settles down on its side resting on the floor 
of the floral cavity like a toppled flask with the neck curving up- 
ward. The side of the ovary thus lying on the floor could easily 
be mistaken for the broad base of the pistil; but microscopic sec- 
tions reveal that the two-cell thick ovary wall, though contiguous 
to the floor, is not a part of the latter, and that the sides of the 
wall as disclosed in a median section really taper down to a narrow 
stipe which parallels the floor of the floral cavity and which is 
finally only one cell thick at the place of origin. If the path of at- 
tention is now reversed from the end of the stipe toward the ovary 
it will be noted that this one cell is followed by two cells at its end; 
these two each by two more; the lower pair becoming the lower 
ovary wall. The interior cell of the upper pair is the basal cell of 
the funiculus of the ovule and the upper forms the two layers of 
the upper ovary wall. The figures of Giardelli (op. cit.) and of 
Mason (op cit.), omitting cellular detail, indicate a similar but less 
extreme curvature of the pistil. 

At the region where the ovary wall curves upward and away 
from the floor of the floral cavity some of the cells of the ovary 
wall rejuvenate to form daughter cells. The outer layer of the ovary 
wall thus becoming longer breaks away from the inner layer. The 
free ends of the cells newly formed now connect with the floor or 
sides of the cavity. In section they appear as pillars, braces, or ir- 
regular masses or groups. A transverse section reveals the ovary 


92 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


wall connecting with the side or floor of the floral cavity. How 
important, if at all, these connections are in stabilizing or keeping 
the ovary from tipping I do not know. In any event these connec- 
tions might be functional in transferring materials to the developing 
ovary and ovule. These outer ovary wall cells together with the 
reclining ovary lying in a plane parallel to the floor of the floral 
cavity give the false impression that the morphological base of the 
ovary is broad. Really it is the side of the ovary that appears and 
functions as a broad base. 


THE SEED 


The one-loculed ovary contains one orthotropous ovule, the axis 
of which is parallel to that of the leaning ovary. An outstanding 
character is the very definitely developed internal operculum de- 
veloped from the inner integument. Mason (op cit.) found that in 
W. lingulata the operculum lies in a cavity at the end of the seed. 
Obviously this operculum is also formed from the inner integument. 
Giardelli (op cit.) makes no reference to an operculum in W. 
oblonga. Hegelmaier (1868) delineates opercula formed from the 
inner intergument in Wolffia hyalina (Delile) Hegelm. and Wolffia 
repanda Hegelm. Besides he illustrates opercula of four species of 
Lemna including L. minor L. Goebel (1921—after Rostowzew) de- 
lineates an operculum formed from the inner intergument of L. 
minor. On the other hand Caldwell (1899) shows figures of young 
seeds of Lemna minor developing an operculum from the tips of the 
two integuments, the outer one contributing much more. In Gray's 
Manual (1908) the operculum of the seed of the several species 
of Lemna is given as important taxonomic character. 


THE STAMEN 


The stamen while still within the floral chamber with its sturdy 
filament and chunky anther is a structure of impressive beauty in 
line and form. The thick filament appears to have a broad base. 
But like the base of the pistil it too can be traced to one cell thick 
at the base. This one cell seems to spring from the same cell as the 
stipe of the ovary (mechanical break of section on slide prevents 
an absolute statement to this effect). From this one small cell 
others develop to form the broad base of the filament. Thus the 
chunky stamen rests on the floral cushion by means of this squared 


THE FLOWERS OF WOLFFIELLA FLORIDANA 98 


off broad basal end of the filament. The latter is structurally con- 
nected with the {floral cushion by a short isthmus of a mere cell 
or two. At the connection with the anther the filament is again 
narrow and here, too, the filament squares off laterally to form 
wide’ shoulders upon which the anther rests. About the time of 
dehiscence the filament elongates somewhat to hoist the anther 
through and above the opening of the floral cavity and the stigma. 
The cells of the filament are now so elongate, the filament so 
slender, and the anther so shrunken that the old stamen appears 
much longer than it really is. The anther is two-celled and the line 
of dehiscence is marked by prominent pigmented cells. The exine 
of the pollen grains is marked by prickly projections. 


PAPILLATE CELLS 


A notable feature of the floral parts, and the plant in general to 
a lesser extent, is the papillate modifications that occur on exterior 
cell walls. The papillate projections tend to contact other cells 
nearby. They can be found in almost all situations where a rela- 
tively small space separates cells, but they are especially prominent 
in connection with the ovary, style, stigma, ovule, filament, and 
anther. The obvious conclusion would be that they are special 
devices reaching out for food supplies since they are especially 
evident in actively growing regions of floral parts and even of 
young vegetative shoots. Such adaptations seem a natural response 
on the part of a plant that has no vascular tissues—no xylem and 


phloem. 


SUMMARY 


In 1935 Giardelli discovered flowers of Wolffiella oblonga in 
Argentina; in 1938 Mason found the flower of W. lingulata in Cal- 
ifornia; and on April 8, 1940, I discovered Wolffiella floridana 
blooming near Tallahassee, Florida. The peculiarly upward bent 
pistil resting on the side of its ovary and the curved, sturdy stamen 
present mechanical features and structural beauty entirely unlooked 
for in such small apetalous flowers. The flowers of Wolffiella flori- 
dana have proved to be similar enough to those of W. oblonga and 
W. lingulata to substantiate the conclusions of taxonomists who 
long ago placed these three species in the genus Wolffiella purely 
on vegetative characters. 


94 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 


I am indebted to Miss Betty Linthicum, Department of Botany, 
Florida State University, for preparation of microslides and to Miss 
Dorothy Crowson, graduate student, Department of Botany, Florida 
State University, tor the delineations of the figures. 


LITERATURE CITED 
CALDWELL, O. W. 
1899. On the Life-History of Lemna minor. Bot. Gaz. 27: 37-66, 59 fig. 
GIARDELLI, M. L. 
1935. Las Flores de Wolffiella oblonga. Revista Argentine de Agronomia. 
2:17-20, 14 figs. 
GOEBEL, K. 
1921. Zur Organographie de Lemnaceen. Flora 114: 278-805, 12 plates. 
HEGELMAIER, F. 
1868. Die Lemnaceen eine Monographische Untersuchung. 1-169, 16 
plates. Leipzig. 
HICKS, L. E. 
1932. Flower Production in the Lemnaceae. Ohio Journal of Science 82: 
117, 2 plates. 
MASON, H. L. 
1938. The Flowering of Wolffiella lingulata (Hegelm.) Hegelm. Madrono, 
241-251, 18 figs. 
ROBINSON, B. L. and FERNALD, M. L. 
1908. Gray’s New Manual of Botany, 7th edition. American Book Com- 
pany. 1-926. 
SAEGER, A. 
1929. The Flowering of Lemnaceae. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical 
Club, 351-858, 8 plates. 
Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 11(4) 1948(1949) 


THE FLOWERS OF WOLFFIELLA FLORIDANA 95 


Inflorescence 


Pistil 


Seed 


Stamen 


Anther 


Filament 


Pollen 


Frond 


Sterile 


Fertile 


Stomata 


TABLE JI.—DESCRIPTIONS AND DIMENSIONS 


One bisexual flower per plant. In- 
florescence without spathe in dor- 
sal side near base of frond. Pistil 
nearest base of frond and stamen 
posterior to pistil. Protogynous. 


One pistil, ovary one-loculed and 
more or less horizontal with floor 
cavity. Style ascending with flaring 
stigma and funnel-like stigmatic 
opening. One orthotropous ovule, 
parallel with the axis of the nearly 
horizontal ovary. 


Seed dorsally and laterally oblong 
or elliptic, marked by a multi- 
seriate reticulated seed coat which 
is divided by a straight smooth 
ridge on the ventral side—side by 
which it rests on the supporting 
inner ventral wall of the ovary. 


One stamen, anther two-celled, 
two-lobed, elongate, stout filament. 
Connected to filament by a short 
narrow isthmus. Pigmented along 
line of dehiscence. Filament ab- 
ruptly squared off to a short isth- 
mus at the top and at the bottom 
elongate and narrow at the time 
of dehiscence. 


Pollen spherical or nearly so, beset 
with spine-like projections. 


In areas approximately .40 x 40 
mm.surrounding floral cavities. 


Pistil: 
43-44mm. Length 
from stipe to stigma 


.20-.22mm. Width at 
functional base 

18mm. Diameter of 
stigma 
Seed: 

.30-.40mm. Long 


.18-.25mm. Wide 


Stamen: 
44-45mm. High just 
before dehiscence 
.50-.60mm. High after 
dehiscence 


Filament: 
.12-.25mm. High just 
before dehiscence 


Anther: 

.29mm. Long 

.23-26mm. Wide 
Pollen: 

15-20 microns in di- 
ameter 


.25-.50mm. Wide 
3.5-8.0mm. Long 


.60-.80mm. Wide 
2.50-6.50mm. Long 


4-18 on fertile fronds 
only 


96 


Figure 


Figure 
Figure 


Figure 


Figure 


Figure 
Figure 
Figure 


Figure 
Figure 


Figure 


Figure 


JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE I 


1-4. Habits to show origin, coherence, and positional relationships of 


successive vegetative offspring to parent plants. Each plant is 
held to its parent by means of a stipe, and upon emergence turns 
an approximate right angle thus forming a colony of more or less 
symmetrical pattern. The letters indicate the sequence of develop- 
ment. x 12. 

Surface view to show position of flowers. x 12. 

Schematic internal view of flowering individual, floral cavity with 
pistil and stamen, and air spaces by means of which the floriferous 
part of the plant is raised above the water film. x 12. 

Outline to show form, attachment, and basal support of young 
pistil and stamen; the former resting on one side of the ovary 
and the latter on the inverted shoulders formed by the abruptly 
squared off filament. x 80. 

Outline to show greatly attenuated filament after dehiscence. x 80. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE II 


Longitudinal section of pistil: a, outer ovary wall turning away 
from ovary to connect with floor of cavity; sp, space; s, stipe; pa, 
papillate cell of outer integument; p, pigment cell. x 350. 
Transverse section of ovary: a, cells connecting ovary with cavity; 
pa, papillate cells; sp, spaces; pas, papillate cells from anther 
reaching toward ovary. x 350. 

Section of partly matured ovule: pe, operculum formed from tip 
of inner integument; ii, inner integument; oi, outer integument; 
pm, pigmented cells of micropyle. x 165. 

Seed. Note multiseriate reticulated outer seed coat and (r) longi- 
tudinal smooth ridge. x 37. 

Outer integument of seed removed to reveal the operculum (0) 
underneath. x 80. 

Longitudinal section of stamen: pa, papillate cell; ui, upper isth- 
mus connecting anther to filament; li, lower isthmus joining fila- 
ment to floral cushion; p. pigmented cells at line of dehiscence. 
x 850. 

Pollen grain with spiny projections. x 750. 


THE FLOWERS OF WOLFFIELLA FLORIDANA a7 


PLATE I 


98 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


PLATE II 


AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE FISHES OF 
HOMOSASSA SPRINGS, FLORIDA 


Ear. S. HERALD 
Steinhart Aquarium, San Francisco, California 


AND 


Roy R. StrRiIcKLAND 


District Fisheries Biologist, Washington State 
Department of Fish and Game 


Homosassa Springs has long been known as an ichthyological 
paradise, for in the famous Fish Bowl of these springs are to be 
found both fresh water and salt water species of fishes living 
together in apparent harmony. The fishes vary in abundance from 
season to season and from year to year. Some species are found 
in vast numbers at all times, for example the northern sea catfish, 
whereas others, as the redfish or channel bass, are more common 
during the colder months of the year. 

Homosassa is one of four large artesian springs along the west- 
central Florida coast. Each of these four springs has its origin within 
a few miles of the coast, and each flows as a large river westwardly 
to the Gulf. They are, in order from north to south, Crystal River, 
Homosassa, Chassahowitska, and Weekiwachee. 

These four springs present an interesting study because of the 
differential upstream migration of certain marine fishes. Some spe- 
cies, for example the striped mullet, are present in the headwaters 
of all the springs, whereas others, as the Sheephead, are common 
only at Homosassa Springs and are absent in the headwaters of 
Weekiwachee and Chassahowitska. 

Homosassa Springs is located one mile west of U. S. Highway 
19 in Citrus County, Florida, roughly 55 air miles north of Tampa, 
or 75 miles by highway. The springs, of which there are more than 
12, are the source of the Homosassa River which flows west for 
approximately 9 miles and empties into the Gulf. The springs are 
owned by the Homosassa River Corporation which is developing 
the area as a leading tourist attraction. Previous to the purchase of 
the property by this group in 1945, the springs were owned by the 
Homosassa Springs Corporation who held them for a period of 5 
years. 


100 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


The largest of the 12 springs mentioned above is called the Fish 
Bowl. Since a detailed report on the physical and chemical features 
of the springs has previously been published (Ferguson e¢ al., 1947, 
57-59) we shall only summarize some of their findings as follows: 


Maximum, depth! ( Fish, Bowl).2 7) a2) ee 43.8 ft. 
Temperature one foot below surface (Apr. 3, 1946)... 75° F 
Mean flow (cubic feet per second) =. ___ 7. 7 aaa 185 
pH 2-5 ee ee TA 
Chloride (parts per million) 20.0". 5 os eee 570 
Total hardness asGaCOsie. WS 310 


For all practical purposes this water may be considered fresh. | 
Sea water has approximately 39,000 parts chloride per million. 
(However, the above 570 parts is not sufficiently low so that the 
water may be used in U. S. Navy boilers where the maximum 
chloride allowed is 500 ppm.) 

The ichthyology of the springs is very interesting, especially in 
that certain fresh water and marine species seem to live in associa- 
tion, and each to have adapted itself to the waters of the springs. 
A species present in one spring may be conspicuously absent in 
another spring only a few hundred yards distant. Although a num- 
ber of ichthyologists have visited the springs, the only published 
records specifically concerning them are to be found in a paper 
by Dr. Gordon Gunter (1942). In this paper he records Dr. A. F. 
Carr’s observations at the springs. 

In previous years the great numbers of fishes which live in the 
Fish Bowl have been the cause of commercial fishing efforts. On 
one occasion dynamite was used quite effectively; however other 
methods were not so productive. Gill nets were found to be of little 
use, and even such drastic procedures as pouring burning oil on 
the surface of the water yielded few fishes. 

The following provisional list of the 34 fishes representing 21 
families to be found in the springs area is the result of a series of 
visits to that locality by the writers. The principal collecting trips 
were made on 17 February, 30 March and 4 May, 1946. All speci- 
mens collected are deposited in the Division of Fishes of the U. S. 
National Museum under catalogue numbers 133318 through 133341. 
Grateful acknowledgment is made of the active cooperation of the 
personnel of the Homosassa River Corporation. Without the aid of 
Mr. David Newell, Mr. Jack Dunham and Mr. Elmo Reed, the data 
recorded in this paper could not have been collected. 7 


LIST OF FISHES OF HOMOSASSA SPRINGS 101 


SELACHII GEN. ET. SP. INCOGNITA 
Shark 

An unidentified shark was observed in the Fish Bowl by Mr. 

David Newell. 
(?) Dasyatis sapinus (LE SUEUR) 
Sting Ray 

A ray, probably this species, has been observed in the Fish Bowl 
by Mr. David Newell. Dr. Bigelow writes that the possibilities are 
good that it was D. sabinus, which in the Mississippi drainage is 
known to occur 200 miles upstream from the sea and in Florida is 
well distributed throughout the St. Johns River system. 


ACIPENSER BREVIROSTRUM LE SUEUR 
Short-nosed Sturgeon 

One large specimen several feet in length is mounted on the 
wall of the Old Mill tavern at Old Homosassa Springs. It was said 
to have been taken in the river about 10 years ago. If valid, this 
record is probably the southernmost for the species along the west 
coast of Florida. Fowler (1945) has recorded the species from the 
Suwannee River. 


LEPISOSTEUS OSSEUS ( LINNAEUS) 
Long-nosed Gar 

This species is quite common down the river, and there are 
usually several individuals present at various times of the day in 
the Fish Bowl. The long-nosed gar is reported to be in spawning 
condition in the springs only during the spring months of February, 
March, and April; during these months the sheepshead have been 
observed to bite at the gravid female gars thus causing them to 
extrude their ova which are readily snapped up by the sheepshead 
(verbal communication from Mr. Elmo Reed). Gars have been 
observed only in the Fish Bowl, and in none of the other springs. 
The short-nosed or spotted gar (Lepisosteus platyrhynchus) has 
not been observed in any of the springs, although it should be in 
the river. | 


TARPON ATLANTICUS (CUVIER AND VALENCIENNES ) 
Tarpon 
An individual of this species was observed near the boat dock by 
Mr. David Newell. Apparently this tarpon is attracted to spring 


102 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


waters, for during May 1946 the senior author observed a small 
school of some 15 individuals (about 18” long) in Sulphur Springs 
near Tampa, Florida. These tarpon were in the lower swimming 
pool of the springs and were not readily observed as they constantly 
swam into the boil ‘of water caused by the overflow of the main 
spring which is also used as a swimming pool. 


ERIMYZON SUCETTA SUCETTA (LACEPEDE ) 
Eastern Lake Chub-sucker 


Although this species has not been observed in the F Tish Bowl 
by either of the writers, we are assured that it is present through- 
out most of the year. Erimyzon does not appear to be uncommon 
in the North Spring adjacent to the Fish Bowl and in the springs 
on the south arm of the river. The spotted sucker, Minytrema mel- 
anops (Rafinesque), was not observed, and although this latter 
species is common in the Suwannee drainage, it apparently does 
not occur this far south. 


ERIMYSTAX HARPERI (FOWLER) 
Harpers: Minnow 

This attractive minnow, which is separated from all other Florida 
minnows by the small barbel at the juncture of the upper and 
lower jaw, is very common around the edge of the Fish Bowl where 
it lives in the weedy areas in association with Chriopeops goodei 
and Lucania parva. E. harperi was originally described from Man- 
atee Springs which empties into the Suwannee River. Because of a 
discrepancy in the original description of E. harperi, topotypes of 
the species from Manatee Springs were collected and these com- 
pared with Homosassa material, which was found to be the same. 
On the 30th of March trip, gravid females were found. Counts of 
the numbers of eggs were made of 12 selected individuals and are 
recorded as follows: 


Standard Length in mm No. of Eggs Contained in Ovaries 


30.6 126 
30.0 99 
28.7 110 
233198 118 


28.1 91 


LIST OF FISHES OF HOMOSASSA SPRINGS 108 


27.7 104 
27.8 98 
27.1 65 
26.6 | 84 
26.6 107 
26.4 74. 
25.2 care 


NOTEMIGONUS CRYSOLEUCAS BOSCIL (VALENCIENNES ) 
Florida Golden Shiner 


This species has not been observed or collected in the Fish Bowl, 
although it has been observed in the North Spring, and in the Main 
Spring of the south arm of the river. 


BacreE MaRINUS (MITCHELL ) 
Northern Sea Catfish 
This is the only species collected in the spring by the writers; 
however, it should be pointed out that an adequate sample was 
not obtained, and whether the tremendous school of catfishes in the 
Fish Bowl is composed entirely of this species or partly of the next 
species listed remains to be determined. 


GALEICHTHYS FELIS (LINNAEUS) 
Gaff-topsail Catfish 
No specimens of this species were collected by the writers, nor 
were any observed with facemask which could definitely be at- 
tributed to this species. This record is based upon Dr. A. F. Carr’s 
notes recorded by Gunter (1942: 314). 


AMEIURUS NATALIS EREBENNUS (JORDAN) 
Yellow-bellied Catfish 


Just behind the coffee shop at the Springs is a small rock-walled 
spring (6 feet in diameter) with no outlet. This small spring con- 
tains a number of 6 to 9 inch individuals of the yellow-bellied 
catfish, but the species is not found in any of the adjacent spring 
waters. No one has been able to state definitely that these fish 
were not planted in this small spring, and the fact that they have 
not been found in the surrounding waters rather strongly suggests _ 
that they may have been introduced. 


104 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


STRONGYLURA MARINA (WALBAUM) 
Northern Needlefish 


This species was observed in the Fish Bowl on March 80, 1946, 
and is usually present in the vicinity of the boat dock. It is not so 
common in the Bowl as in adjacent river areas, and it has not been 
observed in any of the other springs. 


LUCANIA PARVA (BarIRD AND GIRARD) 
Rainwater Killifish 


This species lives in association with Erimystax harperi and ~ 
Chriopeops goodei in the weed masses on the sides of the Fish 
Bowl. Lucania is about as common as Erimystax, whereas Chri- 
opeops is the least common of the three. The broad indistinct dark 
bands present on some Lucania from other Florida springs (Rock 
Springs and Weekiva Springs, especially the latter) do not seem to 
be so apparent on these specimens. They were not taken in springs 
other than the Fish Bowl. 


CHRIOPEOPS GOODEI (JORDAN) 
Red-finned Killifish 
This form was common in weeds together with Lucania and 
Erimystax. It was taken only in the Fish Bowl. 


CYPRINODON VARIEGATUS VARIEGATUS (LACEPEDE ) 
Southern Sheepshead Killifish 


One specimen of this species was observed at the Pump Spring 
at the edge of the cement ledge on 3 May 1946. Unfortunately it 
could not be caught. It was not observed in any of the other springs. 


HETERANDRIA FORMOSA (AGASSIZ ) 
Least Killifish 


This very small species has been taken at the Fish Bowl where, 
because of its small size and ability to slip through the normal 
% inch mesh seine, it is probably much more common than sus- 
pected. It has also been collected at the Pump Spring and at the 
North Spring next to the Fish Bowl. At times it is found in asso- 
ciation with Erimystax, Lucania and Chriopeops in the weedy 
areas. 


LiST OF FISHES OF HOMOSASSA SPRINGS 105 


MOLLIENISIA LATIPINNA LE SUEUR 
Sailfin 
Although this species has been collected in the North Spring and 
in the Pump Spring, it has not been found in the Fish Bowl, and 
such is also true of the next species, Gambusia affinis holbrookii. 
The absence of these two species from the Bowl is one of the un- 
explained mysteries of the ichthyology of the Springs. One specimen 
of Mollienisia, a melanistic individual, was collected in a small 


pond immediately behind the Springs Headquarters. 


GAMBUSIA AFFINIS HOLBROOKII (GIRARD ) 
Eastern Mosquito-fish 


This species has been collected in the North Spring and in the 
Pump Spring, but has not been taken in the Fish Bowl, although 
it does occur just outside of the Bowl along the north side of Fish 
Bow! Run. Gambusia does not appear to be as common in the 
Springs as at other localities in Florida. 


CENTROPOMUS UNDECIMALIS ( BLOCH) 
Northern Robalo or Snook 


Large specimens of this species, up to several feet in length, are 
quite common in the Fish Bowl, and on March 30, 1946, a single 
individual was observed in the bottom of the North Spring adja- 
cent to the Fish Bowl. The snook presents a curious problem, for 
although one is quickly impressed with the numbers of snook 
present in the Fish Bowl, nevertheless, the species is not taken 
in the river nor at the river mouth. Neither is it observed enroute 
up or down the river although other marine species appearing in 
the Fish Bowl are observed or caught in the river. 


LUTIANUS GRISEUS ( LINNAEUS ) 
Mangrove or Gray Snapper 


The gray snapper is fairly common in the area of the springs, 
and although it is very abundant in the spring run below the Bowl], 
it nevertheless does not come into the Bowl in any great numbers. 
This is especially true in summer, but the numbers are said to be 
greater in the colder months. Exactly the reverse is true of Lagodon 
rhomboides. The mangrove snapper has also been observed in some 
of the springs on the south arm of the river. : 


106 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


LUTIANUS APODUS (WALBAUM ) 
Schoolmaster 


Although ail specimens collected in the springs area were of the 
former species, L. apodus is recorded from ¢he springs in Carr’s 
notes (Gunter, 1942: 314). A few snappers which had a line be- 
neath the eye were observed in the-run below the Bowl and it is 
possible that they might have been this species. Mr. Jack Dunham 
states that he has not observed any fish which he believes could 
be definitely assigned to this species. 


LAGODON RHOMBOIDES ( LINNAEUs ) 
Pinfish 
It is possible that another species may be confused with this 
one. Only one specimen was collected, and its characters were 
somewhat at variance with those given for L. rhomboides. It was 


observed and collected only in the Fish Bowl. It is also recorded 
by Carr in Gunter (1942: 315). 


ARCHOSARGUS PROBATOCEPHALUS (WALBAUM ) 
Sheepshead 


This species is very common in the Fish Bowl, but has not been 
observed in other of the springs nor in the run from the Bowl. 
The snapping by Archosargus at gravid females of Lepisosteus has 
been described under that form. It is also recorded by Carr 
(Gunter, 1942: 315). , 


EUCINOSTOMOUS ARGENTEUS BAIRD AND GIRARD 
Spotfin Mojarra | 
This striking silver-colored fish is found only on the sandy 
bottom areas of the south arm of the springs. As one poles a boat 
upstream from the bridge, many individuals may be seen darting 
ahead of the boat. With face mask, they may be observed feeding 
on the mushy rubble surrounding a small spring just above the 
bridge. This mojarra was found to be very hard to net, but finally 
a single specimen was speared. This, together with another speci- 
men from Crystal River Spring (USNM 133340 and 133341), was 
examined by Dr. Leonard P. Schultz of the United States National 
Museum, and upon dissection both were found to be of this species. 
This is a new addition to the known fauna of the Florida» ae 
waters. 


LIST OF FISHES OF HOMOSASSA SPRINGS 107 


SCIAENOPS OCELLATUS (LINNAEUS ) 
Channel Bass 

One or two individuals of this species were in the Fish Bowl each 
time that face mask observations were made. Often they would not 
be visible from the surface as they seemed to habituate the rocky 
crevice area on the far side of the Bowl, and often, in the same 
manner as the Sea Trout, they would sound as the investigator 
came into the water. Usually during the colder months they are 
reportedly more abundant in the Bowl than at other times. They 
have not been observed in the other springs. 


CYNOSCION NEBULOSUS (CUVIER AND VALENCIENNES ) 
Sea Trout 
Several individuals of the sea trout were usually in the Bowl 
each time that observations were made. As previously stated, they 
sound as soon as the biologist enters the water. This species is also 
said to be more common during the winter months. 


CHAENOBRYTTUS CORONARIUS (BARTRAM ) 
Warmouth Bass 
Although said to be not uncommon in the river in the vicinity 
of the Springs, only one specimen was taken in any of the springs, 
and that one was collected from the Pump Spring on May 3, 1948. 
None was observed by use of face masks. 


LEPOMIS MACROCHIRUS PURPURESCENS COPE 
Eastern Bluegill 

This species is very common in the springs area, and has been 
observed in all of the springs. Characteristically, individuals in 
this area show the typical artesian spring coloration, i.e., heavy 
vertical banding with light ground color. It should be noted that 
none of the bluegills in the Springs have the dark overall coloration 
which often appears in large individuals living in lakes. 


LEPOMIS PUNCTATUS PUNCTATUS: (CUVIER AND VALENCIENNES ) 
Stumpknocker 


In the central Florida springs this is one of the commonest of 
sunfishes. It is fairly abundant at Homosassa Springs where it has 
been collected in the Fish Bowl and observed in the other springs. 


108 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


LEPOMIS MICROLOPHIS MICROLOPHIS (Gunther ) 
Eastern Shellcracker 
This well-marked species, distinguished by its orange ear spot, 
is present in limited numbers in the Fish Bowl and the North 


Spring. It has not been observed nor collected in the springs on 
the south arm of the river. 


MICROPTERUS SALMOIDES FLORIDANUS (LE SEUER) 
Largemouth Bass 


Although the largemouth seems to be of normal abundance in 
the Homosassa Springs other than the Fish Bowl, a satisfactory 
reason yet remains to be advanced as to why it is so uncommon 
in the Fish Bowl. With the face mask it was often possible to 
distinguish one or more specimens in the Bowl, but the maximum 
observed at one period of observation was five, and the number 
was usually one or two or none. It has been suggested that 
physico-chemical factors may be involved in this matter, but such 
yet-remains to be determined. The largemouth has been observed 
in all of the springs. 


MUGIL CEPHALUS LINNAEUS 
Striped Mullet 


The striped mullet is one of the commoner and more obvious 
fishes in the Fish Bowl where several individuals will usually be 
found feeding at any time of the day. The striped mullet is said 
to be most common in the Bowl during the months of October, 
November, and December, during which period the females are 
said to be gravid. Often this species tends to school in the Fish 
Bowl, and especially is this true late in the evening. It seems to 
be fairly well distributed in the area, and has been observed in 
the North Spring and in the Main Spring of the south arm of the 
river. 


Mucit cuREMA CuvIER AND VALENCIENNES 
White or Silver Mullet 
This species is not so common as the previous form, and although 
one or more individuals are often observed in the Bowl it has not 
been recorded in the other springs in the area. | 


LIST OF FISHES OF HOMOSASSA SPRINGS 109 


CaRANX HIPPOS ( LINNAEUS ) 
Common Jack or Crevally 


One or more individuals of this species were observed on various 
occasions swimming slowly about the Fish Bowl; the species has 
not been observed in the other springs. 


ECHENEIS NAUCRATES LINNAEUS 
Shark Remora 


This species is recorded by Gunter (1942: 315) from the notes 
of A. F. Carr, Jr. It is not known by other than this record, exact 
details of which are not available. Mr. Jack Dunham informs us 
that he observed three or four specimens during 1946 which were 
possibly of this species. They were attached to mullet, snook, and 
jack crevally. 


LITERATURE CITED 


FERGUSON, G. E., C. W. LINGHAM, S. K. LOVE, and R. O. VERNON 
1947. Springs of Florida. Florida Geological Survey, Geological Bulletin 
No. 81, xii 196, 37 figs, map. 
FOWLER, H. W. 
1945. A study of the fishes of the southern piedmont and coastal plain. 
Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., Mongr. 7, 1-408, 318 figs. 
GUNTER, GORDON 
1942. A list of the fishes of the mainland of north and middle America 
recorded from both freshwater and seawater. Amer. Mid. Nat., 
28, no. 2: 305-326. 
Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 11(4) 1949 (1949) 


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PRELIMINARY CHECK LIST OF THE 
ALGAE OF THE TALLAHASSEE AREA 


C. S. NIELSEN AND GRACE C. MApsEN 
Florida State University 


As far as is known to the authors, no systematic survey of the 
algal flora of the Tallahassee area has been made up to the present 
time. Two hundred and thirty-seven collections were made from 
February 1, 1948, to July 1, 1948, in Leon and three adjacent coun- 
ties. It is our purpose to continue collecting more extensively and 
to include other counties in the northern part of the state. 


The following stations are referred to: 

1. Phillips Picnic grounds is the site of four sulphur springs, 
within a radius of one half mile of Newport, Wakulla County. 
These are designated as (a) Picnic Spring; (b) Little Spring, 
(c) Club Spring, and (d) Log Spring. 

2. The following stations are located in Saint Marks Wildlife 
Refuge, Wakulla County (a) Salt Marsh near lighthouse, (b) 
Lighthouse Pool, (c) Spillway Dam at Phillips Pool, (d) T 
Pond at Phillips Pool, (e) Mounds Pool, (£) A shallow stream 
3.0 miles S. E. of Newport on the Main road. 

3. The Saint Marks River at Natural Bridge, and the Saint Marks 
River at Little Natural Bridge, one-half mile west of Natural 
Bridge. 

4. The Woodville area, Leon County (a) Woodville, on Highway 
U. S. 319, (b) Woodville Swamp, one mile north of Woodville 
on 319, (c) Natural Well, a limestone cave, one mile northeast 
of Woodville. 

5. Six Mile Pond, Apalachicola National Forest on U. S. Highway 
319, Leon County. 

6. Highway U. S. 19, twenty miles southeast of Tallahassee, 
Jefferson County. 

7. Heart Leaf Pond, Highway Florida 10, 16 miles northwest of 
Tallahassee, Leon County. 


1 This paper was received first and should have been printed before the 
checklist by the same authors that appears in Vol. II, Nos. 2-3, p. 63.— 
[Editor] 


112 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


8. Crane Lake at Meridian Road, nine miles north of Tallahassee, 
Leon County. 

9. Ochlockonee River on Highway U. S. 90, Leon County. 

10. Lake Jackson Schoolhouse, Old Quincey Highway, six miles 
northwest of Tallahassee, Leon County. ~ 

11. Little Blue Sink (limestone) Crawfordville Road 8.5 miles 
southwest: of Tallahassee. 

Grateful acknowledgment is made to Dr. Francis Drouet, of 

the Chicago Natural History Museum, for the determinations of 

all species listed—(with the one exception noted), and for his . 

helpful suggestions and criticisms. 


CHROOCOCCACEAE 


Gloeocapsa alpicola (Lyngb.) Born. 

Natural Well, (121); Log Spring, (249, 252). 
Gloeocapsa dimidiata (Kutz.) Drouet and Daily 

Botany Dept. greenhouse, Tallahassee, (59). 
Merismopedia thermalis Kutz. 

Shallow stream in St. Marks Wildlife Refuge, (48). 


CHAMAESIPHONACEAE 


- Entophysalis Brebissonii (Menegh.) Drouet and Daily 
Leon County, (180); Little Natural Bridge, (184, 186, 187); Little 
Springs, (184). 

Entophysalis rivularis (Kutz.) Drouet 
Log Spring, (251). 

STIGONEMATACEAE 

Fischerella ambigua (Born. and Flah.) Gom. 

Mounds Pool, (38); Club Spring, (216). 

Hapalosiphon pumilus Born and Flah. 
Lake Bradford, (783-75); Six Mile Pond, (79, 162; Woodville, (83); 
Highway U. S. 19, (87); Heart Leaf Pond, (207). 

Stigonema minutum Born. and Flah. 

Crane Lake, (202). 
NOSTOCACEAE 

Anabaena flos-aquae (Born. and Flah.) Breb. 

Crane Lake, (9). 

Anabaena oscillarioides Gom. 
T-Pond, (82). 

Cylindrospermum licheniforme Born. and Flah. 
Ochlockonee River, (104). 

Hydrocoryne spongiosa Born. and Flah. 

Meridian Rd. 5 mi. N. of Tallahassee, (25). 

Nostoc carneum Born. and Flah. 


CHECK LIST OF ALGAE OF TALLAHASSEE AREA 113 


Botany Dept. greenhouse, Tallahassee, (56). 
Nostoc Linckia Born. and Flah. 
Woodville, (15). 
Nostoc muscorum Born. and Flah. 
Picnic Spring, (177). 
RIVULARIACEAE 


Amphithrix janthina Born. and Flah. 

Picnic Spring, (199). 
Calothrix parietina Born. and Flah. 

Picnic Spring, (174-177); Log Spring, (251). 
Calothrix stellaris Born. and Flah. 

Mounds Pool, (39); Picnic Spring, (160). 


SCYTONEMATACEAE 


Fremyella diplosiphon (Born. and Flah.) Drouet 
Botany Dept. greenhouse, Tallahassee, (200). 
Hassallia byssoidea Born. and Flah. 
Crane Lake, (201). 
Scytonema Hoffmannii Born. and Flah. 
Natural Well, (111-114, 121); Little Natural Bridge (144-147, 159); 
Natural Bridge, (149-151); Crane Lake, (202); Club Spring, (227); 
Log Spring, (248-250). 
Scytonema ocellatum Born. and Flah. 
Picnic Spring, (191). 
Scytonema tolypotrichoides Born. and Flah. 
Highway U. S. 319, 5 mi. S. of Tallahassee, (82); Spillway Dam, (119). 
Tolypothrix tenuis Born. and Flah. 
Mounds Pool, (122, 123, 126). — 


OSCILLATORIACEAE 
Lyngbya aestuarii Gom. 
Mounds Pool, (124, 125). 
Lyngbya Diguettii Gom. 
T-Pond, (32); Shallow stream in St. Marks Wildlife Refuge, (83); 
Wakulla Springs, (91); Mounds Pool, (125); Little Spring, (184). 
Lyngbya ochracea Gom. 
Crane Lake, (23). 
Lyngbya Patrickiana Drouet 
Mounds Pool, (36); Picnic Spring, (37, 165, 168); Botany Dept. green- 
house, Tallahassee, (101). 
Lyngbya putealis Gom. 
Mounds Pool, (39); Ochlockonee River, (102). 
Lyngbya semiplana Gom. 3 
Lighthouse Pool, (69). 
Lyngbya versicolor Gom. 
Picnic Spring, (165). 
Microcoleus acutissimus Gardn. 


114 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Picnic Spring, (197). 
Microcoleus lacustris Gom. . 
Shallow stream in St. Marks Wildlife Refuge, (44); Picnic Spring, (192). 
Microcoleus paludosus Gom. 
Little Natural Bridge, (145); Log Spring, (244). 
Microcoleus rupicola (Tild.) Drouet 
Little Natural Bridge, (147). 
Oscillatoria chalyba Gom. 
Little Natural Bridge, (142); Little Spring, (183); Picnic Spring, (185). 
Oscillatoria chlorina Gom. 
Picnic Spring, (35). 
Oscillatoria curviceps Gom. 
Crane Lake, (2, 10). 
Oscillatoria formosa Gom. 
University Campus, Tallahassee, (127). 
Oscillatoria limosa. Gom. 
Little Natural Bridge, (140). 
Oscillatoria princeps Gom. 
T-Pond, (117, 118). 
Oscillatoria splendida Gom. 
Log Spring, (243); Little Spring, (258, 259). 
Oscillatoria tenuis Gom. 
Crane Lake, (23); Heart Leaf Pond, (207, 211); Club Spring, (212, 
230). ) | 
Oscillatoria tenuis var. tergestina Gom. 
Natural Bridge, (148). 
Phormidium favosum Gom. 
Club Spring, (219, 228, 225, 285, 240). 
Phormidium inundatum Gom. 
Natural Bridge, (80). 
Phormidium purpurascens Gom. 
Little Spring, (254). | 
Phormidium Retzii Gom. 
Natural Bridge, (80); Ochlockonee River, (103). 
Phormidium tenue Gom. 
Picnic Spring, (180, 190); Little Spring, (182); Log Spring, (246). 
Phormidium uncinatum Gom. 
Club Spring, (178); Picnic Spring, (180). 
Plectonema Nostocorum Gom. 
University Greenhouse, Tallahassee, (57); Lighthouse Pool, (68); Old 
Quincy Highway, 6 miles N. W. of Tallahassee, (97). 
Schizothrix calcicola Gom. 
Picnic Spring, (178). 
Spirulina Major Gom. 
ae at Mounds Pool, (124, 125); Picnic Spring, (190); Log Spring, 
243 ). . 


CHECK LIST OF ALGAE OF TALLAHASSEE AREA 115 


Spirulina subtilissima Gom. 
Little Spring, (256, 257). 
Symploca Muscorum Gom. 
Natural Bridge, (150); Little Natural Bridge, (157); Log Spring, (245); 
Lake Ella, Leon County, (262). 
Symploca muralis Gom. 
Log Spring, 242). 
CHLAMYDOMONADACEAE 


Chlamydomonas sp. Ehrenb. 
Crane Lake, (24); Alligator Point, (267). 


VOLVOCACEAE 
Volvox aureus Ehrenb. 
_ Lake Jackson schoolhouse, (161). 


PALMELLACEAE 


Gloeocystis Grevellei (Burk.) Drouet and Daily 
Natural Well, (115, 116); Little Spring, (261). 


TETRASPORACEAE 


Tetraspora gelatinosa (Vauch.) Desyv. 
‘Woodville, (21); Lake Bradford Creek, (60). 


ULOTRICHACEAE 


Stichococcus bacillaris Nageli 

Botany Dept. greenhouse, Tallahassee, (58). 
Stichococcus subtilis (Kutz.) Klerck. 

University West Campus Creek, Tallahassee, (92). 
Ulothrix oscillarina Kutz. 

University West Campus Creek, Tallahassee, (92). 


MICROSPORACEAE 
Microspora stagnorum (Kutz.) Lagerh. 
Meridian Rd..5 mi. N. of Tallahassee, (6); Picnic Spring, (85, 40); 
Shallow stream of St. Marks Wildlife Refuge, (41); Lake Bradford, (72, 
74). 
TRENTEPOHLIACEAE 
Gongrosira Debaryana Rabenh. 
Club Spring, (226). 
Trentepohlia Wainoi Har. 
Little Blue Sink, (109); Picnic Spring, (196). 


CHAETOPHORACEAE 
Chaetophora incrassata (Huds.) Hazen 
Meridian Rd., 5 mi. N. of Tallahassee, (204). 
Entocladia polymorpha (G. S. West) G. M. Smith 
Botany Dept. greenhouse, Tallahassee, (58). 


116 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Pringsheimiella scutata (Reinke) Schm. and Petr. 

Leon County, (180). 
Stigeoclonium lubricum (Dillw.) Kutz. 

T-Pond, (27-30); Crane Lake, (12); Mounds Pool, (19, 34). 
Stigeoclonium tenue (Ag.) Kutz. 

Crane Lake, (8); Club Spring, (179, 218, 218); Picnic Spring, (199). 


PROTOCOCCACEAE 
Protococcus viridis Ag. 
Spillway Dam, (128). 
CLADOPHORACEAE 
Chaetomorpha sp. Kutz. 
Alligator Point, (206). 
Cladophora crispata (Roth) Kutz. 
Shallow stream of St. Marks Wildlife Refuge, (48); Wakulla Springs, 
(88, 91); Little Natural Bridge, (188, 136, 187). 
Cladophora pulverulenta (Mert.) Phinn. 
Salt Marsh, (46, 53). 
Pithophora Oedogonia (Mont.) Wittr. 
Picnic Spring, (181); Little Spring, (184); Club Spring, (241). 
Rhizoclonium hieroglyphicum (Ag.) Kutz. 
- Panacea Springs, (93); Little Blue Sink, (110); Picnic Spring, (195 ); 
Club Spring, (239); Log Spring, (244, 247); Little Spring, (260). 


OEDOGONIACEAE 
Bulbochaete sp. Ag. 
Mounds Pool, (39); Lighthouse Pool, (67, 70). 
Oedogonium occidentale (Hirn) Tiffany 1 
Crane Lake, (1). 
ULVACEAE 


Enteromorpha intestinalis (L.) Link 

Salt Marsh, (46, 54). 

CHARACIACEAE 

Characium sp. A. Braun 

Woodville, (83). 

HYDRODICTYACEAE 

Hydrodictyon reticulatum (L.) Lagerh. 

Wakulla Springs, (88). 
Pediastrum duplex Meyen 

Crane Lake, (13); Mounds Pool, (18). 


OOCYSTACEAE 
Ankistrodesmus falcatus (Corda) Ralfs 
Old Quincy Highway, 6 mi. N. W. of Tallahassee, (99). 
Quadrigula Chodatii (Tanner-Fullman) G. M. Smith 
Shallow stream of St. Marks Wildlife Refuge, (45). 


1 Determined by Dr. L. H. Tiffany, Northwestern University. 


CHECK LIST OF ALGAE OF TALLAHASSEE AREA 


Zoochlorella parasitica Brandt 
Crane Lake, (203). 
SCENEDESMACEAE 


Scenedesmus acuminatus (Lagerh.) Chod. 
T-Pond, (155). 
Tetrallantos Lagerheimii Teiling 
T-Pond, (155). 
VAUCHERIACEAE 
Vaucheria sp. DC. 
Little Natural Bridge, (134, 138). 


ZYGNEMATACEAE 
Mougeotia sp. Ag. 


T-Pond, (28-80); Spillway Dam, (120); Heart Leaf Pond, (209). 


Spirogyra decima (Mull.) Kutz. 
Lake Bradford Creek, (62). 
Spirogyra flavescens (Hass.) Kutz. 


Ly 


Meridian Rd., 5 mi. N. of Tallahassee, (6); Woodville, (14, 16, 17, 20); 


Crane Lake, (51); Lake Bradford, (75). 
Zygnema crusciatum (Vauch.) Ag. 
Woodville, (20). 
Zygogonium ericetorum Kutz. 
Log Spring, (253). 
DESMIDIACEAE 


Desmidium Baileyi (Ralfs) Nordsb. 
Crane Lake, (11). 

Desmidium Grevillii (Kutz.) De Bary 
Crane Lake, (11). 

Desmidium Swartzii Ag. 
T-Pond, (42); Club Spring, (212). 

Gymnozyga sp. Ehr. ' 
Six-Mile Pond, (163). 

Hyalotheca dissiliens (Smith) Breb. 
Club Spring, (212) 

TRIBONEMATACEAE 


Tribonema bomycinum (Ag.) Derb, and Sol. 


Crane Lake, (4, 13); Mounds Pool, (18); Lake Bradford Creek, (61). 


BATRACHOSPERMACEAE 
Batrachospermum australe Coll. 
T-Pond, (26). 
CHANTRANSIACEAE 


Chantransia violacea Kutz. 
Club Spring, (217). 
Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 11(4) 1948(1949) 


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DETERMINATION OF THE PHYSICAL CONDITION 
OF FISH 


I. SOME BLOOD ANALYSES OF THE SOUTHERN 
CHANNEL CATFISH 


A. Curtis HicGINBOTHAM 
Florida State University 


AND 


Dauuas K. MEYER 
University of Missouri 


The abatement of pollution has been a major problem in con- 
servation of fish and other aquatic organisms. Consequently, a great 
deal of effort has been expended on establishing standards for the 
physical and chemical qualities of fresh water favorable to fish 
life and to the study of the effects of many pollutants on fish. The 
published data on fish blood, however, are insufficient for use in 
determining the physical condition of fish by blood analyses. In 
pollution studies such data are highly desirable for many of the 
important native food fish such as the trout, crappie, black bass, 
sunfish and catfish. 

All effects of pollutants on fish may not be detected by a study 
of the blood alone. Ellis (1937) demonstrated that some substances 
are injurious to the gills and other external structures of the fish 
without any marked absorption beyond the gills, with death re- 
sulting from anoxemia and interference with the excretory func- 
tions of the gills. Other substances cause death by specific toxic 
action after absorption through the gills and other external struc- 
tures, and the lining of the gastrointestinal tract. In many of these 
cases, especially when the respiratory and circulatory functions are 
impaired, the illness or poor physical condition of the fish may be 
expected to be reflected in the condition of the blood. 

In many instances the low concentration of pollutants may make 
streams and lakes unfavorable to fish without killing them at once 
in noticeable numbers. Nevertheless, the fish in these polluted lakes 
and streams may be harmed in various ways. The polluting sub- 
stance may reduce the available dissolved oxygen in the water 
below the level required by a thriving fish fauna. Toxic substances 
may accumulate within the fish thereby lowering their natural 


120 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


resistance to disease and adverse conditions. -The number and 
quality of food organisms may be reduced to such a low level that 
the fish are not properly nourished. These unfavorable conditions 
may go unnoticed until high temperatures and low dissolved oxygen 
concentrations of the water during the hot summer months kill 
large numbers of fish which otherwise would have lived in un- 
polluted water. 

The present report is an attempt to establish the mean values of 
the haemoglobin concentration, number of erythrocytes, per cent 
cell volume and specific gravity of the blood of a small population 
of the southern channel catfish, Ictalurus .lacustris punctatus 
(Rafinesque ). These values may be of assistance in differentiating 
individuals of this species in good physical condition from those in 
poor physical condition. The southern channel catfish was selected 
for this work because of its importance as a food fish throughout 


Table 1. The means, standard deviations, and probable error of the means 
for the specific gravity, number of erythrocytes, per cent cell 
volume, and concentration of hemoglobin for the blood of a small 
population of the southern channel catfish, Ictalurus lacustris 
punctatus (Rafinesque ) | 


Standard 
Mean Deviation | P.E. Mean 
Specific Gravity......:....... 035 1.0365 0.0040 +0.00036 
Erythrocytes per cu.mm.......... 2,175,000 371,000 +37, 300. 
Cell Volume per cent............. 32.3 53 +0.68 
Hemoglobin gm./100 ml........... Toles 1,13 +0.15 


EE Ee 
the Gulf and Mississippi Valley regions where it is common in 
streams and lakes. A further advantage in using this species is 
that is has been used extensively in physiological assay work in 
connection with a variety of pollution problems in the laboratory, 


thus providing considerable supplementary information for refer- 
ence. | 


MATERIALS AND METHODS 


The channel catfish were used either the same day collected or 
saved for later use by holding in a large concrete raceway filled 


DETERMINATION OF PHYSICAL CONDITION OF FISH 121 


with flowing water to a depth of three to five feet. Chopped spleens 
and hearts of cattle and swine were fed to the captive fish on an 
average of once every ten days. 

When blood was desired, a fish was taken from the water, pithed, 
and slit open in the mid-ventral line at the level of the pectoral 
girdle to expose the heart. The required amount of blood for the 
analyses was withdrawn from the conus arteriosus into a small 
_ paraffin-lined dish and used immediately without the addition. of 
an anti-coagulant. Seventy-six individuals were used. In some 
instances two or three different analyses were made from the same 
sample of blood while in others only one kind of analysis was 
made. The standard length of the test animals ranged from 125 to 
580 cm. and the wet weight from 37 to 3,060 grams. 

The data collected for each of blood characteristics studied were 
treated statistically. In order to demonstrate the relationship be- 
tween the apparent physical condition of the fish and the values 
for hemoglobin, specific gravity, and cell volume, the data for 
twenty fish was assembled in tabular form. 

The concentration of hemoglobin was determined photoelec- 
trically, using the method described by Hoffman (1941) for mam- 
malian blood, in which 0.1 ml. of freshly drawn blood is laked and 
thoroughly aerated by shaking in 20 ml. of 0.1 per cent sodium 
carbonate solution and read in a Cenco-Sheard-Sanford Photelo- 
meter equipped with a green filter. Each reading thus obtained 
was translated into grams of hemoglobin per 100 ml. of blood by 
reference to a calibration curve, which had been standardized by 
the Wong iron method. 

The specific gravity of the blood was obtained by following the 
method of Barbour and Hamilton (1926), in which the falling- 
time of a measured drop of blood through a 80 cm. column of a 
bromobenzene-zylene mixture is compared with that of an equiva- 
lent (equal volume) drop of a solution of potassium sulfate of 
* known specific gravity. 

The per cent cell volume was secured by centrifuging a small 
quantity of whole blood in an hematocrit for 80 minutes at 2100 
revolutions per minute. Both red and white cells are included in 
the values given. Determinations on unoxalated blood and blood in 
isotonic oxalate solutions were not significantly different. 

A Spencer “Bright-line” Haemocytometer was used to make the 
erythrocyte counts, using Toison’s solution as the diluent. 


122 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


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DETERMINATION OF PHYSICAL CONDITION OF FISH 123 


In addition to the foregoing procedures, the apparent physical 
condition as ascertained by superficial external examination, sex, 
wet weight and standard length were noted in most cases for 
each fish. 

RESULTS 


The data for the specific gravity, number of erythrocytes, per 
cent cell volume and concentration of hemoglobin are graphically 
represented in figure 1, in which the graphs show the range and 
frequency of the values obtained for each of these blood charac- 
teristics. The range of values was appreciable in each case; specific 
gravity ranged from 1.0259 to 1.0448, concentration of hemoglobin 
from 4.8 to 9.3 grams per 100 ml., number of erthrocytes from 
1,456,000 to 2,928,000 per cu mm., and cell volume from 21 to 41 
per cent. Statistical analyses of the data (table 2) indicate that the 


Table 2. Concentration of hemoglobin, per cent cell volume and specific 
gravity of the blood of the southern channel catfish, Ictalurus 
lacustris punctatus (Rafinesque), with respect to sex, wet weight, 
standard length and apparent physical condition. 


Hemoglobin | Cell Volume | Specific |} Physical 


Sex gm. /100 ml. per cent Gravity | Condition 
Male....... 8.7 1.040 | Good 
Female..... 4.8 PALS 1.027 | Poor 
Male... 6.8 33. 1.035 | Fair 
Female..... 9.3 38. 1.044 Good 
Male....... 6.5 31. 1.037 do. 
Male... 4... @@ 35. 1.042 do. 
Mitle cn... «<: 7.3 34. 1.039 do. 
Female..... 7.9 38. 1.040 do. 
Male....... 5.7 28. 1.032 | Poor 
Male....... 7.5 36. 1.038 | Good 
Male 5.7 25. 1.032 Fair 
Male... 4... 6.3 33. 1.035 do. 
Female..... 6.3 Sls 1.035 do. 
Female..... 7.0 ole 1.037 Good 
Male’ ...... 8.3 1.041 do. 
Female..... 5.9 1.033 Poor 
Male. 8.0 1.040 Good 
Female..... 1.3 1.037 | Fair. 
RISES yics . 7a 1.040 Good 
Malle,2......... 6.7 1.038-| do... < 


124‘: JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


chances are very good (at least 20 to 1) that the true mean specific 
gravity-for any similar group of channel catfish will be 1.0865 
0.0011:(3X P.E. mean). Similarly, the mean number of erythro- 
cytes per cu. mm., per cent cell volume and grams of hemoglobin 
per 100 ml. will fe 2,175,000 112,000, 32+ 2.0 and 7.1 0.45 
respectively. - : 

The elationshih between she apparent chair ‘cede and 
the hemoglobin concentration, per cent cell volume and the specific 
gravity for twenty fish is shown in table 2. In general the varia- 
tions of values for these characteristics were in the same direction 
when correlated with the physical condition of the fish. The lowest 
values obtained were associated with fish in obviously poor physical 
condition and the higher ones with those in better condition. 


SUMMARY 

In view of the insufficiency of published shanties data for 
determination of the physical condition of certain important fresh- 
water food fish, an attempt is made to establish the mean values 
for the specific gravity, number of erthrocytes, per cent cell volume 
and concentration of hemoglobin for the blood of the southern 
_ channel catfish, Ictalurus lacustris punctatus (Rafinesque). Data 
obtained from the study of seventy-six individuals gave the mean 
value for ie gravity as 1.0365 0.0011, for the number of 
erythrocrytes as 2,175,000 112,000 per millimeter, for cell volume 
as 32+ 2.0 per cent and for hemoglobin, 7.1 +0.45 grams per 100 
milliliters. The lowest values obtained were associated with fish in 

obviously poor physical condition and the higher ones eae fish 
in apparently good physical condition. | 


LITERATURE CITED 
BARBOUR, H. G., and W. F. HAMILTON 
1926. The falling drop method for determining specific gravity. Jour. 
Biol. Chem., 69: 625-640. 
ELLIS, M: M. 
1937. Detection and measurement of stream pollution. Bull. No. 22, 
U.S. Bur. Fish., 48: 865-437. 
HOFFMAN, W. S. 
1941. Photelometric Clinical. Chemistry. William Morrow and Company, 
"New York. 
Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 11(4) 1948(1949) 
LEGEND 
Figure 1. Range and frequency of the values for specific gravity, eeaees of 
erythrocytes, per cent cell volume and hemoglobin concentration of 
a small population of the southern channel catfish, Ictalurus 
lacustris punctatus (Rafinesque ) 


AN ABANDONED VALLEY NEAR HIGH SPRINGS, FLORIDA 


RicHarD A. EDWARDS 
University of Florida 


In the vicinity of High Springs, Florida, the presence of lime- 
stone close to the surface has permitted the development of topo- 
graphic features produced by the solution of limestone formations. 
One of these features is an abandoned valley which heads in a 
small sink hole and whose course in a general southwesterly direc- 
tion brings it to the Santa Fe River about four miles west of High 
Springs. 

The upland surface northwest of High Springs is between 65 and 
75 feet (Kidd, 1937; 170, 185) above sea level with a rolling 
topography and a maximum relief of nearly 45 feet. This upland 
surface is at the right elevation to be included in the topographic 
features which Cooke (1939; 46-48) recognizes as the Wicomico 
and Penholoway Terrace levels. A generalized topographic map 
compiled by the War Department? shows the surface sloping 
from between 70-80 feet down to the southwest toward the Santa 
Fe River. _ 

The surface material is an unconsolidated sand which occurs as 
a veneer on the surface of the eroded limestone. Exposures of the 
limestone are found in the road cuts near the head and along the 
sides of the valley. An occasional bluff and weathered cherty 
boulders along the slopes are the only indications of the limestone 
in the lower portion of the valley. 

This valley which is no doubt one of those mentioned by Stubbs 
(1941; 165) has its head located about 4.4 miles northwest of the 
Post Office in High Springs along the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad 
and Florida Highway No. 20. On the aerial photograph? (Plate I, 
fig. 1) the valley is shown by the darker colored, heavily forested 
hammock area. Its general trend is in a southwesterly direction 
from the bend in the road and railroad near the northern edge of 
the figure. These last two features are represented on the photo 
by the straight white band extending in a northwesterly direction 

1 War Dept., Corps of Engineers, Jacksonville District issues 3 sheets for 


Peninsular Florida. Scale 1:250,000, contour interval 10 ft. 
2 U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Photo by Edgar Tobin Aerial Surveys. 


126 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


across the photograph. The dark sinuous line extending across the 
photo is the Sante Fe River. 

A detailed study of this area reveals that there is a distinct, 
, recognizable valley which connects the spring head with the 
Santa Fe River. For purposes of description, it is best to break 
the valley up into three segments, the upper section extending 
from the east-west woods road to the head of the valley, the middie 
section from this road south to the narrowest part of the valley 
and the lower portion from the narrow part.of the valley to the 
Santa Fe. In the upper part of the valley, the floor consists of a 
series of flat-bottomed basins which are separated by very low 
divides. The east-west woods road crosses the valley on one of 
these divides. To the southwest of the road, the basins become 
less numerous. Just south of the narrowest part of the valley, there 
is a basin the lower rim of which is now intrenched by the surface 
drainage which uses this part of the channel. From here to the 
junction of the Santa Fe, the basin-like character is lacking, being 
replaced by a flat-bottomed, gently sloping valley floor. 

The character of the walls and sides of the valley is quite 
variable. Beginning at the head of the valley, the walls, etched by 
‘differential weathering, are nearly vertical bluffs, which in places 
stand 15 to 20 feet above the flat-floored valley. In other places, 
weathering and solution have penetrated along a series of joints 
to produce breaks in the valley walls. Along the west side, just 
below the head of the valley, are several angular blocks of lime- 
stone as yet unreduced by weathering and erosion (Plate 2, fig. 2). 
The striking feature, however, is the lack of residual blocks along 
the bluffs. As might be expected, farther down valley, the steep- 
ness of the valley walls diminishes, but occasionally the limestone 
is exposed in low bluffs, thus making it possible to recognize the 
limits of the valley in the dense underbrush. 

From the aerial photograph it appears that the channel occupies 
all of the dark area, but this is not the case. On each side of the 
main channel there are numerous sinks and solution pits some of 
them elongated with the long axis conforming to the axis of the 
main channel. This produces a very rough terrain on which a 
thicket of vegetation different from the surrounding more open 
woods has developed. 

In the middle section south of the east-west sand road, the 


AN ABANDONED VALLEY NEAR HIGH SPRINGS 127 


es 
\S 


SS 


PLATE I- 

Fig. 1 (upper) Aerial photograph showing valley. Village is part of High 
Springs, Florida. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Photo by Edgar Tobin 
Aerial Surveys. 

Fig. 2 (lower) Wall at head of valley, spring head in foreground under 
fallen tree. 


128 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


valley is more open. Except for the rather steep sides of the sink 
south of the road, the valley sides rise gradually from the flat- 
bottomed floor. A similar situation exists just below the narrowest 
portion of the valley where an obscure weods road crosses the 
valley on a low sand ridge. From here to the junction with the 
Santa Fe, the slope of the sides is gentle and the course of the 
valley can best be recognized by following the edge of the swampy 
area of the valley bottom. 

Even though at the present time this valley is not occupied by a 
continuous surface stream, there is a slight downward slope from 
its head to its mouth. The elevation of the flat-bottomed basin at 
the head of the valley is a little above 36 feet. [Elevation estab- 
lished by handleveling from Bench mark BF 117 (Kidd 19387; 170) ]. 
In October of 1947, the surface of the Santa Fe River at the gage on 
Florida Highway No. 20, was about 32 feet in elevation. At this time 
the mouth of the tributary valley was under 2 to 3 feet of water. 
As this tributary valley enters the Santa Fe about two miles below 
the gage, the elevation at the mouth is something less than 32 
feet. 

In the head of the valley is an open sink hole about 2 to 3 feet 
across (Plate 1, fig. 2). From here there is a distinct channel, 
bordered by nearly vertical limestone walls continuing down to 
the flat valley floor mentioned above. About 5 feet above the 
present floor at an elevation of approximately 42 feet is a bench 
1 to 3 feet wide eroded in the limestone wall (Plate 2, fig. 3). The 
bench is well preserved on both sides of the valley where it is cut 
in the limestone, but is obscure where the walls give way to the 
sandy slopes. 

To the north and east of the head of the valley is an elongate 
sink nearly 450 feet long with the elevation of the floor about 36 
feet. It is separated from the head of the valley by a limestone wall 
which is covered in part by fill for both the railroad and the 
highway. In general the walls of this sink are not as steep nor is 
as much country rock exposed as is found along the sides of the 
valley to the southwest. 

The formation of the valley can best be explained by the head- 
ward sapping of tributary springs. As these springs, fed either from 
a confined aquifer or from seepage at the level of the water table, 
dissolved the limestone and removed the eroded material, they 


PLATE II 

Fig. 3 (upper) Hammer rests on the surface of the bench eroded in limestone 
valley wall. 

Fig. 4 (lower) View looking down the flat-bottomed valley a short distance 
below the head of the valley, rock wall with notch at lower right, 
weathered boulders in foreground. 


129 


130 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


have gradually worked their way headward. Thus the extension 
of the valley was accomplished until it has reached its present 
length and shape. The drainage from the sink across the road no 
doubt flows through solution channels into the lower valley. In 
time the intervening wall will be removed and the sink will become 
a part of the main valley. A glance at the aerial photo will reveal 
a marked parallelism of the trend of this valley and the Santa Fe 
River. Such a degree of conformance probably reflects the control 
that jointing has had on development of the drainage pattern. 

In October of 1947, the shallow basins contained water about a 
foot deep, while the lower part of the valley was flooded by the | 
backwater of the Santa Fe. Quite a bit of water was flowing into 
the upper basin from springs just above the present floor. Water 
stood in the sink at the head of the valley at an elevation of 36 
feet and a rise of about 6 feet would have permitted it to overflow 
the rim of debris about the spring head. At dry times of the year, 
no water is visible in the sink hole at the head of the valley. and 
the basins are nearly dry. 

The presence of the bench at an elevation of 42 feet indicates 
_ that at some time in the past the flow from the spring was sufficient 
to maintain the surface of the water in a pool in the upper section 
of the valley at this height. At this time solution along the edge of 
the pool, and possibly erosion by running water, cut the notch in 
the limestone. Since that time the water level has dropped and 
only at times of heavy precipitation has water accumulated in the 
bottom of the valley. 

In considering a valley of this nature, there are certain questions 
which present themselves. First, when did the valley form and, 
second, by what sequence of events did it develop into its present 
state? An answer to these requires some inquiries into the physio- 
graphic history of this region. Cooke (1939; 33-58) has recognized 
here in Florida several shorelines and terraces associated with fluc- 
tuations in sea level during the Pleistocene. Although in Peninsular 
Florida these features are more readily observed on the east coast, 
they have left some traces of their existence on the west coast. Those 
terraces to be considered in the High Springs area are: Wicomico 
(100-70 feet), Penholoway (70-42 feet), Talbot (42-25 feet), Pam- 
lico (25-0 feet). The first three are correlated with the Sangamon 
interglacial stage, while the last one is associated with a retreat 
of the ice during the Wisconsin glaciation. 


AN ABANDONED VALLEY NEAR HIGH SPRINGS 131 


Table showing correlation of the terraces with events in the Pleistocene 
(modified from Parker and Cooke 1944; 20). 


Age Terraces Present Elevation 
(in feet) 

Wisconsin Pamlico 258 
Talbot 49 

Sangamon Penholoway 70 
Wicomico 100 

Illinoian 

Yarmouth Sunderland 170 
Coharie 215 

Kansan 

Aftonian Brandywine 270 

Nebraskan 


Since this valley is eroded in the surface of the Wicomico and 
Penholoway terraces, it must have been formed since the with- 
drawal of the Penholoway Sea and the subsequent exposure of this 
area to erosion. As this valley is a tributary to the Santa Fe, its 
history should reflect that of the main drainage as it responded to 
fluctuations in sea level. 

When the ocean level dropped from the Penholoway level and 
established itself at the Talbot level, the shore line extended up 
the Suwannee Valley and probably some distance up the Santa Fe 
(Cooke 19389; 38, 49). At this time erosion could have begun to 
excavate the lower portion of the valley. With the formation of the 
Early Wisconsin ice sheet, sea level dropped to some elevation 
below its present surface. This, no doubt, caused a seaward ex-. 
tension of the surface drainage and possibly a speeding up of 
erosion in the lower reaches of the main streams. It is unlikely 
that the Santa Fe eroded much below its present valley in this area, 
as it would have been some distance to the mouth of the valley. 
There is, however, the possibility that it could have flowed under- 
ground in some portions of its course. 

The rise of the oceans with the return of the water during a 
retreat of the ice in Wisconsin time brought the level of the sea 
up to the Pamlico Terrace at 25 feet. An associated rise in the water 
table could have caused the flowage of the springs and the de- 
velopment of the narrow bench at about 42 feet at the head of the 


132 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


valley. As the last glaciation took place, sea level dropped causing 
a lowering of the hydrostatic head so that the spring ceased to 
flow. With the retreat of the ice sheet the ocean level has risen to 
its present position. The water table, as yet, has not risen suf- 
ficiently high to cause flowage from the spring for even in high 
water the spring at the head of the valley does not overflow. 
The foregoing history is a possible sequence of events which 
has taken place since the exposure of this area to erosion in the 
late portion of Sangamon Interglacial time. It gives at least the 
earliest date for the beginning of erosion and an explanation for 
the abandonment of the valley by surface drainage. The processes 
of valley excavation are still going on. In time the limestone wall 
separating the head of the valley and the sink hole across the 
railroad and road will be reduced and another extension of the 
valley will have been accomplished. 
Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 11(4), 1948( 1949) 


LITERATURE CITED 
COOKE, C. WYTHE pe 
1939. Scenery of Florida. Fla. Geol. Sur. Bull. No. 17. 118 pp. 
KIDD, R. G., JR., EDITOR 
1937. Florida Triangulation Traverse and Leveling. Vol. 2, Florida 
Mapping Project. 510 pp. 
PARKER, GAROLD-. G. and C. WYTHE COOKE 
1944, Late Cenozoic Geology of Southern Florida with a discussion of 
the Ground Water. Fla. Geol. Sur. Bull. No. 27. 119 pp. 
STUBBS, SIDNEY A. 
1941. Solution a dominant factor in the Geomorphology of Peninsular 
Florida. Proc. Fla. Acad. of Sci., Vol. 5, pp. 148-167. 


NEWS AND COMMENTS 


The editor considers this section of the Journal a very important 
means of disseminating information of interest to the membership 
of the Academy. It is hoped that all members will keep this section 
in mind and send in grist for the mill at regular intervals. When- 
ever you come across an item of interest don't wait, write it on a 
penny postal or in a letter at once, and drop it in the mail. 

The Council had a very pleasant and profitable meeting in 
DeLand on October 1. President Edmunds of Stetson entertained 
the group in his private dining room with a superb steak dinner. 
After dinner the Council got down to work and completed the 
business at hand by 1:00 A. M. Mr. P. W. Frazer (Forestry, U. 
of F.) was appointed Academy Representative on the Board of 
the Florida Park Service. Several matters having to do with the 
current membership drive were approved for presentation to the 
membership at the annual meeting. The appointment of an Ad- 
vertising Manager for the Journal was recommended and approved. 
The usual committee reports were made and the Secretary-Treas- 
urer gave a financial report that indicated the need of additional 
funds for the treasury. The President gave a detailed account of 
the difficulties encountered in the valiant attempt to get the State 
Legislature to appropriate funds for the support of the Academy. 
He indicated, further, that hope for action in the future has not 
been abandoned. Dr. Nielsen reported that Dr. Bellamy could not 
be present due to ill health. The Council missed his good humor 
_ and wide acquaintance with Academy affairs. Dr. Winchester 
(Biology, Stetson), Chairman of the Local Arrangements Com- 
mittee, outlined plans for the 1949 meetings in DeLand. They 
compared favorably with the steak dinner. 

Dr. T. Stanton Dietrich (Sociology, F. S. U.) has been appointed 
Advertising Manager for the Journal. If you know of any good 
prospects for advertisers in the Journal please get in touch with 
Dr. Dietrich. 

Dr. George F. Weber (Plant Pathology, U. of F.) will represent 
the Academy at the A. A. A. S. meetings in New York during 
December. 

Dr. H. H. Hume retired as Dean of the College of Agriculture. 
at the University of Florida on July 1 and we are informed that 
he is having a wonderful time working on his camelias. Miss 


134 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Esther Coogle, staff artist for the Department of Biology and the 
College of Agriculture, made a number of drawings for his book 
on camelias, now in press. Miss Coogle is also engaged on a long 
term project on the shrubs, woody vines,-and flowering plants 
of the region for Mr. Erdman West, coauthor of “The Trees of 
Florida”. ) | 

Dr. John E. Hawkins (Chemistry, U. of F.), our president, is a 
busy man these days what with Council meetings, traveling to 
Chicago to present a paper before the Electrochemical Society, 
and performing the duties as president of the local chapter of | 
A. A. U. P. 

Dr. A. P. Black (Chemistry, U. of F.) has just returned to the 
campus from a five weeks trip during which, as President of the 
American Waterworks Association, he visited all the sections of 
the Association, traveling from coast to coast. 

Dr. A. H. Gropp (Chemistry, U. of F.) recently attended con- 
ferences on corrosion in Washington, D. C., at the National Bureau 
of Standards and the Office of Naval Research. 

Dr. E. G. Rietz (Chemistry, U. of F.) gave a paper before the 
. southeastern regional meeting of the American Chemical Society 
at Oak Ridge in June. 


We are pleased to announce the return of a former Academician 
to the fold. Dr. A. F. Carr, Jr. and wife, Margie, have returned to 
Gainesville after an absence of four and a half years in Honduras. 
“Archie” taught biology and agricultural chemistry at the Escuela 
Agricola Panamericana in Tegucigalpa and both he and Margie 
collected and studied the fauna of the region. Their most note- 
worthy accomplishment, however, was the fine family of one gir] 
and three boys with which they returned. 


Mr. Wilfred T. Neill, Herpetologist, formerly with the Augusta 
Junior College, has assumed the duties of Director of Research 
at Ross Allen’s Reptile Institute, Silver Springs. We hear that he 
and Ross have recently returned from a successful collecting trip 


in Cuba. 


Dr. John Henry Davis (Botany, U. of F.) is planning to take his 
family to New Zealand for a year to teach and botanize under the 
auspices of the Fullbright Act. The latest bulletin has brother Davis 
all up in the air on account of the devaluation of the English 


pound. 


NEWS AND COMMENTS 135 


As the membership grows there will arise, undoubtedly, the need 
for new sections of the Academy. Anyone who feels that a new 
section is needed should get in touch with Dr. E. Ruffin Jones, Jr. 
(Biology, U. of F.) so that steps can be taken to supply the need. 


The publication of this number leaves the Journal still one year 
behind in publication. Without additional sources of income we 
cannot hope to correct this situation. The officers of the Academy 
have been wrestling with the problem and have come up with 
several possible solutions, outlined elsewhere in this section of the 
Tournal. One additional possibility is the several new classes of 
membership to be considered by the Academy at the 1949 meetings. 
in the absence of support from the state only the concerted and 
generous action of the entire membership is going to correct the 
present financial situation. 


The editor apologizes for the lack of “news and comments’ on 
members from Tallahassee, Miami, DeLand, Lakeland, Winter 
Park, Tampa, Jacksonville, etc. This is partly due to the fact that 
ihis section was written as a “last minute job”. However, somebody 
in those respective localities is going to have to supply the editor 
with the necessary material in the future, if any improvement is 
to be made. 


MEMBERSHIP DRIVE 


The long delayed membership drive is finally under way and 
some new members have been added already. The Membership 
Drive Committee consists of one member from each of the insti- 
tutions of higher learning in the state and several members at 
large. All members of the Academy are urged, repeat urged, to 
participate in this drive. If each member will make it a point to 
secure at least one new member the additional income from dues 
will make it possible to bring the Journal, now one year behind 
in publication, up to date. 

A small folder containing information about the Academy, with 
a new application blank insert, has been prepared to be handed 
to prospective new members. These may be obtained from the 
Secretary or from the Chairman of the Membership Committee, 
Dr. E. Ruffin Jones, Jr. (Biology, U. of F.). The Membership Drive 
Committee has set a goal of 250 new members to be secured by the © 
time of the 1949 meetings and a membership of 1,000 by the 1950 


136 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


meetings. Let us all lend a hand in the realization of these ob- 
jectives. 

A Committee on Institutional Memberships has also been ap- 
pointed to try to secure additional institutional members. The 
Chairman of this committee is Dr. P. B. Reinsch (Mathematics, 
Florida Southern). Any member of the Academy who knows of an 
institution, company, or other organization that might be willing 
to help promote the cause of science in the state with an institu- 
tional membership is urged to send the information to Dr. Reinsch. 
Doubling the present number of institutional members would pay — 
for the publication of one number of the Journal annually. 


INDEX TO VOLUME 11 


[New names are printed in bold-face type. Due to the fact that numbers 1 and 2-3 have 
duplicate pagination, in this index the number is given in bold-face type. ] 


ANNELIDA 
Chatonotus sp., 2-3, 22 
Algz (see PLANTS) 
AMPHIBIA 
Acris gryllus dorsalis, 2-3, 26 
Hyla c. cinerea, 2-3, 26 
—crucifer bartramiana, 2=3, 26, 59 
—c. crucifer, 2-3, 61 
Rana catesbeiana, 2=3, 26 
—clamitans, 2-3, 26 
—grylio, 2-3, 26 
—pipiens sphenocephala, 2-3, 26 
Triturus v. louisianensis, 2-3, 26 


AVES (see BIRDS) 


BACTERIOLOGY 
Polyiomyelitis virus, 1, 37 

Bats (see MAMMALS) 

BIRDS 
Anas f. fulvigula, 2-3, 26 
Anhinga anhinga, 2-3, 26 
Ardea herodias wardii, 2-3, 26 
Butorides v. virescens, 2-3, 26 
Casmerodius albus egretta, 2=3, 26 
Egretta t. thula, 2-3, 26 
Florida c. carulea, 2-3, 26 
Fulica a. americana, 2-3, 26 
Gallinula chloropus cachinnans, 2=3, 26 
Guara alba, 2-3, 26 
Hydrassna tricolor ruficollis, 2-3, 26 
lonornis martinica, 2-3, 26 
Ixobrychus e. exilis, 2-3, 26 
Nyctanassa v. violacea, 2=3, 26 
Nycticorax nycticorax hoactli, 2-3, 26 


Phalacrocorax auritus floridanus, 2-3, 26 — 


Podilymbus p. podiceps, 2-3, 26 
Blood Analyses 

Catfish, 4, 119 
BRYOZOA 

Plumatella sp., 2-3, 25 


CCELENTERATES 
Hydra sp., 2-3, 22 
COLEOPTERA 
Agabus punctatus, 2=3, 24 
Anodochilus exiguus, 2-3, 24 
Berosus infuscatus, 2-3, 25 
B. longovalis, Z=3, 24 
Bidessonotus pulicarius, 2-3, 24 
Bidessus affinis, 2-3, 24 
—floridanus, 2-3, 24 
—sgranarius, 2-3, 24 
Copelatus chevrolati, 2-3, 25 


COLEOPTER A—continued 
Coptotomus 2. obscurus, 2-3, 24 
Desmopachria granum, 2=3, 24 

—mutchleri, 2-3, 24 
Dineutus carolinus, 2-3, 25 
Ega sallei, 2=3, 25 
Eonchrus cinctus, 2-3, 25 

—consors, 2°35 25 

—nebulosus, 2-3, 25 

—ochraceus, 2=3, 25 
Enochrus sp., 2=3, 25 
Graphoderus liberus, 2-3, 24 
Gyrinus elevatus, 2-3, 25 

—pachysomus, 2-3, 25 

—rockinghamensis, 2-3, 25 
Haliplus annulatus, 2=3, 25 
Helochares maculicollis, 2=3, 25 
Helodes sp., 2-3, 25 
Hydrocanthus n.sp., 2-3, 24 

—oblongus, 2=3, 24 
Hydrochus foveatus, 2-3, 25 

—scabratus rugosus, 2-3, 25 

—simplex, 2=3, 25 
Hydroporus falli, 2=3, 25 

—hebes, 223, 25 

—lynceus, 2-3, 25 
Hydrovatus compressus, 2-3, 24 
Laccophilus fasciatus, 2=3, 25 

—sgentilis, 2-3, 25 

—proximus, 2=3, 25 
Paracymus despectus, 2-3, 25 

—nanus, 2=3, 25 
Pelonomus obscurus gracilipes, 2-3, 25 
Peltodytes floridensis, 2-3, 25 
Ranatra calidus, 223, 25 
Stenus sp., 2-3, 25 
Suphisellus floridanus, 2-3, 24 

—sibbulus, 2=3, 24 

—puncticollis, 2-3, 24 
Thermonectes, Basilaris, 2-3, 25 
Tropisternus blatchleyi, 2=3, 25 

—slaber, 2-3, 25 

—Lateralis, 2=3, 25 

—striolatus, 2=3, 25 

Common names of fishes, 4, 99 

CRUSTACEA 
Argulus sp., 2-3, 23 
Bosmina sp., 2=3, 23 
Cyclops albidus, 2=3, 23 

—ater, 2-3, 23 

—phaleratus, 2=3, 23 

—serrulatus, 2=3, 23 
Cypris sp., 223, 23 
Daphnia sp., 2-3, 22 
Diaptomus dorsalis, 2=3, 23 


138 


CRUSTACEA—continued 
—wmississippiensis, 2-3, 23 
Eubranchipus sp., 2-35 22 
Eulimnadea sp., 2-3, 22 
Hyalella sp., 2-3, 23 
Limnetis sp., 2-3, 22 
Paleomonetes palludosa, 2-3, 23 
Procambarus fallax, 2-35 23 
—paninsulanus, 2=3, 23 
Simocephalus sp., 2=3, 23 
Stroptocephalus sealiz, 2-3, 22 


Dickinson, J. C., Jr., An Ecological Reconnais- 
sance of the Biota of Some Ponds and Ditches 
in Northern Florida, 2=3, 1-28 

Dietrich, T. Stanton, The Organizational 
Structure of Industrial and Independent 
Labor Groups in the Petroleum Industry, 
2=3, 29-38 

DIPTERA 
Chironomus lobiferous, 2-3, 25 
Dolichopeza (O.) subslipes, 2-3, 25 
Erioptera (M.) caloptera, 2=3, 25 
Gonomyia pleuralis, 2-3, 25 

—sulphurella, 2-3, 25 
Limonia (D.) distans, 2=3, 25 

—divisia, 2-3, 25 
' —(G.) rostrata, 2-3, 25 
Megistocera longipes, 2-3, 25 
Orthocladius sp., 2-3, 25 
Palpomya sp., 2=3, 25 
Pentaneura sp., 2-3, 25 
Piloria arguta, 2-3, 25 
Polymera georgia, 2-3, 25 
Psychoda sp., 2-3, 25 
Tanytarsus sp., 2-3, 25 


ECOLOGY 
Biota of ponds and ditches, northern 
Florida, 2-3, 1 
Fishes in springs, 4, 99 
Red Tide studies, 1, 1 
ECONOMICS 
Taxes, 4, 69 
Edwards, Richard A., An Abandoned Valley 
near High Springs, Florida, & 125-132 
ENDEMISM 
Flowering plants of Florida, 1, 25-35; 
2-3, 39-57 
EPHEMEROPTERA 
Canis diminuta, 2-3, 23 
Callibatis floridanus, 2=3, 23 


FISH 
Acipenser brevirostrum 4, 101 
Ameturus natalis erebennus, &, 103 


Archosargus probatocephalus, 4, 106 


JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


FISH—continued 
Bagre marinus, 4, 103 
Caranx hippos, 4 109 
Catfish, Southern channel, blood anal- 
yses, 4, 119 
Centropomus undecimalis, 4, 105 
Chanobryttis coronarius, 2-3, 26; 4, 107 
Chriopeops goodei, 2=3, 26; 4, 104 
Fish, common names of, 4, 107 - 
Cynoscion nebulosus, 4, 107 
Cyprinodon hubbsi, 2-3, 67 
—variegatus variegatus, 4, 104 
(?) Dasyatis sabinus, 4, 101 
Echeneis naucrates, 4, 109 
Elassoma evergladet, 2-3, 26 
Enneacanthus gloriosus, 2-3, 26 
Erimystax harperi, 4, 102 
Erimyzon s. sucetta, 2-3, 25; 4, 102 
Esox niger, 2-3, 26 
Eucinostomous argenteus, 44 106 
Fundulus crysotus, 2-3, 26 
Fundulus seminolis, 2=3, 68 
Galeichthys felis, 4, 103 
Gambusia affinis holbrookit, 2-3, 26; 4, 105 
Heterandria formosa, 2=3, 26; 4, 104 
Hololepis bavratti, 2-3, 26 
Huro salmoides, 2-3, 26 
Ictalurus lacustris punctatus, 4, 120 
Jordanella florida, 2=3, 26 
Lagodon rhomboides, 4, 106 
Lepisosteus osseus, 2=3, 25; 4, 101 
Lepomis macrochirus purpurescens, 2-3, 26, 
68: 4, 107 
Lepomis microlophis microlophis, 2-3, 26; 
4, 108 
Lepomis punctatus punctatus, 4, 107 
Lucania parva, 4, 104 
Lutianus apodus, 4, 106 
—griseus, &, 105 
Menidia beryllina atrimentis, 2-3, 68 
Micropterus salmoides floridanus, 2-3, 68; 
4, 108 
Mollienisia latipinna, 4, 105 
Mugil cephalus, 1, 7-23; 4, 108 
Mugil curema, &, 108 
Notemigonus chrysoleucus bosct, 2-3, 25; 
4,103 
Schilbeodes mollis, 2-3, 25 
Scéanops ocellatus, & 107 
Strong ylura marina, &, 104 
Tarpon atlanticus, 4, 101 
Young of striped mullet (Mugil cephalus 
iby i. Ws, 
FLATWORMS 
Planaria sp., 2-3, 22 
FLORIDA 
Algz of north Florida, 2=3, 63 
Bats, extension range, 1, 50 
Early naturalists, 1, 25-35 
Ecology of ponds and ditches, 2-3, 1 


INDEX TO VOLUME 11 139 


FLORIDA—continued 
Endemic plants, 1, 25-35 
Fishes of Homosassa Springs, 4, 99 
Fish, range extension of, 2=3, 67 
Geomorphology, 4, 125 
Mullet, striped, young of, 1, 7-23 
Red Tide, causes of, 1, 1-6 
Flowers in Wolffiella floridana, 4, 87 
Frog songs, 2=3, 59 


GASTROTRICHA 
Bdellodrillus sp., 2-3, 22 
Dero sp., 2-35 22 
Nais sp., 2=3,, 22 
Goin, Coleman J., The Peep Order in Peepers; 
A Swamp Water Serenade, 2-35 59-61 
Ground water, 4, 125 
Gymnodinium brevis Davis, 1,1 


Harper, Roland M., A Preliminary List of 
the Endemic Flowering Plants of Florida, 1, 
25-35; 2-3, 39-57 

HEMIPTERA 
Belostoma lutarium, 2-3, 24 
Benacus griseus, 2=3, 24 
Buenoa margaritacea, 2-3, 24 
Gerris canaliculatus, 2=3, 24 
Hesperscorixa sp., 2°35 24 
Hesperocorixa interrupta, 2-3, 24 

—unitida, 2-3, 24 
Hydrometra myra, 2-3, 24 
Mesovelia sp., 2-3, 24 
Macrovelia sp., 2-3, 24 
Notonecta indica, 2-3, 24 
Pelocorés sp., 2=3, 24 
Plea sp., 223, 24 
Ranatra australis, 2-3,, 24 

—draket, 2-3, 24 
Rhagovelia sp., 2-3, 24 
Sigara hubbelli, 2-3, 24 
Velia sp., 2-3, 24 

Herald, Earl S:, and Roy R. Strickland, An 
Annotated List of the Fishes of Homosassa 
Springs, Florida, 4 99-109 

Higginbotham, A. Curtis, and Dallas K. 
Meyer, Determination of the Physical Condi- 
tion of Fish. I. Some Blood Analyses of the 
Southern Channel Catfish, 4, 119-124 

HISTORY 
Florida, early naturalists, 1, 25-35 
Homosassa Springs, Fishes of, 4, 99 

Howitt, Beatrice F., and Rachel H. Gorrie, 
Relationship of Recently Isolated Human 
Fecal Strains of Poliomyelitis to the Lansing 
Murine Strain, 1, 37-47 


HYDROZOA (see CELENTERATES) 


Kilby, John D., A Preliminary Report on the 
Young Striped Mullet (Mugil cephalus Lin- 
fee) in Two Gulf Coastal Areas of Florida, 

9 Ts 

Korea, The plight of, 4, 75 

Kurz, Herman, and Dorothy Crowson, The 
Flowers of Wolffiella floridana (J.D.Sim.) 
Thompson, 4, 87-98 


Labor groups, 2=3,, 29 
Life History of Mugzl cephalus, 1, 7-23 


MAMMALS 

Bats, in Florida, 1, 50 

Corynorhinus macrotis, 1, 50 

Dasypterus flortidanus, 1, 50 
MARINE BIOLOGY 

Red Tide studies, 1, 1 

Young of mullet, 1, 7-23 
MEDICINE 

Poliomyelitis, 1, 37 
Membership Drive, 4, 135 
MOLLUSCA 

Lymnaa sp., 2-3, 25 

Physa sp., 2-3, 25 

Planorbes sp., 2-3, 25 

Pomacea sp., 2-3, 25 

Spharium sp., 2=3, 25 
Moore, Joseph Curtis, Range Extension of 

Two Bats in Florida, 1, 50 


NATURALISTS 
Alden, Lieut BSRe 1528 
Baldwin, William, 1, 27 
Barnhart, John Hendley, 1, 26 
Bartram, William, 1, 27 
Bartram, John, 1, 26 
Blodgett, J. L., 1, 29; 2=3, 41 
Gatesby, Mark, 1, 26 
Chapman, A. W., 1, 29 
Croom, Hardy B., 1, 28 
Curtiss, Allen H., 1, 30 
Darby, John, 1, 29 
Feay, William T., 1, 31 
Garber, A. P., 1, 31 
Gray, Asa, 1, 29 
Harper, Francis, 1, 27 
Hitchcock, A. S., 1, 32 
Hulse, G. W., 1, 29 
Leavenworth, M. C., 1, 29 
Michaux, Andre, 1, 27 
Nash, George V., 1, 32 
Nuttall, Thomas, 1, 28 
Rolphs, P. H., 1, 32 
Rugel, Ferdinand, 1, 29 
Simpson, Joseph H., 1, 31 
Small, John K., 1, 26, 33 


140 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


NATURALISTS—continued 
Stuart, N. H., 2=3, 41 
Swingle, W. T., 1, 32 
Torrey, John, 1, 29; 2-3, 41 
Tracy, S. M., 1; 33 
Ware, Nathaniel A., 1, 28 
Webber, Herbert J., 1, 32 
Wood, Prof. Alphonso (1810-1881), 
2=3, 40 ' 
Wright, Samuel Hart, 2-3, 42 
Wright, William, 2-3, 41 
News and Comments, 4, 133-135 
Nielsen, G. S., and Grace C. Madsen, Check 
List of the Alga of Northern Florida 1, 2=8, 
63-66 


ODONATA 

Anax junius, 2-3, 23 
—longipes, 2-3, 23 

Celithemis eponina; 2-3, 23 

Coyphaschna ingens, 2-3, 23 

Enallagma sp., 2-3, 24 
—traviatum, 2-3, 24 

Erythrodiplax minuscula, 2-3, 24 

Gomphus minutus, 2-3, 23 
—pallidus, 2-3, 23 

Ischnura credula, 2-3, 24 
—posita, 2-3, 24 

Lestes forcipatus, 2=3, 24 
—vidua, 2-3, 24 

Libellula auripennis, 2-3, 24 
—lydia, 2-3, 24 

Nehallenia sp., 2=3, 24 

Pachydiplax longipennis, 2-3, 24 

Pantala flavescens, 2-3, 24 


Papillate Cells, in Wolffiella, 4, 93 
Petroleum Industry, labor groups, 2=3, 29 
Physiography, Florida, 4, 125 
PHYSIOLOGY 

Blood analyses, catfish, 4, 119 
PISCES (see FISH) 
Pistil, structure of, in Wolffiella, 4, 91 
PLANKTON CGsee Dickinson, 2=3, 1) 

Gymnodinium brevis Davis, 1,1 
Plant anatomy, flower parts, 4, 91 
PLANTS 

Acanthocereus Floridanus, 2-3, 51 

Acnida Floridana, 2=3, 46 

FEschynomene pratensis, 2-3, 49 

Agave decipiens, 2-3, 45 

—neglecta, 2-3, 45 
Agalinsis Keyensis, 2=3,5 54 
—stenophylla, 2=3, 54 

Ageratum littorale, 2=3, 55 

Amarolea megacarpa, 2-3, 53 
Ammopursus Oblingeram, 2-3, 56 


Amor pha Dewinkeleri, 2-3, 48 


PLANTS—continued 
—crenulata, 2-3, 48 
—Floridana, 2-3, 48 
—Bushii, 2-3, 48 

Amphithrix janthina, 4 113 

Anabana flgs-aqua, 4, 112 
—oscillarioides, 4, 112 
—spharica, 2-3, 64 

Anamomis Simpsonii, 2-3, 52 
—dicrana, 2-3, 52 

- Andropogon longiberbis, 2=3, 43 
—brachystachyus, 2-3, 43. 
—Cabanisit, 2-3, 43 
—arctatus, 2-3, 43 
—Floridanus, 2-3, 43 
Ankistrodesmus falcatus, 4, 116 
—sp., 2-3, 21 

Argemone leicarpa, 2=3,5 47 
Aristida patula, 2=3, 44 
—tenuispica, 2=3, 44 
Asclepias vividula, 2=3, 53 
Asclepiodella Feayi, 1, 31; 2=3, 53 
Ascyrum Edisonianum, 2-3, 50 
Asemeia leiodes, 2-3, 49 
—cumulicola 2-3, 49 
Aster linguiformis, 2-3, 56 
—fontinalis, 2=3, 56 
—simulatus, 2-3, 56 
—plumosus, 2°34 56 
—Simmondsii, 2-3, 56 
—spatelliformis, 2=3, 56 
—pinifolius, 2-3, 56 
—gracilipes, 2-3, 56 
—brachypholis, 2-35 56 
—spinulosus, 2-3, 56 
—Chapmanii, 2-3, 56 
Atamosco Simpsonit, 2=3, 45 
—Treatia, 2-3, 45 
Azalea austrina, 2=3, 52 
Azolla caroliniana, &, 88 
Baptisia elliptica, 2=3, 48 
—calycosa, 2=3, 48 
—hirsuta, 2-3, 48 
—simplicifolia, 1, 28; 2=3, 48 
Batrachospermum australe, 4, 117 
Berlandiera humilis, 2-3, 56 
—subacaulis, 2-3, 56 
Blephariglottis Chapmanii, 2=3, 45 
Behmeria decurrens, 2-3, 46 
Bonamia grandiflora, 2-8, 53 
Borrevia terminalis, 2=3, 55 
Botrydium granulatum, 2=3, 66 
Bradburya arenicola, 2=3, 48 
—Floridana, 2-3, 48 
Bulbochate sp., 2-3, 21; 4, 116 
Bumelia rufotomentosa, 2°35 53 
—megacocca, a3, 53 
—lacuum, 2=3, 53 
Calamovilfa Curtissii, 2-3, 44 


INDEX TO VOLUME 11 


PLANTS—continued 


Calothrix parietina, 4, 113 
—stellaris, 4, 113 
Calpidisca Standleya, 2-3, 55 
Campulosus Floridanus, 2-3, 44 
Cardamine curvisiliqua, 2=3, 47 
Carex baltzelliz, 2-3, 41, 44 
—Chapmanii, 2-3, 44 
—magnifolia, 2-3, 44 
Castalia flava, 2=3, 42, 47 
Cathariolinum arenicola, 2-3, 49 
Cephalanthus occidentalis, 4, 88 
Cephalocereus Deeringii, 2=3, 51 
—Keyensis, 2-3, 51 
Cirsium vittatum, 2-3, 57 
Chatomorpha sp., 4, 116 
—incrassata, 4,115 
Chamacrista Keyensis, 2-3, 48 
—Deeringiana, 2-3, 48 
Chamasyce adenoptera, 2=3, 50 
—adhearens, 2=3, 59 
—adicisides, 2=3, 50 
—brachypoda, 2-3, 49 
—Chiogenes, 2-3, 49 
—conferta, 2-3, 49 
—cumulicola, 2-3, 49 
—deltoidea, 2=3, 49 
—Garberi, 2-3, 49 
—Keyensis, 2=3, 50 
Chamasyce Matthewsti, 2=3, 50 
—Mosieri, 2-3, 49 
—Nashii, 2=3, 49 
—pinetorum, 2=3, 50 
—Porteriana, 2=3, 50 
—Serpyllum, 2-3, 49 
—scoparia, 2-3, 50 
Chantransia violacea, 4, 117 
Chapmannia Floridana, 2=3, 49 
Chara sp., 2-3, 21 
Characium sp., 45 116 
Chetophora sp., 2-3, 21 
Chionanthus pygmaa, 2-3, 53 
Chlamydomonas sp., 45 115 
Chloris neglecta, 2-3, 44 
Chrysopsis Floridana, 2=3, 56 
— gigantea, 2-3, 56 
—lanuginosa, 2-3, 56 ~ 
—latisquama, 2-3, 56 
—subulata, Z=3,, 56 
Cladophora crispata, 4, 116 
—pulverulenta, &, 116 
Clematis micrantha, 2=3, 46 
Clinopodium Ashet, 2-3, 54 
—dentatum, 2-3, 54 
—macrocalyx, 2-3, 54 
Closterium sp., 2=3, 21, 65 
Coccochloris stagnina f. rupestris, 2-3, 63 
Cosmarium sp., 2-3, 65 
Celostylis loganioides, 2=3, 53 
Commelina Gigas, 2-3, 44 


PLANTS—continued 
Compsopogon ceruleus, 2=3, 66 
Conradina grandiflora, 2-3, 54 
—puberula, 2=3, 54 
Consolea corallicola, 2-3, 51 
Convolvulus Nashiz, 2-3, 53 
Coreopsis Lewtonti, 2-3, 57 
Cracca angustissima, 2-3, 48 
—Chapmanii, 2=3, 48 
—Curtissii, 2-3, 48 
—corallicola, 2=3, 48 
—sgracillima, 2-3, 48 
—Ilatidens, 2=3, 48 
—Mohriz, 2=3, 48 
—Rugeliz, 2=3, 48 
Cratagus lacrimata, 2=3, 47 
—Luculenta, 2-3, 47 
—maloides, 2=3, 47 
Crocanthemum Nashiz, 2=3, 51 
—thyrsoideum, 2=3, 51 
Crotalaria Linaria, 2-3, 48 
Croton arenicola, 2=3, 49 
—Fergusonii, 2=3, 49 
—Floridanus, 2-3, 49 
Cuthbertia ornata, 2=3, 44 
Cylindrospermum licheniforme, 4, 112 
Cyperus Careyi, 2=3, 44 
—litoreus, 2-3, 44 
—Nashii, 2-3, 44 
—Winkleri, 2-3, 44 
Cyrilla arida, 2-3, 50 
Dasystephana tenutfolia, 2-3, 53 
Deeringothamnus pulchellus, 2-3, 47 
—Rugelii, 2=3, 47 
Delopyrum ciliatum, 2-3, 46 
—bhasiramea, 2=3, 46 
Dentocerus myriophylla, 2-3, 46 
Desmidium Aptogonium, 2=3, 65 
—Baileyi, 4 117 
—Grevilliz, 4,117 
—Swartzitz, 4,117 
Dichromena Floridensis, 2=3, 44 
Dictyospharium pulchellum, 2-3, 65 
Diospyros Mosier, 2-3, 53 
Ditaxis Blodgettit, 2=3, 49 
Dodonaea microcarya, 2=3, 50 
Dracocephalum leptophyllum, 2=3, 54 
Dyschoriste angusta, 2=3, 54 
Echinochloa paludigena, 2-3, 43 
Eleocharis uncialis, 2=3, 44 
Encapsis sp., 2-3, 21 
Encyclia Tampensis, 2=3, 45 
Enteromor pha intestinalis, 4, 116 
Entocladia polymorpha, 4, 115 
Entophysalis Brebissoniz, 4, 112 
Entophysalis rivularis, 4, 112 
Eragrostis acuta, 2=3, 44 
—Tracyz, 1, 33 


Eriogonum Floridanum, 2=3, 46 


141 


142 


PLANTS—continued 


Eryngium cunetfolium, 2=3,5 52 
—Floridanum, 2=3, 52 
Erythrina arborea, 2-3, 48 
Eudorina sp., 2-3, 64 
Eugenta anthera, 2-3, 52 
Euglena sp., 2-3, 66 
Eupatorium anomalum, 2-3, 56 
Chapmanii, 2-3, 56 
—jucundum, 2-3, 56 
—mikanioides, 2-3, 56 
Euphorbia mercurialina, 2=3, 41 
Evolvulus macilentus, 2-3, 53 
Fischerella ambigua, 4, 112 
Flaveria latifolta, 2-3, 57 
—Floridana, 2-3, 57 
Forestiera porulosa (Mx.), 2=3, 53 
—pinetorum, 2-3, 53 
—globulavis, 2-3, 53 
Fremyella diplosiphon, 4, 113 
Galactia brachypoda, 2=3, 48 
—prostrata, 2=3, 48 
—fasciculata, 2-3, 48 
—parvifolia, 2=3, 48 
—pinetorum, 2-3, 48 
Galarheus inundatus, 2-3, 50 
—austrinus, 2=3, 50 
.—telephioides, 2-3, 50 
Garberia fruitcosa, 2-35 56 
Gaura Eatoniz, 2=3, 52 
—simulans, 2-3, 52 
Geobalanus pallidus, 2-3, 47 
Gerardia Floridana, 2=3, 55 
Glandularia maritima, 2-3, 54 
—Tampensis, 2=3, 54 
Gleocapsa alpicola, 4, 112 
Gleocapsa dimidiata, 4, 112 
Gleocystis Grevellet, 45 115 
Golenkiniz sp., 2-8, 21 
Gongrosira Debaryana, 4, 115 
Gracilaria confervoides, 2-3, 66 


Grossulavria Echinella, 1, 35; 2=3, 47 
Gymnopogon Chapmanianus, 2-3, 44 


Gymnozyga montliformis, 2=3, 66 
Gymnozyga sp., 45 117 
Halophila Baillonis, 2-3, 43 
—Engelmanni, 2-3, 43 
Hapalostphon pumilus, 4 112 
Harrisia Aboriginum, 2=3, 51 
—fragrans, 2-3, 51 
—Simpsonitz, 2=3, 51 
Hartwrightia Floridana, 2-3, 55 
Hassallia byssoidea, 4 113 
Helianthus agrestis, 2-3, 56 
—carnosus, 2°35 57 
—yvesinosus, 2°35 57 
—vestitus, 2°35 56 


Heliotropium phyllostachyum, 2-3, 54 


—horizontale, 2-3, 54 
—Leavenworthii, 2-3, 54 


JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


PLANTS—continued 


Hemianthus glomeratus, 2-3, 54 
Hexastylis callifolia, 2=3, 55 
Hibiscus semilobates, 2-3, 50 
Hicoria austrina, 2=3, 46 
—Floridawa, 2-3, 46 
Hieracium argyraum, 2-34 57 
Houstonia pulvinata, 2-3, 55 
Hyalotheca dissiliens, 45 117 
Hydrocoryne spongiosa, 4, 112 
Hydrodictyon reticulatum, 4, 116 
Hymenocallis Keyensis, 2=3, 45 
—Collieri, 2-3, 45 
—Kimballia, 2-3, 45 
—laciniata, 2=3, 45 
—Palmeri, 2=3, 45 
—tridentata, 2-3, 45 
Ilex Buswelliz, 2=3, 50 
—cumulicola, 2-3, 50 
—Curtissit, 2=3, 50 
Illicium parviflorum, 2-3, 47 
Hysanthes grandiflora, 2-35 54 
Indigofera Keyensis, 2=3, 48 
Tris Albispiritus, 2=3, 45 
—Kimballia, 2-3, 45 
—savannarum, 2-3, 45 
Isnardia intermedia, 2-3, 52 
—spathulata, 2-3, 52 
Jacquemontia Curtisstt, 2=3, 53 
Justicia angusta, 2-3, 55 
—crassifolia, 2-3, 55 
Kosteletzkya smilacifolia, 2-3, 50 
Kuhnia Mosieri, 2-3, 56 
Kuhnistera adenopoda, 2-3, 48 
—truncata, 2=3, 48 
Lachnocaulon dig ynum, 2=3, 44 
—eciliatum, 2-3, 44 
—Floridanum, 2=3, 44 
Laciniaria chlorolepis, 2=3, 56 
—Garberi, 2=3, 56 
Lantana depressa, 2=3, 54 
Lechea cernua, 2=8, 51 
—exserta, 235 51 
—myriophylla, 2-3, 51 
—prismatica, 2=3, 51 
Lemna minor, 4, 88 
Leptoglottis Floridana, 2=3, 48 
—angustiliqua, 2=3, 48 
Limodorum pinetorum, 2-3, 45 
Limonium obtusilebum, 2-3, 52 
Litrisa carnosa, 2=3, 56 


Lobelia Feayana, 1, 31; 2=3, 42, 55 


Ludwigia Curtissiz, 2-3, 52 
—Simpsonti, 2=3, 52 
—spathulifolia, 2=3, 52 

Lupinus cumulicola, 2-3, 48 
—Westianus, 2-3, 48 

Lynghya aestuarii, 4, 113 
—contorta, 2=3, 64 
—Diguettiz, 4, 113 


INDEX TO VOLUME.11 


PLANTS—continued 


—ochracea, 4, 113 
—Patrickiana, 4, 113 
—putealis, 4, 113 
—semiplana, 4, 113 
—versicolor, 4, 113 
Lythrum flagellare, 2-3, 52 
Macbridea alba, 2-3, 54 
Manisuris tuberculosa, 2-3, 43 
Martiusia fragrans, 2-3, 48 
Melanthera ligulata, 2-3, 56 
—parvifolia, 2-3, 56 
—radiata, 2-3, 56 
Melothria crassifolia, 2-35 55 
Merismopedia thermalis, 4, 112 
Mesadenia Floridana, 2-3, 57 
Mesotanium macrococcum, 2-3, 65 
Micrasterias sp., 2-3, 21, 66 
Microcoleus acutisstmus, 4, 113 
Miacrocoleus lacustris, &, 114 
—paludosus, 4, 114 
—rupicola, 4, 114 
—vaginatus, 2=3, 64 
Micropzper leptostachyon, 2=3, 45 
Microspora stagnorum, 4, 115 
Monotropsis Reynoldsia, 2-3, 52 
Mougeotia sp., 4, 117 
Naias gracilis, 2=3, 43 
Nemastylis Floridana, 2-3, 45 
Nolina atropocarpa, 2-3, 45 
—Brittoniana, 2=3, 45 
Nostoc carneum, 4, 112 
—ellipsosporum, 2=3, 64 
—Linckia, 4, 113 
—muscorum, 4, 113 
Nyachia pulvinata, 2-3, 46 
Nymphaea ulvacea, 2=3, 47 
—macrophylla, 2-3, 47 
Nyssa aquatica, 4, 88 
Nyssa ursina, 2=3, 52 
Odontonychia interior, 2=3, 46 
Odontostephana Floridana, 2-3, 53 
(Edigonium sp., 2=3, 21 
—uoccidentale, 4, 116 
Ophiocytium sp., 2-3, 66 
Opuntia abjecta, 2-3, 51 
—ammophila, 2-3, 51 
—atrocapensis, 2-3, 51 
—austrina, 2-3, 51 
—cumulicola, 2=3, 51 
—eburnispina, 2=3, 51 
—Keyensis, 2-3, 51 
—lata, 2-3, 51 
—magnifica, 2-35 51 
—nitens, 2-3, 51 
—ochrocentra, 2=3, 51 
—pictformis, 2-3, 51 
—polycarpa, 2-3, 51 
—tenutflora, 2-3, 51 
—turgida, 2-3, 51 


PLANTS—continued 


—zebrina, 2=3, 51 
Oscillatoria amphibia, 2-3, 64 
—chalyba, 4, 114 
—chlorina, 4, 114 
—curviceps, 4, 114 
—formosa, &, 114 
—limosa, 4, 114 
—princeps, 4, 114 
—splendida, 2-3, 64 
—proboscidea, 2-3, 64 
—tenuis, 4, 114 
—tenuis var natans, 2-3, 64 
—tenuts var. tergestina, 4, 114 
Osmia frustrata, 2-3, 56 
Osmanthus Floridana, 2=3, 53 
Oxypteryx Curtissiz, 2=3, 53 
Palafoxia Feayi, 1, 31; 2=3, 57 
Panicum breve, 2=3, 43 
—glabrifolium 2=3, 43 
—hemitomum, 2=3, 68 
—malacon, 2-3, 43 
Parietaria nummularia, 2-3, 46 
Parnassia Floridana, 2-3, 47 
Parosela Floridana, 2-3, 48 
Parsonisa lythroides, 2=3,5 52 
Pediastrum sp., 2-3, 21 
Pediastrum duplex, 4, 116 
—tetras, 2-3, 65 
Pepo Okeechobeensis, 2-35 55 
Phaseolus smilactfolius, 2=3, 49 
Phebanthus grandiflora, 2=3, 57 
—tenuifolia, 2-35 57 
Phoradendron Eatoni, 2=3, 55 
—macrotomum, 2°35 55 
Phormidium autumnale, 2=3, 64 
—favosum, &, 114 
—inundatum, 4, 114 
— purpurascens, &, 114 
Eee et eile 
—tenue, 4, 114 
—uncinatum, 4, 114 
Phyllanthus Garberi, 2-3, 49 
—platylepis, 2-3, 49 
Physalis Floridana, 2-3, 54 
—arenicola, 2=3, 54 
—sinuata, 2-3, 54 
Pilostaxis arenicola, 2=3, 49 
—Rugelii, 2-3, 49 
Pinus clausa, 2-3, 43 
Piriqueta glabrescens, 2-3, 51 
—viridis, 2-3, 51 
pethophoraCEdogonia, 4, 116 
Pityopsis flexuosa (Nash), 2-3, 56 
Pityopsis Tracyz, 1, 33; 2-3, 56 
Pityothamnus reticulatus, 2-3, 47 
—obovatus, 2-3, 47 
—pygmaus, 2-3, 47 
—tetramerus, 2-3, 47 


143 


144 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


PLANTS—continued 
Plectonema Nostocorum, 4, 114 
—terebrans, 2-3, 64 
Pluchea longifolia, 2-3, 56 
Polygala aboriginum, 2=3, 49 
—flagellaris, 2-3, 49 
—Lewtoniz, 2-3, 49 
—pratervisa, 2-3, 49 
Polygonella brachystachya, 2-3, 46 
macrophylla, 2-3, 46 
Porphyrosiphon Notarisiz, 2-3, 64 
Potomogeton Curtissiz, 2-3, 43 
—Floridaius, 2=3, 43 
Pringsheimiella scutata, 4, 116 
Protococcus viridis, &, 116 
Prunus geniculata, 1, 35; 2-3, 47 


Pseudendocloniune submarinum, 2-8, 65 


Prelea Baldwiniiz, 2=3., 47 

Prerophyton heterophyllum, 2°35 57 
—pauctflorum, 2-35 57 

Pycnothymus vigidus, 2-35 54 

Quadvigula Chodatii, &, 116 

Quercus Rolfszz, 2-3, 46 

Rhabdadenia corallicola, 2=3, 53 

Rhexia parviflora, 2-8, 52 

Rhizoclonium hieroglyphicum, &, 116 

Rhizoclonium riparium, 2-3, 65 

Rhododendron Chapmanii, 2=3, 52 

Rhynachophorum Floridanum, 2=3, 45 

Rhynchosia Michauxii, 2=8, 48 
—cinerea, 23, 48 
—ILewtonii, 2=3, 48 

Rhynchospora Careyana, 2>3.44 
—Curtissiz, 2=3, 44 
—decurrens, 2=3, 44 
—FEdisoniana, 2-3, 44 
—intermedia, 273» 44 
—pinetorum, 2-3, 44 
—Rappiana, 2=3, 44 

Riccia fluitans, 4, 88 

Ricciocarpus natans, 4, 88 

Rotantha Floridana, 2735 55 
—Robinsia, 2-3, 55 

Rudbeckia heterophylla, 2-3, 56 
—pinnatiloba, 2-3, 56 

Ruella succulentz, 2-3, 55 
—hybrida, 2-3, 55 

Rumex fascicularis, 2=3, 46 

Sabal Etonia, 2-3, 44 
—Jamesiana, 2-3, 44 

Sabbatia grandiflora, 2-3, 53 

Sagittaria Kurziana, 2-3, 43 

Salfingostylis celestina, 2-3, 45 

Salix amphibia, 2=3, 46 

Salvia Blodgettiz, 2-3, 54 


Sambucus Simpsonit Rehder, 2=3, 55 


Sandiophyllum cumulicola, 2-3, 50 

Scenedesmus acuminatus, 4, 117 
—sp., 2-3, 21 

Schzzothrix calicola, &, 114 
—Frieszi, 2=3, 64 
—purpurascens, 2-3, 64 


PLANTS—continued 
Scleria Curtissiz, 2-3, 44 
Scutellaria avenicola, 2-3, 54 
—Floridana, 2-8, 54 
—slabriuscula, 2-3, 54 
Scytonema figuratuin, 2-3, 64 
—guyanense, 235 64 
—Hoffmannii, 4, 113 
—ocellatum, 4, 113 
—tolypotrichoides, &, 113 
Sida rubromerginata, 2-3, 50 
Silphium Simpsonit, 2=3, 56 
Sisyrinchium xerophyllum, 2=3, 45 
—Floridanum, 2-3, 45 
Sum Flovridanum, 2-3, 52 
Solanum Floridanum, 2=8, 54 
Solidago flavovirens, 2-3, 56 
—Edisoniana, 2-3, 56 
—mirabilis, 2=3, 56 
Spartina Bakeri, 2=3, 44 
Spermacoce Keyensts, 2-3, 55 
Spigelia gentianotdes, 2-3, 53 
Spirogyra dectma, 4, 117 
Spirogyra flavescens, 44 117 
Spirotania sp., 2=3, 65 
Spirulina Major, 4, 114 
—subtilissima, &, 115 
Spyrogyra sp., 2-3, 21 
Stachydeoma graveolens, 2-3, 54 
Stachys lythroides, 2-3, 54 
—Floridana, 2-3, 54 : 
Staurastrum sp., 2-3, 66, 21 
Stichococcus bacillaris, 4 115 
—flaccidus, 2-3, 65 
—subtilis, &, 115 s 
Stigeoclonium lubricum, 4, 116 
—tenue, 4, 116 
Stigonema hormoides, 2-3, 63 
—minutum, &, 112 
Stillingia angustifolia, 2-3, 49 
—tenius, 2=3, 49 
Stipa avenaceoides, 2=3, 44 
Stylisma villosa, 2-3, 53 
Stylosanthes calcicola, 2=3, 49 
Symploca muralis, &, 115 
—Muscorum, 4, 115 
Syntherisma pauciflorum, 23, 43 
—Floridanum, 2-3, 43 
—zracillimum, 2-3, 43 
Tamala littoralis, 2-3, 52 
—humilis, 2-3, 52 
Taxodium ascendens, 4, 89 
Taxus Floridana, 2-3, 43 
Tetmemorus sp., 2=35 66 
Tetradron minimum, 2-3, 65 
—sp., 2-3, 21 
Tetrallantos Lagerheimit, &, 117 
Tetraspora gelatinosa, &, 115 
Thysanella robusta, 2-3, 46 
Tilia porracea, 2-3, 50 
Tillandsia hystricina, 2=3, 45 
—myriophylla, 2°35 45 


INDEX TO VOLUME 11 145 


PLANTS—continued 
—simulata, 2=3, 45 
Tithymalopsis discoidalis, 2-3, 50 
—exserta, 2°3, 50 
—polyphylla, 2-3, 50 
Tolypothrix lanata, 2-3, 64 
—tenuis, 4, 113 
Torrubia globosa, 2-3, 46 
—Floridana, 2=3, 46 
Trachelomonas sp., 2=3, 66 
Tradescantella Flovidana, 2-3, 44 
Tragia saxicola, 2-3, 49 
Trema Flovidana, 2=3, 46 
Trentepohlia aurea, 2-3, 65 
—Wainoi, 4, 115 
Tribonema sp., 2-3, 21 
—bomycinum, 4,117 
—minus, 2-3, 66 
Trichostema suffrutescens, 2-3, 54 
Triploceras gracile, 2=3, 66 
Tripsacum Floridanum, 2=3, 43 
Tubiflora angustifolia, 2=3, 54 


Tumton taxifolium, 1, 28; 2=3, 43 


Ulothrix sp., 2-3, 21 
—oscillavina, 4, 115 

Ulva Lactuca, 2=3, 65 

Urechites pinetorum, 2-8, 53 

Vachellia penninsulavis, 2-3, 47 
—insularis, 2-3, 47 

Vaucheria sp., 4, 117 
—sessilis, 2-3, 65 

Veratrum intermedium, 2-3, 45 

Vernonia concinna, 2=3, 55 
—Blodgettiz, 2-3, 55 

Viburnum densiflorum, 2-3, 55 
—Nashiz, 273, 55 

Vicia Floridana, 2=3, 49 

Viola Floridana 2=3, 51 
—rugosa, 2-3, 51 

Viorna Baldwinii, 2=3, 46 

Vitis Simpsonii, 2-3, 50 

Volvox aureus, 4, 115 

Warea Carteri, 2-3, 47 
—amplexifolia, 2-3, 47 
—sesstlifolia, 2=3, 47 

Wolffia cylindracea, 4, 87 
—wmicroscopica, 4, 87 
—papulifera, 4, 87 
—punctata, 4, 88 


Wolffiella floridana, flowers of, 4, 87 


— sladiata, 4, 89 
—lingulata, &, 87 
—oblonga, 4, 87 


Zamia integrifolia, 1, 27; 2=3, 43 


—silvicola, 2=3, 43 
—umbrosa, 1, 27; 2-3, 43 
Loochlorella parasitica, 4, 117 
Lygnema sp., 2-3, 21 
—crusciatum, 4, 117 
Zygogonium ericetorum, 4, 117 
Political Science, Korea, 4, 75 
Political Science, Taxes, 4, 69 


Pollution, stream, affecting fish, 4, 119 
Popper, Annie M., The Plight of Korea, 4, 

75-85 
PORIFERA 

Heteromeyenia repens, 2=3, 22 

—rydert, 23, 22 

Meyenia crateriformis, 2=3, 22 
PROTOZOA 

Arcella vulgaris, 2-3, 21 

Centropyxis sp., ad, 21 

Ceratium sp., 2=3, 22 

Difflugia sp., 2-3, 21 

Epistylis sp., 2-3, 22 

Eudorina sp., @=3,5 21 

Euglena sp., 2-3, 21 

Mallamonas sp., 2-3, 21 

Pleodorina sp., (see Eudorina), 2-3, 21, 22 

Stentor sp., 2=B, 22 

Volvox sp., 2-3, 21, 22 

Vorticella sp., 2-3, 22 


Red Tide, causes of, 1, 1-6 
Reid, George K., Jr., Extenston of the Range 
of the Sheepshead Killifish, Cyprinodon 
hubbsi Carr., 2=3, 67 
Reproduction in Plants (Wolffiella, 4, 87) 
RE Pao EA 
Agkéstridon p. piscévorous, 2-3, 26 
Alligator mississeppiensis, 2-35 26 
Dirochelys veticularia, 2-3, 26 
Liodytes alleni, 2=3, 26 
Natrix sipedon pictiventris, 2-3, 26 
Pseudemys nelsoni, 2-3, 26 
Seminatrix pygea, 2-3, 26 
Sternotherus odoratus, 2-3, 26 
ROTATORIA 
Conochilus sp., 2-3» 22 
Furculavia forficula, 2-3, 22 
Notholca sp., 23, 22 
Rattulus sp., 2-3, 22 


Sea level, Pleistocene fluctuations, 4, 125 

Seed, in Wolffiella, 4, 92 

Sepmeier, Kurt A., Taxes Ave Everybody's 
Business, 4&4 69-74 

Smith, F. G. Walton, Probable Fundamental 
Causes of Red Tide Off the West Coast of 
Florida, 1, 1-6 

Solution, topographical effect of, 4, 125 

Stamen, in Wolffiella, 4, 92 

Strikes, 2-3, 29 


Taxes, 4, 69 
The Great Powers in Korea, 4, 75 
TURBELLARIA (see FLATWORMS) 


Union organizations, 2-3, 29 


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The Quarterly Journal of 
The Florida Academy of Sciences 


A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research 


H. K. Watuace, Editor 


J. C. Dicxtnson, JR., Associate Editor 


VOLUME 12 


Published by 


Tue FLorma ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Tallahassee, Florida 
1950 


Dates of Publication 
Number 1 May 15, 1950 
Number 2 July 17, 1950 
Number 3 September 28, 1950 
Number 4 May 3, 1951 


CONTENTS OF VOLUME 12 
NUMBER lL 


A Preliminary List of the Endemic Flowering Plants of 
fen by Roland M. Harper... 00.2 ..6.5c5. 58 ee ces 
A Field Survey of Florida’s Pebble Phosphate Striplands. 
By Wilbur B. De Vall and Claude L. DeVane.......... 
A Key to Florida’s Fresh-Water Sponges, with Descriptive 
Mates. bys. Kendrick: Eshlemanjdll 20. ic ce 
The Carotid Sinus Syndrome. By Elwyn Evans, M. D....... 
ls Gor TCS Lege 10 een oan en enn MRIEn Oe A Mente A 5 
Anatomy and Secondary Growth in the Axis of Litchi 
Gracias son. By Frank. D. Venninge so) 2. 20.308" 
A New Florida Violet. By William A. Murrill.............. 
Bee ram Onnnents. SY oo Tea. me ee ee eli 
SE REIRECS is 3 ASA os 5 ks opie) s Oe ok. POI LE 


NUMBER 2 


Observations of Plankton taken in Marine Waters of 

Florida in 1947 and 1948. By Charles C. Davis........ 
Antibiotic Action of Streptomyces albus against Mold 

Decay Organisms of Citrus Fruits. By Seton 

Mieeitdson. Geo. D: Thornton and F. Bo Smith......... 2. 
A Preliminary Report of the Plankton of the West Coast 

mapiaee DY JOSCPNAE. KING: 6... ose we we be ee ss 
Acute Benign Nonspecific Pericarditis in a Sub- 

tropical Climate. By Elwyn Evans, M. D.............. 
DIE EES RS 2 5 Se Re re eee eee 


NUMBER 3 


A Study of the Natural History of the Spotted Trout, 
Cynoscion nebulosus, in the Cedar Key, Florida 
mecomebuaviliamn Dean Moody. sis. .o22025 2545222 


The Fishes of Orange Lake, Florida. By George K. Reid, Jr. . . 


Vitamin ‘P’ Protection against Radiation. By Boris 
Sokoloff, James B. Redd and Raymond Dutcher........ 
Nutritive Value of Mangrove Leaves (Rhizophora mangle L.). 
By Boris Sokolof, James B. Redd, and Raymond Dutcher. . 


Notes on the Food of the Largemouth Black Bass, 
Micropterus salmoides floridanus (Le Sueur), in 


a Florida Lake. By William M. McLane.............. 195 
Notes on an Apparent “Rain” of Organic Matter in Florida. 
By William M. McLane and Gideon E. Nelson.......... 203 
NUMBER 4 


The Evolution of the Ophioglossaceae of the Eastern 


United States. «By Edward. POSt. Johnsay2. santa teen. 207 
Officers. for 1951]. 2.342 case canes cose eee 219 
A Key to the Genus Scleria Berg in South Florida. 

By Curtis. R.. Jacksotinse.) ..\. Ase d. a. 220 
Membership Categoriesi.\/. .£. «cai! Se ee eee 999, 
Biochemical Aspects of the Cancer Problem. 

By . Francis EF... Ray... .... + ~-s9.05-55955 223 
Institutional Members: ... . <-e-.-s 5/2 Oe Sects: 234 


A Preliminary Investigation of the Growth Response of 
Aspergillus niger to Various Levels of Copper as 
a Biological Method of Determining Available 


Copper in Soils. By S. N. Edson and F. B. Smith....... 235 
The Number of Feathers in Some Birds. By Pierce Brodkorb.. 241 
Particle Size by X-Ray Scattering. By K. L. Yudowitch...... 246 
News and Comments. ... 0.22.6 oso +: oe 4) rr 251 


Research Notes....... 200.0000 sey euces 1 er B53) 


Quarterly Journal 


of the 
Florida Academy 
of Sciences 


Vol. 12 March 1949 (1950) No. I 


Contents 


HarRPER—A PRELIMINARY LIST OF THE ENDEMIC FLOWERING 
_ PLANTS OF FLoRipA. Part IIJ.—NotTes AnD SUMMARY_______ 1 


De VALL AND DEVANE—A FIELD SURVEY OF FLORIDA’S PEBBLE 
SEEDS EHIPEANDS: 21 


EsHLEMAN—A Key To Fioripa’s FRESH-WATER SPONGES, WITH | 


See MaRS ae be i i 35 
Eyvans—lTHe Carotm Sinus SYNDROME ___:- | 45 
OSD REE DELS 2 2S 50 :. 


VENNING—ANATOMY AND SECONDARY GROWTH IN THE AXIS OF 


MOI PESIIUEINGIS A GGNN, 0 Sit 
Murritt—A New FL ioripa i. aS 61 
News AND COMMENTS _________ Peete ee 


MAY 1 6 61960 _ 


Vou. 12 | Marcu 1949 (1950) No. 1 


QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF 
THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research 


Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences 
Printed by the Rose Printing Company, Tallahassee, Florida 


Communications for the editor and all manuscripts should be addressed to H. K. 
Wallace, Editor, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, 
Florida. Business communications should be addressed to Chester S. Nielsen, 
Secretary-Treasurer, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida. All ex- 
changes and communications regarding exchanges should be sent to the Florida 
Academy of Sciences, Exchange Library, Department of Biology, University 
of Florida, Gainesville. 


Subscription price, Three Dollars a year 
Mailed May 15, 1950 


Tie QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE 
meri A ACADEMY, OF. SCIENCES 


VoL. 12 Marca 1949 (1950) No. 1 


A PRELIMINARY LIST OF THE ENDEMIC 
FLOWERING PLANTS OF FLORIDA 


ROLAND M. HARPER 
University, Alabama 


Part IJI—NoTes AND SUMMARY 


1. The history of Zamia in Florida is rather complicated. Dr. 
Small discussed the matter in the light of his knowledge at that 
time in the Journal of the New York Botanical Garden for July, 
1921, but added other details later. It seems that our first one, Z. 
integrifolia, was also the first Florida endemic to be discovered, 
having been found somewhere in the vicinity of Lake George in 
1765-6 by John Bartram, who sent plants or seeds to England, where 
it was described by Aiton in 1789. (But there seems to be no 
recognizable mention of it in Bartram’s journal, edited and pub- 
lished in 1942.) 

Dr. G. W. Hulse found near Tampa in 1837 what Dr. Small later 
described as another species, Z. Floridana. Chapman knew only 
Z. integrifolia, but Small in 1903 decided that that was a tropical 
species, represented in Florida by Z. Floridana and Z. pumila (the 
latter occurring also in the West Indies, though he did not say so 
at the time ). In his 1921 paper he described Z. umbrosa, discovered 
by Dr. William Baldwin in Volusia County in 1817. In his Manual, 
1933, he dropped Z. Floridana and restored Z. integrifolia, and 
added Z. umbrosa and Z. silvicola (these three attributed to Florida 
only), and Z. angustifolia, common to Florida and the West Indies. 


1 The numbers correspond with those in the plant list in the preceding 


instalment. 
MAY 1 


4OE 
ih Lad 


Cr 


2 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


2. Pinus clausa is doubtless the most abundant and conspicuous 
plant in our endemic list, but it was unaccountably overlooked by 
botanists until after the Civil War. It is not quite confined to Florida, 
being found also along the coast of Baldwin County, Alabama (but 
never in Mobile County, across the bay), but it is retained here, 
disregarding political boundaries temporarily, on account of its 
exceptional interest. No such tree was known to Dr. Chapman in 
1860, perhaps because it does not grow anywhere near Quincy and 
Marianna, or very close to Apalachicola. It was described by Dr. 
George Engelmann, of St. Louis, as P. inops, var. clausa Chapm., 
in 1878, and soon raised to a species by Dr. George Vasey, of 
Washington. It is separated from P. inops (now known as P. Vir- 
giniana) by about 2% degrees of latitude, and has a very different 
habitat, being confined to the most sterile sands. It grows along 
old dunes along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, but is commonest in 
the scrub of the lake region, a fact unknown to Prof. Sargent when 
he described its range in the 9th volume of the Tenth U. S. Census, 
. published in 1884. 

This species was discussed by Dr. Charles Mohr, of Mobile, in 
Garden and Forest for Aug. 20, 1890, but he was rather hazy about 
its distribution, and did not even mention its occurrence in Alabama, 
though he did observe that some plants of the northern Gulf coast 
seem to be limited in their westward distribution by certain rivers. 
I had a note on its habitat preferences in the Popular Science 
Monthly for October, 1914 (pp. 358-361), with two half-tone illus- 
trations of it from Citrus and Lake Counties. There is another view 
‘of it, in Santa Rosa County, in the 6th Annual Report of the Florida 
Geological Survey (p. 803), published about three months later 
(late December, 1914). 

3. Tumion (formerly Torreya) taxifolium was for many years 
known only along the bluffs on the east side of the Apalachicola 
River in Gadsden and Liberty Counties, where it was discovered 
about 1833 by Mr. Croom (who took it for a Taxus, but apparently 
knew nothing then about Taxus Floridana, which was discovered 
later, a few miles away.) But I found it a few yards over the line 
in Georgia in 1918 (see Torreya, 19:119-122, June, 1919), and Dr. 
Herman Kurz has since found it west of the river in Jackson County. 


PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS 3 


Figure 50 in the 6th Annual Report of the Florida Geological Sur- 
vey shows it in its natural habitat. 

4. Sagittaria Kurziana was described in 1927 (Bull. Torrey Bot. 
Club, 54:257-261) by Dr. Hugo Gliick, a visiting German botanist 
who, accompanied by Dr. Kurz and myself, collected it in the 
Wakulla and St. Mark's Rivers in the spring of 1926. But it is not 
yet certain that it differs significantly from Chapman's S. natans 
var. lorata, described in 1860, from “brackish water, along the west 
coast of Florida,” except in the extreme elongation of its leaves 
and scapes, which in deep water may be as much as eight feet 
long. Dr. Small was not inclined to give it full recognition. 

5. Tripsacum Floridanum, described by Vasey in 1896, was said 
by Small in 1903 to range to Texas. But it was restricted to Florida 
by him in 1933, and by Hitchcock in his Manual of the Grasses of 
the United States in 1985. 

6. Aristida patula Chapm., an unpublished name taken up by 
Nash in 1896, was known to Dr. Chapman in 1883 and 1897, but 
referred in his books to A. scabra Kunth, a tropical species. 

7. Spartina Bakeri, like Pinus clausa, is only about 99% confined 
to Florida, but there are some interesting facts about it that deserve 
special mention here. Although it is common and conspicuous in 
central Florida, it seems to have been entirely unknown to all the 
19th century botanists. It was described in 1902, but overlooked by 
Small in 1903 and 1913. In 1904 I found it near Brunswick, Georgia 
(see Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, 82-458. 1905; 33:231. 1906), which 
was the first report of it outside of Florida. Hitchcock, in his Manual 
of Grasses (p. 492), attributed it to “Sandy soil, South Carolina, 
Georgia and Florida,” but gave no specific localities. As he was 
primarily a taxonomist, habitats meant little to him, and “sandy 
soil” is a very poor description of its habitats. It grows principally 
on lake shores and in shallow marshes and peat prairies, always in 
or near fresh water, unlike most other species of the genus, which 
prefer salt or brackish water. Its distribution as known to me in 
1910 is given in the 3d Annual Report of the Florida Geological 
Survey, page 349. It is related to S. spartinae (formerly called S. 
junciformis ), which grows along the Gulf coast from Middle Florida 
to Mexico; and it may have been overlooked by many botanists 
because it is usually not in bloom. 


4 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


8. Eleocharis uncialis is an unpublished name of Chapman’s, 
taken up by Small in 1933. Dr. H. K. Svenson in his monograph of 
Eleocharis (Rhodora, 39:219. June, 1937) treated it as synonymous 
with Chapman's E. bicolor. But Small’s description indicates some 
differences between these species, and it may as well be retained 
in the list until we know more about it. 

9. Carex Baltzellii is said by Small to be a well-marked. species, 
which has not been collected for many: years. Dr. Chapman knew 
it only from Middle Florida, but Small credits it also to southwest 
Georgia, which deserves investigation. | 

There is some confusion about Carex Chapmanii. In Small’s Man- 
ual it appears as C. Chapmanii Steud., from “hammocks and wood- 
lands, Fla.,” and C. fusiformis Chapm. is given as a synonym. But 
in Small’s Floras of 1903 and 1918 there is a C. Chapmanii Sartw.., 
treated as synonymous with C. tenax Chapm., which is in a differ- 
ent section of the genus from Steudel’s plant. (In the Manual of 
1933 this appears as C. validior Mackenzie, with no mention of C. 
tenax. ) 

Carex fusiformis, a name taken from one of Dr. Chapman’s let- 
ters, was published by Rev. Chester Dewey (at that time a recog- 
nized authority on Carex) in the American Journal of Science, 
06:244. 1848. Dewey called it a distinct species, but did not com- 
pare it with anything else, and it would be difficult to identify it 
from his description. The only locality he gave for it was “Floridas.” 
Dr. Chapman either did not consider it a good species, or forgot 
about it, for it does not seem to be mentioned in any of his works. 
It was resuscitated by Dr. K. M. Wiegand in 1922 (Rhodora 24:- 
200), and made a variety of C. styloflexa Buckl., with no reference 
to C. Chapmanii. Its habitat was there given as “Hammocks, Flor- 
ida,” but no specimens were cited. Small’s (or rather Mackenzie's ) 
description of 1933, however, seems to indicate a plant quite differ- 
ent from C. styloflexa. Probably it has not been collected often. 
I have not found any entry in Hitchcock's list of 1899-1901 that 
seems to represent it. 

10. Sabal Etonia seems to have been discovered by Dr. A. P. 
Garber near Miami about 1878, and it was described by Dr. Chap- 
man in 1883 as a variety of S. Adansonii (now known as S. minor), 
the common swamp palmetto. In the 90’s it was found in the scrub 


PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS 5 


of the lake region by W. T. Swingle, who recognized it as a dwart 
relative of the cabbage palmetto. It was described for him as a 
new species by Nash in 1895. Chapman’s varietal name, megacarpa, 
was used for a specific name by Small in 1903 and 1913, but a 
change of rules restored Swingle’s name in 1933. There is a pretty 
full account of it by Dr. Small in the Journal of the New York 
Botanical Garden for July, 1925. 

ll. Sabal Jamesiana is a little-known species from Dade County, 
described by Dr. Small in the Journal of the New York Botanical 
Garden for August, 1927. 

It may be appropriate to mention here that the common saw- 
palmetto, the only species of Serenoa, is not listed here because it 
ranges from southern South Carolina to eastern Louisiana, but 
(like Pinus clausa and Spartina Bakeri) it is far more abundant in 
Florida than in all other states combined, and it does not extend 
to the West Indies as so many other Florida plants do. 

12. Lachnocaulon digynum, though described in 1854, was un- 
known to Chapman. Small in 1903 and 1913, like the original de- 
scriber, credited it only to Alabama (without specific locality) and 
in 1933 only to Florida. It evidently needs investigation. 

13. Veratrum intermedium, described by Chapman in 1860 from 
“Rich shady hummocks [meaning hammocks], Middle Florida,” 
(without specific locality), apparently was not collected again 
until Robert F. Thorne found it in Clay County, Georgia, in 1947. 
This excludes it from the list of Florida endemics, but it is retained 
here to call attention to it, and also because this list is as of 1983. 

14. Hymenocallis Keyensis was known to Chapman in 1883, but 
referred by him, and apparently every one else in the next five 
decades, to H. (or Pancratium) Caribaea, a West Indian species. 
Two other species, H. humilis and H. Palmeri, were described and 
figured in Garden and Forest for May 2 and 16, 1888, but Small 
treated them as one. 

15. The story of Nemastylis and Salpingostylis, and how they 
were misinterpreted, or confused with more widely ranging species, 
for over 100 years, is one of the most interesting short chapters in 
the history of American botany; as explained by Dr. Small in the 
Journal of the New York Botanical Garden for July and November, ~ 
1931, and January, 1932. It seems that the flowers of Salpingostylis 


6 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


open only in early morning and in early summer, and those of 
Nemastylis only in late afternoon and late summer, and both plants 
are inconspicuous at other times, and therefore easily overlooked, 
though said to be abundant where they grew. 

16. Encyclia Tampensis was referred by Chapman in 1860 and 
1883 to Epidendrum venosum, a tropical species. It is not rare in 
southern Florida. 

17. Micropiper and Rhynchophorum, before 1933, were referred 
to the large tropical genus Peperomia, and our endemic species of 
the latter was referred to a tropical species, P. magnoliaefolia, or. 
obtusifolia. A rather detailed account of these two species, and the 
three other species of Piperaceae in Florida, with photographic il- 
lustrations of all five in their native haunts, by Dr. Small, appeared 
in the Journal of the New York Botanical Garden for September, 
1931. He then put them all in Peperomia, and gave the first one a 
new name, P. cumulicola, for no apparent reason. 

18. Trema Floridana, a common weedy small tree in parts of 
South Florida where frost is rare, was known to Dr. Chapman in 
1883, but referred by him, and every one else in the next two 
decades, to T. micrantha, a tropical species. It was described as 
new by Dr. Britton in the first edition of Small’s Flora, 1903, but 
with no intimation of how it might differ from its tropical relative. 
In Prof. C. S. Sargent’s “Manual of the Trees of North America,” 
1922, it was referred to T. mollis ( Willd.) Blume, another tropical 
species; and I used that name in my report on the vegetation, etc., 
of South Florida, in the 18th Annual Report of the Florida Geologi- 
cal Survey (published early in 1928). 

19. Eriogonum Floridanum, which grows in dry sand in the lake 
region, was known to Dr. Chapman in 1860, but referred by him, 
and every one else in the next forty years, to E longifolium, a quite 
different species known only in rocky places west of the Mississippi 
River. (A possible connecting link is E. Harperi, from northwestern 
Alabama, discovered in 1942 and described by Goodman in 1947; 
but that resembles E. longifolium more than it does the Florida 
plant, which prefers a very different soil and climate.) E. F lorida- 
num was described by Small in 1903, but without contrasting it 
with E. longifolium. It blooms in early summer, and the Alabama 
plant (and probably E. longifolium too) in late summer. 

20. Pityothamus. There has been some confusion in this little 


PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS i 


genus of shrubs, which was segregated from Asimina by Small in 
1933, and is chiefly confined to Florida. What Chapman called A. 
pygmaec is said to be P. angustifolius, which ranges into southern 
Georgia and Alabama; and what he called A. cuneata in 1897 is 
said to be the same as A. reticulata, recognized by him in 1883. 
Hitchcock listed Asimina angustifolia, cuneata, pygmaea and three 
others in Florida in 1899. 

21. Illicium parviflorum has long been supposed to grow also 
in Georgia, but I have never seen it credited to any specific locality 
in that state, and prefer to regard it as a Florida endemic until 
evidence to the contrary turns up. It is so rare that I have not 
found it even in Florida, and Prof. Hitchcock did not have it either. 


22. Nymphaea ulvacea was not described until 1912 (appar- 
ently too late to get into the second edition of Small’s Flora). But 
Hitchcock cited Curtiss’ no. 104, from Santa Rosa County, as N. 
sagittifolia, with which this species was formerly confused. It 
seems to be confined to a few streams in West Florida; and I have 
seen it in Holmes Creek near Vernon, as well as in Santa Rosa 
County, (see Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 37: 598, and 3rd Ann. Rep. 
Florida Geol. Surv., pp. 240,335; both dated 1910 but published 
January, 1911.) 

23. Warea amplexifolia. There is a mix-up in the name of this 
species, which might be interpreted differently by different rules 
of nomeclature. One of the new plants collected by N. A. Ware 
in “East Florida” in 1821 was described by Nuttall in 1822 as 
Stanleya (?) amplexifolia (Stanleya being a Cruciferous genus, 
described by Nuttall himself in 1818, and chiefly confined to the 
Rocky Mountains). When Nuttall described the genus Warea in 
1834, he included in it a plant found in “West Florida” by Mr. 
Ware, presumed to be the same as his earlier Stanleya amplexifolia, 
and he re-named it Warea amplexifolia. (Nuttall seems to have 
confused East and West Florida more than once.) In 1895 Mr. 
Nash found on the sandhills at Belair, Leon County, a Warea 
that seemed to be undescribed, and he named it in 1896 W. sessili- 
folia. Later in the same year Dr. Small (Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, 
23:408-410) discussed the three species of Warea then known, 
and asserted that Nuttall’s W. amplexifolia was the same as Nash’s 
plant, and different from the East Florida plant, originally referred 
doubtfully to Stanleya, which he then re-christened W. amplexi- 


8 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


folia (Nutt.) Small; a somewhat questionable proceeding. But he » 
did not explain how or when Mr. Ware might have visited Belair, 
and found another Warea there after finding one in East Florida. 
Incidentally, W. sessilifolia must be quite rare, for it is not in- 
cluded in my list of the plants of the Belair (or Bellair) sand re- 
gion, in the 6th Annual Report of the Florida Geological Survey, 
pp. 280-288. (1914). Prof. Hitchcock had one of Nash’s original 
specimens in his herbarium, and also W. amplexifolia from Haines 
City, Polk County, and the commoner W. cuneifolia from three 
localities along the east coast. | 

24. The story of Parnassia Floridana is somewhat complex, and 
the whole is not known yet. Chapman in 1860 recognized two 
species of Parnassia, P. Caroliniana, in “Damp soil, Florida and 
northward,” and P. asarifolia, which is chiefly confined to the moun- 
tains and need not concern us further at present. His treatment 
of the genus in 1897 was essentially the same. Hitchcock in 1899 
cited no specimens of Parnassia from Florida. 

Dr. Charles Mohr, in his Plant Life of Alabama, 1901, knew no 
Parnassia in the state except P. asarifolia (one station, in the 
mountains), but observed that P. grandifolia was not infrequent 
near Poplarville, Miss., and P. Caroliniana in southeastern Mis- 
sissippi, and both should be looked for in southwestern Alabama. 
(But I have not yet found them in the state, and I have visited 
every county more than once. ) 

Small in 1908 listed only P. grandifolia, from Virginia to Missouri, 
Florida and Louisiana, and P. asarifolia from the mountains, dis- 
regarding P. Caroliniana, which must certainly have come from 
one of the Carolinas (and Elliott had reported it from near Colum- 
bia, S. C., long before). In his second book, 1918, on page 499 
(which was one of the pages revised to allow the insertion of more 
species), four species of Parnassia are recognized, namely, P. 
grandifolia (range as in first edition), P. Floridana (described by 
Rydberg in 1905) “In damp grounds, Apalachicola, Florida,’ P. 
Caroliniana, “N.B. to Man., Va., the Carolinas (?) and South 
Dakota,” and P. asarifolia. 

In his Manual (1983) P. Floridana is dropped, and the range of 
P. Caroliniana given as “Swamps and flat woods, Coastal Plain, 
Fla. to N. C.” This apparently includes P. Floridana. Dr. E. T. 
Wherry, in Bartonia, April, 1936, treated these species similarly, 
and called the northern plant P. glauca Raf. 


PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS 9 


It would seem from all this that Dr. Chapman long ago collected 
a Parnassia somewhere around Apalachicola, which he took for 
P. Caroliniana, and assumed that its range was continuous from 
there to New England (where he must have seen what passed for 
that species in his college days). Dr. Rydberg evidently thought 
the Florida plant was a distinct species, which would not be sur- 
prising, in view of its isolation, for there is no record of any 
Parnassia in Georgia or Alabama except P. asarifolia, and P. Caro- 
liniana does not seem to be definitely known even from the Caro- 
linas now. But Dr. Small, who at first accepted Rydberg’s judgment, 
later became skeptical, and merged the Florida plant with P. Caro- 
liniana. Just how much it differs from that, and from the two 
species reported from Mississippi by Mohr, is not clear, but as 
far as known it is separated from the two last mentioned by the 
whole width of Alabama. It may not have been collected for 
many years; but it seems desirable to keep it on the list of Florida 
endemics to call attention to it. As these plants bloom only in the 
fall, they might have been overlooked by many botanists who may 
have walked right over them in summer. 

25. Leptoglottis Floridana was called Schrankia Floridana by 
Chapman in 1897, and Morongia uncinata by Small in 1903 and 
1913. (If I have ever seen more than one species of this genus | 
have not noticed any difference between them. ) 

26. Baptisia simplicifolia, a very distinct species, seems to be 
chiefly confined to Gadsden and Wakulla Counties. It was first de- 
scribed from near Quincy, without flowers, by Croom in 1833 
(Am. Jour. Sci. 25:74), more briefly by Nuttall the following year 
(Jour. Acad. Sci. Phila. 7:96), and the description of the flowers 
was supplied by Croom in 1835 (Am. Jour. Sci. 28:167). It is not 
hard to find if one goes to the right places, but Prof. Hitchcock 
had no specimen of it. I listed it as one of the characteristic plants 
of the “Panacea country’ in the 6th Annual Report of the Florida 
Geological Survey, 1914. Dr. Small found it in Gadsden County 
several years later, and so reported it in the Journal of the New 
York Botanical Garden for January, 1923. 

Baptisia elliptica is attributed only to Florida by Small, but Miss 
Maxine Larisey, in her monograph of that genus (Ann. Mo. Bot. 
Gard. 27:119-244. 1940) cites a few specimens of it, and of a new 
variety, from southern Alabama, some of them collected by Dr. 
Mohr, who did not distinguish it from B. lanceolata. 


10 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Baptisia hirsuta was first described by W. M. Canby in 1887 
(Bot. Gaz. 12:39) from a specimen collected by A. H. Curtiss at 
or near DeFuniak Springs, treating it as a variety of B. calycosa, 
which he had previously described from near St. Augustine. But 
the varietal name he used had already been applied to a quite 
different species in the genus, and Small re-named it B. hirsuta 
in 1903. It seems to be confined to dry sand in West Florida, and it 
is quite common in Okaloosa County. B. calycosa must be quite 
rare, and I have never found it. The only specimens of it cited 
by Hitchcock are from Walton County, and one of those is the 
type of Canby’s variety, now called B. hirsuta. 

A striking characteristic of B. hirsuta, never mentioned in de- 
scriptions based on pressed specimens, is that its leaves stand in 
vertical planes, and are much alike on both sides. 

On the basis of known specimens, Baptisia megacarpa Chapm. 
(1860) would be another Florida endemic. All the specimens cited 
by Miss Larisey are from Middle Florida (not “central Florida,” 
as she put it), though Dr. Chapman when he described it thought 
it grew also near Albany, Ga. No one seems to have found it 
there since, but I thought I found it near Americus, Ga., in 1897, 
and so reported it in 1900 (Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, 27:429). But 
my specimens were evidently B. leucantha or some closely related 
species. Dr. Mohr, in his Plant Life of Alabama (1901) reported 
B. megacarpa from the Piedmont region, still farther inland, but 
he was probably misled, as I was, by the fact that the 19th cen- 
tury descriptions of B. leucantha did not indicate that its pods 
are drooping, as those of B. megacarpa are. And Dr. Small was not 
deceived by Mohr’s report. 

27. Indigofera Keyensis, beginning with Chapman in 1883, was 
referred to I. subulata, a tropical species, until Small separated it 
in 1988. 

28. Cracca Chapmanii is probably what Chapman referred to 
in 1897 as an unnamed variety of Tephrosia chrysophylla. Small 
gave it a wider range in 1903 and 1918. C. Curtissii may be what 
Chapman called T. leptostachya in 1897. 

29. Rhynchosia Michauxii is what Chapman and Hitchcock 
called R. menispermoidea, a tropical species. R. Lewtonii was 
referred by Chapman in 1897 to R. reticulata, presumably a tropi- 
cal species. During the first quarter of the present century this 
genus was commonly combined with Dolicholus. 


PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS 11 


30. Erythrina arborea. Chapman in 1883 noted the presence in 
South Florida of an arborescent Erythrina, which he said was 
much like E. herbacea, and might be simply that species growing 
in a more favorable climate. But in 1897 he grew bolder and made 
it a variety, noting that the racemes were few-flowered and the 
flowers smaller than in E. herbacea. Small, as was his wont, raised 
it to a species at the first opportunity; but there might still be 
differences of opinion about that. It is indeed a plant of striking 
appearance, a small crooked tree, near the semi-arid west coast 
of South Florida, where several plants of Mexican affinities, un- 
known on the humid east coast, are found. It would be interesting 
to transfer seeds of each species to the habitat of the other, and 
watch developments. 

31. Galactia parvifolia was called an unnamed variety of G. 
spiciformis by Chapman in 1860, and G. filiformis by him in 1883, 
according to Small. It may be a tropical species. 

32. Chapmannia (also spelled Chapmania, which seems more 
logical) seems to be a very distinct monotypic genus, and it was 
so recognized by Torrey and Gay in 1838. A. H. Curtiss published 
some interesting observations on this and Garberia in the Botanical 
Gazette for September, 1881. 

33. Ditaxis Blodgettii, from the Keys, was originally described 
by Torrey under Aphora, and that name was used by Chapman 
in 1860, but he switched it to Argyrothamnia in 1897, and Small to 
Ditaxis in 1903; in both cases without synonyms to connect it 
definitely with names previously used. But the same specific name 
was used each time. 

34. Chamaesyce conferta, described by Small in 1903, was 
thought by him at that time to extend to the tropics. 

35. Hibiscus semilobatus was described by Chapman in 1883 as 
H. coccineus var. integrifolius, but in 1897 he re-christened it H. 
semilobatus, which was contrary to the rules then in force, as 
Small soon pointed out (Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, 25:135. March, 
1898). It appears as H. integrifolius in Small’s first two books, but 
after that the rules were changed, restoring H. semilobatus. 

36. Lythrum flagellare was distinguished as such by Chapman 
and Hitchcock, but Small in 1903 and 1918 referred it to a tropical 
species, L. Vulneraria. 

37. Parsonsia lythroides, which seems to be known only near 


12 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Apalachicola (I have seen it a few miles northwest of there), 
was described by Chapman in 1860 as Cuphea aspera. But the 
specific name turned out to be a homonym, and the generic name 
was found to be antedated by Parsonsia,. necessitating a complete 
change. 

38. Forestiera porulosa was called Adelia segregata by Small 
in 1903 and 1918, but changes of rules restored the original name 
by 1938. | 

39. Osmanthus Floridana was described by Chapman in 1897, 
and cited by Hitchcock in 1901 (in his supplementary list), and 
accepted by Small at first. But in 1933 he was skeptical about its 
being a good species, and mentioned it only incidentally. It is 
congeneric with the next species on my list, but to put them in 
the same genus would necessitate questioning Dr. Small’s judg- 
ment and changing one of the names, which is hardly warranted 
at this time. 

40. Dasystephana tenuifolia, with white flowers, was long re- 
ferred to Gentiana angustifolia (later called G. Porphyrio, and D. 
Porphyrio), a blue-flowered species, now known only from New 
Jersey to South Carolina. It blooms normally in late fall, and 
Croom recorded it (as “Gentiana alba, white flowered gentian” ) 
as still blooming the first week in January, 1833, in wet pine woods 
in Middle Florida. (Am. Jour. Sci., 25:60. 1833.) Gray, in his 
Synoptical Flora of North America (2:124. 1886), noted that there 
was a white-flowered variety of G. angustifolia from Florida, which 
had been called G. frigida var. Drummondii. I have never met with 
it, though it is supposed to occur in the southwestern part of Leon 
County. 

Al. Solanum Floridanum was treated by Chapman in 1860 and 
1883 as a variety of the common weedy S. Carolinense, but in 1897 
he did not mention it at all. Gray, in his Synoptical Flora (2:227. 
1886), mentioned it briefly, saying that it was collected by Rugel 
at St. Marks, Fla., and is probably a waif of ballast ground, and 
cannot be a variety of S. Carolinense, as Chapman supposed. I 
collected it near Newport about 1930, and it was only a roadside 
weed there. It could hardly have been there before white settlers 
came, and may be either an introduction from some unknown 
foreign source, or a mutation from S. Carolinense. 

42. Clinopodium macrocalyx is based on A. H. Curtiss’s no. 


PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS 13 


2012, from somewhere along the Indian River. It was not known 
to Chapman, but Hitchcock cited that number in 1899, as his only 
Florida specimen of Calamintha coccinea, which is what Curtis 
believed it to be. At the New York Botanical Garden, probably 
about 1902, I came across a specimen of it, and suggested to Dr. 
Small that it looked like a different species. And he accepted my 
suggestion, and described it in 1903. I am not at present informed 
if any other collections of it are known. 

43. It may be worth mentioning that Clinopodium (formerly 
Calamintha) dentatum, though known only from a very limited 
area in Gadsden and Liberty counties, is so common in the streets 
of Bristol (or was twenty years ago) as to appear like a weed there. 
But it is an unquestioned native, and its natural habitat is dry sand. 

44, Ilysanthes grandiflora was attributed by Nuttall, when he 
described it in 1818, to Georgia only, and Chapman knew nothing 
to the contrary in 1860. Nearly every one who wrote about it after 
that, down to and including Small in 1933, thought it grew in both 
Georgia and Florida. But Dr. Pennell pointed out in 1935 (Monog. 
Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1:159) that there is no evidence of its oc- 
curring outside of Florida, where it ranges across the state, from 
about the Ocklawaha River on the north to the Caloosahatchee on 
the south. (Nuttall, though a very reputable botanist, as well as 
geologist and ornithologist, seems to have made several geographi- 
cal mistakes, of which this seems to be one, perhaps by depending 
too much on his memory.) 

45. Dyschoriste angusta has been described under various names, 
first as Dipteracanthus linearis, then Calophanes oblongifolia var. 
angusta, and Calophanes angusta. 

46. Gerardia Floridana has also been called Stenandrium dulce, 
and its variety Floridanum. 

47. Justicia angusta was placed in Dianthera in all the books 
cited except the last, and treated by Chapman in all three editions 
as a variety of D. ovata, but with a question. 

48. Borreria terminalis was called by Chapman in 1860 B. 
podocephala var. pumila, and in 1897 Spermacoce podocephala, as 
did also Hitchcock in 1899. Small in 1903 referred it to B. podo- 
cephala, which is a wide-ranging species. 

49. Spermacoce Keyensis, from 1897 to 1913, was referred to 
S. Portoricensis, a West Indian species. 


14 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


50. Viburnum densiflorum first appeared in Chapman’s books in 
1883, from “Wooded hillsides, West Florida.” And it was treated 
the same by him in 1897, though Gray in his Synoptical Flora, 1886, 
had expressed doubt as to its distinctness from V. acerifolium, and 
mentioned a similar but smoother plant from Taylor County, Geor- 
gia. Small in 1903 thought it grew also in Alabama, but in 1933 
he was doubtful about that. (No such plant was reported from 
Alabama by Mohr.) I saw it in Holmes Valley, Washington County, 
in 1914 (see 6th Ann. Rep. Fla. Geol. Surv., 1914, pp. 220, 224), 
but did not take specimens, and had no opportunity to compare 
it closely with V. acerifolium. I am leaving it in the list to call 
attention to it. 

ol. Rotantha Robinsiae was described by Small in 1933 from 
Chinsegut Hill, near Brooksville, on top of which a friend of his 
had a winter home. It would be very strange if a genuine native 
plant was confined to a single hill which was already considerably 
modified by civilization; and this deserves further investigation. 

52. Osmia frustrata was referred by Chapman in 1883 and 1897, 
and by Hitchcock in 1899, to Eupatorium heteroclinum, a tropical 
species, and was called Osmia heteroclina by Small in his first two 
books. Following a study by Robinson (which I have not seen), 
he pronounced it in 1933 an endemic species, abundant in the 
southwestern part of the peninsula. 

53. In 1933 Small announced that his Laciniaria chlorolepis, from 
near Tampa, was the same that he had previously called L. Garberi, 
and that the true L. Garberi (a few inches farther down the page) 
was what he had called L. Nashii. But Miss L. O. Gaiser, in her 
monograph of this genus (Rhodora, 48:236-237, Sept. 1946), treated 
L. chlorolepis and L. Garberi as practically synonymous, notwith- 
standing the fact that Small had sandwiched four other species 
between them. But whether one species or two, it is not known 
outside of Florida. 

54. Ammopursus, described by Small in 1924 as a new mono- 
typic genus (Ammopyrsus would have been more correct etymolo- 
gically) is thrown back into Liatris (Laciniaria) by Miss Gaiser, 
which is not surprising in view of the very conservative treatment 
of genera by nearly every one who writes for Rhodora. 


59. Garberia is a very distinct monotypic genus, and it is re- 
markable that it should have been first referred to Liatris, for it 


PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS 15 


is a widely branching evergreen shrub, very different from the 
usually simple-stemmed herbaceous species of Liatris (Laciniaria). 
It is fairly common in the scrub of central Florida. (See the paper 
by Curtiss cited under Chapmanania. ) 

56. Chrysopsis gigantea was thought by Small in 1903, but not 
in 1933, to grow also in Alabama. But evidence seems to be lacking. 
It may not be a very distinct species anyway. 

57. Phoebanthus, with two species, known only from Florida, 
was until recently included in Helianthella, a chiefly western genus, 
which does not appear otherwise in our southern floras. 

58. Pterophyton pauciflorum has been described under various 
names in the works cited, such as Actinomeris pauciflora and Ver- 
besina Warei. 

SUMMARY 


The 427 species in my list belong to 90 families and 231 
genera, as interpreted by Small. No doubt some good authorities 
would not recognize so many genera, and there might be con- 
siderable skepticism about the validity of many of the species. 
But at the present time, without access to a good herbarium, I 
cannot undertake to pass on them, and can only take them at 
face value, leaving more critical studies to future investigators, 
who may have more time and better facilities. 

It may be that there are still a few species in the list whose oc- 
currence in the tropics was overlooked by Dr. Small. But if there 
are any such they may be balanced by the number of true endemic 
species that I overlooked in going through his books. And species 
that have been found outside of Florida since the publication of 
Small’s Manual, or may be so found hereafter, may be more than 
balanced by new species discovered since 1933. 

It may be of some significance that after working in Florida 
at intervals from 1908 to 1931, every day in the year, and visiting 
every county, I have found only about fifty of these endemics, or 
less than one-eighth of the total. And Prof. Hitchcock and all the 
other botanists whose specimens he saw, in the 90’s, turned up 
only 96 of them. But of course many perfectly good species and 
even a few genera have been discovered in Florida since his time, 
and some very good species discovered before that are evidently 
so rare that few botanists have found them. However, those that - 
are so similar to well-known species that the average botanist 


16 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


might pass them without noticing them are probably still more 
numerous. 

Some of the endemics are so common within their ranges that 
almost every botanist who spends any length of time in Florida, 
and travels around a little, is likely to meet them; and several of 
them are easily identified even from a moving train or automobile. 
Among these locally common species are Pinus clausa, Spartina 
Bakeri, Trema, Baptisia hirsuta, Pilostaxis Rugelii, Pycnothymus, 
Ilysanthes grandiflora, Garberia, Eupatorium mikanioides, Ber- 
landiera subacaulis, and Mesadenia Floridana. More restricted in 
distribution, but still common enough so that they are easily found — 
when one goes to the right places, are Tumion, Grossularia Echi- 
nella, Baptisia simplicifolia, and Pityopsis flexuosa. These last four 
are confined to Middle Florida, and are in more danger from log- 
ging or agricultural developments than from extermination by 
botanists. 

It is very interesting to note that among our 400-odd endemic 
species there are 17 genera confined to Florida, three of them with 
two species each. This is according to Small’s interpretation. More 
_ conservative botanists might not recognize more than a dozen 
endemic genera; but even that is a pretty high figure, probably 
not surpassed in any equal area elsewhere in the United States. 
These genera have been indicated by capitals in the foregoing 
list, but it seems worth while to list them here in approximate 
order of discovery, based on the date of discovery of the species, 
rather than on the recognition of the genus as distinct. (At present 
I do not have the necessary information for giving the exact date 
for each one. ) 

Salpingostylis, Garberia, Chapmannia, and Phoebanthus, or at 
least the species now included in them, were known to Chapman 
in 1860; Pycnothymus, Stachydeoma, Tradescantella, Rotantha and 
Oxypteryx in 1883 (though our species of Pycnothymus seems to 
have been discovered by Bartram in the 18th century ); Asclepiodella 
and Hartwrightia in 1897; and one species of Deeringothamnus was 
known to Small in 1903; while Dentoceras, Nyachia, Sanidophyllum, 
Litrisa, and Ammopursus did not appear in the books until 1933. 

The following little table sums up the species list by larger groups 
of flowering plants, with the same seven columns as before, and 
two additional ones at the beginning to show the number of fami- 


PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS 17 


lies and genera represented in the 1933 count, and one at the end 
to show the total number of species in each group in Small’s 
Manual. At the bottom there is a line for the totals and one for 
the percent of monocotyledons among the angiosperms in each 
column. 


1933 Chapman Small 

— | Hitchcock |——,——_—__| Total 

Fams.| Gen. | 1860)1883)1897} 1899-1901 |1903/1913)1933] 1933 

Gymnosperms...... 3} 4| 3| 4] 4 4 4-| 41 6 33 
Monocotyledons....| 15 | 42 | 8 | 15 | 20 13 44 | 48 | 81 | 1477 
Lt ROME TSH.) otal 7 4 UT |) TS Se 
Polypetalac........| 35 | 80 | 20 | 34 | 40 33 77 | 92 |177 | 1840 
Gamopetale....... 27 | 87 | 28 | 40 | 50 42 91 |102 |141 | 1859 
ba cere 5584 = <3 90 |231 | 62 |100 |121 96 227 |259 |427 | 5557 

% Monocotyledons |....|.... TSr ood lie 14.2 19.7|18.8)19.3} 26.8 


The ratio of monocotyledons to all angiosperms is given here be- 
cause I have used it. elsewhere! as a rough statistical measure of 
floristic age. It naturally varies from column to column with the 
progress of discovery, and variations in conception of species, and 
it here reaches a peak in 1903, perhaps because of many species of 
Paspalum, Panicum and Sisyrinchium recognized by Dr. Small (or 
rather his collaborators) then and not in 1933. But it is decidedely 
less among our endemics than in the whole southeastern flora. And 
if we had a flora of Florida alone the monocotyledon percentage 
would probably be even higher than that in the last column, on 
account of the many aquatic habitats in the state, which are favor- 
able sites for monocotyledons. (In Hitchcock's Florida list of 1899- 
1901 the monocotyledon percentage is 28.6; and in a list for Lee 
County only, published by the same author in 1902, it is 34.9.) 

It is interesting, and probably significant, that among the 81 spe- 
cies of monocotyledons in our list there are only two endemic genera, 
while in the Carduaceae, one of the supposedly highest families, 
represented here by 59 species, there are five endemic genera, one 
of them with two species. 


1 Torreya, 5:207-210. (Jan. 1906.) 


18 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


All this would seem to indicate that monocotyledons, which are 
supposed to be more primitive than dicotyledons, tend to be more 
widely distributed, and thus less likely to be endemic. (The same 
may be true in still greater measure of the pteridophytes, bryo- 
phytes, etc., but those have not been specially studied with this 
point in view.) But it would not be safe to assert this as a general 
principle, until similar studies are made in other parts of the 
world. In a count of species credited only to Texas in Small’s Flora, 
1903, I found 368 (all angiosperms), of which 67, or 18.2%, were 
monocotyledons. But the monocotyledon percentage in the whole 
flora of Texas might not be greater than that, on account of the 
comparative scarcity of aquatic habitats there. 


The total number of species of flowering plants in Florida does 
not seem to have been counted recently, if at all. There are about 
1750 in Hitchcock's list of 1899-1901, and the total now known may 
be as much as 2500. Accepting that figure provisionally, just about 
one-sixth of them would be endemic. But if we could count indi- 
vidual plants, the endemics would probably constitute less than 
oné percent of the total bulk of native vegetation in the state, for 
-most of them are quite rare, as previously stated. 

Classified by size and structure, about 24 of these plants are 
trees (mostly small trees), 49 shrubs in the ordinary sense, 5 cycads 
and palms, 23 cacti, one a woody vine, and about 325 ordinary 
herbs, including herbaceous vines. 

A mere list of endemics would not mean much without some 
generalizations about the families most largely represented, and 
those that are scarce or absent. Taking Small’s interpretations of 
families and species literally, the families most largely represented 
are the Carduaceae, with 59 species, Fabaceae, with 40, Euphor- 
biaceae 32, Poaceae 24, Opuntiaceae 23, Cyperaceae 17, Lamiaceae 
16, and Leucojaceae 10. But most of these are pretty large families 
anyway; so it is more significant to note those which have the 
largest number of Florida endemics in proportion to the total num- 
ber of species in Small’s Manual. On the face of the returns, the 
Opuntiaceae (cacti) lead, with 23 out of 44. But there might be 
some skepticism about the 16 species of Opuntia attributed by 
Small to Florida only (the great majority described since 1913), to 
say nothing of the 15 others of that genus in his Manual. 

So we may pass on to the Annonaceae, with 6 Florida endemics 


PRELIMINARY LIST OF ENDEMIC FLORIDA PLANTS IS, 


out of a total of 12. Other families ranking pretty high (not count- 
ing those represented by less than 10 species in the book) are 
Leucojaceae, with 10 out of 35, Euphorbiaceae, 32 out of 127 (but 
this perhaps inflated by many recently described species of Cha- 
maesyce ), Cistaceae and Oleaceae, both 6 out of 26, Polygalaceae, 
8 out of 37, Myrtaceae 3 out of 13, and Sapotaceae 3 out of 15. 

Families and genera that are fairly large in the Southeast but 
represented by few or no Florida endemics are Paspalum (12 in 
1903, none in 1933), Panicum (19 in 1903, 3 in 1933), Carex 3, 
Juncaceae none, Liliaceae none, Orchidaceae 3, Salicaceae 1, Faga- 
ceae 1, Ranunculaceae 2, Brassicaceae 4, Saxifragaceae none, Rosa- 
ceae none, Malaceae 3, Vitaceae 1, Malvaceae 8, Hypericaceae 3, 
Ericaceae 2, Vacciniaceae none, Cichoriaceae 1. 

The largest genera in the list, according to Small’s interpretation 
in 1933, are Chamaesyce, with 17 species, Opuntia 16, Cracca 8, and 
Rhynchospora and Hymenocallis 6 each. 


Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(1), 1949 (1950). 


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A FIELD SURVEY OF FLORIDA'S PEBBLE 
PHOSPHATE STRIPLANDS 


Witsur B. DE VALL 
formerly of the Lake City Branch, Southeastern 
Forest Experiment Station 


and 


CLAUDE L. DEVANE 
Florida Forest Service 


The open-pit pebble phosphate mining industry began in Florida 
between the years 1885 and 1891 after phosphate pebbles were 
first discovered along Florida’s Peace River. This discovery led to 
the formation of several small companies destined to exploit the 
phosphate deposits. The companies grew in number to about fifty, 
according to reports of local residents. In 1905, after approximately 
fifteen years of varied mining activities, the small companies were 
gradually absorbed by the larger ones with greater operating 
capital and improved mining equipment. At present there are 
eight in Florida actively engaged in mining pebble phosphate rock. 

The Mining Area Prospecting for pebble phosphate still con- 
tinues on newly acquired land and has been the basis for defining 
the limits of rock deposits. Taylor (1941) states that 60 percent 
of the deposits lie in the west half of Polk County and 30 percent 
in the east half of Hillsborough County. The remaining 10 percent 
lie in the northern part of Manatee and Hardee Counties (Figure 1) 
but are not rich enough to mine with present mining equipment. 

According to Taylor the phosphate deposits in Florida cover a 
gross area of about 500,000 acres, of which only 20 percent con- 
tains minable phosphate. Improvements in mining methods as 
well as increased demands for raw and derived products may 
enlarge the net acreage. 

Survey Objectives A field survey of the open-pit, pebble phos- 
phate mining industry in Florida was mutually authorized by the 
Florida Forest Service and the Southern Forest Experiment Sta- 
tion, to evaluate the spoil bank problem. Field work was done by 
the authors on April 16-18, 1946. 

The survey was made (1) to ascertain the amount of land in 
the mined-out area that could be used for tree or plant production, 


22 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


(2) to find out the present land-utilization practices on the spoil 
areas, and (3) to determine whether or not the mined-out lands 
represent a problem warranting formal investigations in the field 
of revegetation and land use. 


THE PEBBLE PHOSPHATE MINING REGION OF FLORIDA 


(ans | Boundary Mining Area —- 
; \-—.Mine Headquarters A | 
Scale of Miles 
5 10 


L6G) 


Pl g 
TAMPA City) # 
y) © 


N 


Fig. 1—-Approximate location of the phosphate striplands and distribution 
of operating companies. 


Spor. BANKS 


The term “spoil bank” as used here, applies to the excavated 
overburden, in situ, removed by the strip mining process regardless 
of the form in which it is deposited. This term has come into 
common usage since 1928. 

Types of Banks Spoil banks in the Florida phosphate region 
are of three types. Each is associated with a major progressive 
change in the mining process. 

The first type of bank, referred to here as the “ramp” bank, was 
produced during the early years of mining when the overburden 
was removed by hand labor and hauled away with wheelbarrows 
and mule carts. A ramp-like incline was produced as the over- 
burden was moved away from the pit. Debris was dumped over 
the sides as the ramp was extended and widened. This type of 
bank is of very limited occurrence and does not come within the 
practical limits of this paper. 


FLORIDA’S PEBBLE PHOSPHATE STRIPLANDS 23 


The second type of bank is the “hydraulic-deposited” bank. The 
overburden was removed and pumped over an earth retainer wall. 
The sludge was permitted to flood out in a fan-shaped pattern over 
unmined or unminable land. The bank varies from ten to thirty 
feet in height at the margin of the old pit or along roads to a thin 
layer at the extreme perimeter of the wash. The area covered also 
varies from a few to more than forty acres. The slope away from 
the retainer bank is not in excess of 5 percent. Basically, the hy- 
draulic method produced an overburden “dump” or “wash” rather 
than a bank. One can climb the steep bank adjacent to a road or 
pit and upon reaching the top, find a broad plateau-like surface 
gently sloping away to a stream or swamp. This type of deposit is 
the only one offering a plane surface readily accessible and per- 
mitting easy utilization of timber or forage crops that might be 
grown thereon. 


The third type of bank, and the one with which the public is 
most familiar, may be referred to as the “dragline-deposited” spoil 
bank. These banks resemble those associated with strip mining of 
coal and have been produced since draglines were introduced to 
the industry in 1929. In panoramic view (Figure 2) they resemble 
the “bad lands” of the Dakotas. The overburden is piled up on 
previously mined-out land as strip after strip is exploited for its 
rock. The individual mound-like piles merge with one another, 
producing miniature mountain chains. Banks thus formed are either 
aligned in a general north-south or east-west direction or diverge 
enough to follow the rock bed. Freshly excavated piles of over- 
burden rise to a normal height of twenty or thirty feet upon a 
base as wide as fifty feet. The peak is acute and the sides steep. 
Weathering changes the conformation of the banks to an obtuse 
peak and a widened base. A stabilized bank is shown in profile 
view in figure 3. 

The three mining methods have produced banks of different 
form but similar composition. All types contain a mixture of 
surface debris, sand, clay, scattered phosphate pebbles, and frag- 
ments of limerock. Regardless of the mixture resulting from trans- 
location of the overburden, the banks are uniform in texture. 
This fact is significant in the establishment of vegetation upon the 
banks. The uniformity of texture is in sharp contrast with the 
heterogeneous character of coal striplands in the Central States. 


24 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Area of Banks Data supplied by the eight mining companies 
in 1947 indicated that phosphate spoil banks covered an area of 
about 30,610 acres. This acreage represented 17 percent of all 
land owned by the companies, and 1.6 percent of the gross area of 
Polk and Hillsborough Counties. 

New banks are being deposited at an increasing rate. Current 
mining rates range from 60 to 150 acres per year per company, and 
the total annual addition to the spoil areas is about 800 acres. 


RECLAMATION — THE ECOLOGICAL APPROACH 


The forces of nature play an important part in reclaiming spoil 
banks caused by strip mining. Nature follows a slow process of 
successional development in revegetating these areas, but man is 
inclined to attempt to hasten the process by omitting certain stages 
in order that he may obtain his objective in a shorter period of time. 
Attempts to reclaim such lands should be fitted ito a definite plan 
of land utilization. Some of the basic ecological relationships which 
apply to spoil areas were established by Croxton (1928) in studies 
of the coal striplands of Illinois. 

The information here presented is based upon short-time field 
observations only, and does not constitute a formal ecological 
treatise of spoil banks in Florida’s pebble phosphate region. 

Exposure and Moisture In dragline operations the overburden 
which is removed down to the matrix is piled up in long parallel 
rows as strip after strip is mined. The freshly excavated material 
creates a raw, porous “soil” condition. The material is relatively 
plastic and compacts uniformly in about two to five years. Settling 
and a slight degree of sheet and gulley erosion are factors in this 
process. Gradual drying-out occurs at the peak and on the upper 
portions of the slopes. Moisture conditions near the base of the 
bank are more stable. A permanent supply of surface water borders 
many of the banks, while in other areas sub-surface capillary mois- 
ture is always available. Surface drying near the top of the banks 
is rarely excessive except in drought periods. It does affect minor 
vegetation such as grasses and herbs but is not serious to woody 
plants, which after establishment are rooted deeper in the bank. 
The structure of the bank is favorable to the establishment of all 
volunteer forms of vegetation. Roots easily penetrate the over- 


FLORIDA’S PEBBLE PHOSPHATE STRIPLANDS 25 


Fig. 2—-General view of dragline-deposited spoil banks ten years old; as seen 
from the top of a roadside bank. Axis of banks is approximately north- 
south but curves slightly to follow rock deposits. Slopes essentially 
barren except for patches of vegetation. 


Fig. 83-End view showing conformation of a stabilized east-west dragline- 
deposited band. Invasion and spread of volunteer vegetation is shown 
in contrast on the north and south slopes. Water-filled pits are ap- 
proaching complete invasion by aquatic plants. 


26 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Fig. 4—View along the north slope of a 15-year-old east-west dragline-deposited 
bank showing invasion by volunteer grasses and shrubs. A south slope 
nearly barren from the water's edge to the top is contrasted at the left. 


Fig. 5—A seven-year-old planting of slash pine on the north slope of a road- 
side bank. Trees were planted in rows following contours of the bank 
and have made rapid growth. 


FLORIDA’S PEBBLE PHOSPHATE STRIPLANDS 27 


burden because there are no large mechanical obstructions and 
the bank is still compartively porous. Available moisture is prob- 
ably the major factor governing the depth of root penetration. 

Natural Revegetation The prevailing wind direction and dis- 
tance from seed source largely determine establishment of woody 
plants and heavy-seeded species, whereas exposure limits establish- 
ment of grasses and herbs. This point is illustrated in figures 3 
and 4. It will be noted in figure 3 that the north slope of this east- 
west bank supports a well-established cover of grasses and herbs 
with a higher, encroaching layer of shrubs. The north slope of the 
bank shown at the extreme left is completely blanketed with 
shrubs, while the south slope of the bank shown at the extreme 
right resembles the corresponding slope of the bank shown in end 
view. The stand of slash pine, (Pinus caribaea)' in the distant 
right background has provided the seed for the pine reproduction 
on the exposed banks. 

Seed-source plantings have been used to reforest barren slopes 
in other states. Such plantings must be located in strategic spots in 
order to take advantage of elevation and wind direction. Seed dis- 
semination from seed-source plantings on phosphate spoils would 
be relatively ineffective because there are no high vantage points on 
which to plant trees and much of the area upon which seed would 
fall would be water. 

The blanket of aquatic vegetation on the surface of the water is 
waterhyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), with scattered strands and 
patches of cattail (Typha sp.) intermingled. Figure 4 shows an- 
other series of banks with separating pit of exposed water. These 
banks run in an east-west direction. The north slope of the bank 
shown on the right has a well-established border of coastal-plain 
willow (Salix longipes) at the water's edge and scattered clumps of 
southern waxmyrtle (Myrica cerifera). A permanent supply of mois- 
ture contributes to the luxuriant growth of shrubs once they become 
established. A uniform grass cover composed mainly of natal-grass 
( Tricholaene repens) and bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon) blank- 
ets the upper slope. The banks at the left are of the same age and 
essentially barren. This is again a southern exposure. 

A definite contrast can be made by comparing figures 2 and 3. 


1 Plant nomenclature according to “Standardized Plant Names,” by H. P. | 
Kelsey & W. A. Dayton, 2nd ed., 1942. 


28 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


The generally north-south banks in figure 2, although slightly 
younger, have little cover on either the east or west exposures. 
This condition is attributed largely to surface drying during the 
critical periods of establishment. 

When native pines become sge neared on the banks, their 
growth is appreciably more rapid than on adjacent wild lands. 
Table 1 summarizes growth measurement of trees on a bank in 
Polk County and of other trees in the undisturbed open flatwoods 
nearby. This particular sample indicates an average superiority of 
55 percent in growth rate on the spoil banks. 


Annual Average | Average 
Trees in rings diameter annual 
Species Habitat sample at breast | at breast | diameter 
height height growth 
Number | Number Inches Inches 
Slash pine....| Spoil bank...... 15 14.9 11.6 0.78 
Open flatwoods. 15 25.5 11.3 0.44 
Longleaf pine | Spoil bank...... 15 22.2 13 c8 0.59 
Open flatwoods.. 15 24.8 10.8 0.44 


Table 1.—Growth of Slash and Longleaf Pines on Spoil Bank and in Sur- 
rounding Flatwoods. 


Strip-mined phosphate lands in Florida have not been forested 
on a large scale. The state Forest Service, in cooperation with one 
of the larger mines, established a few experimental plantings of 
slash pine. One of the plantings on the north slope of a bank facing 
a highway is shown in figure 5. These trees are now seven years 
old. They were planted, as nine-months-old seedlings, in rows 
following contours of the banks. The character of the bank and its 
average reported pH of 7.0 suggests that southern redcedar, (Juni- 
perus silicicola) would do well on this site. De Vall (1943) has 
shown that this species occurs naturally on soils ranging in pH from 
5.7 to 7.9. It is suggested for experimental trial plantings with ulti- 
mate utilization either for Christmas trees or fence posts. 

The major problems that developed in Illinois with regard to 
forest plantings on spoil banks were the newly created soil condi- 


FLORIDA’S PEBBLE PHOSPHATE STRIPLANDS 29 


tions, soil moisture variations, selection of tree species, rabbit dam- 
age, planting methods and costs. It appears that planting problems 
on Florida’s banks would largely be confined to soil moisture vari- 
ations on the upper slopes of the banks and high planting costs. 
Planting costs might be about 50 percent higher on the spoil banks 
than on flat land. This assumption is based on the facts that work- 
ing conditions are difficult on these steep banks and that some 
of the banks are practically inaccessible except by boat. 

Several hardwood shrubs and trees have been introduced at 
the Florida Forest Service nursery at Lakeland that could be tried 
experimentally on accessible banks facing the main highways. 
Tourist travel is so heavy in this section that roadside beautification 
projects should be given serious consideration. 


UTILIZATION OF Spor. AREAS 


The lands now included in mined-out acreage were formerly large- 
ly forested. Merchantable’ stands of timber were sold in advance 
of mining operations. Scattered trees left from previous logging 
invariably are now bulldozed out of the way in preparation for 
opening a mine. This procedure has drawn some unfavorable 
comment from conservation-minded citizens. 

Any planned utilization program for the spoil areas of the 
pebble phosphate region must first be sanctioned by the mining 
companies, where company lands are involved, and by individuals, 
on mined-out lands now in other ownership. Since no organized 
work has been done in Florida, it is difficult to set forth any speci- 
fic reclamation plan. With this in mind the authors sought to de- 
termine the attitude of the industry toward any form of land utili- 
zation that might be proposed for the mined-out acreage. This 
approach brought to light certain limitations to a planned, coop- 
erative land utilization program. 

Mined-out lands may be classified according to three major 
utilization classes; (1) spoil bank areas required in connection with 
current mining operations, (2) spoil bank areas reserved by the 
companies for possible future development but subject to lease, 
and (8) spoil bank areas abandoned by the companies and subject 
either to lease or sale to outside interests. 

The policy of the mining industry with regard to the three fore- 
going classes of spoil bank areas is used as a guide to the evaluation ~ 
of the land-use problems. The mining companies are interested, 


30 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


first of all, in their own requirements. Each mine in active opera- 
tion now uses its pits for settling sludge in the wash water as 
well as for circulating the water for re-use. This means that the 
pits and banks adjacent to an operating mine are not available for 
other use for a period of ten to twenty years, or the opeuane life 
of the mine. 

The industry is inclined to reserve areas which include settling 
pits, anticipating that in future years reclamation processes may 
be developed whereby the sludge, now considered waste, may be 
reprocessed for the lost phosphate fraction. This policy is sup- 
ported by the fact that present-day processes permit remining of — 
the old hydraulic settling areas where only 30 percent of the phos- 
phate yield was obtained. In the future it may be possible to de- 
velop new processes that will reclaim the lost fraction in present 
mining operations. The spoil bank areas being reserved are, how- 
ever being leased to cattlemen for pasture purposes. 

Only the spoil banks that have been permanently abandoned 
by the mines are being disposed of. Much of this land is being 
sold to cattlemen because of the added impetus given their indus- 
try during the war. Sales of such lands to outside interests further 
reduce the spoil bank acreage that is not being utilized. These 
lands are now selling at a rate comparable to that paid for wild 
range lands. 

Leasing or selling to cattlemen restores the utilization value on 
each surface acre. This does not mean that each acre is totally 
productive of pasturage. The water-filled pits are necessary as a 
source of permanent drinking water and do supply some pasturage 
in the form of aquatic vegetation but are otherwise void. The upper 
slopes of the spoil banks are considered less productive of pas- 
turage because cattle seldom graze to this height, and further 
because of lower succulence of the forage compared with that 
nearer the base. According to preliminary estimates, not over 90 
percent of the surface area of average mined-out lands can be 
considered directly productive of forage. A plan for multiple utili- 
zation could increase the revenue-yielding capacity of such lands 
by bringing the remaining 10 percent into production. 

All abandoned spoil areas can be sold to cattlemen provided they 
lie contiguous to other cattle ownership and are of sufficient size 
to justify fencing. This means that such lands will have a con- 
tinuous utilization value although transferred to a different industry. 


FLORIDA’S PEBBLE PHOSPHATE STRIPLANDS 31 


The question is often raised, “Why doesn't the mining industry 
level off the spoil banks?” Miners and conservationists hold widely 
divergent opinions on this point. A physical difficulty is that the 
normal high water table common in the flat lands of Florida would 
possibly inundate the lowered land surface produced by leveling. 
Certainly the fact that matrix has been removed leaves a deficit 
in material available to put back in the pits. It is fairly well estab- 
lished that flattening the tops of the banks with bulldozers or dyna- 
mite is expensive. One mining company operating on somewhat 
higher than normal land has expressed its intention to experiment 
with leveling. In this case, the overburden would be spread out 
as mining progresses instead of being piled in the form of banks. 
The results should prove most interesting. 


Harvesting of merchantable timber products on dragline de- 
posits would be a major problem on Florida’s phosphate spoils if 
forestation were carried out on a large scale. There are no existing 
roads among the banks, and deep pits filled with water would 
further complicate harvesting methods. If a significant value can 
be placed on reclamation alone without considering utilization, 
such as is sometimes the case in erosion control, planting of spoil 
banks may be considered economically feasible. 


Florida contains thousands of acres of cutover timber lands 
which could be handled more economically, from planting to har- 
vest, than the limited area of dragline deposits in the state. 

The hydraulic dumps or washes previously described should be 
considered in any plan of spoils utilization. The hydraulic-deposited 
bank has a workable surface area without further effort or in- 
vestment and lends itself readily to utilization in several forms. 
Some of the older banks are now planted to agricultural truck 
crops—a high form of utilization in this region. Other banks have 
been included in pasture acreage. A limited number of banks are 
still not fully productive and are not included in any land utiliza- 
tion plan. This condition exists because of the fact that the bank 
is isolated, or at least set apart from other lands on which planned 
utilization is already in effect. The limited size of some of the 
banks precludes their use for grazing. These smaller banks, as 
well as isolated ones, could well form the nucleus for forestation 
work if such were initiated. All such areas are, or could be made: 
accessible for final wood harvesting. 


32 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Minor Uses A few minor uses have developed and others are 
anticipated. Limited acreage containing pits has been sold to citrus 
grove owners as a source of irrigation water. The ultimate effect 
of this water upon the grove and the soil will determine whether 
or not other acreage will be sold. This use is limited to spoil areas 
immediately adjacent to groves. : 

The recreational values of spoils have been advocated. This idea 
may grow in the vicinity of urban populations. One chamber of 
commerce has expressed its intention to develop a small area of 
spoils as a park and recreation area. Construction of foot trails, 
landscaping of banks, and charting of boat passages would have a — 
place in the development of such a recreation area. The water- 
filled pits produce game fish of such size as to be of interest to 
sportsmen. 

CONCLUSIONS 


The area of spoil banks now available for reforestation is too 
small to be more than a local problem. The fact that slash pine 
has been grown successfully on the banks also indicates that re- 
search on reforestation of the banks is of fairly low priority. The 
rough topography and inaccessibility of most of the banks will 
limit commercial tree planting to a relatively few thousand acres. 
On these areas tree planting and moderate grazing could probably 
be combined until the trees formed a closed stand. 

There is a good opportunity to make test plantings of various 
plant materials on the banks which are not subject to further use 
by the minining companies. Revegetation for grazing, erosion con- 
trol, roadside beautification, or recreational development could 
make use of a wide variety of forage plants, vines, shrubs, or trees. 
Test plantings of such materials should be made where there are 
prospects that public or private groups will be interested in such 
development. Special attention should be given to establishment 
of cover on the more exposed locations where natural revegetation 
is slow. 

SUMMARY 


A brief field survey was made of the problems connected with 
land-use of phosphate striplands in Polk and Hillsborough coun- 
ties in central Florida. The pertinent findings of the survey were 
as follows: 

1. The industry has mined out approximately 30,000 acres of 


FLORIDA’S PEBBLE PHOSPHATE STRIPLANDS 33 


land. Most of this is in the form of debris dumps, overburden 
dumps and washes, and open pits. Mined-out acreage is expected 
to accumulate at the current rate of 800 acres per year, or faster 
if mining methods improve. 

2. Merchantable timber, when present, is harvested in advance 
of mining. This is followed by removal of the phosphate rock and 
reversion of the mined-out land to agriculture, usually for grazing 
purposes. 

3. The three types of spoil banks, classified according to the 
mining method which produced them are, the ramp type, the 
hydraulic-deposited and the dragline-deposited types. 

4. Mined-out acreages can be placed in one of three utilization 
classifications: those required in the mining process, those reserved 
for possible future remining but subject to lease, and those. for 
sale to other outside interests. It is estimated that up to 90 percent 
of lands in these classes is now productive of forage. 

5. Establishment of minor vegetation on the spoils is retarded 
by surface drying. This condition is present on the upper east, 
west and south slopes of the banks. 

6. Natural forestation of the spoils from nearby stands is very 
slow, and the value of seed-source plantings is questionable. 

7. Slash pines planted on the banks have grown appreciably 
faster there than on adjoining flatwoods sites. This species and 
possibly others may be suitable if costs of planting and a feasible 
method of harvesting are not considered major hinderances. The 
hydraulic-deposited spoils are most suitable for forestation work 
because of their more level surface. 

8. Leveling the banks is too expensive for the economic returns 
normally expected from them. 

9. Formal investigation of commercial reforestation problems on 
phosphate spoils is not deemed necessary in view of the limited 
area that is suitable for forestry. However, test plantings of various 
plant materials would be desirable where public or private groups 
are interested in establishing cover for erosion control, roadside 
beautification, recreational development, or grazing. 


LITERATURE CITED 
ANONYMOUS 
1944. Conservation Experts Discover Strip Mining Releases Land Wealth. 
Timber Topics, Allis-Chalmers Tractor Co., May-June:9. 


34 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


CHAPMAN, A. G. 
1944. Forest Planting on Strip-Mined Coal Lands with Special Reference 
to Ohio. Central States Forest Exp. Sta. Tech. Paper, No. 104. 
Mimeographed, 25 pp. 


CROXTON, W. C. * 
1928. Revegetation of Illinois Coal eben ans Lands. Eccl. 9(2): 155- 75; 
(April). 


DE VALL, W. B. . 
1943. The Correlation of Soil pH with Distribution of Woody Plants in 
the Gainesville Area. Fla. Acad. Sci. Proc. Sean (March). 
TAYLOR, W. H. 
_ 1941. The Land Pebble Phosphate Deposits a Florida. Typewritten _ 
Manuscript. 


Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(1), 1949 (1950). 


A KEY TO FLORIDA’S FRESH-WATER SPONGES, 
WITH DESCRIPTIVE NOTES! 


S. KENDRICK EsHLEMAN, III 
University of Florida 


At the twelfth annual meeting of the Florida Academy of Sci- 
ences, the writer presented a paper entitled Fresh-Water Sponges 
New to Florida. The sponges new to Florida are the following: 
Spongilla aspinosa, Heteromeyenia repens, Heteromeyenia argy- 
rosperma, Dosilia palmeri and Trochospongilla horrida. In addi- 
tion, new Florida county records were reported for Heteromey- 
enia ryderi, Trochospongilla pennsylvanica, Spongilla ingloviformis, 
Spongilla lacustris, Spongilla fragilis, Meyenia crateriformis, Mey- 
enia millsii, Meyenia fluviatilis and Meyenia subdivisa. 

For a period of nearly four years, the writer has been studying 
fresh-water sponges, particularly those from Northern Florida. 
Over a thousand specimens have been examined, representing col- 
lections from nearly three hundred different localities. Many sponges 
have been found whose taxonomic affiliations are, as yet, uncer- 
tain, but the majority of fresh-water sponges found in this state 
can easily be assigned to their correct genera with the aid of the 
simple key presented below. 

All known fresh-water sponges belong to one family, Spongillidae. 
About fifteen genera and one hundred and sixty species are known. 
Nearly one quarter of these have already been found in the 
United States. These animals live in many kinds of water, and 
grow on all sorts of supports. Floating and submerged logs are 
excellent places on which to look for them. In rapid currents they 
can often be found growing on posts or rocks, usually on the 
under or downstream sides. In Florida, the optimum habitats seem 
to be in slow moving and still waters. Lakes, ponds, sink-holes, 
roadside ditches, swamps and most streams support a great variety 
of sponge life. Depending on the environment, sponges assume 
almost any color, from almost clear or white, in clear water, to 
black or dark brown in water full of decomposing vegetation. 
Often they are green, this color imparted by certain algae growing 
between the sponge cells. Colony morphology also varies with 
the environment. Sponges may have long projections growing from 

1 Contribution from the Department of Biology, University of Florida. 


36 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


them, or grow in the form of mats or very thin encrustations. Usual- 
ly they are found in patches an inch or two across, but they range 
in size from extremely small patches (size of a pin head) to large 
masses covering an area exceeding a square foot. The sponge 
colonies are easily cut off their support with a knife, but in doing 
so it is important to remove the base of the sponge, usually con- 
taining gemmules, and unless the entire colony is taken, gem- 
mules may be missed. Gemmules are small, spheroidal or concave, 
asexual reproductive bodies. Identification of most fresh-water 
sponges cannot be made without gemmules. After collection, speci- 
mens are allowed to dry, and then can be kept in small paper 
envelopes, boxes or jars and preserved indefinitely. 


Identification of sponges is based almost entirely on spicule 
morphology and arrangement. Spicules must be prepared for 
microscopic observation before final identification of a sponge is 
possible. The microscopic, needle-like, siliceous spicules are held 
together by spongin. This must be removed by heating the sponge 
in concentrated nitric acid until the organic tissues have entirely 
disintegrated. The spicules, in the test tube with the dissolved 
sponge, are washed with water, shaken and allowed to settle, or 
settled by centrifuging. Washing is continued until the water is 
relatively clear. Ethyl alcohol is finally added and some of the 
alcoholic spicule suspension is transferred by a pipette to a cover 
slip and ignited. After all the alcohol has been burned off, the 
cover slip is mounted with clarite, balsam, or Damar on a glass 
slide. Gemmules are treated with nitric acid until they become 
nearly clear. They are washed, dehydrated by passing up an 
alcohol series, cleared in carbol-xylol and mounted. A slide of a 
thin cross section of the sponge is often desirable for observing 
the structure of the sponge and the exact location of the gemmules. 

In studying sponges, it must always be remembered that they 
are exceedingly variable, even the spicules. Nevertheless, all spicules 
can be grouped among several categories. Spicules are either megas- 
cleres or microscleres. The megascleres are relatively large, needle- 
like spicules that are supportive in function. Microscleres are of 
two types: those associated with the gemmule’s crust (gemmule 
spicules) and those found throughout the sponge tissue or often 
concentrated in the dermal film. In Spongillidae, the skeletal spicules 
(megascleres) are long, with both ends alike. They grow in both 


FRESH WATER SPONGES OF FLORIDA 37 


directions from a central point and are called diactines. They are 
either smooth or spiny, sharply pointed at each end (oxeas) or 
rounded (strongyles). Gemmule spicules are generally diactines or 
birotulates (amphidisks). A birotulate spicule is spool-like, con- 
sisting of two terminal disks (rotules) connected by a central shaft. 
Dermal (flesh) spicules are usually diactines, often similar to 
skeletal spicules except very much smaller, and usually spiny. 


Kry To GENERA OF FLORIDA SPONGILLIDAE 
(Based on gemmule and spicule characters. ) 


1. Gemmules without long filamentous projections. 
2. Spicules all diactines (spiny or smooth). (I) Spongilla 
2.’ Birotulate spicules present, as well as diactines. 
3. Edges of terminal disks (rotules) of birotulates serrated. 
4, Only one type of birotulate. 
p. Dermal’ spicules’ lacking: 20) os © (II) Meyenia 
5.’ Dermal spicules stellate, or imperfectly so... 
(IIL) Dosilia 
4.’ Two distinct classes of birotulate spicules. 
6. Dermal spicules, if present, diactinal and spiny. 
ake (IV) Heteromeyenia 
6.’ Dermal spicules stellate, always present. Shafts 
of long birotulates nearly smooth, straight, slen- 
Ger, xs. (V) Asteromeyenia 
3.’ Edges of terminal disks smooth ___ (V1) Trochospongilla 
1.’ Gemmules with long filamentous projections _.. (VIL) Carterius 


(I) Spongilla LaMMaRCK. 


Spicules all diactinal.? Skeletal spicules long, with pointed or 

rounded ends. Minute diactinal dermal spicules often present. 
DESCRIPTION OF FLORIDA SPECIES 

Spongilla lacustris (Linnaeus)—Plate 1, Fig. 1. Skeletal spicules smooth 
and long. Minute spiny dermal spicules. Gemmules surrounded by spiny, 
curved diactines. Living sponge often green. Common in moderately clear 
lakes, ponds and streams. Florida county records: Alachua, Bradford, Gilchrist, 
Jackson, Levy, Putnam, Volusia. 

Spongilla wagneri Potts. Like S. lacustris, except dermal spicules longer, 
and skeletal spicules sometimes microspined. Probably this species is merely 
a phase of S. lacustris. Florida records: only in type locality, in Lostman’s 


2 Minute dermal birotulates are found in S.novae-terrae, known only 
from Newfoundland. 


38 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


River, southwest Florida. Collected in brackish water. 

Spongilla aspinosa. Potts. All spicules entirely smooth. Small dermals 
present, as well as small amorphous spicules. Living sponge usually green. 
Gemmules sparse. Found in cypress swamps with moderately clear, standing 
water. Florida county records: Alachua, Columbia; Gilchrist, Volusia. 

Spongilla fragilis. Leidy. Skeletal spicules smooth. Gemmule spicules are 
diactines, generally slightly curved, and always entirely spined; usually 
strongyles, but sometimes oxeas appear. Spines often more numerous at ends. 
Variations common. Dermal spicules absent. Gemmules formed in compact 
groups, often in one or more basal layers. Common in swamps, swamp streams 
and sink-holes. Florida county records: Alachua, Clay, Columbia, Dixie, Levy, 
Marion, Taylor. 

Spongilla ingloviformis Potts.—Plate I, Fig. 2. Skeletal spicules slender 
with coarse spines; spines especially concentrated near the end; like gemmule 
spicules but not as heavily spined and longer. Gemmule spicules heavily and 
coarsely spined diactines; nearly as long as skeletal spicules. Dermals absent. 
Color variable; colonies thin, forming flat, wide spreading patches. Gemmules 
formed in compact groups of six to twelve or fifteen, surrounded by parenchyma 
containing numerous gemmule spicules. Prefers acid swamps and roadside 
ditches connecting swamps. Florida county records: Alachua, Columbia, Dixie, 
Gilchrist, Levy, Marion, Pasco, Taylor, Volusia. 

(Il) Meyenia Carter 

The more common name of this genus, Ephydatia, has been re- 
placed (de Laubenfels A Discussion of the Sponge Fauna of the 
Dry Tortugas, Carnegie Institution of Washington Publication No. 
467, 1936, pg. 37) by the original name, Meyenia. 

Gemmule spicules are all birotulates that are more-or-less uni- 
form in length but not of two different classes. Rotules have serrate 
edges, deeply or finely cut. No dermal spicules. 

DESCRIPTION OF FLORIDA SPECIES 

Meyenia fluviatilis fluviatilis_Carter. Skeletal spicules robust diactines, 
nearly always entirely smooth. Gemmule spicules birotulates; rotules coarsely 
and irregularly dentate; shafts variable in length, but longer than rotule 
diameter. Shafts of birotulates smooth or with several coarse spines. Colonies 
usually large, forming circular patches; color variable. Usually found in large 
flatwoods swamps, or in swamp pools bordering large streams. Florida county 
records: Alachua, Lake, Levy, Putnam, Sarasota. 


Plate I 

Fig. 1. Spongilla lacustris.—a, skeletal spicule; b, gemmule spicule; c, dermal 
spicule. 

Fig. 2. Spongilla ingloviformis.—a, skeletal spicule; b, gemmule (or paren- 
chymal) spicule. 

Fig. 8. Meyenia crateriformis.—a, skeletal spicule; b, gemmule spicule. 

Fig. 4. Meyenia millsii._a, skeletal spicule; b, gemmule spicules, side and 
top views. 


FRESH WATER SPONGES OF FLORIDA 39 


Fig | Fig 2 


0.10 mm 


AL eau Fig. 4 
PLATE I 


40 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Meyenia fluviatilis gracilis Carter. Skeletal spicules slender delicate diac- 
tines, most of them curved. Gemmule spicules birotulates with extremely 
slender, long, smooth, .curved shafts; rotules very small and flat and serrated. 
Living sponge is often thin, small, delicate and nearly transparent, usually 
greyish-white with white gemmules. Lives in clear standing water. Florida 
county records: Alachua, Marion, Volusia. 

Meyenia subdivisa Potts. Skeletal spicules are smooth (sometimes slightly 
microspined) and sharply pointed. Gemmule spicules are robust birotulates 
with shafts about as long as diameter of rotule; shafts smooth or possessing 
several long, usually medial, spines. Rotules are divided into long serrated 
rays. Sponge often forms large, firm, circular patches. Florida county records: 
Alachua, Lake, Putnam, Sarasota. 

Meyenia crateriformis Potts—Plate I, Fig. 3. Skeletal spicules slender, 
microspined. Gemmule spicules modified birotulates with long cylindrical 
shafts. Shafts particularly spiny at ends, sometimes sparsely so near middle; 
rotules very small, often convex, bearing several short, recurved hooks. The 
specimen shown in figure 8 is atypical yet others like it are relatively common 
in Florida. The more typical gemmule spicules have fewer spines on their 
shafts, and slightly larger rotules. The living sponge is very thin, encrusting, 
fiat, spreading; usually grey, nearly transparent. White gemmules often very 
numerous. Occupies a number of different habitats, but is the only species 
likely to be found in very stagnant or turbid water. Florida county records: 
Alachua, Columbia, Lake, Levy, Marion, Taylor. 

Meyenia subtilis (Weltner). Skeletal spicules slender, microspined. Gem- 
mule spicules delicate birotulates; slender with smooth, long shafts. Rotules 
deeply dentate, with rounded rays. Known only from type locality in Kis- 
simmee Lake, Osceola County, Florida. 

Meyenia millsii Potts—Plate I, Fig 4. Skeletal spicules slender, microspined. 
Gemmule spicules are birotulates; rotules finely serrate with flat surfaces, 
often microspined. Shafts smooth or possessing several small spines. Shaft 
length usually longer than diameter of rotule, but variable in this respect. 
Fairly common in cypress, pine and gum swamps. Florida county records: 
Alachua, Bradford, Columbia, Gilchrist, Levy, Volusia. 


(IIl) Dosilia palmeri (Ports) 
Plate II, Fig. 5 


This is the only known member of the genus Dosilia in North 
America. My specimen of this sponge is the only one known from 
Florida, and is identical with Potts’ Meyenia plumosa var. palmeri, 
in the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Annandale, 
1911, considered Potts’ specimen as a species distinct from Dosila 
plumosa (Carter) 1849, collected in Bombay, India. I am accepting 
Annandale’s distinction as a valid one, and am considering the 
North American Dosilia as species palmeri. 


FRESH WATER SPONGES OF FLORIDA 4] 


D. palmeri is characterized by microspined, robust, skeletal spi- 
cules, and birotulate gemmule spicules with very spiny shafts, and 
with outwardly convex, laciniated rotules, possessing some re- 
curved hooks. Dermal spicules fairly abundant; substellate or acerate 
with long divergent branches. Amorphous, irregularly rayed spicules 
can sometimes be found. Living sponges form large, spreading, 
green colonies. Gemmules large, white, abundant. In Florida, known 
only from a large waterfilled sink-hole one mile southeast of Willis- 
ton, Levy County. 

(IV) Heteromeyenia Ports. 

Gemmules possessing birotulate spicules of two distinct classes: 
long and short. Margins of rotules always incised or dentate. The 
short birotulates are most numerous. Long birotulates have re- 
curved hooks or spines on their rotules. 

DESCRIPTION OF FLORIDA SPECIES. 

Heteromeyenia ryderi Potts—Plate HI, Fig. 6. Skeletal spicules long, 
pointed at ends; usually sparsely but sometimes very densely spined, except 
near ends. Gemmule spicules of two types or classes: 

1) Short birotulates—shafts smooth or with several coarse spines near 
middle; margins of rotules finely serrate; diameter of rotule usually 
nearly equal to length of shaft. 

2) Long birotulates—shafts coarsely spined; rotules small, consisting of 
short, recurved hooks or spines. 

Dermal spicules absent. Living sponge is usually moderately large, forming 
irregular, conspicuous colonies, sometimes nearly an inch thick; colonies 
often hemispherical; usually light grey or brown in color. This appears to be 
the most common sponge in Florida, and grows in almost all fresh-water 
environments; but reaches maximum development, in number and size, in 
cypress swamps and adjoining ditches. Florida county records: Alachua, 
Citrus, Clay, Columbia, Dixie, Gilchrist, Jackson. Jefferson, Lake, Levy, 
Marion, Osceola, Pasco, Putnam, St. Johns, Taylor, Volusia. 

Heteromeyenia repens Potts. Skeletal spicules slender, microspined, taper- 
ing at ends. Gemmule birotulates of two classes: 

1) Short—numerous; sometimes almost as long as those of long class; 
shafts usually smooth; rotules bearing rays, though less prominent 
than those on long birotulates. 

2) Long—less numerous than shorter ones; shafts smooth or with sev- 
eral coarse spines. Rotules with incurved, hook-like rays. 

Dermal spicules usually straight and spined, with longest spines at center. 
Sponge flat, spreading, usually green, with a few large white, basilar gem- 
mules. Florida county records: Alachua, Marion, Taylor. This sponge probably 
has a wider distribution in Florida, since I have found immature sponges 
resembling this species as well as scattered gemmule spicules in other 
spicule slides. 


42 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Heteromeyenia argyrosperma Potts—Plate II, Fig. 7. Skeletal spicules 
usually slender and sparsely spined. Gemmule spicules birotulates of two 
classes: ‘ 

1) Short—smaller than long birotulates and shafts densely spined. Rays 
of rotules similar in both classes. 
2) Long—shafts with several coarse spines. Rotules composed of three 
or four (seldom more) recurved, stout rays. | 
No dermal spicules. Living sponges usually small, soft, greenish, with several 
large, scattered, white or light yellow gemmules. Found in several small 
ponds and sink-holes in Alachua County. 


(V) Asteromeyenia ANNANDALE. 


Birotulate gemmule spicules of two distinct classes; demal spi- 
cules in form of asters. 
DESCRIPTION OF FLORIDA SPECIES. 
Asteromeyenia plumosa (Weltner). Skeletal spicules long, smooth, taper- 
ing to sharp ends. Gemmule spicules birotulates of two classes: 
1) Short—densely and irregularly spined, robust shafts; rotules flat or 
somewhat convex, with coarsely, irregularly dentate, margins. 
2) Long—slender shafts, usually smooth, variable in length; rotules 
with margins divided into slightly recurved rays, not all of equal 
length. 
Dermal spicules small, devoid of spines, stellate, consisting of several pro- 
jections of unequal lengths radiating from a central nodule. In Florida, known 
only from the Everglades, exact locality uncertain. 3 


(VI) Trochospongilla VEDovsKy 


Rotules of birotulates with smooth margins. One rotule may be 
very much larger than the other. 

DESCRIPTION OF FLORIDA SPECIES. 

Trochospongilla pennsylvanica (Potts)—Plate II, Fig. 8. Skeletal spicules 
short, entirely and abundantly spined. Gemmule spicules small birotulates 
with very unequal rotules, one usually reduced to a mere enlargement on the 
distal end of the shaft. Rim of the large rotule smooth; shaft slender. Gem- 
mule spicules look like small collar buttons. Sponge usually forms thin, en- 
crusting, elongate, white, grey or green colonies; often glistens when dry. 


Plate II 

Fig. 5. Dosilia palmeri.—a, skeletal spicule with axial canal; b, gemmule 
spicules, side and top views; c, substellate dermal spicule. 

Fig. 6. Heteromeyenia ryderi.—a, skeletal spicule; b, gemmule spicules of 
shorter class, side and top views; b,’ gemmule spicule of longer class. 

Fig. 7. Heteromeyenia argyrosperma.—a, skeletal spicule; b, gemmule spicule 
of shorter class; b,’ gemmule spicule, of longer class. 

Fig. 8. Trochospongilla pennsylvanica.—a, skeletal spicule with axial canal; 
b, gemmule spicules, side and top views. 


FRESH WATER SPONGES OF FLORIDA 43 


Eig 7 Fig 8 


PLATE Ii 


at JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Gemmules usually numerous; yellow or brown in color, with a concavity sur- 
rounding foramen. Florida county records: Alachua, Bradford, Clay, Columbia, 
Dixie, Gilchrist, Jackson, Jefferson, Levy, Marion, Pasco, St. Johns, Sumter, 
Taylor, Volusia. 

Trochospongilla leidyi (Bowerbank). Skeletal spicules thick, short, smooth; 
ends nearly rounded. Gemmule spicules birotulate of one class; shafts short, 
thick, entirely and always smooth; rotules with smooth margins, sometimes 
with undulating surfaces. Both rotules equal in size. Living sponge is com- 
pact and encrusting. Florida county records: Alachua, Marion. Also known 
from Everglades. : | 

Trochospongilla horrida (Weltner). Skeletal spicules heavily spined. Gem- 
mule spicules like those of T. leidyi: short, smooth, stout shafts; entirely 
smooth margined, equal rotules. Living sponge is small, white, thin, encrust- 
ing. Only specimen from Florida collected in Sante Fe River, above Poe 
Springs, Alachua County. 

(VII) Carterius Potts 

Gemmules possess a long foraminal tuble which carries long fila- 
ments. Skeletal spicules usually microspined. Dermal spicules slen- 
der, long, entirely spined. Gemmule spicules birotulates of one 
class; usually spiny. 

Only one sponge probably belonging to this genus is known from 
Florida. An immature specimen resembling C. tubisperma Mills 
was collected in 1945 in Alachua County, by M. C. Johnson. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

I am grateful to Miss Esther Coogle, Artist-Research Assistant 
in Biology at the University of Florida, for the plates accompany- 
ing this paper. The drawings were made, in each case, directly 
from the spicules represented. 

LITERATURE CITED 
JOHNSON, MARGARET CRILE 
1945. The Freshwater Sponges of Alachua County, with a Summary of 
the Known Florida Forms. Unpublished Master's Thesis, University 
of Florida. 
OLD, MARCUS CALVIN 
1935. The Spongillidae. In Pratt, Henry Sherring, Manual of the Common 
Invertebrate Animals. Philadelphia. 
POTTS, EDWARD 
1887. Contributions Towards a Synopsis of the American Forms of Fresh 
Water Sponges with Descriptions of those Named by Other Authors 
from all Parts of the World. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 39:157- 
279. 
POTTS, EDWARD 
1918. The Sponges. In Ward, H. B. and Whipple, G. C., Fresh-Water 
Biology. New York, John Wiley & Sons. Pgs. 301-315. 
Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(1), 1949( 1950). 


THE CAROTID SINUS SYNDROME 


Etwyn Evans, M.D. 
Orlando, Florida 


The carotid sinus is a term applied to the slight enlargement of 
the common carotid artery where it bifurcates into the internal 
and external carotids just below the angle of the jaw. The exter- 
nal carotid artery supplies the outside of the head with blood; 
the internal carotid supplies the inside of the head with blood. The 
dilation usually involves the commencement of the internal carotid 
artery as well and may be confined to this region. 

The carotid sinus was shown by Hering in 1823 to play an im- 
portant role in the regulation of the cardiac rate and arterial blood 
pressure. Compression so as to raise the pressure within the sinus 
causes slowing of the heart rate, vasodilatation and a fall in blood 
pressure. Electrical stimulation will produce similar effects. The 
sinus is also sensitive to chemical changes. 

For some unknown reason the carotid sinus becomes hypersen- 
sitive in some people. Weiss and Baker in 1933 described this 
hypersensitivity as a cause for attacks of dizziness, fainting or some 
times convulsions in man. This is the carotid sinus syndrome. 
Syndrome means a set of symptoms which occur together. They 
described three mechanisms: (1) The vagal type in which stimu- 
lation of the sinus is followed by a slowing of the pulse or asystole. 
(2) The vaso-depressor type in which stimulation is followed by 
a marked drop in blood pressure without much change in pulse 
rate. (3) The cerebral type where symptoms occur without ap- 
preciable slowing of the pulse or drop in blood prssure. 

Despite numerous publications the carotid sinus syndrome is 
still a perplexing problem. 

Of ten patients in our series with probable carotid sinus syn- 
drome, all had spontaneous spells of unconsciousness as well as 
vertigo, lightheadedness or staggering. Similar attacks could be 
produced in each by carotid sinus pressure and no other cause 
for the spells could be found. 

Unconsciousness was not repeatedly produced in these patients 
by carotid sinus pressure because untoward reactions, although 
rare, have occurred. One physician, after carotid sinus pressure in 
about 2,000 cases, saw no ill effects; however, about 12 cases of 


46 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


hemiplegia’ following carotid sinus stimulation have been reported 
in the literature. Despite the remote possibility of an untoward 
reaction, attacks must be reproduced before a diagnosis can be 
made. It is also necessary to determine the type for therapeutic 
purposes. 

One patient in our series had two temporary spontaneous spells 
of paralysis of his left arm and leg. It is possible that these were 
the result of spontaneous carotid sinus overactivity. 

Nine of the ten patients were males. Ages ranged from 43 to 
77 years, averaging 57.5 years. 

All had vagal or cardioinhibitory response during induced at- 
tacks. One of these showed vagal response on one occasion, appar- 
ently the cerebral form two years later, and vagal response three 
years later. Mixed forms have been described by others. 

All appeared to have some carotid sinus dilation—the right 
more than the left. Of five patients in whom the sensitivity of both 
sinuses was checked, the right was the more sentitive in each case. 
Eight showed some sclerosis or hardening of the sinus. Eight had 
- cardiovascular signs of symptoms otherwise. Four of these had 
definite coronary heart disease. 

In the one patient who had bothersome irregularity of the 
heart and was allergic to belladonna, quinidine sulphate appeared 
to reduce the number of attacks as well as the cardiac irregularity. 

No important gastro-intestinal pathology was found in any pa- 
tient. However, one patient had nervous indigestion off and on for 
years and three had evidence of spastic colons. 

The neurovascular syndrome complicated the picture in one case. 
This syndrome was first described by Wright in 1945 when he 
found tingling and numbness to gangrene of the fingers in patients 
whose radial pulses were obliterated by hyperabduction of the 
arm and who slept with their arms above their heads. Our patient 
had tingling, numbness and weakness of his right arm and hand 
as well as spells of unconsciousness or lightheadedness. He slept 
with his arms above his head. To complicate the picture further 
he gave a history of being knocked unconscious three years pre- 
viously and having been told that he had a brain tumor. Abduc- 
tion of the arm obliterated the radial pulse and exaggerated the 


1 Hemiplegia means paralysis of the arm and leg on one side of the body. 


THE CAROTID SINUS SYNDROME AT 


symptoms. The arm and hand symptoms disappeared in two weeks 
when his wife broke him of the habit of sleeping with his arms 
abducted. She sat up nights and every time he raised his arms 
she pulled them down. 

Emotional states have been stressed in the cerebral form but not 
in the vagal type. In this series, syncope was most likely to occur 
in all patients during periods of fatigue, anxiety or hurry. One 
physician stated “hurry and worry are the twins that bother me.” 
He also stated that he became unconscious during a cocktail party 
his wife was giving and which he detested. He declared that he 
had not had an alcoholic drink himself. 

One patient who had had many spells of lightheadedness became 
unconscious on two occasions while hurrying to airplane accidents 
when in the marines. Another patient who had had no spells for 
nearly three years began to have them again after the belongings 
of a son killed in action were sent to him. He was working long 
hours under strain at the time. Three were definitely made worse 
by previous serious diagnoses. 

More than one attack of syncope or fainting in one day was not 
common in this series; however, the one female had three spells 
the day her only daughter became engaged and the day her hus- 
band was reported critically ill following surgery. One patient had 
several attacks the day his son was reported missing in action. 
Another patient who had so many seizures at times that he ap- 
peared to be in status epilepticus will be referred to later. 

In recent years there has been a growing interest in the rela- 
tionship of blood cholesterol, thyroid activity and vascular disease. 
Of seven in whom the blood cholesterol was checked, it was ele- 
vated in six. The one without an elevation was the oldest patient. 
Morrison found a somewhat similar correlation in patients with 
coronary heart disease. He found hypercholesterolemia or an 
increase blood cholesterol level in 68 percent of patients with 
coronary disease under 60 years of age and 48 percent of those 
over 60. 

There was no positive correlation between carotid sinus sensi- 
tivity and the basal metabolism. 

The proverbial tight collar appeared three times. One retired 
army physician tended to pass out every time he tried to park his 
car, especially when he wore his army shirt—he had gained weight 


48 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


after discharge from the service. He also became unconscious 
during two of three attacks of coronary thrombosis. It is possible 
that these spells of unconsciousness were primarily caused by 
carotid sinus overactivity rather than coronary thrombosis, per se. 
In fact, one investigator reported testing carotid sinus sensitivity 
as a means of determining latent coronary disease. 

All but one of our patients responded well to medical manage- 
ment. It is possible that Méniére’s! disease was a complication in 
this patient. A brain operation elsewhere. severing the vestibular 
potrion of the eighth cranial nerve stopped the severe vertigo this 
patient had, but the impression that a hypersensitive carotid sinus 
was at fault was soon confirmed. Lightheadedness followed by 
fatigue soon recurred and within two months spells of uncon- 
sciousness associated for the first time with convulsive seizures 
appeared. At times he went from one attack into another. Uncon- 
sciousness and convulsive seizures were reproduced by right and 
left carotid sinus pressure. This had to be done to convince the 
family of the correct diagnosis because he had not responded satis- 
factorily to any form of treatment including a previous brain oper- 
ation and it was obvious that he would have to be operated upon 
again. In fact, two more operations were necessary. Denervation 
of the right carotid sinus reduced the attacks but denervation of 
the left was necessary to prevent them. This case was unusual in 
that the necessity for bilateral denervation is extremely rare. 


CONCLUSIONS 


1. The carotid sinus syndrome is primarily a disease of males 
in the upper age brackets. 

2. Fatigue and emotional states are important in the vagal as 
well as the cerebral type and may account, at least in part, for 
spontaneous variations in carotid sinus sensitivity. 

3. Psychotherapy is an important part of management. 

4. Other cardiovascular disease is usually present. 

5. It is probable that pathological changes in the wall of the 
sinus itself play an important part in the picture. 

6. Associated abnormalities, such as Méniére’s disease and the 


1 Méniére’s disease is a disease caused by a disturbance of the inner 
ear in which the predominant symptoms are vertigo, ringing in the ears, 
impairment of hearing and nausea or vomiting. 


THE CAROTID SINUS SYNDROME 49 


neurovascular syndrome in this series, may make the diagnosis 
appear more difficult or appear more serious. 

7. Quinidine may reduce the number of seizures when ectopic 
beats are bothersome. 

8. More than one type of carotid sinus syncope may not only 
co-exist but one form may predominate at one time and another 
at another time. 


LITERATURE CITED 
HERING, H. E. 
1922. Der Kerotisdruckversuch, Munchen. Med. Wnchschr 70:1287. 
WEISS, S., and J. P. BAKER. 
1933. The Carotid Sinus Reflex in Health and Disease: Its Role in the 
Causation of Fainting and Convulsions. Medicine, 12:297. 
WRIGHT, I. S. 
1945. The Neurovascular Syndrome Produced by Hyperabduction of the 
Arms. Am. Heart J., 29:1. 
MORRISON, L. M.; L. HALL; and A. L. CHANEY. 
1948. Cholesterol Metabolism and Its Relationship to Arteriosclerosis. Coro- 
nary Artery Disease and Arteriosclerosis. Amer. J. Med. Sci., 4:616. 
NATHANSON, M. H. 
1946. Hyperactive Cardio-inhibitory Carotid Sinus Reflex. Arch. Int. 
Med. 77:491. 


Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(1), 1949 (1950). 


50 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Ne 


FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


OFFICERS FOR 1950 


President ac) 22) eas ed: oe OE de ee H. H. Sheldon (Physics) 
| University of Miami, Coral Gables 

Vice: President 20) 3a s 5 eee A. M. Winchester (Biology) - 
john B. Stetson University, DeLand 

Secretary-Treasurer_.___--.-------------- Bie tie) Iie eg eae C. S. Nielsen (Botany ) 
Florida State University, Tallahassee 

Editor: se whom chk: od besitbn Ts nee ae H. K. ‘Wallace (Biology ) 
| - University of Florida, Gainesville 

Advertising Manager| EE T. Stanton Dietrich, (Sociology ) 
Florida State University, Tallahassee 
Chairman, Physical Sciences Section_____________________ Earl D. Smith (Chemistry ) 
| Florida Southern College, Lakeland 
Chairman, Biological Sciences Section... Clyde Reed ( Biology ) 


University of Tampa, Tampa 


Chairman, Social Sciences Section_______._________-- T. Stanton Dietrich (Sociology ) 
Florida State University, Tallahassee 

J. D. Corrington (Zoology ) 

University of Miami, Coral Gables 


Council Members-at-Large William Melcher (Economics ) 
Rollins College, Winter Park 

Chairman,. Local. Arrangements... B. P. Reinsch (Mathematics-Physics ) 
Committee Florida Southern College, Lakeland 
PastPresident (O40 ey Wa NS Ae J. E. Hawkins (Chemistry ) 
University of Florida, Gainesville 

Past President 1948 2.tu.0. bn Ga George F. Weber (Plant Pathology ) 


University of Florida, Gainesville 


ANATOMY AND SECONDARY GROWTH IN THE 
AXIS OF LITCHI CHINENSIS SONN. 


FRANK D. VENNING 
University of Miami 


Considerable interest has been evidenced in the last 10 years 
in establishing Litchi as a new commercial crop in central and 
south Florida, and to this end at least one large-scale planting has 
been started. Propagation of choice varieties by grafting has proven 
difficult and expensive because of the low percentage of success- 
ful unions between stocks and scions. Recently, a system of 
approach-grafting seedlings has been developed by Cobin (1948) 
which should increase considerably the speed of propagating good 
clones. No successful grafts between Litchi and other close Sapin- 
daceous relatives have been made; yet other stocks more com- 
patable to soils of high calcium content would increase the range 
over which Litchi could be grown in Florida. Because of the difh- 
culties reported in budding and grafting Litchi, this investigation 
of the stem tissues was made, in the hope that a better knowledge 
of the anatomy and secondary growth would be useful to those 
interested in Litchi propagation. 

Although a review of the anatomical literature showed the axis 
of several members of the Sapindaceae to have been studied in 
great detail because of anomalous growth, none of the works avail- 
able discussed the specific anatomy of Litchi, nor were any refer- 
ences to such studies disclosed. In general, the distinguishing ana- 
tomical features of the Sapindaceous axis are as follows: 

The most outstanding feature is the continuous ring of scleren- 
chyma in the pericycle, at first composed solely of fibers, but later 
on interspersed with sclerides between the fiber groups. The ves- 
sels contain simple perforations in all walls, even when they lie 
adjoining parenchyma. The bulk of the wood is wood prosenchyma, 
with simple pits. In all cases the wood is compact, and occasionally 
of great hardness. Wood parenchyma is sparingly developed. The 
cells of the pith are especially thickened, even the end walls are 
sclerotic. A cork cambium forms immediately under the epidermis 
or in the next cell layer. (Sachs, 1882; Radlkofer, 1896; Strasburger, 
1898; Solereder, 1908; Haberlandt, 1928). 


52 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


MATERIALS AND METHODS 

The fall and early part of the winter were extremely mild in 
south Florida, with intermittent rain, so that Litchi continued 
active vegetative growth over those months. Fresh branches from 
which new growth was emerging were obtained in November, 
1948, through the courtesy of Mr. A. H. Jordhan from trees growing 
at Col. Robert H. Montgomery's Estate, and also from trees grow- 
ing at the U. S. Department of Agriculture’s Plant Introduction 
Garden at Chapman Field, Fla., through the collaboration of Dr. 
Walter T. Swingle. The branches varied in diameter from 1 mm. 
at the tip to 2 cm. at the base. Free-hand cross and longitudinal 
sections were made every few centimeters along the branches 
from tip to base, which gave a series of sections that clearly re- 
vealed the primary and secondary development of the axis. The 
sections were variously stained for specific structures with Phloro- 
glucin—Hydrochloric Acid, Delafield’s Haematoxylon, Ruthenium 
Red, Potassium Iodide, and Sudan IV. After staining, the sections 
were mounted in either water or glycerin. 


OBSERVATIONS 

Anatomy of the primary axis: Very small twigs (1 mm) show 
all primary tissues. The center of the stem contains vacuolate iso- 
diametric pith with thin cellulose walls. The protoxylem points are 
numerous (10-15), and the first xylem elements differentiated are 
vessels, with simple pitting. No annular, scalariform, or spiral ves- 
sels are produced. Small areas of phloem elements, with some differ- 
entiation of sieve tubes and companion cells, lie dorsally adjacent 
to the primary xylem. A vascular cambium between xylem and 
phloem is quickly differentiated around the entire stem. Lignifi- 
cation of fiber groups in the pericycle begins at the same time as 
lignification of the protoxylem. The fiber masses at first have large 
lumena and relatively thin lignified walls. They form a continuous 


EXPLANATION OF FIGURE 


Fig. 1: Detail of the wood anatomy of Litchi chinensis in cross-section. The 
large clear cells are pitted vessels; the small cells with thickened 
walls are wood prosenchyma, which abound in stored starch. Rela- 
tively numerous thin-walled wood rays extend across the stele from 
pith to cortex. The relative size and abundance of pits are shown 
only in the walls of adjoining vessels to avoid confusion in the 
figure, but they are present in all walls of both the vessels and 
the wood prosenchyma. X 292 diameters. 


ANATOMY AND SECONDARY GROWTH IN LICHTI 53 


ae: 


aexy OX 


FIGURE 1 


54 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


circle of fibers around the stele, with the exception of a few ray- 
cells which are continuous across both xylem and phloem, and 
which extend into the pericycle as well. The cortex is composed 
of vacuolate isodiametric parenchyma with thin walls, comparable 
in size to the cells in the pith. Both pith and cortex cells elongate 
slightly as the stem elongates. 


Anatomy of the secondary tissues: Secondary growth is accom- 
plished by divisions of the vascular cambium, and by radial di- 
visions of the wood rays. Cells cut off internally from the cambium, 
and from the wood rays, are very quickly differentiated into either 
vessels or wood prosenchyma. There is usually no more than one 
to three parenchyma cells between the vascular cambium and the 
xylem. The vessels tend to be developed radially outward from 
the protoxylem points, but they are interspersed amid the wood 
prosenchyma between protoxylem points on occasion. The vessels 
in cross-section are approximately as wide as they are broad; the 
average measurements of 80 vessels taken at random from the 
secondary wood show the radial diameter to be 43 microns, and 
the tangential diameter to be 45 microns. Wall thickness of the ves- 
sels average 5.5 microns. The walls are thickened with a mixture of 
cellulose and lignin, but the lignin is present in relatively large 
amounts, and a positive deep red color is evidenced by treating 
the tissue with phloroglucin and hydrochloric acid. Numerous sim- 
ple pits are present in all walls of the vessels. 


The bulk of internal tissue produced by the vascular cambium 
is wood prosenchyma. These cells are elongated, have the general 
appearance of tracheids in cross-section, and have much thickened 
side walls. The thickening is proportionately greater than the walls 
of the vessels. Measurements of cross-sections of 30 wood prosen- 
chyma cells show the average radial diameter to be 14 microns, 
and the average tangential diameter 16 microns. The average radial 
walls have a thickness of 4.5 microns, almost as great as that of 
the vessels. The end walls are only slightly thickened, or not thick- 
ened at all, and are usually at right angles to the side walls. The 
thickenings of the walls in this case were also a mixture of lignin 
and cellulose, in varying proportion, depending apparently on the 
age of the prosenchyma, or the particular period of growth during 
which it was formed. Some prosenchyma gave as bright a stain 
for lignin as the vessel walls; other prosenchyma cells in the same 


ANATOMY AND SECONDARY GROWTH IN LICHTI 55 


section stained only slightly, or, in a few instances where the cells 
were close to the active cambium, not at all. Apparently the wall 
is first thickened with cellulose, and then various amounts of lignin 
are subsequently intercalated into the wall between the cellulose 
strands. The walls of these cells all have numerous simple pits. 

The prosenchyma cells contain cytoplasm, a nucleus, and are 
of course alive. In all the branches examined in the course of this 
study this tissue was always packed with starch plastids, which 
stained dark blue or black when treated with potassium iodide 
and iodine, and the tissue evidently functions as starch storage 
as well as for mechanical support. It is interesting to note that the 
translocation of solutes across the stems and branches of Litchi, 
other than in a vertical direction, can only be accomplished through 
living parenchyma, and is therefore necessarily slow (Fig. 1). 

The cylinder of pith cells immediately inside the protoxylem 
points, which form the medullary sheath, are more elongated than 
those more centrally placed, and often develop thick lignified 
walls resembling the pericyclic fibers. The majority of the pith 
cells have thickened pitted walls which are partly lignified, but do 
not develop into typical sclerides. A considerable quantity of 
starch is stored in the pith. 

As the girth of the stem increases, the parenchymatous ray cells 
between the bundles of pericyclic fibers divide radially, and the 
bundles of fibers, which are close together in the young stem, 
move farther and farther apart. The parenchymatous cells between 
the bundles are quickly specialized into sclerides (Fig. 2), so the 
rays remain only one cell wide, and a continuous cylinder of scleren- 
chyma surrounds the stele. Scattered cortical parenchyma cells 
develop into sclerides as well, and some phloem fibers differentiate 
to the inside of the sclerenchymatous ring of pericycle at the same 
time. 

By the time the stem is 5 mm. in diameter a cork cambium, or 
phellogen, is established immediately underneath the epidermis. 
Divisions of the phellogen produce cells on the outer face only, 
which usually become suberinized. Some of the bark cells pro- 
duced by the phellogen develop into sclerides with lignified walls. 

Behavior of the cambium: During the earliest phases of secondary 
growth, the entire cambium is active at one time, but the rate of 
cambial activity varies from place to place around the stem, which 


56 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


results in the production of an irregular cylinder of wood. During 
the second and third periods of growth, the entire cambium is still 
activated, but the rates of division continue to vary. By the time the 
twig is 4 or 5 mm. in diameter, only about half of the cambium 
is active during any particular growth period. When the branches 
have reached a diameter of 1 cm. about a third of the cambium is 
active during a particular period of growth. During a period of 
cambial activity, a more or less crescent shaped wedge of wood is 
produced on one side of the xylem cylinder. When growth is re- 
sumed, another portion of the cambium becomes active. The length 
of activity of any one portion of the cambium is so governed that > 
a fairly regular wood cylinder is produced. Cells from the active 
portions of the cambium appear as regular hexagonal prisms, and 
the wood prosenchyma nearest these areas is only slightly lignified. 
Inactive portions of the cambium lie immediately adjacent to wood 
prosenchyma, and swell to an irregular outline resembling phloem 
parenchyma. Cross-sections of the wood show the wedge-shaped 
growth lines from each period of cambial activity (Fig. 3). 


DISCUSSION 


Several features of this anatomical study reveal obstacles to 
successful grafting of Litchi. Grafting of very young twigs or 
approach grafting seedlings of a diameter less than 4 mm. would 
be rendered extremely difficult because of the irregularity of the 
young vascular cylinder. It would be almost impossible to secure 
adequate contact between the cambial surfaces of stock and scion 
for a successful union. In addition, there is little persistant un- 
specialized parenchyma in the stems even when they are very 
young. Such parenchyma, when present in softer, more herbaceous 
stems, can differentiate into connective vascular and cambial ele- 
ments to bridge the gap between stock and scion, should the 
cambiums not be in exact juxtaposition. As pointed out previously, 
seecondary differentiation of the pericycle into fibers begins at 
the same time as: lignification of the protoxylem points, and almost 
all primary tissues have become specialized when the young grow- 
ing twig is only 1 mm. in diameter. 

By the time the twig has attained usual araranl size (1 to 2 cm. ), 
the vascular cylinder is much more regular in outline, but only a 
portion of the cambium is active, even though the stem be in 
vigorous vegetative growth. Thus it would appear that only by 


ANATOMY AND SECONDARY GROWTH IN LICHTI 57 


FIGURE 2 


Detail of a portion of the sclerenchymatous pericycle, as seen in 
cross-section, from a branch 1 cm. in diameter. Pericyclic and phloem 
arenchyma are to the left, cortex to the right. The fiber groups have 
very thick walls and small lumena; and at this stage sclerides have 
been intercalated between the fiber groups. In addition, scattered 
sclerides have been differentiated from cortical parenchyma cells. 
X 253 diameters. 


58 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


chance would the active cambial face of a bud or scion be placed 
against a similar surface in the stock. Presumably the inactive 
cambial surfaces would be much more likely to deteriorate or be 
injured before they resumed growth and established a firm graft 
union. Unfortunately the external surface of the branch offers no 
clue as to which areas of the cambium are active. Methods of stimu- 
lating the entire cambium to simultaneous activity, or of supply- 
ing the scion or bud with adequate water until the areas of cam- 
bium to be grafted become activated, would doubtless greatly 
increase the percentage of successful grafts: of Litchi. 


SUMMARY 


The wood of the axis of Litchi ene is composed of three 
kinds of elements: 1. Large vessels which have lignified walls with 
numerous simple pits. These function as vertical water-conducting 
tissue. 2. Small wood-prosenchyma cells with thick walls bearing 
simple pits, the walls less highly lignified but nearly as thick as 
those of the vessels. This tissue is living and serves as starch stor- 
age tissue. 3. Frequent medullary rays, usually not over one cell 
wide. 

Except when the twig is very young, the Saeed cambium is 
only active over approximately one-third of its circumference at 
any one time. During a particular period of growth a crescent of 
tissue is formed on one side of the stele. When growth is resumed, 
another portion of the cambium becomes active. The length of the 
activity of any one portion of the cambium seems to be so regulated 
that a fairly symmetrical woody cylinder is produced. 

Successful grafting probably results from placing active areas 
of the cambium adjacent to one another. rE | 


ACKNOWLEDGMENT 


This study was undertaken at the suggestion of Dr. Walter T. 
Swingle, and was sponsored by the Science Research Council of 
the University of Miami. 


LITERATURE CITED 
COBIN, M. 
1948. A method of grafting the lychee. Paper read at the 6lst meeting 
of the Fla. State Hort. Soc. Oct. 27, West Palm Beach. 


ANATOMY AND SECONDARY GROWTH IN LICHTI 


FIGURE 3 


Outline drawing of the axis of a Litchi branch 5 mm. in diameter, 
showing the irregular growth rings which result from the erratic 
activity of the vascular cambium. Note that in this stem the first 
two periods of growth involved the entire cambium, but that the 
amount of wood produced along given radii varies considerably. The 
third period of growth involved almost all of the cambium, but 
during subsequent periods of growth only a portion of the cambium 
was active at any one time. The irregular black masses encircling 
the stem half-way between the xylem and the epidermis are the 
scleride and fiber groups in the pericycle. 


59 


60 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


HABERLANDT, G. 
1928. Physiological Plant Anatomy (Transl. 4th German ed.). Macmillan 
Co. London. 
RADLKOFER, L. 
1896. Sapindaceae. In Engler and Prantl, Die Nattirlichen Pflanzenfamilien 
III-5:277-366. Leipzig. 
SACHS, J. von 
1882. Text-book of Botany, morphological and physiological. (Transl. S. H. 
Vines ). Oxford. 
SOLEREDER, H. 
1908. Systematic Anatomy of the Dicotyledons, (Eng. transl. Boodle & 
Fritsch) 1:226-286. 
STRASBURGER, E. 
1898. Text-book of Botany (Eng. Transl. H. C. Porter) Macmillan and 
Co. London. . 


3 
Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(1), 1949 (1950). 


A NEW FLORIDA VIOLET 


WiLLiaAM A. MuRRILL 
University of Florida 


The violet here described was discovered at Gainesville, Fla. 
It belongs to the Palmatae group and grows in dry woods in com- 
pany with V. triloba Schw. and V. villosa Walt. The deltoid leaves 
are glabrous and uncut, the petals lavender-violet and exceptionally 
narrow, and the capsules pale-green, on ascending stalks. Specimens 
may be seen at the Florida Agricultural Experiment Station, the 
New York Botanical Garden, and elsewhere. 

Viola alachuana sp. nov. Foliis nonlobata, cordatis ad deltoideis, crenato- 
serratis, glabris, 4-8 cm. latis; floribus 2.5 cm. latis, violaceis, in medio albidis, 
barbatis, striatis; fructibus trigonis, glaucis, 2 cm. longis; seminibus obovoideis, 
nigro-castaneis, 1.5 mm. longis. 

A stemless plant with moderately stout, scaly, acrid rootstock. Leaf-blades 
all uncut, cordate, acute, crenate-serrate, green, glabrous, about 4 X 4 cm.; 
after vernal flowering becoming deltoid with truncate or truncate-decurrent 
base, about 5-6 cm. long and 7-8 cm. wide; petiole nearly erect, glabrous, 
green or partly purplish, narrowly winged, reaching at times 25 cm. in length. 
Petaliferous flowers lavender-violet with conspicuous whitish center, about 
2.5 em. broad; sepals lanceolate with narrow, white, entire edges, about 1 cm. 
long, the auricles appressed, notched, glabrous, 2-2.5 mm. long; upper petals 
about 11 X 7 mm., pale-greenish-white at the base on both sides, lateral 
petals about 11 X 5 mm., colored like the upper but heavily bearded with 
capillary hairs, lower petals similarly colored, about 10 X 6 mm., only 
slightly short-beaded, with about 9 dark-violet lines which slightly anastomose; 
peduncle erect, glabrous, more or less purple, reaching at times 12 cm. in 
length. Cleistogamous flowers subulate, their stalks ascending or erect, short, 
glabrous, purplish. Capsule oblong-ovoid, about 2 cm. long and 7 mm. wide; 
calyx-lobes 8-9 X 1.5 mm.; auricles glabrous, notched, 3-4 mm. long; stalk 
7-8 cm. long, strictly erect at maturity. Seeds obovoid, pointed at base, smooth, 
shining, blackish-chestnut, 1.5 X 1 mm. 

This plant was discovered by the author on April 30, 1940, 
growing in dry, bare soil near bracken fern in thin mixed woods of 
loblolly pine, red oak, hickory, etc. Although similar habitats have 
been explored it has not yet been found elsewhere. In the autumn 
of 1942 two plants were moved to a cool glasshouse and kept 
under observation for about a year. Early in April, 1948, five days 
after the petaliferous flowers had faded without producing fruits, 
the cleistogamous flowers began to appear and mature seeds were 
obtained four weeks later. 


62 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


That the plant naturally breeds true is evidenced by the fact 
that several young colonies have sprung up near older plants in the 
type locality and no important variations have been observed. 
Hybridity is out of the question, since the only violets anywhere 
near are V. triloba Schw., V. villosa Walt., V. floridana Brainerd and 
V. Walteri House. No violet in Brainerd’s list of American species 
resembles it closely. The petals are colored somewhat like those 
of V. affinis Leconte and the closed flowers and capsules resemble 
those of V. cucullata Ait. but other characters are widely different. 


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Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(1), 1949 (1950). 


NEWS AND COMMENTS 


In the last number of the Journal the editor called for contri- 
butions for this section. None has been forthcoming. We repeat 
the call and promise to do better by contributions than we did for 
one received for Vol. 11, No. 4, but which was omitted through 
an oversight. We believe the information in that notice will still 
be of interest to many Academy members and have included it 
below: | 

“A Sigma Xi Club was installed at Florida State University 
November 10, 1949. The Club was organized with 45 members 
and associate members and five affiliates. Dr. Melvin A. Brannon, 
president of the University of Florida Chapter, served as the in- 
stalling officer. Newly elected officers are 

President: Dr. Ezda Deviney, Head of the Department of 
Zoology 

Vice President: Dr. Karl Dittmer, Head of the Department 
of Chemistry 

Secretary: Dr. Ruth Schornherst Breen, Associate Professor 
of Botany 

Treasurer: Dr. Harold C. Trimble, Associate Professor of 
Mathematics.” 

“The Mayflies of Florida” by Lewis Berner, University of Florida 
Studies, Biological Science Series, Volume IV, Number 4, is just 
off the press. Dr. Berner is a member of the Department of Biology 
and C-6 at the University of Florida. 

Dr. W. C. Allee, of the Division of the Biological Sciences, Uni- 
versity of Chicago, was a guest of the University of Florida during 
the week of February 20. While on the campus Dr. Allee made a 
survey of the biological sciences at the University. 

February was an important milestone in the career of Academi- 
cian John D. Kilby, Instructor in the Department of Biology, U. of F. 
Mr. Kilby reecived his PhD. at the Commencement Exercises 
February 4 and 6 days later Mrs. John D. presented him with a 
fine young son, John Adrian. 

At the Council meeting on December 1, 1949, in DeLand, the 
Council voted unanimously to grant the Editor permission to pub- 
lish papers other than in the routine procedure when the costs of 
publication of such papers are borne by the author or other inter- 
ested parties. 

At the 14th annual banquet of the Academy on December 2, 


64 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


1949, at DeLand, Dr. B. P. Reinsch, Chairman of the Annual Awards 
Committee, announced the following awards: 

(1) Dr. L. R. Rivas, Assistant Professor of Zoology, University 
of Miami, was awarded the Academy medal for the best paper 
submitted in 1948. Title: “The Origin, Evolution, Dispersal, and 
Geographic Distribution of Girardinini, A Tribe of Poeciliid Fishes 
from Cuba,” | 

(2) Miss Dorothy Crowson, Florida State University, was 
awarded the A. A. A. S. grant-in-aid for 1947 to continue her study 
of the algae of northern Florida, 

(3) Dr. L. R. Rivas, University of Miami, was awarded the A. - 
A. A. S. grant-in-aid for 1948 to help finance his next ichthyological 
exploration of Grand Cayman Island in the Caribbean south of 
Cuba. 

The Council met in Lakeland on March 11, 1950 in the Faculty 
Lounge of Florida Southern College. Members of the Council were 
guests of the College for dinner. Items of possible interest to the 
membership at large, taken from notes made by the Editor at the 
meeting, are as follows: 

“Dr. Nielsen reported the membership list, as of 10 March, in- 
cluded 547 names. He also estimated our 1950 income to be sufh- 
cient to cover the costs of four small numbers of the Quarterly 
Journal. 

Receipt of the 1949 A. A. A. S. grant-in-aid was announced. Any- 
one desiring to apply ne this grant, which amounts to $73.50, should 
write to Dr. B. P. Reinsch, Florida Southern College, Lakeland. 

The Council approved a change in the By-Laws to make the 
Junior Academy an official part of the Academy organization, under 
the direction of a Junior Academy Committee. 

The Council approved the appointment of T. Stanton Dietrich 
(Sociology), F. S. U., as Advertising Manager for 1950, and author- 
ized him to select his own co-managers. It also approved the pub- 
lication in the Journal of reviews of books or articles by members, 
or by non-members on Florida subjects, at the discretion of the 
Editor. 

Florida State University is planning to publish, within several 
months, a group of papers presented at the DeLand meetings by 
Academy members, as the first volume in a projected F. S. U. series. 
The University offered the Academy the opportunity of buying 


NEWS AND COMMENTS 65 


copies at cost which could be provided with an appropriate cover 
and issued as a volume of the Quarterly Journal. This proposal 
was accepted by the Council and the publication will become 
Volume 18 of the Quarterly Journal. With the publication of 
Volume 13 the Journal will come up to date. 

The next annual meeting will be held at Florida Southern Col- 
lege, Lakeland. Dr. B. P. Reinsch is Chairman of the Local Arrange- 
ments Committee.” 

The Florida Academy lost a loyal member and staunch supporter 
by the recent death of Dr. Melvin A. Brannon, who passed away 
in Gainesville on the 26th of March. Dr. Brannon had been a 
prominent figure in the field of hicher education, having served as 
President of the University of Idaho from 1914 to 1917, the Beloit 
College from 1917 to 1923, and as Chancellor of the University of 
Montana from 1923 to 1933. Of recent years Dr. Brannon had been 
enjoying a fruitful retirement in Gainesville where he entered into 
civic and educational affairs with enthusiasm and at the same time 
continued his researches in botany. 


RESEARCH NOTES 

Cirsium Smallii Britton. If one sees only herbarium specimens of Cirsium 
Smallii Britton he is liable to confuse them with slender plants of C. horridulum 
Michx. but in the field the two species are strikingly distinct. The writer 
has studied the plants in their natural habitats and has also grown them from 
seed. His conclusions are very briefly stated in the following paragraphs. 

On April 2, 1943, a colony of C. horridulum on an open roadside near 
Gainesville, Fla., was studied. There were about 1,000 plants, half of them 
in flower and the rest seedlings. The number of heads per plant was mostly 
5 to 10 but some plants in richer soil bore 20 to 30. In the entire colony only 
25 plants were white-flowered, the remainder being purple-flowered (Elliottii). 
On Apr. 11 a small colony to the south of the above was studied. Of the 100 
plants 90 were white-flowered, 1 deep-purple and 9 pale-purple. No yellow 
flowers were seen. The same day a visit was made to typical flatwoods east 
of Gainesville, where C. horridulum was found scattered in moist ground, 
sometimes partly shaded. Here the plants grew tall, with long branches, and 
some bore as many as 50 heads, mostly purple-flowered. On Apr. 27 a plant 
of this species kept under observation had matured its seeds and was abso- 
lutely dead, root and branch; while near it were 6 small plants that were 
expected to flower the following spring. On May 2 all mature plants of C. 
horridulum, no matter what their habitat, were found to be dead or rapidly 
dying, with their seeds mostly mature. Plants cut back early formed buds 
at the base. 

For the study of C. Smallii I selected an unusually large colony of some 250 
plants growing in thin longleaf pine woods in Gainesville. On Apr. 8, 1943, 
the stalks on the most advanced plants were about an inch high. The first 


66 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


flowers appeared Apr. 13 and the first mature seed were gathered Apr. 22. 
The flowers were purple; as were all seen by the author in the Gainesville 
area. In the first 180 plants of this colony to bloom 5 bore 1 head, 29 had 
2 heads, there were 63 with 8 heads, 22 with 4 heads, 5 with 5 heads, 3 with 
6 heads, 2 with 7 heads and 1 with 9 heads. On May 1 about 25 young 
rosettes did not yet show the beginning of a stalk. 

Seeds taken from this colony in the summer of 1942 were grown in a 
glasshouse and the plants kept under close observation until maturity. All 
the flowers were purple. The first flowers appeared Apr. 8 and the first 
mature seed were taken Apr. 27. Stalks were mostly 1 to 2 ft. high but a 
few reached 3 ft. One plant had only 2 heads, 8 bore 8 heads each, there 
were 4 with 4 heads, 1 with 6, 1 with 7 and 1 with 28. Three of the largest 
rosettes were transplanted in midwinter to open, rich, moist ground, where 
they developed into large, attractive plants bearing 15 to 80 heeads of purple 
flowers, the first of which opened May 15. 

Some of the differences between C. Smallii and C. ee may be 
summarized as follows: The stalk of the former is usually much slenderer 
and much shorter, while the number of heads is far less on the average. 
C. horridulum blooms about Gainesville from January to March, matures its 
seeds in April and usually dies by the end of that month. The peak of flowering 
is about two months later in C. Smallii, which is at its best after the larger 
species is dead. The habitats of the two plants are usually very distinct. 
The smaller plant is found in dry pine woods and sand-dunes, the larger 
one in low grounds, swamps and rich pastures. C. Smallii occurs in the West 
Indies and northward to South Carolina; it is frequent or rare about Gaines- 
ville. C. horridulum ranges from Florida to Texas and Maine; it is common 
about Gainesville and may easily become a nuisance. Finally, the larger plant 
requires two years to flower and the smaller one less than a year. Other dif- 
ferences have been observed in the seeds, seedlings, spines, bracts, corollas 
and stamens. 

In the small space at my disposal only the difference in seedlings will be 
considered. These were grown together under glass and also observed in 
the field. In the big thistle the first leaves lie horizontal like those of a 
gourd, while succeeding pairs are ascending to erect. In C. Smallii all the 
early leaves, in several pairs, are horizontal. In the early leaves of the big 
thistle the teeth are farther apart and more deeply cut, the margin crinkled, 
the prickles larger and longer, and the midrib more or less purple; while in 
C. Smallii the teeth are shallow, close and small, the margin not crinkled and 
the midrib green. Seedlings of C. horridulum are also much more hairy 
than those of C. Smallii. 

Since the purple-flowered form of C. horridulum has received a name 
( Elliottii), I am here assigning a similar subvarietal name to the color-form 
of C. Smallii found about Gainesville. It is Cirsium Smallii Britton, forma 
purpureum Murrill. The distinguishing character translated into Latin is 
“floribus purpureis”. 

I am indebted to Dr. W. B. Tisdale for helping me with the seedlings of 
C. Smallii and to Dr. H. A. Gleason for suggestions as to naming its purple- 
flowered form.——WILLIAM A. MURRILL, University of Florida. 


FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Contributions to the Journal may be in any of the fields of the 
sciences, by any member of the Academy. Contributions from 
non-members may be accepted by the Editors when the scope of 
the paper or the nature of the contents warrants acceptance in 
their opinion. Acceptance of papers will be determined by the 
amount and character of new information and the form in which 
it is presented. Articles must not duplicate, in any substantial way, 
material that is published elsewhere. Articles of excessive length, 
and those containing tabular material and/or engravings will be 
published only with the financial cooperation of the author. 
Manuscripts are examined by members of the Editorial Board or 
other competent critics. 


MANUSCRIPT FORM.——(1) typewrite material, using one side of 
paper only; (2) double space all material and leave liberal 
margins; (3) use 82 x 11 inch paper of standard weight (avoid 
onion skin); (4) do not submit carbon copies; (5) place tables on 
separate pages; (6) footnotes should be avoided whenever possible; 
(7) titles should be short; (8) for bibliographic style, note closely 
the practices employed in Vol. 11, No. 4 and later issues; (9) a 
factual summary is recommended for longer papers. 


ILLUSTRATIONS.——Photographs should be glossy prints of good 
contrast. Make line drawings with India ink; plan linework and 
lettering for at least one-half reduction. Do not use typewritten 
labels on the face of the drawings; provide typed legends on sepa- 
rate sheets. 


PROOF.——Proof should be corrected immediately upon receipt 
and returned at once, with manuscript, to the editor. Ordinarily 
page proof will not be sent to the author. Manuscripts and plates 
will not be returned to authors unless requested. Abstracts and 
orders for reprints should be sent to the editor along with corrected 
galley proof. 


REPRINTS.——Should be ordered when galley proof is returned. 
A blank form, with reprint prices, accompanies proof for this 
purpose. No reprints are furnished free to authors. Payment for 
reprints will be made by authors directly to the printer. 


INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS 
FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Florida Southern College John B. Stetson University 
Lakeland, Florida DeLand, Florida 

Florida State University St. Petersburg Junior College 
Tallahassee, Florida St. Petersburg, Florida - 
University of Florida Rollins College 

Gainesville, Florida Winter Park, Florida 
Jacksonville Junior College University of Miami 
Jacksonville, Florida Coral Gables, Florida 
University of Tampa Glidden-Naval Stores 
Tampa, Florida Jacksonville, Florida 


Rose Printing Company 
Tallahassee, Florida 


Quarterly Journal 


of the 


Fiorida Academy 
of Sciences 


Vol. 12 June 1949 (1950) No. 2 


Contents — 


Davis—OBSERVATIONS OF PLANKTON TAKEN IN MARINE WATERS 
mmr IN 194; AND 1945 67 


Epson, THORNTON, AND SMITH—ANTIBIOTIC ACTION OF STREP 
TOMYCES ALBUS acatinst MoLpD DECAY ORGANISMS OF CITRUS 


Kinc—A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE PLANKTON OF THE WEST 
LA STE OTE UE TSo TTY, ae ne 109 


EvaANs—AcUTE BENIGN NONSPECIFIC PERICARDITIS IN A SUB- 


TROPICAL CLIMATE EP CWT hoe ok Wee heb tracts 139 
Se UBSTIT 
Fa Mes iP ee 
Z ~ 4 2. & 
Book REVIEWS ’ (aN sD oh SEER, 8, EE 145 
Z JUL ZA ieims 3 


2 : 3 a> ba 
\ a, Batt 
> - 
be a 
A. a 
5 


Wor. 2) June 1949 (1950) No. 2 


QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF 
THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research 


Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences 
Printed by the Rose Printing Company, Tallahassee, Florida 


Communications for the editor and all manuscripts should be addressed to H. K. 
Wallace, Editor, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, 
Florida. Business communications should be addressed to Chester S. Nielsen, 
Secretary-Treasurer, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida. All ex- 
changes and communications regarding exchanges should be sent to the Florida 


Academy of Sciences, Exchange Library, Department of Biology, University 
of Florida, Gainesville. 


Subscription price, Three Dollars a year 


Mailed July 17, 1950 


PAE “QUARTERLY: JOURNAL OF: THE 
BEORIDA ACADEMY, OF SCIENCES 


Vou. 12 June 1949 (1950) No. 2 


OBSERVATIONS OF PLANKTON TAKEN IN MARINE 
WATERS OF FLORIDA IN 1947 AND 1948! 


Cares C. Davis 
Western Reserve University 


There is a notable lack of published plankton observations in 
marine tropical and semi-tropical areas, especially for inshore 
locations. This lack is reflected in Florida waters. Previously the 
only published studies primarily devoted to the general plankton 
in the Florida area were those of Riley (1938) and Davis (1948b). 
Riley approached his problem from the point of view of the amounts 
of plankton, and the quantity of phytoplankton pigments, and 
therefore did not list the species occurring in his samples, while 
Davis described the plankters occurring in a single sample obtained 
from one of the brackish water lakes at the southern tip of the 
Florida peninsula. Gordon (1942), Woodmansee (1949) and Davis 
and Williams (1950) have made unpublished studies of Florida 
marine plankton. 

Aside from these papers dealing with the plankton or the zoo- 
plankton as a whole, Davis (1947, 1948a, 1949) has published three 
papers in which new species of Florida plankters were described, 
while Gunter e¢ al (1947, 1948) and Galtsoff (1948) have dealt to 
a greater or lesser extent with the plankton that caused and was 
associated with the disastrous “red tide” that occurred on the lower 
west coast of Florida in 1946-1947. Mayer (1910) described certain 
medusae from the Florida Current, and Smith et al (1950) reported, 


1Contribution No. 48, Marine Laboratory, University of Miami. Car- 
‘ried out as part of a fisheries oe investigation for the Florida State 
Board of Conservation. 


JUL 25 1950 


68 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


among other things, on the marine plankton in the vicinity of Miami. 
The great expeditions that studied plankton in the Atiantic and 
Caribbean usually remained far at sea away from the coasts of 
Florida. 


In the following pages the work published by Davis and the 
plankton study discussed in Gunter et ai (1948) will be reported 
as pertaining to the subject at hand. Gunter et al (op.cit.) dis- 
cussed only selected data, of interest to the particular problem of 
these authors, and the data will be enlarged upon here. 


The plankton data to be reported were obtained through the 
analysis of samples taken at widely scattered locations and at 
various times of the year, and is for the most part of an explora- 
tory nature. Samples usually were obtained at places and times 
that were convenient, rather than on the basis of a rigidly pre- 
conceived plan. Such exploratory studies are needed, in regions 
which previously have remained largely unstudied, in order to 
obtain a preliminary concept of the identity of the common spe- 
cies, and of their distribution in time and space. Without prelimi- 
nary studies of this nature, plans for the study of more advanced 
problems of an ecological or economic nature would have to be 
laid blindly, and costly mistakes might be made. 


The present paper constitutes mainly a preliminary and incom- 
plete taxonomic report on the plankton of the region investigated, 
along with certain general ecological observations. Most of the 
groups that are represented need much more study, and it is 
hoped that the very incompleteness of this report will be a stimu- 
lus to others to continue, on a more thorough basis, the study 
of the taxonomy and the distribution of Florida marine plankters. 
Because most of the samples examined were obtained by the use 
of standard plankton nets, practically nothing is known of the 
nannoplankton. Yet, the gaining of any adequate picture of the 
‘ecological role of the plankton in local waters (e.g., the inter- 
relationship between the zooplankton and the phytoplankton, etc. ) 
requires a considerable study of this important ecological group. 

In spite of their fragmentary nature, it seems advisable to the 
author to make his accumulated data available at this time to 
those others who may find it possible and desirable to tackle some 
of the extremely interesting problems that beg for solution, 
inasmuch as it is unlikely that he will have the opportunity to 


OBSERVATIONS ON MARINE PLANKTON 69 


continue the study of the marine plankton of Florida in the | 
near future. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 


A number of the samples reported upon herein were collected 
by Mr. Jay N. Darling, of Captiva Island and by Mr. Charles Daw- 
son, Mr. Craig Gathman, Dr. Gordon Gunter, Mrs. Harding Owre, 
Mr. Louis Rivas, Dr. F. G. Walton Smith, Mr. James Q. Tierney, Dr. 
Robert H. Williams and Mr. Robert A. Woodmansee, all of the 
University of Miami. Their efforts have contributed materially 
to the value of this report. The author feels a great indebtedness 
to Dr. Smith and other members of the staff of the Marine Labora- 
tory for their consistent encouragement and aid in the analyses. 
Dr. E. Morton Miller also greatly encouraged the work and gen- 
erously supplied microscopes and materials from the Department 
of Zoology of the University of Miami. 


List oF SAMPLES 


Samples are listed by the regions in which they were obtained. 
Numbers have been assigned as follows: 


NUMBERS REGION 
between 1 and 99 inland waters along the west coast 
between 100 and 199 Gulf of Mexico 
between 200 and 299 inland waters along the east coast 
between 300 and 399 outside waters along the east coast, ex- 

clusive of the Florida Current 
between 400 and 499 Florida Current 
between 500 and 599 Florida Bay and its tributaries ~ 
between 600 and 699 Enclosed ponds on Windley Key 
(Theater of the Sea) 


Sample numbers preceded by an asterisk (*) designate samples 
that have been partially reported upon in Gunter et al (1948) and 
Davis (1948a), while those with two asterisks (**) were partially 
reported upon in Davis (1947, 1949), and those with the three 
asterisks (***) were reported upon in Davis (1948b). “Unconc.* 
in the column under “net mesh” signifies that the sample was not 
concentrated by use of a net, but was simply a preserved sample 


of seawater. 


70 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


FLORIDA CURRENT. 


= 
3ot 
t 


ATLANTIC | 
OCEAN 


UJ 
PINE !SLAND SOUND-\- 
CAPTIVA ISLAND 


Figure 1. Map to show the area investigated. 


SAMPLE 


No. 


“at 


ao 
oi 
*4, 
*5. 


76: 
ti. 
eo 


a: 
pad) 
*100. 
S101 
*102. 
ULZ1OS. 
*104. 
=i%105. 


*106. 
AUT. 


2108. 


*109. 
110. 


ote 9 
a. 
*113. 
*114. 
SISLI5. 
116. 


OBSERVATIONS ON MARINE PLANKTON 


DatE Time LOCATION 


1-18-47 


1-18-47 
1-19-47 
1-24-47 
1-24-47 


1-24-47 


1-25-47 


1-28-47 


1-28-47 
6-25-47 
1-18-47 
1-18-47 
1-19-47 
1-19-47 
1-24-47 
1-24-47 


1-25-47 
1-25-47 


1-25-47 


1-28-47 
4-11-47 


4-12-47 
4-12-47 
4-12-47 
4-12-47 


4-12-47 14:00 
6-25-47 


7 


PG) OF GCa ib) U5 &) 


ie 
11:00 


12:00 
12:00 
12:00 
14:00 


P 


71 


NET 
MrsH 
Matanzas Pass, N.W. of Ft. 

Miperspbede ln) nee a es unconc. 
sma, Nose ey AE BOT eT At t20 
Gordon Pass near Naples _.._....._..... t20 
Clam Bay, near Ft. Myers t20 
Dock, Roosevelt Pass, near Ft. 

Miyerst, vey er AMIS ee es t20 
Upper end of Roosevelt Pass, 

near Ft. Miyers DE nT hO8h be #20 
% mi. E. of Captiva Pass, in Pine 

island-Sounds.: Si) eh ptt unconc. 
1 mi. S. of Useppa Island, Pine 

IslandeSounde _{eoO) Tel it ae t20 
SametaspNosOe!l..... 5. RAC! Oe £20 
Estero Bay, W. of Mound Key __._.... #20 
300 yds. off Ft. Myers Beach -....... #20 
z mi. off Ft. Myers Beach — ¢20 
Kamitcofiv¥Naples, iri Thiel 2k #20 
sanigone Naples... 21 VieaArel 2% #20 


Mouth of Blind Pass near Ft. Myers.. £20 
300 yds. offshore from Captiva 


islandiawesnly . eho Tht unconc. 
Same/asHiNosilOS sell The. unconc. 
2 mi. W. of Redfish Pass, — 

Gaptiva disland unconc. 
5 mi. W. of Captiva Pass, 

Captiva island 5 sh.0).2 __ unconc. 
Mouth of Boca Grande Pass #20 
West end of Knight Key, off 

thefscawalles 5 TERE #20 
32m, jo Content iKeys 211-2 0! #12 
Same gasriNe mild #20 
SamecassiNorsaeil 28): Telok unconc. 
2 mi. off Barracuda Key __ #20 
SamevaseNosi4 (81) TE unconc. 
% mi. S. of Redfish Pass, 

Captivavisiand unconc. - 


72 


SAMPLE 
No. 


a bg 


*118. 
eS 119. 
120. 
121. 
122. 
123. 
124. 
125. 
126. 
afi. 
128. 
28). 
yal ke! 
Sel CSB 
- 182. 
— 183. 
| 134. 
200. 
201. 
202. 
203. 


**204. 


**205. 
**206. 
VERIO. 

**208. 

**209. 
St U210; 


211. 
212. 


213. 


214. 


JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


DATE 


6-25-47 


7-23-47 
7-23-47 
12-7-47 
12-8-47 
12-9-47 
12-9-47 
12-9-47 
12-9-47 

12-10-47 

12-16-47 

12-16-47 

12-16-47 

12-16-47 

12-16-47 

12-16-47 

12-16-47 

12-16-47 
8-15-47 
8-15-47 
3-15-47 
8-15-47 
5-25-47 


4-12-47 
4-12-47 
4-12-47 
4-12-47 
4-12-47 
8-16-47 


8-16-47 
9-13-47 
9-13-47 
9-15-47 


TIME 


10:20 


09:15 
11:00 
11:50 
14:30 
09:00 
13:30 
13:30 
13:30 
09:30 


10:30 


10:30 


WD = =v 


13:00 
13:00 
16:00 
16:00 
16:45 
16:45 
12:00 


SOs OCs Os US G) 


10:30 


16:00 
11:00 
11:00 
10:00 


~ seawall - 


NET 
LOcATION MESH 
% mi. off Big Hickory Pass, 

Bonita: Beach (=. 2. eee ¢20 
Off.. Siesta. Key./__2 52) sees t20 
Off Venicesyie) 2 5 22 ee -unconce. 
8 mi. N.W. of Anclote Light ? 
30 mi. W. by N. of Anclote Light... ? 
5o..mi... Wevell Anclote” Uight asses iy 


60 mi. W. of Anclote Light (bottom)  ? 
Same as no 128 (surface) 
Same as No. 123 
28° 21’ N. Lat. 84° 06’ W. Long. .... #10 


10 mi. S. S. W. of Rock Island ___- $20 
SamevasbNestl27 2. aaa +10 
18 mi. S. of Rock Island (surface) _ $10 
Same as No. 129 (bottom) 2 #10 
Same as No. 129 (surface) +20 
Same as No. 129 (bottom) —~ #20 


16 mi. W. of Classahowitxka Point ... #20 


Same AstNoicl33 _>_S Vee eee +10 
Barnes Sound, off Jewfish Creek ___._ #20 
Same jas No; 200 =. 7 epee 
Blackwater Sound, off Jewfish Creek.. #20 
Same “as::Nor:202 5. Tea #10 
Belle Isle, Miami Beach, off | 
the seawall 2... eee #20 
Off Shoal Point, Biscayne Bay —_- #20 
Same as Nos200.__... 2) eee t20 
Same as: No.<205 __S. “2 ee #20 


Off Chicken Key, Biscayne Bay ____. 20 


Samewas:2zNoli 208 |... 8 20 
1% mi. off Coconut Grove, 3 
Biseayne “Bay: __DU.4) Ye-Siee Se #12 
Biscayne Bay, off Soldier Key ._. #20 
‘Miami Beach, near Boat Slips —... #20 
Same as2:Novr292 O0-bT TES ey #12 


Belle Isle, Miami Beach, off the 


SAMPLE 
No. 


215. 
216. 


217. 
218. 


219. 
220. 
221. 


222. 
223. 
#2224. 
300. 


301. 
302. 
303. 
304. 
305. 


306. 
307. 


308. 


309. 
310. 


400. 
401. 
402. 
403. 
404, 


405. 


OBSERVATIONS ON MARINE PLANKTON 


DATE 


9-24-47 
10-25-47 


11-10-47 


11-12-47 


11-17-47 
11-15-47 
12-13-47 


1-1-48 
1-15-48 
3-10-48 
3-15-47 


3-15-47 
3-22-47 
6-22-47 
6-22-47 
6-28-47 


7-6-47 
8-16-47 


9-]-47 


9-6-47, 


10-9-47 


1-18-47 
2-28-47 
3-15-47 
6-27-47 
7-19-47 


7-19-47 


TIME 


17:00 


NET 

LocaTION MEsH 
Government Cut, Miami Beach _____. +20 
2 mi. W. of Ragged Keys, Biscayne 

Bayyr th BBG seid Shel CAN #12 
Matheson Hammock Beach 

Biscayne bay ie) sect uh #20 
Culvert under road near Tahiti 

Beach,*Dade County —.-___._—.... #12 
Belle Isle, Miami Beach —-- #20 


Inlet at Chapman Field, Dade County #12 
Biscayne Channel (inside), 

Biscayne Bay 
Largo Sound, Key Largo t20 
Off Johnson’s Neck, Lanceford Creek #20 


Off Coconut Grove, Biscayne Bay _.. #20 
Off end of Rodriquez Key, near 

ING ye aC et gets #12 
SalneuaAs NON GUUIin eer tee wha, 5549 t20 
E.. of Elliot Key, near Bache Shoal _.. #12 
N. of jetty, S. end of Miami Beach .. #12 
Same as) NOs SOayes toot ict os )2 #20 
South Beach, Miami Beach, just 

beyeondosush) of ener hetrona 3A #12 
Same)as” Nospo0bd 24) = iid os #12 
Biscayne Channel, S.E. of 

Biscayne Vkeyfur eres wiarlie ot #12 
Baker's Haulover, Dade County, 3 

juste beyond:surk)lovst. j= cess od #20 


E. of Elliot Key, near Bache Shoal _.. #20 
Baker’s Haulover, channel from 


bridge” Se 0) eaitr\dito shi st #12 
Oil Canes Mipriday 6a el eet ? 
Of, Cape Mloridag. a2. a. esto) ? 
Off Cape Movida, 2s tents. 15.2... ? 
Off, Cape Mlorida sco yy ost x 
Off Cape Florida (about 30 

fathoms,.jo,,thejsurface )... 22.2... t20 


Same as No. 404 


74 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF. SCIENCES 


SAMPLE : NET 
No. DaTE ‘TIME LOCATION MEeEsH 
406. 9-24-47 15:00 Off Miami Beach _ #12 
407. 10-18-47 ? 2, mi; E.jof Cape Floridays = a) am #12 
408. 10-18-47 P Same as No,407 "ee #20 
409. 3-13-48 14:00 2 mi. off Triumph Reef _.__.. #12 


***500. 6-29-47 09:00 Westlake, Everglades National Park.. #12 
***501. 6-29-47 10:00 Long Lake, Everglades National 


Ratk ji.38t ee t12 
502. 6-29-47 13:00 Florida Bay, off Shark Point 

(Garfield,..Bight)) 22 =) 3) es t12 
503. 6-29-47 13:30 Garfield Bight, Florida Bay #12 
600.  7-4-47 18:30 Moray Pend?” ae +20 
601. 7-4-47,,18:49-,.Porpoise? Pond, |__ O05 3a eae #20 
602::.") 7-4-47, 16:00)... Rorpoise- Pond (3__ 21-8) Berle unconc. 
603... °7-4-47..14:15, Color. Pond 223... ¢ > Sree #20 


604. 7-4-47 14:30 Sawfish Pond _W #20 


NOTES ON THE PLANKTERS ENCOUNTERED 


The difficulties inherent in any attempt to identify the marine 
plankters belonging to all taxonomic groups encountered are 
greatly magnified in regions, such as the one dealt with here, 
that have not previously adequately been explored. In the an- 
alyses reported upon in the following pages a special effort was 
made to identify the important and basic Copepoda to species in 
all cases where the available supply of literature made this pos- 
sible. In other groups, wherever feasible, identifications were made 
to species or genus. However, in certain groups, and especially 
in the case of developmental stages, identification could not be 
carried this far for obvious reasons. On the other hand, there is 
much of interest to be gleaned even from such relatively inade- 
quate identifications. 


The analysis procedure followed in most cases involved counting 
the first two or three hundred plankters encountered, to gain an 
idea of the relative abundance of the most numerous types present. 
The results were expressed as per cent of the total organisms. 
After the count had been completed the whole of the sample was 
then examined carefully under a binocular dissecting microscope 
to find less common types, which were then reported as pres- 


OBSERVATIONS ON MARINE PLANKTON 75 


ent. (+). A few samples of unconcentrated seawater were ob- 
tained for more precise quantitative counts, with results then 
being expressed in terms of organisms per liter. 

A total of 197 categories were distinguished. Many of the 
categories, of course, included more than one species. 


COCCOLITHOPHORES 


Coccolithophores are nannoplankters, and hence would not regularly be 
captured by nets, even though present in large numbers. Unidentified species 
were encountered in samples 127, 131 and 221, all taken in December, 1947. 
There is great need for a detailed study of the nannoplankton in Florida 
waters, using centrifuge techniques. 


STILICOFLAGELLATES 


Silicoflagellates were found, in small numbers only, in samples 2, 104, 125, 
131, 132 and 221, mostly in the winter months. They were most abundant 
in sample 132, where they amounted to one per cent of the total organisms. 
As in the case of the coccolithophores, many silicoflagellates are nannoplankters | 
and hence escape capture by nets. 


BLUEGREEN ALGAE 


By far the most commonly encountered bluegreen alga was Skujaella 
(Trichodesmium) Thiebauti,2, which dominated samples 126 (74 per cent of 
the total organisms), 220, 303, 309, 310, 405 (86 per cent of the total 
organisms ), 406, 407 and 600. The species was also encountered, and often 
common, in samples, 2, 6, 7, 8, 9, 109, 112, 118, 123, 124, 125, 204, 210, 
219, 304, 305, 308, 402, 408, 502, 601, 603 and 604. There were no marked 
seasonal or habitat preferences. 

Unidentified species of bluegreen algae were obtained in samples 12i, 
123 and 220. 

DIATOMS 


It is commonly thought that in tropical waters the diatoms occupy a 
subordinate position in the marine plankton to the dinoflagellates. This may 
be true of the waters of the high seas, but the data obtained by the analysis 
of the samples considered here does not bear it out for inshore waters. Aside 
from some of the samples collected in connection with the study of the 
disastrous “red tide” on the lower west coast of Florida in 1947 (see Gunter 
et al, 1948) the dinoflagellates dominated in very few cases. On the contrary, 
the diatoms were almost always more abundant than the dinoflagellates, and 
often they were extremely abundant. The diatoms were proportionately most 
numerous in December and January. Of the samples taken in these two 
months by nets of number 20 mesh bolting silk, and where percentages were 
determined, over 95 per cent showed the diatoms constituting greater than 


2Kindly identified by Dr. Francis Drouet of the Chicago Natural History 
Museum at the request of Mr. W. A. Daily of Butler University. 


76 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


half of the total organisms. They averaged 82 per cent of the total organisms 
in these samples. On the other hand, during July, August and September, the: 
samples obtained by the use of similar nets contained relatively smaller pro- 
portions of diatoms. Only about 48 per cent showed them constituting greater 
than half the total organisms, and the highest percentage estimated was 65. : 
per cent. The average was 38 per cent. 

The small size of most of the diatom specimens, and the lack of adequate 
literature, made it inadvisable to attempt the recognition of species in all but 
a few of the cases. For the most part, however, genera were easily recognizable 
Table I shows the accumulated data on the diatoms. 


DINOFLAGELLATES 


Dinoflagellates dominated the plankton during the period of the “red tide” 
in samples 1, 8, 9, 104, 105, 118 and 119. In addition, they dominated in 
unaffected areas in samples 217, 310 and 406. Seasonal preferences are not 
clearly indicated by the data at hand, but fewer samples lacked dinoflagellates. 
during October, November, December and January than at other times of the 
year. Table II shows the accumulated data on the dinoflagellates. 


OTHER MASTIGOPHORA 


Sample 116 was obtained from a patch of yellow water. Upon analysis it 
was found to contain a tiny unidentified mastigophoran with several chromato- 
phores and four flagella. It was estimated that the species occurred to the 
extent of 10,100,000 cells per liter, or 98.85 per cent of the total organisms. 
Identity of the flagellate, which is shown in figure 1, is uncertain. 


Figure 2. Unidentified: flagellate dominating sample 116. Actual size of cell 
is 11 microns. 


77 


OBSERVATIONS ON MARINE PLANKTON 


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OBSERVATIONS ON MARINE PLANKTON 


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OBSERVATIONS ON MARINE PLANKTON 85 


SARCODINA 


The only Sarcodina recognized were the Foraminifera and the Radiolaria. 
The Foraminifera were most common in samples 132 and 305, where they 
constituted respectively 12.0 and 19.5 per cent of the total organisms. Most 
Foraminifera encountered were tychopelagic, and hence little effort was made 
to identify the various forms, except the pelagic genus Globigerina, species of 
which were found in small numbers in samples 124, 126, 405 and 406. 

Among the Radiolaria, Acanthometron sp. was common in samples 112, 128 
and 406, and was also found in samples 118, 129, 180, 131 and 304. Sticho- 
lonche sp. was common in sample 408 and occurred also in sample 127. Other, 
unidentified, Radiolaria were encountered in samples 102, 109, 222, 305 
and 309. 

INFUSORIA 

The only recognizable Infusoria were the tintinnids. Table III shows the 
accumulated data on the tintinnids. 

COELENTERATA and CTENOPHORA 

Sampling methods precluded adequate sampling of macroplankters. For 
this reason only Obelia medusae, small siphonophores and ctenophores will be 
discussed here. Other forms, including Gonionemus, Linuche, Aurelia and 
Physalia were observed, but not captured in the samples. 

Obelia medusae were common in sample 210, but also occurred in samples 
100, 117, 128, 204, 205, 206, 207, 217, 219, 304, 305, 308 and 310. Detached 
portions of small unidentified siphonophores were present in samples 112, 120, 
123, 124, 126, 127, 128, 129, 1381, 302, 303, 304, 306, 308, 309, 310, 402, 
405, 406, 407 and 408. Davis (1948b) reported unidentified ctenophores as 
dominating in sample 500 and as also present in sample 501. Subsequent 
observations suggest that the species found in these two samples belonged to 
the genus Mnemiopsis. This genus has been encountered in samples 122, 127, 
128, 129, 131, and 408. Unpublished data in the author’s possession shows 
it to be present in large numbers in inland waters as well. 

Planula larvae were found in small numbers in samples 9, 204, 219 and 308. 

PLATYHELMINTHES 

Miiller’s larvae were encountered in samples 202 and 409. The material 
in the samples did not allow for a clear distinction between acoels, rhabdocoels 
and immature polyclads. For this reason, these three categories are lumped 
together here as “small flatworms.” Such forms were fairly common in sample 
222 and were also found in small numbers in samples 10, 125, 204, 206, 212, 
217, 219, 221, 304, 306, 308, 309 and 402. 

NEMERTEA 

Pilidium larvae were encountered in sample 128. 

NEMATHELMINTHES 

Nematodes were common only in sample 220. Specimens were also en- 
countered in samples 6, 122, 134, 204, 205, 221, 222, 306, 402, 502 and 503. 
Most nematodes found in the plankton are tychopelagic. 

ROTIFERA 
In general, the rotifers are not considered to be common in the sea. How- 


JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


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OBSERVATIONS ON MARINE PLANKTON 87 


ever, at times and locally in marine waters they may become very common, 
Rotifers of the genus Brachionus dominated the plankton in sample 601 (esti- 
mated at 6000 individuals per liter)5 and were common in samples 603 
and 604. 


Unidentified rotifers were common in samples 6, 8 and 604, and were 
encountered in smaller numbers in samples 8, 4, 5, 9, 10, 104, 109, 117, 120, 
Pesto ott, 212. 219 and 223. 


CHAETOGNATHA 


Four genera of chaetognaths were encountered. However, as elsewhere, 
SagittaS was the most common. Table IV shows the accumulated data on the 
chaetognaths. 

BRYOZOA 


Cyphonautes larvae were common in samples 134 and 406, and they were 
present in samples 120, 128, 133, 219, 301, 310, and 402. From this distribu- 


5The ponds investigated on Windley Key were located on the property 
of the Theater of the Sea. Originally the ponds had been very clear, and 
they were formed by water seeping into rock quarry pits from the ocean 
and Florida Bay through the porous coral rock of the Key. Subsequently, 
fish, turtles and porpoises were placed in the ponds for display to tourists. 
In the course of time there was a rather sudden development of cloudy 
waters and of fish mortality. Examination of the ponds by Dr. R. H. 
Williams, Mr. Craig Gathman and the author made it rather clear that the 
trouble was caused by the feeding of numerous animals within the con- 
fines of the uncirculated water of the ponds. Decayed food and excrement 
had raised the plant nutrient content of the waters, allowing a rich 
phytoplankton to develop, which was followed by a rich development of 
zooplankters, such as Brachionus. The rich plankton caused the cloudiness 
of the waters. Simultaneously, the decaying materials in the lower layers 
of the water had resulted in the formation of H,S, which had caused the 
actual mortality. , 


6Jmmature specimens of Sagitta were sometimes obtained in places 
where one would never find adults of this decidedly pelagic phylum. Thus, 
sample 218 was taken by holding a collecting net in the water flowing 
through a narrow culvert which drained an area of shallow mangrove 
swamp. The water was relatively far from any open areas and connected 
with Biscayne Bay only through a devious, narrow and shallow channel. 
Sample 220 was obtained from a somewhat more open position, but in 
equally shallow water equally far from Biscayne Bay. Samples 502 and 
503 were taken in Garfield Bight, a very shallow, though wide, arm of 
the likewise shallow Florida Bay. It seems probable that chaetognath eggs 
had been carried from regions of more open water and higher salinity to 
the less favorable regions. Here they hatch and the young are either killed 
in time, or they are retarded in their development and remain juveniles. 
This problem has been discussed at greater length by Davis (1950). 


88 


JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


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OBSERVATIONS ON MARINE PLANKTON 89 


tion, it would appear that the numerous Bryozoa of inshore waters of the region 
investigated are species which do not pass through a cyphonautes stage, while 
the species that do pass through such a stage live as adults in open waters, 
perhaps along the outer reefs. 


BRACHIOPODA 


Larval stages of Lingula sp. were found commonly in samples 112 and 114, 
and small numbers were found in samples 104, 111 and 310. Workers at the 
University of Miami Marine Laboratory have not encountered adult Brachi- 
opoda in the vicinity of any of the regions where larval stages were found, 
though obviously they occur there and could be collected upon adequate 
search in proper habitats. 


PHORONIDEA 


Adult Phoronidea have never been found in southern Florida waters by 
any workers at the University of Miami Laboratory. Nevertheless, actinotroch 
larvae were encountered in samples 128, 215 and 3808, two of which were 
taken in the immediate vicinity a the city of Miami. 


ANNELIDA 


Tiny adult Pisaacies each carrying a small group of eggs in a loop formed 
by the ventral surface of the body were found in small numbers in samples 
207, 208 and 209. 

Various larval stages of polychaetes were, as would be expected, found in 
the majority of the samples. In samples 128, 204, 217, 219 and 222 they 
were fairly common. Little is known even of the adult polychaetes of southern 
Florida, and nothing is known of the larval stages of local species. 

Postlarval polychaetes were dominant in samples 8 and 9. Percentages of 
the polychaetes compared to the total organisms were small, due to the vast 
blooming of the tiny Gymnodinium brevis, but it was obvious that the former 
constituted the vast bulk of the 0D Se polychaetes were also very 
common in sample 128. , 


CLADOCERA 


Cladocera were not very common in the samples that were examined. Evadne 
sp. occurred in samples 2, 8, 9, 118 and 120. Podon sp. was found in sample 
407. Other, unidentified, daphnoid Cladocera were found in samples 122, 123, 
127, 128 and 308. 

. CIRRIPEDIA 

No attempt was made to identify the various types of barnacle nauplii and 
cyprids. Nauplii dominated in sample 402, and they were common in samples 
128, 210, 215 and 217. They were also found in samples 5, 8, 9, 103, 109, 118, 
127, 133, 200,-205, 206, 207, 212, 218, 219, 221, 222, 301, 306, 308, 310 
and 503. Cyprids were found in samples 5, 120, 184, 204, 210, 212, 218, 216, 
217, 219, 221, 222, 304, 308, 310, 402, 406 and 408: 


OSTRACODA 


No attempt was made to identify the ostracods. They occurred in samples 
123, 125, 220, 309, 407, 409 and 502. 


90 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


COPEPODA 7, 8 


1. Copepod nauplii. Nauplii and metanauplii were not separated in the 
analyses. A Longipedia-type nauplius dominated in samples 110, 134, 222 and 
801, while they were common in samples 124, 211, 212, 8308 and 809. They 
were present in samples 123, 125, 126, 127, 128, 133, 205, 206, 207, 218, 
215, 217, 219, 221 and 228. 

Nauplii of the genus Labidocera were never common, but occurred in samples 
5, 10, 100, 102, 108, 118, 205, 206, 207, 208 and 209. . 

Other copepod nauplii dominated in samples 110, 200, 208, 209, 212, 222 
and 301, and they were very common in samples 128 and 219. They seldom 
were lacking from samples obtained with fine nets. 


2. Copepoda Calanoida. On the average the calanoid copepods were, as 
is true in other localities, the most important of the zooplankters. For this. 
reason a special effort was made to distinguish species, insofar as this was 
feasible. Table V shows the accumulated data on the calanoid copepods. 


3. Copepoda Cyclopoida. Compared to the calanoids, there were few species 
of cyclopoids. Several unidentified species of Corycaeus were encountered. 
The genus was common in samples 124, 126, 128, 129, 184, 216, 301, 303, 
305, 308 and 310. They were present in samples 114, 120, 121, 122, 128, 
125, 127, 131, 182, 183, 204, 208, 209, 215, 219, 304, 3809, 400, 
402, 403, 405, 406, 407, 408 and 409. 

Cyclops panamensis tannica was found only in sample 501, where, however, 
it dominated the sample (See Davis, 1948b. ) . 

Oithona plumifera was common in sample 122, and also was found in 
samples 121, 123, 125, 308 and 408. . 

O. spp. were encountered in small numbers in samples 303 and 405. . 

Oithonina nana was among the most common of the copepods encountered. 
It dominated in samples 112, 184 (36.5 per cent of the total organisms), 208, 
209, 222 and 308. It was common in samples 114, 128, 133, 200, 202, 204, 
205, 206, 207, 211, 212, 215, 217, 219, 221, 801 and 408, and was present 
in samples 10, 110, 117, 118, 120, 121, 122, 124, 125, 129, 130, 131, 182, 
213, 216, 304, 309 and 310. 

Oncaea spp. were common in samples 123, 124 and 126, and they were also 
found in samples 121, 122, 125, 219, 301, 302, 304, 305, Bee) 310, 402, 405, 
406, 407 and 408. 


4. Copepoda Harpacticoida. Table VI shows the accumulated data on the 
harpacticoid copepods. 


7Clear distinction between A. spinata and A. tonsa requires high power 
examination and dissection. There may have been some confusion between 
the species, though several specimens in each sample were examined 
adequately. The two species overlapped in distribution in a few samples, 
as in number 215. However, in general they did not. 

8In samples 219 and 310 single immature specimens of this genus were 
encountered; and were presumed to be E. marina. 


91 


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OBSERVATIONS ON MARINE PLANKTON 95 


5. Copepoda Monstrilloida. Four species of these interesting copepods were 
encountered (see Davis, 1947, 1949). 

A specimen of Thaumaleus quadridens was obtained from sample 209, while 
Monstrilla floridana was obtained from sample 224, M. reticulata from sample 
204, and M. rugosa from sample 207. Of these, M. reticulata appears to be the 
most common. 

6. Copepoda Caligoida. Caligoids are only temporary members of the 
plankton, normally being parasitic on fish. Unidentified specimens were found 
in samples 502 and 508. 


AMPHIPODA, ISOPODA AND CUMACEA .. 


Amphipods (hyperiids) amounted to 2 per cent of the total organisms in 
sample 3038, and they were also found in samples 123, 125, 126, 128, 302, 
804, 406, 407 and 408. 

Leptochelia savignyi® was the only species of isopod identified. It was 
found in sample 222. In other samples, the most common isopod was the 
microniscus stage of the Epicaridea, frequently found parasitic on the plank- 
tonic Copepoda. Because these forms are not true planksters, they will not be 
discussed here. 

Unidentified cumaceans were encountered in samples 134, 305 and 807. 


MALACOSTRACA 


1. Decapoda. The only adult decapods encountered were an unidentified 
species of the genus Lucifer. This species was one of the dominant forms in 
samples 111, 112 and 114, and it was common in samples 128 and 129. In 
addition, it was present in samples 120(juv.), 121(juv.), 127, 131, 182, 221, 
310, 402, 403, 407 and 408. 

Larval stages of Sergestes were obtained from samples 122 and 303. A 
single specimen of the phyllosoma larva of one of the Palinuridae was found 
in sample 804. The lack of more of these larvae is surprising, considering the 
large numbers of Panulirus argus living in the waters investigated. Other 
larvae and postlarvae of the Macrura were frequently seen. There has been 
very little investigation into the life histories of local macrurans, and identifi- 
cations, although attempted, were impossible. Macruran larvae were common 
in samples 201, 203, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 303, 305, 307 and 407, but 
they were regular in their appearance in other samples as well. 

Zoea larvae of the Paguridae dominated in sample 203, while they were 
common in samples 201, 208 and 209, and they occurred in smaller numbers 
in samples 125, 200, 202, 204, 205, 206, 207, 210, 212, 218, 217, 219, 
221 and 809. A glaucotho¢ larva was obtained from sample 407. A zoea of 
one of the Hippidae also was taken in sample 407. Zoea larvae of the Porcel- 
lanidae were very common in samples 212 and 213, and also were found in 
samples 114, 117, 204, 219, 303, 304, 307, 407 and 408. 

Brachyuran prezoeae were found in samples 129, 131, 216 and 221. Their 
presence indicates the hatching of brachyuran eggs in the immediate vicinity. 
The species of Brachyuran zoeae could not be determined. They were widely 


*Kindly identified by Mr. Robert A. Woodmansee. 


$6 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


encountered, but appeared to be more abundant in April, June and , August 
than in other months. They dominated in sample 803 (28 per cent of the 
total organisms), and they were common in samples 205, 206, 207, 210, 305, 
3807 and 508. Brachyuran megalops were encountered only in samples 128, 
203, 305, 306, 310 and 407. 

2. Stomatopoda. Stomatopod antizoeae amounted to 4 per cent of the total 
organisms in sample 303, and they were also found in samples 221, 304 and 
407. Pseudozoeae occurred in samples 114, 207, 210, 212, 213, 303, 305, 307, 
308, 404, 407 and 408. Of the three or four stomatopod species known. to 
live in the area, the life history of only one is known. 


INSECTA AND ARACHNOIDEA 


A single specimen of the larva of Corethra was found in sample 219, taken 
at Belle Isle, Miami Beach. Corethra larvae are characteristic freshwater . 
plankters and occur in large numbers in Florida fresh-water lakes. It seems 
unlikely that the specimen could have washed into the marine situation from 
the nearby shore, for in all of Miami Beach, there are no bodies of fresh water 
larger or wilder than swimming pools and fish ponds. The sample was obtained 
in the daytime, and Corethra is especially noteworthy for its nocturnal habits. 
Possibly it exists in the salt waters of the area in large numbers, but has been 
missed through lack of nocturnal collections. 

The only arachnoids encountered were a very few water mites, found in 
samples 222, 306 and 307. / 


MOLLUSCA_ 


Among the Mollusca, atlantids were found in sample 126. Pteropods, mostly 
immature, were found in sample 126, and they were also found in samples 
121, 128, 124, 125, 203, 308, 304, 310, 405, 406 and 407. 

Small pelagic gastropod eggs were found in large numbers in samples 204 
and 214. The eggs were single, and each had a hyaline, umbrella-shaped hood, 
provided with rather simple ornamentation. Some were obtained alive, and 
kept. until after they hatched as typical gastropod veligers. 

Gastropod veligers could not readily be distinguished from each other: 
They were common in samples 5, 6, 100, 124, 126, 184, 202, 204, 208, 209, 
210, 211, 212, 215, 221, 222, 301 (16 per cent of the total organisms ), 308, 
309 and 408. Echinospira larvae were common in sample 111, and were also 
found in samples 301 and 309. 

Oyster veliger larvae were seen in sample 120. Other, Sine teases types of 
pelecypod veligers dominated in samples 211 (13.3 per cent of the total 
organisms), 215 (22.5 per cent), 222 (15 per cent) and 801 (13 per cent). 
In addition, they were common in samples 4, 5, 100, 118, 128, 200, (202, 204, 
212, 221, 304, 308 and 604. 

Cos oseds were represented only by a single very small immature speci- 
men of Tremoctopus, in sample 407. 


ECHINODERMATA 

“Among the larvae of the Asteroidea, bipinnarian larvae amounted to 2.3 
per cent of the total organisms in sample 310, and they also were found in 
samples 6, 9, 109, 215 and 408:: Brachiolarian; larvae were also’ relatively 


OBSERVATIONS ON MARINE PLANKTON 


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98 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


common in sample 310, and occurred in samples 118, 405 and 406. 

Ophiopluteus larvae were found in samples 102, 121, 205, 206, 207, 217, 
219, 221, 304 and 310. Tiny postlarval ophiuroids were found in samples 208, 
215, 808 and 406. 

Echinopluteus larvae were the most abundant representatives of the phylum. 
They were common in samples 128, 205, 206, 207, 210 (7 per cent of the 
total organisms), 215 (17.4 per cent) and 304. In addition, they occurred in 
samples 2, 103, 109, 118, 121, 126, 127, 212, 216, 406, 407 and 408. A post- 
larval echinoid was. found in sample 407. 


CHORDATA 


A single large and beautiful tornaria larva, similar or identical to that 
described by Morgan (1891) from the Bahama Islands, was found in sample 
406. 

Appendicularians were common in samples 5, 10, 100, 120, 121, 122, 124, 
126, 128, 129, 202, 302, 3038, 305 and 808. They were found in smaller. 
numbers in samples 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 101, 103, 104, 109, 111, 112, 117, 118, 
128, 125, . 127, 181, 200; -210, 211) 212. Q4S0s 215 eee aoe 
301, 304, 306, 309, 310, 402, 405, 406 and 408. Thaliacea were found, in 
small numbers only, in samples 123, 124, 125, 126, 304, 307, 310 and 408. 
Larval stages of tunicates were surprisingly uncommon. Apparently the larvae 
of local tunicates exist as plankters only for a short time, or else many of them ~ 
have no planktonic larval stages at all. Larvae were encountered in samples 
117, 121, 129, 204, 212, 220, 301, 308 and 304. , 

Larval Cephalochorda (Amphioxides pelagicus) were obtained in samples 
125 and 126. To the best of my knowledge, adult amphioxi have not been 
reported from Florida waters. None have been collected by members of the 
staff of the University of Miami Marine Laboratory. 

Pelagic fish eggs of various types were found in many of the samples. 
One oval egg was very similar to that of the anchovy, but the eggs of the 
local fishes are so poorly known that this is uncertain. The oval eggs were 
common in sample 201, and were also found in samples 202, 203, 210, 212, 
218, 215, 219, 310 and 406. Other types of fish eggs were common in samples 
201, 203, 302, 303, 307, 500 and 503, and were also found in many other 
samples from all sorts of localities. Larval stages of fish, which are also very - 
poorly known in local waters, were common only in sample 308, but they were 
found in samples from all possible types of water. 


DISCUSSION: 


The waters of the Florida Current differ markedly from the other 
waters investigated. This is obvious, even without the examination 
of plankton samples, for the water is notably clear and_trans- 
parent, due to the sparsity of plankters. According to the kinds 
of plankters present, the water of the Florida Current is most 
nearly like that of the open Gulf of Mexico, especially far from 
shore, but nine of the plankton categories encountered in the 


OBSERVATIONS ON MARINE PLANKTON 99 


present study were confined to the Ficrida Current. Of these, the 
most important were Cerratocorys horridus, Candacia pachydactyla, 
Eucalanus attenuatus, Scolecithrix danae and Copilia mirabilis. 


Towards the southern tip of the peninsula, the cpen water lying 
between the shore and the Florida Current is bounded on its outer 
side by a series of reefs, consisting of living corals south of Fowey 
Rock and of dead corals to the north. However, farther to the north 
there is no clearly defined outer reef. The water in question is in- 
fluenced here and there by local influences, the most marked of 
which are land drainage and the indirect influence of city sewage, 
as in the vicinity of Miami. This is often indicated by an increased 
richness of plankton growth in the very transparent water. Six 
of the plankton categories discussed above were common to the 
open water under consideration and the Florida Current, but were 
not encountered elsewhere to any degree. By far the most im- 
portant of these was Acartia spinata. Other important organisms 
with a similar distribution were Calanus minor, Calocalanus pavo, 
Lucicutia sp. and Sapphirina spp. 


The most important partially enclosed waters along the east 
coast are St. John’s River, Mosquito Lagoon, Indian River, Banana 
River, Lake Worth, Biscayne Bay, Card Sound and Barnes Sound. 
The northern waters were investigated very little. There were, 
however, many samples obtained from southern regions. The 
waters are in general very shallow, and vary a good deal in 
salinity from place to place and from time to time. There is fre- 
quently a great deal of turbidity due to the stirring up of the 
bottom during wind storms. The plankton, except at times in the 
vicinity of cities, is relatively sparse. Sewage in the vicinity of 
Miami, for example, makes for a much richer plankton. As would 
be expected, the number of plankton species is reduced in the 
inland waters. Six of the plankton categories were found only in 
east coast inland waters. However, none was sufficiently common 
that it could be certain that they were confined to these waters. The 
most common species encountered in these waters, such as Acariia 
tonsa and Paracalanus parvus, were also common at other localities. 


The waters of Florida Bay proper, and of adjacent inland waters 
were rather similar to those of the inland waters of the east 
coast, described above. In the present study, only two samples 
were examined from Florida Bay, two from Blackwater Sound, 


100 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


one from West Lake and one from Long Lake. A study of the 
plankton from the two lakes was published by Davis (1948b), 
and showed two species of copepods that have not been encoun- 
tered elsewhere in the present study, namely Acartia floridana 
and Cyclops panamensis tannica. Further studies of these and 
other waters are reported by Davis (1950). 


It has long been known that the marine fauna and flora of 
the west coast of the Florida peninsula differs considerably from 
that of the east coast. Thus, the shells are richer in variety and 
numbers along the beaches of the Gulf coast than on the Atlantic 
coast, with many important species being restricted to one coast. 
or the other. This relationship seems to hold also for the plankton. 
The plankton appears to be richer on the west coast, and a num- 
ber of important species were confined to west coast waters. Thus, 
Baccilaria sp., Cerataulina sp., Hemiaulus sp., Gymnodinium brevis, 
Noctiluca scintillans and Evadne sp. were found only on the west 
coast, both inland and open. In addition, Stenosemella sp. was 
found only in inland waters on the west coast, and, among others, 
Striatella sp., Cerratocorys sp., Amphorella sp., Craterella sp., Heli- 
costomella sp., Proplectella sp., pilidium larvae, Eukrohnia sub- 
tilis, Acrocalanus longicornis, Labidocera aestiva, Paracalanus acu- 
leatus and Amphioxides pelagicus were encountered only in the 
open waters of the Gulf of Mexico. Beyond these species, Centro- 
pages furcatus was extremely important in the waters of the Gulf 
coast and was encountered only once on the east coast. Much the 
same general differences exist between the open and inland waters 
as was the case on the east coast. Thus, there were fewer species 
in the inland waters, and in general the samples were not as 
rich as those from open water. 


A number of species were confined, or nearly so, to open waters 
on both coasts. These along with the open water forms already 
listed above from either the east or the west coast, are valuable 
indicators of the admixture of open waters with inland waters. 
The most important species of this nature encountered on both 
coasts were Ceratium candelabrum, Pyrocystis fusiformis, P. noc- 
tiluca, Globigerina sp. Acanthometron sp., Sticholonche sp., Codo- 
nellopsis sp., unidentified small siphonophores, Sagitta enflata, 
cyphonautes larvae, Lingula larvae, actinotroch larvae, Cladocera 


OBSERVATIONS ON MARINE PLANKTON 101 


other than Evadne and Podon, Clausocalanus furcatus, Eucalanus 
subcrassus, Euchaeta marina, Pontella atlantica, Temora stylifera, 
Corycaeus spp., Oithona plumifera, Clytemnestra rostrata, Macro- 
setella gracilis, M. oculata, Microsetella rosea, Oncaea spp., cuma- 
ceans, Lucifer sp., and larvae of Sergestes. 


Occasionally, indicating mixture with open water, certain of 
the open water species were obtained from decidedly inland lo- 
cations. The most notable of the inland samples containing open 
water species was sample 219, taken in the cut between Belle 
Isle and Miami Beach. Though the location was strictly inland, 
it was not more than three miles from open water, with which 
it is connected through Government Cut. The sample was taken 
at 13:00 o'clock on a day when high slack tide was at 12:17. Among 
the animal species encountered in this sample there was a most 
peculiar mixture. The most common animals were Oithonina nana 
(23 per cent of the total animals), and Acartia tonsa (16.5 per 
cent). On the east coast both these species are more characteristic 
of inland waters. Other species encountered in the sample that 
were considered to be typical of inland waters were Gonyaulax 
spinifera (?), Obelia sp., rotifers, barnacle nauplii, Pseudodiap- 
tomus coronatus, Temora turbinata, pagurid larvae and oval fish 
eggs. A single larva of Corethra, characteristic of fresh water 
plankton, was found. On the other hand, the same sample con- 
tained such open water species as Acartia spinata, Salpingella, sp., 
Sagitta enflata, a Euchaeta (marina? ) juvenile, Lucicutia sp., Cory- 
caeus sp., Oncaea sp., and Macrosetella gracilis. Some of these 
were found in no other inland sample than number 219. 


SUMMARY: 


1. A series of 100 samples of plankton was obtained from a 
number of marine localities, mostly along the southern east coast 
of Florida and in the Gulf of Mexico and its adjacent inland wa- 
ters. These were analyzed and the proportional numbers of various 
plankton categories was estimated. 


2. 197 plankton categories were encountered. An attempt was 
made wherever possible to identify the forms to species, but this 
was not always possible because of unavailability of literature, 
or because of total lack of information, especially as regards larval 
stages of various organisms. 


102 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


3. Each category is discussed separately, and the seasonal and 
local distribution is discussed insofar as the data will allow. 


4. The various species characteristic of the various environ- 
mental portions of the area investigated are listed, and many of 
them are thought to be of value as indicators of waters of different 
origin. Conversely, the differing plankton populations found in 
the different regions are thought to be of significance as an indi- 
cation of varying, but as yet undetermined, nutritional and other 
environmental influences. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY: 
DAVIS, CHARLES C. . 

1947. Two monstrilloids from Biscayne Bay, Florida. Trans. Amer. Micr. 

Soc. 66(4): 390-895. 
DAVIS, CHARLES C. 

1948a. Gymnodinium brevis sp. nov., a cause of discolored water and 
animal mortality in the Gulf of Mexico. Bot. Gazette, 109(8); 358- 
860. 

DAVIS, CHARLES C. 

1948b. Notes on the plankton of te Lake, Dade County, Florida, with 
descriptions of two new Sei Quart. J. Fla. Acad. Sci. 10( 2-3): 
79-88. 

DAVIS, CHARLES C. 

1949. A preliminary revision of the Monstrilloida, with descriptions of two 

new species. Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc. 68(8): 245-255. 
DAVIS, CHARLES C., and ROBERT H. WILLIAMS 

1950. Brackish water plankton of mangrove areas in southern Florida 

(manuscript). 
GALTSOFF, PAUL S. 

1948. Red tide. Progress report on the investigation of the cause of the 
mortality of fish along the west coast of Florida conducted by the 
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service and cooperating organizations. Fish 
& Wildlife Service Spec. Sci. Rept. No. 46. 

GORDON, DONALD P. 

1942. Plankton at Miami Beach, Florida. A thesis submitted in partial 
fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in 
the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences of Duke University (un- 
published ). 

GUNTER, G., F. G. W. SMITH & R. H. WILLIAMS 
_ 1947. Mass mortality of marine animals on the lower west coast of F lorid, 
: November 1946 to January 1947. Science. 105( 2723): 256-257. 
GUNTER, G., R. H. WILLIAMS, C. C. DAVIS & F. G. W. SMITH 

1948. Catastrophic mass mortality of marine animals and coincident phyto- 
plankton bloom on the west coast of Florida, November 1946 = 
August 1947. Ecol. Monographs. 18(3): 809-824. . 


OBSERVATIONS ON MARINE PLANKTON 103 


MAYER, ALFRED G. 

1910. Medusae of the world. Publ. No. 109, Carnegie Inst. Wash. 3 Vols. 
MORGAN, T. H. 

1891. Growth and metamorphosis of Tornaria. Jour. Morph. 5:407-458. 
RILEY, GORDON A. 

1938. Plankton studies. I. A preliminary investigation of the plankton of 
the Tortugas region. Sears J. Mar. Res. 1(4): 335-352. 

SMITH, F. G. W., R. H. WILLIAMS and C. C. DAVIS 

1950. An ecological survey of the subtropical inshore waters adjacent to 

Miami. Ecology, 31(1): 119-146. 
WOODMANSEE, ROBERT A. 

1949. The zooplankton off Chicken Key in Biscayne Bay, Florida. A 
thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the 
degree of Master of Science in the Graduate School of Arts and 
Sciences of the University of Miami (unpublished). 


Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(2), 1949 (1950) 


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ANTIBIOTIC ACTION OF STREPTOMYCES ALBUS AGAINST 
MOLD DECAY ORGANISMS OF CITRUS FRUITS? 


SETON N. Epson, Geo. D. THornTON and F. B. SmitTH 
University of Florida 


It has been pointed out by Hopkins and Loucks (1946, 1947, 
1948) that any practical means of reducing mold decay of citrus 
fruits is of immediate concern. These workers also state that up 
to 45 percent of a certain shipment of oranges was lost to mold 
decay within two weeks. This example is sufficient to illustrate 
the vast economic loss suffered by Florida growers from such 
common molds as Penicillium digitatum and Penicillium italicum. 

Some of the early studies in this field by Stahl and Camp (1936, 
1936a) reveal that the effects of temperature change, fruit wrap- 
ping, and length of time in storage contribute materially in one 
way or another to the loss. Consequently a foundation is laid for 
future study. More recently Hopkins and Loucks (1947) have 
made a number of intensive studies in an effort to find some eco- 
nomical chemical treatment that may be safely used while at the 
same time come within the regulations established by the Food 
and Drug laws. Many compounds were tried but the outcome has 
not been too successful. This may be attributed largely to the 
cost of the chemicals used and the limitations placed on them 
by the Food and Drug laws. It was found that ethylene gas, com- 
monly used to color citrus fruit, stimulated the growth of P. citri 
and Diplodia natalensis. These organisms have been recognized as 
the causative molds of stemend rot. Later, when the coloring 
process is discontinued or reduced, there is a sharp drop in stem- 
end rot and a marked increase in storage mold infection, rising 
to a maximum during February and March. 

The molds causing storage decay were easily isolated from the 
surface of five week old citrus fruit. P. digitatuwm seemed to be 
by far the more common of the two. Its dark green spores covered 
ihe surface as a result of its very rapid growth. The blue-green 
spores of P. italicum could be detected later on older fruit, and 
if left for any period of time this mold asennad to take over when 
P. digitatum ceased to grow. 


1Published with the approval of the Director. 


106 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Since a number of forms of treatment have been tried with 
varying success, it was thought that a local application of a spe- 
cific antibiotic extract might prove successful. The purpose of 
this note is to report the results of a preliminary experiment along 
this line. 


A soil Streptomyces was isolated which, when studied morpho- 
logically and physiologically on several media, was identified as 
S. albus. Stock cultures were grown on yeast-extract agar and 
ee on hand for future use. The same procedure was followed for 

P. italicum and P. digitatum. 


Since it is the mixed culture of the two molds that largely com- | 
pose the causative agents of mold decay of citrus fruits it was 
deemed desirable to use a mixed culture for this test. Many fac- 
tors influence the vigor of the antibiotic activity of a microorganism. 
This is pointed out by Davis, Parke and Daily (1949), where 
they have shown conclusively that the degree of antibiosis of a 
given organism is determined by the composition of the medium 


used and upon pH: 


The optimum reaction for S. albus is above pH 7 but falls well 
below this figure for the molds and because of this it was necessary 
to have a medium with a hydrogen ion concentration compatible 
for all organisms. It was found that both Penicillia and Strepto- 
myces produced satisfactory growth in a yeast-extract agar medium 
with pH 6. Petri dishes with this medium were inoculated with 
Streptomyces albus and then seeded with a mixed culture of P. 
italicum and P. digitatum. After one week of growth on the yeast- 
extract agar there appeared a relatively large clear zone around 
ihe soil organism, measuring up to 15 mm. indicating clearly that 
ihere was substantial antibiotic substance being liberated. 


In another test a medium of yeast-extract agar, pH 8, was 
inocluated with S. albus and incubated for eight days at room 
temperature to produce a pure, viable culture which was used in 
iurn to inoculate a broth culture for filter paper disc studies. 
Yeast-extract agar was streaked with a mixed culture of the molds 
on which was placed two sterile paper discs, the one dipped in a 
broth culture of the S. albus and the other used as a control. 
Only after allowing the soil organism to actually grow on the 
dipped paper disc did any inhibition occur. This may have been 
due in part to the length of time necessary for antibiotic production. 


ANTIBIOTIC ACTION OF STREPTOMYCES 107 


A similar procedure was followed in testing an ether extraction 
of S. albus, on yeast-extract agar. The medium and growth were 
extracted with ethyl ether, the ether evaporated and the small 
residue taken up with a few drops of alcohol and made up to 
20 cc. with sterile water. Dilutions of 1/1, 1/10, and 1/100 were 
measured and tested against the molds. Definite inhibition oc- 
curred for the 1/1 and 1/10 dilutions, although the clear zone 
around the paper disc was less than half as great as around the 
actual growth of Streptomyces. This reduced effectiveness of the 
antibiotic may be due in part to heat labile properties, volatile 
substances, or solvent characteristics. 


The fact that these molds are inhibited by a common soil 
Streptomyces indicates that decay of citrus may be controlled by 
antibiotics and warrants a thorough and careful study of the 
problem. Considering the loss from decay sustained by Florida 
growers each season, even by use of the latest methods of curing 
(Hopkins and Loucks, 1947), these results appear to be of large 
economic importance. 


LITERATURE CITED 


DAVIS, W. W., T. V. PARKE, and W. W. DAILY 
1949. A linear diffusion method suitable for large scale microbiological 
antibiotic assay. Science, 109:545, May 27, 1949. 
HOPKINS, E. F., and K. W. LOUCKS 
1946. Some factors influencing citrus fruit decay experiments. Citrus 
Industry, 27(10), October, 1946. 
1947. Use of diphenyl in the control of stem-end rot and mold in citrus 
fruit. Citrus Industry, 28(10), October, 1947. 
1948. Relation of packinghouse practices to incidence of fruit decay. 
Citrus Industry, (1), January, 1948. 
1948a. A curing procedure for the reduction of mold decay in citrus fruits. 
Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull., No. 450. 
STAHL, A. L., and A. F. CAMP 
1936. Cold storage studies of citrus. I. Effect of wrappers. Fla. Agr. Exp. 
Sta. Bull., No. 303. 
1936a. Cold storage studies of citrus. II. Effect of temperature changes. 
Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull., No. 304. 


Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(2), 1949 (1950) 


SPOTTERS nO HOR 33 


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A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE PLANKTON OF 
THE WEST COAST OF FLORIDA 


JosEpH E. Kinc? 


INTRODUCTION 


At intervals from November, 1946 to September, 1947, the Gulf 
coastal waters of Southwest Florida were discolored by the tre- 
mendous abundance of a. dinoflagellate which was described 
(Davis, 1948a) as Gymnodinium brevis, a species new to science. 
This condition of red water, or “red tide’, as it was called, was 
accompanied by heavy mortality of fish and invertebrates (Gunter 
et al, 1947, 1948: Florida State Board of Conservation, 1948; 
Galtsoff, 1948, 1949). Previous to this, irregularly occurring out- 
bursts of red water have been recorded for the Florida West 
Coast since 1840. Somewhat similar outbreaks of red water have 
appeared in many parts of the world. 

To investigate the causes of this plankton phenomenon, the 
United States Fish and Wildlife Service has established a labora- 
tory at Sarasota, Florida. The program of research includes an 
ecological study of the biological, chemical and physical nature of 
Gulf coastal water with the object of determining what peculiar 
condition or combination of conditions may result in an over- 
production of dinoflagellates. Another phase of the work being 
carried out at this laboratory by personnel of the University of 
Miami, is a study of methods for growing red water-producing 
organisms under controlled, laboratory conditions to determine 
their nutritional requirements (G. S. King, 1949). 

The purpose of this paper is to describe, in general, the plank- 
ton forms characteristic of the coastal waters of this area, more 
specifically the dinoflagellates and—that interesting class of zoo- 
plankton—the copepods. The work to be described was conducted 
over a period of about ten months (January to October, 1949). 
No attempt has been made to work out cycles of abundance or 
sequences of plankton associations from data collected in so lim- 
ited a time. One chief objective is to show what might be termed 


1Fishery Research Biologist, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, formerly _ 
with Gulf Investigations, Sarasota, Florida. 


110 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


the normal or typical plankton pele pe during: this 


period. 
METHODS 


At the initiation of the “red tide” investigation it was decided 
to establish a series of stations at points representing estuary, bay, 
coastal, and offshore environments, which were to be visited at 
regular intervals over an extended period. As shown in Fig. 1 
and Table 1, the stations are located adjacent to-the Boca Grande 
area—an area which has been associated with the origin of the 
recent red tides. At each occupation of a station, numerous chemi- 
cal and physical measurements are made and a plankton col- 
lection is obtained. In addition to visits to the established stations, 
trips have been made to other parts of the coast, and plankton 
collections taken whenever opportunity permitted. The locations 
of these additional collection points are also shown in Fig. 1 and 
Table 2 


The collections were, for the greater part, made by towing 
from a motor vessel of the Fish and Wildlife Service, the Pompano. 
At New Pass, Sarasota, however, the samples were taken from a 
bridge during a change of tide when there was sufficient current 
to distend the net. At Stations 1 and 2, which could not be easily 
reached with the vessel, the current was never strong enough to 
support the net; so here it was necessary to walk along the bridges 
pulling the net by hand. 


For making quantitative tows the Clarke-Bumpus Plankton 
Sampler was used (Clarke and Bumpus, 1940). This instrument 
appears to be the most satisfactory closing-net type of quantitative 
plankton sampler that has been produced. It consists mainly of 
a brass tube, 5 inches in diameter, to one end of which is at- 
tached the cone-shaped net. Within the tube is mounted a pro- 
peller which is geared to a counter that registers the number of 
revolutions and consequently the volume of water passing through 
the tube and the net. A disk-shaped messenger-controlled shutter 
is mounted on the front end of the tube thereby permitting the 
operator to open and close the sampler at any desired water level. 


Figure 1. Map of peninsular Florida showing the locations of Stations 1 to 8 
and other localities A to L where plankton collections were taken. 


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JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


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113 


PLANKTON OF THE WEST COAST OF FLORIDA 


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114 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Before using a sampler for quantitative work it is necessary that 
the instrument be calibrated in terms of liters of water filtered per 
revolution of the propeller. Lacking the proper equipment for this 
calibration, a method was devised of towing the sampler, minus 
the net, at a standard towing speed over a measured distance 
between two channel markers. Presumably, for practical pur- 
poses, all the water in a column with a length equal to the 
measured distance and a diameter of 5 inches, passed through the 
sampler. When our two samplers were first acquired, they were 
each calibrated at 4.5 liters per revolution of the propeller. After 
three months of use they were recalibrated at 4.5 liters for one 
sampler and 4.6 liters for the other. 


The samplers are towed from the vessel by a % inch stainless 
steel cable. To the end of the cable is attached a 100 pound 
streamlined lead weight, and the sampler mounted about 18 to 
24 inches above the weight. With this type of weight there is 
never any twisting of the line or fouling of the net, and the pound- 
age is sufficient to reduce the wire-angle, or “angle-of-stray’, to 
a negligible amount. It is essential that this angle be less than 
5° if the messenger is to make proper contact with the shutter- 
tripping mechanism of the sampler. The manufacturer of the 
sampler has supplied us with a trigger extension which partially 
corrects this situation and permits operation of the sampler with 
a wire-angle of 15° to 20°. 


Since the Sarasota laboratory is without adequate personnel and 
facilities for examining large volumes of plankton material, plank- 
ton sampling has been limited to one 20 to 30 minute oblique 
tow at each station. Such a tow gives a complete plankton picture 
at any one point but of course does not provide material for studies 
of plankton stratification or vertical migrations. 


Since an important purpose of this study concerned dinoflagel- 
lates, which are representative of the smallest forms of aquatic life, 
it was initially planned to use very fine nets of No. 25 mesh (200 
meshes per linear inch). After some experience it was found that 
in cases of high phytoplankton density the meshes of these fine 
nets were soon clogged and backwash from the filled net appeared 
to turn the propeller in reverse so that at the end of a tow the 
counter reading would be less than at the start. This problem 
was seldom encountered with a No. 20 (173 meshes to the linear 


PLANKTON OF THE WEST COAST OF FLORIDA 115 


inch) mesh net which is now used in areas with abundant phyto- 
plankton, such as the bay and coastal waters. The No. 25 mesh 
nets are reserved for the offshore waters where phytoplankton is 
relatively scarce. 

It is known that many of the very minute plankton organisms 
(the nannoplankton) are lost with even the finest-meshed nets. 
This loss has been variously computed by different observers as 
being from 2% to 50%. For the purpose of determining the true 
abundance of this nannoplankton, unconcentrated water samples 
taken from the reversing water bottle are placed in glass-stop- 
pered bottles. As soon as possible after returning to the laboratory, 
these samples are concentrated by centrifuging and the solids 
examined microscopically. An attempt is made to identify the 
organisms present and estimate their relative abundance. 


Both the net and the water-bottle samples are preserved in 
formalin. At the laboratory the net collections are concentrated by 
centrifuging in graduated, narrow-tipped tubes and the displace- 
ment volume of the plankton solids measured and recorded. Much 
of the supernatant liquid is then pipetted-off, the total volume 
of the concentrate being reduced to 50 to 300 ml. depending upon 
the volume of the solids present. All samples are centrifuged for 
5 minutes at 2000 RPM. 

Before making the count, portions of the concentrate are ex- 
amined in a watch glass and on a glass slide under a coverglass 
and the organisms identified to the best of the investigator's 
ability. Copepods or other forms requiring dissection for accurate 
identification, are transferred to a drop of glycerine on a slide. 
The viscous and non-volatile nature of glycerine makes it a good 
medium for the dissection and for storage of the organisms for 
later reference. The author has found that this preliminary ex- 
amination always yields a much longer list of species than does 
the differential plankton count which follows. 

In making the plankton count, 1 ml. of the thoroughly mixed 
concentrate is transferred to a standard 20 X 50 mm., Sedgewick- 
Rafter type, counting cell and sealed with a cover glass. A differ- 
ential count of all organisms in ten ocular fields, chosen at random, 
is made using a compound, binocular microscope equipped with 
a mechanical stage and a Whipple type micrometer eyepiece. 

A “survey” count is also made. In this count the large plankters, 


116 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


such as copepods, Appendicularia, shrimp larvae, etc., are counted 
in 1/10, or 1/2 of the cell, or the entire cell. These large plankters 


generally occur in such sparse numbers that a much larger volume. 


of concentrate than ten ocular fields must be examined in order 
to secure an adequate measure of their abundance. 


From the results so recorded, the number of plankters per liter 
of water may be computed by use of the following formula (from 
Welch, 1948): 


wc 1000c) . 
Ni 2 (a1000c) 
1 1] 
in which w — number of large plankters enumerated in survey 
count of entire cell. 
c = volume of concentrate in milliliters. 
1 — volume of water strained in liters. 
a == average number of plankters per cu. mm. of count- 
ing cell. 


Tabulation of the count may be facilitated by using mimeo- 
graphed sheets bearing the names of commonly appearing forms 
each followed by ten spaces for recording the results of the ten 
ocular counts and an additional space for the survey count. 


COMPOSITION OF THE PLANKTON 


PoytuM THALLOPHYTA 


Class Cyanophyceae. Of the blue-green algae only Trichodes- 
mium erythraeum and Microcoleus sp. (tenerrimus?) were com- 
mon to abundant in the brackish-water of Stations 1 and 2. T. 
erythraeum was the only form commonly occurring in the bay, 
coastal and offshore areas. From the middle of February to the 
middle of August, dense blooms of T. erythraeum appeared spo- 
radically along the coast between Sarasota and Boca Grande. At 
the height of a bloom the alga appeared as a yellowish, flocculent 
material, concentrated in the upper meter of water and commonly 
aligned in windblown streaks on the surface. As the peak of the 
growth is passed the plant masses become reddish-brown and a 
chlorine-like odor is strongly evident throughout the area. Although 
the alga was present in almost all collections taken, it was observed 
in a “bloom” abundance only within 85 miles of the shore and 


i i 


a 


ee a ee a ee 


PLANKTON OF THE WEST COAST OF FLORIDA 117 


most commonly just off the beaches. The plant has been well 
termed “sea sawdust” by sailors. 

Class Bacillariophyceae. Diatoms occur abundantly in both fresh 
and salt water, appearing in great diversity of form and size. They 
are considered the most important group of plants in the sea as 
they are the true “producers” and are the chief food of the zoo- 
plankton and the higher plankton-feeding animals such as the 
sardine fishes. In the inside waters the most abundant forms are 
species of Coscinodiscus, Skeletonema, Navicula, Nitzschia and 
Surirella. With the exception of Surirella, these genera are also 
represented in the coastal waters together with Rhizosolenia and 
Chaetoceros. In the offshore waters of the open Gulf we have 
found all forms of phytoplankton to be very scarce. Several diatom 
genera are represented, the most common being Chaetoceros, 
Rhizosolenia, and Thalassiothrix, but none occurring in any abun- 
dance. An interesting diatom of the offshore areas is Chaetoceros 
coarctatus which was never encountered without its attached ag- 
gregation of Vorticella, a ciliate protozoan. 

Class Chlorophyceae. The green algae are characteristic of fresh 
water but sparsely represented in the sea. At the fresh to brackish 
water Stations 1 and 2, the commonly appearing forms were Pedia- 
strum, Micrasterias, Scenedesmus, and Staurastrum. No planktonic 
green algae were found at Stations 3 to 8. 


PHYLUM PROTOZOA 


Class Mastigophora. The class is best represented in brackish 
and salt water by the dinoflagellates. On July 29, 1949, a reddish- 
brown film was noticed occurring in scattered patches and streaks 
over the surface of Sarasota Bay. Schools of mullet were following 
the reddish streaks and appeared to be actively feeding on the 
surface film. A sample of the water examined under the micro- 
scope, was found to be swarming with a species of Gonyaulax. In 
the same locality on August 16, 1949, there was a reoccurrence 
of the “red water”. Again the mullet seemed to be taking advan- 
tage of this supply of concentrated food. On this occasion the 
surface water contained Gonyaulax triacantha, Gonyaulax sp., 
Polykrikos sp. ( schwartziP), Cochlodinium sp. (virescens? ), Gym- 
nodinium sp. (nelsoni?), Ceratium furca, and Dinophysis sp. Al- 
though there had been considerable rainfall during the preceding _ 
two or three days, the salinity of the bay water was 26.8 °/oo. 


118 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


A plankton sample taken July 17, 1949, at Station 1 was very 
rich with Gonyaulax sp. Except for these three occasions dino- 
flagellates were never found in abundance in the plankton samples, 
although Gymnodinium sp., Peridinium sp., and two or three 
species of Ceratium were usually present. Water samples from the 
river, bay and coastal areas, out to Station 5, usually yielded large 
numbers of Gymnodinium simplex when cultured in the laboratory. 
Class Sarcodina. The skeletal structures of Foraminifera and 
Radiolaria are important elements in the composition of marine 
bottom sediments. Representatives of these orders were never 
taken in abundance, but were present in small numbers in the. 
majority of the collections, particularly those from the more 
saline areas. 


Class Ciliata. Samples of river, bay and coastal water, when 
cultured in the laboratory, usually produced an abundance of the 
ciliate Plagiocampa marina (Order Holotricha) which has been 
previously reported for the Florida Coast (Noland, 1936-37). Tin- 
tinnids (Order Spirotricha) of a variety of species, were repeatedly 
present in collections ranging from brackish river water to the off- 
shore waters of the Gulf. At certain times, particularly in the bay 
and coastal water, they occurred in sufficient numbers to be an 
important element in the composition of the plankton. The genus 
Euplotes (Order Spirotricha) was represented in a few collec- 
tions from scattered points ranging from the river stations to the 
100 fathom station. 


PHYLUM COELENTERATA. 


Some of the most remarkable specializations of this phylum occur 
in the Siphonophora; the best known of these are the Portuguese 
Man-of-War (Physalia pelagica) and Velella, which were observed 
on almost every trip made to the 100 fathom line. The varieties 
of Siphonophora most frequently taken in the plankton net are 
without floats and depend entirely on “swimming-bells” to keep 
their colonies near the surface. One of the most commonly oc- 
curring species closely resembles Diphyes bipartita. 


Medusae were found in almost all the plankton collections but 
never in abundance. 


PLANKTON OF THE WEST COAST OF FLORIDA 119 


PHyLuM CTENOPHORAE 


“Comb-jellies” were seen on numerous occasions in the coastal 
waters but were not taken in the plankton tows. 


PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES 


Although most of the Turbellaria are bottom-dwelling, a small 
free-swimming form frequently appeared in the plankton. 


PuytumM ROTATORIA 


Several species of Rotifera. were present in practically every 
sample from the brackish waters of Stations 1 and 2, but none 
were encountered in the more saline areas. 


PHYLUM CHAETOGNATHA 


The “arrow-worms’ are a common element of the plankton and 
were taken in all areas sampled. Species of Sagitta, resembling 
elegans and bipunctata, were found at all Stations 1 to 8. A form 
identified as S enflata was common at Stations 5 to 8. 


PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA 


The pluteus larva of the sea urchin and the bipinnaria larva of 
the starfish were characteristic elements in the plankton of the 
open Gulf, but were not taken in the inside waters. 


PHyLUM ANNELIDA 


Although the segmented worms are mostly bottom-living in habit, 
their larval stages are prominent in the plankton of coastal waters. 
On one occasion a sample taken at New Pass, Sarasota, was ac- 
tually swarming with Chaetopterus larvae. Our records show few 
plankton tows that failed to yield numerous annelid larvae. 


PHytuM ARTHROPODA 


Order Cladocera. Although prominent in fresh water plankton, 
only a few genera of Cladocera are reported to occur in the sea. 
The common genera, Bosmina, Chydorus and Camptocercus were 
found in collections from Station 1 when the estuary was prac- 
tically fresh. In the more saline areas the salt water genus, Evadne, 
was well represented and on a few occasions, Podon was taken. 
Another cladoceran found consistently in the brackish and salt 
water collections was identified as a species of Diaphanosoma 
which according to the available literature is considered a fresh 
water inhabitant. 


120 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Subclass Ostracoda. Ostracods were found in the fresh to brackish. 
water of the inside stations and in the saline water of the Gulf 
from 10 to 100 fathoms. For some reason, however, none was taken 
in the intermediate environment of the lower bay and coastal 
areas. This group always made up a relatively small proportion 
of the plankton. 

Subclass Cirripedia. Barnacle larvae were found at the inside 
stations and in the Gulf out to 10 fathoms. They were consistently 
present within these limits but never in any abundance. 


Subclass Copepoda. The copepods are the most abundant of all 
crustaceans and are the dominant zooplankton form in our col- 
lections. As there are but few published reports dealing specific- 
ally with copepod collections from the Gulf area (Herrick, 1887; 
Foster, 1904; Marsh, 1926; Davis, 1947, 1948; Penn, 1947; M. S. 
Wilson, 1949) the author made a particular effort to identify this 
group as completely as was possible with the available time and 
literature. Since Jan. 1, 1949, 67 species and seven additional 
genera have been identified with fair certainty. Of these only 11 
species are mentioned in the references cited above. A few speci- 
mens do not agree completely with the species descriptions, but 
the shortage of time and lack of local library facilities have not 
made it possible for the author to completely review the wealth 
of literature dealing with the Copepoda, which would be neces- 
sary for the accurate separation of certain species or for the recog- 
nition of new species. 


In the identification of this group the writer has found most 
helpful the excellent keys and descriptions of C. B. Wilson (1932) 
and the masterly monograph of Giesbrecht (1892). Monographs 
and papers by a number of other specialists have been consulted; 
these include: G. S. Brady, C. Claus, C. O. Esterly, G. P. Farran, 
R. Gurney, F. Kiefer, C. Dwight Marsh, G. O. Sars, R. B. S. Sewell, 
R. W. Sharpe, W. M. Wheeler, A. Willey. 


In reviewing Table 3, one sees that there are certain species 
such as Paracalanus paruus, Oithonina nana, Corycaeus venustus, 
and Temora turbinata, that were found in almost all the different 
environments sampled. In contrast, there are species, such as 
Clyclops prasinus, which were taken only in fresh to brackish 
water, and Calanus minor, Rhincalanus cornutus, Mecynocera 
clausi, and Heterorhabdus spinifrons which occurred only in the 


PLANKTON OF THE WEST COAST OF FLORIDA 121 


open Gulf. Of the species listed in Table 3, ten were first reported 
from American Shores in the fairly recent (1932) publication 
of C. B. Wilson. 


Order Amphipoda. The amphipods were poorly represented in 
the plankton, but on a few occasions, showed up in fair numbers 
in the coastal areas. 

Order Stomatopoda. Larval stomatopods were very scarce in the 
collections and were taken only at the 10 and 20 fathom stations. 
Order Decapoda. Sergestid shrimp (Lucifer sp.) were common in 
numbers in the collections from bay and coastal waters but not 
taken offshore. 

Shrimp and crab larvae in various stages of growth appeared in 
almost all plankton tows. These forms are important constituents 
of the plankton and are, no doubt, of significance in the diet of 
plankton feeding animals. 


Puytum MOo.LLusca 


Class Gastropoda. A great variety of gastropod larvae was taken, 
with some examples in almost every tow. Pteropoda were found 
only in the more offshore areas at Stations 5 to 8. 


Class Pelecypoda. Pelecypod larvae appeared in collections from 
all the areas sampled but were by far the most numerous in 
inside and coastal waters. 

Class Cephalopoda. Very young squid were taken in a few of the 
tows made in coastal water. 


PHyLuM CHORDATA 

Subphylum Tunicata. Members of this group, identified as Ap- 
pendicularia, were present in fair numbers in almost every sample 
examined, ranging from the brackish estuary to the edge of the 
continental shelf. 


A few Salpa were found in collections from the 10 and 40 fathom 
stations. 
Subphylum Vertebrata. Fish eggs and larvae were found in 
most plankton samples but always as a minor constituent. 


JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


122 


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PLANKTON OF THE WEST COAST OF FLORIDA 133 


PLANKTON COUNTS AND VOLUMES 

The counts and volumes given in Tables 4 and 5 would indi- 
cate that the waters of coastal Florida are poor in plankton. The 
highest count shown, that of a half million plankters per liter of 
water, does not compare favorably with counts of millions of 
organisms per liter, which are not unusual for the North Atlantic. 
We believe, however, that the variety of plankton in Florida’s 
waters cannot be rivaled by that of northern waters. For example, 
a tow made Oct. 12, 1949, in which 1600 liters of water were 
strained, yielded 1.0 ml. of plankton material from which 33 
species of copepods and 11 genera of diatoms were identified, plus 
several dinoflagellates and a variety of invertebrate larvae. 

On the average, both the highest counts and the greatest 
plankton volumes were secured in coastal water at the 5 fathom 
station. In general, from that point offshore, the quantity of plank- 
ton varied inversely with the depth; however, the number of 
species present seems to vary in the same manner as the depth. 


GENERAL SUMMARY 

It has been stated that of all aquatic communities, that of 
marine coastal areas is the most cosmopolitan, including as it 
does not only neritic but also oceanic forms carried coastwards 
by currents, brackishwater and even freshwater forms carried 
down from the estuaries, epiphytes detached by wave action and 
lastly, bottom life swept up from the substratum. The plankton 
collections described in this paper, which number approximately 
75, were taken throughout such a coastal environment and show 
—not the presence of a great abundance of plankton—but an 
exceedingly varied flora and fauna, with the dominant forms 
being the diatoms and the copepods. An attempt has been made 
to become generally familiar with the so-called normal or typical 
plankton constituents, their relative abundance and distribution. 
As the work continues, studies will be made to determine the 
nature of seasonal cycles or successions of plankton in these tem- 
perate to sub-tropical waters. 

Particularly detailed records are being kept on the dinofla- 
gellate population, with the possibility that fluctuations in their 
abundance may—when sufficient data are available—be related 
to certain definite biological, chemical or physical changes in the 
Gulf water and thus solve, to a certain extent, the mystery of the 
red tide in this area. 


JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


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136 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


LITERATURE CITED 


CLARK, G. L. and BUMPUS, D. F. 
1940. The plankton sampler—an instrument for quantitative plankton in- 
vestigations. Limnol. Soc. Amer., Spec. Publ. No. 5, pp. 1-8. 


DAVIS, CHARLES C. 

1947. Two monstrilloids from Biscayne Bay, Florida. Trans. Amer. Micr. 
Soc., 66(4): 890-395. 

1948a. Gymnodinium brevis sp. nov., a cause of discolored water and animal 
mortality in the Gulf of Mexico. Bot. Gaz., 109(3): 358-860. 

1948b. Notes on the plankton of Long Lake, Dade County, Florida, with 
descriptions of two new copepods. Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci., 
10(2-3): 79-88. 


FLORIDA STATE BOARD OF CONSERVATION and the MIAMI 
LABORATORY, UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI 
1948. The red tide. Educational Series No. 1, pp. 1-14. 


FOSTER, E. 
1904. Notes on the free-swimming copepods of the waters in the vicinity 
of the Gulf Biological Station, Louisiana. Gulf Biol. Sta.,-2nd Rep., 
(1903), Bull. No. 2, pp. 69-79. 


GALTSOFF, PAUL S. 
‘1948. Red Tide. Progress report on the investigations of the cause of the 
mortality of fish along the West Coast of Florida conducted by the 
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service and cooperating organizations. U. S. 
Dept. of the Int., Fish and Wildlife Service, Sp. Sci. Rep. No. 46, 
pp. 1-44. 
1949. The mystery of the red tide. Sci. Mo., 68(2): 108-117. 


GIESBRECHT, W. 
1892. Systematik und faunistik der pelagischen copepoden des Golfes von 
Neapel und der Angrenzenden Meeres. Fauna und Flora des Golfes 
von Neapel. Bd. 19. R. Friedlander und Sohn, Berlin. 


GUNTER, G., SMITH, F. G., WALTON and WILLIAMS, R. H. 
1947. Mass mortality of marine animals on the lower west coast of Florida, 
November 1946-January 1947. Science, 105(2723): 256-257. 


GUNTER, G., WILLIAMS, R. H., DAVIS, C. C., and SMITH, F. G. WALTON 
1948. Catastrophic mass mortality of marine animals and coincident phyto- 
plankton bloom on the west coast of Florida, November 1946 to 

August 1947. Ecol. Mon., 18:3809-324. 


HERRICK, C. L. 
1887. Contribution to the fauna of the Gulf of Mexico and the South. 
Memoirs of the Denison Scientific Assoc., Granville, Ohio. 


KING, GLADYS S. 
1949. Production of red tide in the laboratory. Proc. Gulf and Carib. Fish. 
Inst. In press. 


a 


PLANKTON OF THE WEST COAST OF FLORIDA 137 


MARSH, C. DWIGHT 
1926. On a collection of Copepoda from Florida, with a description of 
Diaptomus floridanus, new species. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 70(10): 
1-4, 


NOLAND, L. E. 
1936-37. Observations on marine ciliates of the Gulf Coast of Florida. 
Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc., 55-56:160-171. 


PENN, G. H. 
1947. Branchipoda and Copepoda of the New Orleans area as recorded by 
Ed Foster in the early 1900’s. Proc. La. Acad. Sci., 10:189-193. 


WELCH, PAUL S. 
1948. Limnological Methods. pp. i-xvii, 1-381. The Blakiston Company, 
Philadelphia, Pa. 


WILSON, MILDRED S. 
1949. A new species of copepod of the Genus Corycaeus from the North 
American Coast. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 99(3239): 321-326. 


WILSON, C. B. 
1932. The copepods of the Woods Hole Region, Massachusetts. U. S. Nat. 
Mus., Bull. 158, pp. i-xix, 1-623. 


Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(2), 1949 (1950) 


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ACUTE BENIGN NONSPECIFIC PERICARDITIS 
IN A SUBTROPICAL CLIMATE 


Etwyn Evans, M.D. 
Orlando, Florida, 


The pericardium is a sac around the heart and inflammation 
of it is called pericarditis. Pericarditis is more likely to be sec- 
ondary than primary. It may be secondary to systematic disease 
such as septicemia (a blood stream infection), active rheumatic 
fever, or uremia (where the kidneys fail), and is not uncommon 
as a terminal event. F requently it is secondary to coronary artery 
occlusion. The coronary arteries are the arteries that supply the 
heart itself with blood. When these become obstructed, a portion 
of heart muscle frequently dies and an area of pericarditis ap- 
pears over this nectrotic region. 

Acute benign nonspecific pericarditis is an acute inflammation 
of the pericardium from which no specific organism is recovered 
and which eventually subsides without obvious permanent ill 
effects. It doubtlessly is a common disease but it is not often 
recognized and relatively little has been published about it. 
Barnes and Burchell of the Mayo Clinic reported 14 cases in 
1942 and stated that acute benign nonsuppurative pericarditis 
is an important problem and that there must be instances in 
daily practice in which the lack of appreciation of distinctions 
result in mistaking acute pericarditis for acute coronary occlusion. 
Logue and Wendkos after their army experiences stated that the 
benign form of acute pericarditis is still not well known and that 
cases are being overlooked. The diagnosis is usually not difficult 
if one thinks of the possibility of pericarditis. Specific diagnosis 
is important because the immediate and ultimate prognosis as 
well as management is quite different in acute pericarditis than 
in coronary occlusion. Because of the importance of acute benign 
nonspecific pericarditis, ten cases seen in private practice in Cen- 
tral Florida were reviewed. 

Several authors have commented upon associated respiratory 
infections and recurrences. Five and probably six of our patients 
had multiple attacks. Previous recent upper respiratory infections 
occurred in six. Chest X-rays revealed pneumonitis in two more. 
Two attacks appeared following acute gastroenteritis. 


140 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Pain has been the outstanding symptom in all reports and aggra- 
vation of pain by body motion, turning, or even swallowing, has 
been emphasized because it rarely occurs in coronary occlusion, 
especially early. Pain aggravated by body motion or deep respira- 
tion was present in all our cases. It was substernal in seven; re- 
ferred to the left shoulder in three (inner aspect of left arm in 
one of these), and to the upper abdomen in four. The intensity 
varied from slight to severe. The onset was sudden in seven pa- 
tients, four of whom were pale and clammy and appeared acutely 
ill, Acute coronary occlusion was the original diagnosis in four 
cases. 


A pericardial friction rub may or may not be audible, or faint, 
and limited to a certain phase of respiration. Its frequency, of 
course, will vary with carefulness with which it is looked for. A 
pericardial friction rub was heard early in nine of our patients. 
It was widespread in five and limited to systole in three. Systole 
is the period during which the heart is contracting. It was heard 
in four only because it was suspected and carefully sought. In 
the five patients with widespread rubs, the rub could be heard 
for three to seven days. In the four with faint rubs, it was audible 
for only one or two days. Widespread and early friction rubs are 
important in diagnosis because pericardial rubs secondary to myo- 
cardial infarction are rarely widespread and usually do not ap- 
pear for several days to a week. 


Nine had moderate and variable fever; eight increased sedi- 
mentation rates; and seven moderate leukocytosis. The sedimen- 
tation rate is the distance that the red blood cells sediment out 
in one hour. It is increased in certain conditions. Moderate and 
variable increases in fever, leucocyte counts and sedimentation 
rates were observed by most investigators, but Barnes and Burchell 
rarely found leucocytosis. 


Electrocardiographic changes indicative of pericarditis were 
present in nine cases (slight in one of these), and absent in one. 
The changes in general conformed to those previously reported. 
Serial changes were especially important. Absence of changes diag- 
nostic of coronary occlusion with myocardial infarction were also 
important. Occlusion of a coronary artery robs an area of heart 
muscle of its blood supply and causes it to die. This dead area 
is called an infarction. Such an area usually causes an initial 


ACUTE BENIGN NONSPECIFIC PERICARDITIS 141 


downward deflection of the ventricular complex in the electro- 
eardiogram called a Q wave. Abnormal Q waves are absent in 
uncomplicated pericarditis. 


Two patients had chronic rheumatic valvular disease. Recur- 
rence of acute rheumatic carditis was ruled out by the clinical 
course and the absence of joint pains and prolonged PR intervals 
(a certain electrocardiographic change indicative of impaired 
conduction between the auricles and ventricles). Nay and Boyer 
found that joint pains preceded the pericarditis in 22 of 25 pa- 
tients with rheumatic pericarditis, and the PR interval was pro- 
longed in 36 percent. The absence of these findings does not rule 
out rheumatic carditis, however, but the clinical course in our 
patients was not what one usually would expect in a rheumatic 
patient. One patient was a 61 year old female with chronic rheu- 
matic valvular lesions who gave a history of a sickly childhood. 
She was discharged from the hospital clinically well two weeks 
after the onset of symptoms of pericarditis. The other was a 4 
year old male with mitral stenosis (a chronic rheumatic lesion) 
who had one attack of rheumatic fever at the age of seven. Sub- 
sternal pain was present for two hours 24 hours after the onset 
of acute gastroenteritis. (There were numerous gastro-intestinal 
upsets in the community at the time.) Fever up to 101.5 degrees 
persisted for one day and the patient felt well thereafter. A faint 
pericardial rub could be heard during systole for one day. Serial 
electrocardiograms showed changes indicative of pericarditis. In- 
cidentally, during the period the patients with nonspecific peri- 
carditis were observed, three and probably four patients were 
seen with rheumatic carditis and pericarditis. 


Although Bing reported epidemic pericarditis, his evidence justi- 
fying such a term is far from convincing. He reported five cases 
which appeared in a large hospital during the course of a year. 
It is of interest, however, that I should see eight cases in a 
moderatly populated area in a subtropical climate during the 
course of one year. Of further interest along these lines is the 
fact that one of the patients developed mild pericarditis after vis- 
iting another. No other possible contact transmission has been 
reported in the literature. It is possible that pericarditis in the 
two patients may have been fortuitous. Both occurred when there 
were more respiratory infections in the community than usual. 


142 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Penicillin was given to eight patients but its value could not 
be determined because the disease is self-limited and its course 
frequently brief. The response appeared to be dramatic in one 
case, however. This patient appeared critically ill and his heart 
was large. Improvement was rapid and there was a striking spon- 
taneous reduction of heart size to normal in nine days. 

Four of five patients showed significant enlargement of the 
cardiac silhouettes on X-ray. All hearts reverted to normal size 
within relatively short periods without pericardiocentesis. Peri- 
cardiocentesis is a procedure in which a needle is inserted into 
the pericardial sac and the fluid removed. 

All patients recovered without apparent permanent ill effects. 

An eleventh case was recently seen in consultation on one occa- 
sion. This patient was not followed carefully by me. The patient 
had precordial pain made worse by motion. He also had moderate 
leucocytosis, fever, and an increased sedimentation rate. Serial 
electrocardiographic changes were typical of acute pericarditis. 


SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 


‘1. Eleven cases of acute benign nonspecific pericarditis seen 
in private practice in a subtropical climate are presented. 

2. The predominant complaint in each case was chest pain 
aggravated by body motion or deep respiration. 

3. A pericardial friction rub was heard early in nine cases. 

4, Electrocardiographic changes indicative of pericarditis were 
present in ten cases. The findings were altered in two cases be- 
cause of super-imposed “left ventricular strain.” 

5. Differentiation from acute coronary occlusion is emphasized. 

6. A case of possible contact transmission is reported. 

7. Pericardiocentesis is not indicated unless there is evidence 
of serious cardiac tamponade (embarrassment of heart action be- 
cause of compression of the heart by the fluid confined within 
the pericardium ). 

8. Acute benign nonspecific pericarditis is doubtlessly more 
common and more widespread than generally realized. 


LITERATURE CITED 


BARNES, A. R., and BURCHELL, H. B. 
1942. Acute pericarditis simulating acute coronary occlusion, A Report of 
Fourteen Cases. Am. Heart J., 23:247. 


ACUTE BENIGN NONSPECIFIC PERICARDITIS 143 


WOLFF, L. 
1944. Acute pericarditis simulating myocardial infarction. New England 
J. Med., 230:422. 
COFFEN, C. W., and SCARF, M. 
1946. Acute pericarditis simulating acute coronary occlusion. Am. Heart 
P=S2:515. 
BING, H. I. 
1988. Epidemic pericarditis. Acta Med. Scandinav., 80:29. 
FINKELSTEIN, D., and KLAMER, M. J. 
1944. Pericarditis associated with primary atypical pneumonia. Am. Heart 
J., 28:385. ; 
NATHAN, D. A., and DOTHE, R. A. 
1946. Pericarditis with effusion following infections of the upper respira- 
tory tract. Am. Heart J., 31:115. 
NAY, R. M., and BOYER, N. H. 
1946. Acute pericarditis in young adults. Am. Heart J., 32:222. 
SMALLEY, R. E., and RUDDOCK, J. C. 
1946. Acute pericarditis: A study of eighteen cases among service personnel. 
Ann. Int. Med., 25:799. 
LOGUE, R. B., and WENDKOS, M. H. 
1948. Acute pericarditis of benign type. Am. Heart J., 36:587. 
HERMANN, G., and SCHWAB, E. H. 


1938. Alterations in the electrocardiogram in diseases of the pericardium. 
Arch. Int. Med., 55:917. 


PEEL, A. A. F. 
1934. On the occurrence of the so-called “coronary T wave” in electro- 
cardiograms from cases of pericarditis. Glasgow Med. J., 122:149. 


VANDER VEER, J. B., and NORRIS, R. F. 
1937. Electrocardiographic changes in acute pericarditis. Am. Heart J., 
14:31. 
BELLET, S., and MacMILLAN, T. M. 
1938. Electrocardiographic patterns in acute pericarditis, evolution, causes 
and diagnostic significance of patterns in limb and chest leads; a 
study of fifty-seven cases. Arch. Int. Med., 61:881. 
‘VANDER VEER, J. B., and NORRIS, R. F. 
1989. The electrocardiographic changes in acute pericarditis; clinical and 
pathological study. J.A.M.A., 118:1488. 
BURCHELL, H. B., BARNES, A. R., and MANN, F. C. 
1939. The electrocardiographic picture of experimental localized pericard- 
itis. Am. Heart J., 18:188. 
NOTH, P. H., and BARNES, A. R. 
1940. Electrocardiographic changes associated with pericarditis. Arch. Int. 
Med., 65:291. 
GRAYBIEL, A., McFARLAND, R. A., GATES, D. C., and WEBSTER, F. A. 
1944, Analysis of alschocdidiogeams obtained from ik 000 young, healthy 
aviators. Am. Heart J., 27:524. 


144 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
STEWART, C. B., and MANNING, G. W. 


1944. Detailed analysis of the electrocardiograms of 500 R.C.A.F. aircrew. 
Am. Heart J., 27:502. 


Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(2), 1949 (1950) 


are 


BOOK REVIEWS 


The Mayflies of Florida 
by Lewis BERNER 


University of Florida Studies, Biological Science Series [V(4), 1950. 
University of Florida Press, Gainesville, Florida. $5.50. 

Back in 1923, when Dr. J. Speed Rogers first occupied the 
“settee of biology” at the University of Florida, there was a gen- 
eral feeling that the fauna of northern Florida was only an im- 
poverished extension of that of southern Georgia, lacking any 
great interest for the taxonomist or ecologist. Since then the series 
of taxonomic-ecologic papers on various groups of animals produced 
by Rogers students and associates shou'd have dispelled any 
such belief. If any doubt should remain, however, Lewis Berner’s 
Mayflies of Florida will furnish the quietus. It may seem that‘the 
mayllies might offer fewer possibilities in Florida than many other 
orders of insects, but it takes only a few minutes of reading to 
realize that this is far from the truth. In fact, the mayflies of 
northern Florida, actually present as interesting problems as do 
the craneflies, crayfish, and other groups. 

When Dr. Berner began his work, the number of mayfiies 
recorded from the state could easily have been inscribed on a 
3 x 5 card. His final list comprising 48 species seems large con- 
sidering the small size of the area studied and the fact that vast 
tracts are suitable for only a very few common species capable 
of breeding in the standing water of swamps, marshes, and Ever- 
glades. A casual examination of the distribution maps shows that 
‘there are two very distinct “peaks” of abundance for mayflies in 
Florida. These correspond very clearly to the areas in which fairly 
swift streams occur. Together these areas probably represent 
less than one-fifth of the state, making the number of species all 
the more remarkable. 

For those who need a modern discussion of the taxonomic 
characters, relationships, and habitat distribution of the mayflies, 
the introductory material is highly recommended. There is also a 
discussion of the zoo-geography which is invaluable in under- 
standing the present distribution of the group in Florida. A work- 
able illustrated key to the genera and species found in Florida 
is provided for determination of specimens, and each genus and 


146 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


species is exhaustively discussed particularly in regard to taxonomy, 
distribution, and ecological relationships. 

One of the notable features of this book is the series of beauti- 
ful wash-drawings of mayflies prepared by Miss Esther Coogle. 
Watch for their reproduction in standard entomology texts because 
they are outstanding. The plates, maps, and other illustrations are 
all original, and together with the excellent typography add greatly 
to the appearance of the book. The completed work isa fine 
combination of scholarly research, artistic scientific illustrating, and 
outstanding scientific editing. It may well serve as a model of 
its type. 

F. N. Youne (Indiana University) — 


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Quarterly Journal 


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Florida Academy 
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Vol. 12 September 1949 (1950) No. 3 


Contents 


Moopy—A Strupy oF THE Natural History OF THE SPOTTED 
Trout, CYNOSCION NEBULOSIS in the Cedar Key, Florida, 
pte Nato asc ey lg 147 

Rem—TuHeE FisHEs OF ORANGE LAKE, FLORIDA -__.__....-------------- 173 


SOKOLOFF, REDD, AND DuTCHER— VITAMIN “‘P PROTECTION 
PRPPSPEEBEMEION, 2082 2 a) 


SOKOLOFF, REDD, AND DuTCHER—NUTRITIVE VALUE OF MAn- 
GROVE LEAvES (RHIZOPHORA MANGLE L.)_.. 191 


McLanr—NotTes ON THE Foop OF THE LARGEMOUTH BLACK 
Bass, MICROPTERUS SALMOIDES FLORIDANUS (LESuEUR), IN 
TEE a et De ta RTE 195 


McLane—NotTES ON AN APPARENT “RAIN OF ORGANIC MATTER 
RACERS eee Pari tre Beier 203 


Vou. 12 SEPTEMBER 1949 (1950) No. 3 


QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF 
THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


A Journal of Scientific Investigation and Research 


Published by the Florida Academy of Sciences 
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MAE *QUARTERLY JOURNAL »OF «THE 
FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Vou. 12 SEPTEMBER 1949 (1950) No. 8 


A STUDY OF THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SPOTTED 
TROUT, CYNOSCION NEBULOSUS, IN THE CEDAR 
KEY, FLORIDA, AREA.1 


WILLIAM DEAN Moopy 


The spotted trout, Cynoscion nebulosus Cuvier and Valenciennes, 
is one of the most important commercial food fishes of Florida and 
probably the most sought after marine game fish of the shallow 
inshore waters of the state. The range of the spotted trout is very 
extensive and is continuous from Chesapeake Bay to Texas. The 
species is known by a variety of common names throughout the 
course of its range. Along the west coast of Florida it is commonly 
known as spotted trout, speckled trout, saltwater trout or seatrout, 
or simply as trout. 


The spotted trout is one of four species of the genus Cynoscion 
which occur between Chesapeake Bay and Texas. The gray trout, 
squeteague, or weakfish, C. regalis, shares the Atlantic range of the 
spotted trout but extends farther to the north. It is found from Cape 
Cod to eastern Florida and is especially abundant in the Chesa- 
peake Bay region. The gray trout is similar in most respects to the 
spotted trout, but apparently does not occur in the Gulf of Mexico., 
Commercially it is the most important of the sea trout. The sand 
trout, C. nothus, occurs from Chesapeake Bay to Texas and has 
often been confused with the gray trout along the Atlantic coast. 
The other species, C. arenarius, is often mistaken for C. nothus 
which it closely resembles, and is commonly known as sand trout 
or silver trout. This latter form is the sand or silver trout of com- 
mercial importance in the Gulf of Mexico, and does not occur along 
the Atlantic coast. 


1A Contribution from the Department of Biology, University of Florida. 


OCT 3 - 1959 


148 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Along the west coast of Florida the spotted trout is by far the 
most important and abundant of the sea trout. In Chesapeake Bay 
and along the coast of the South Atlantic states and in Texas waters 
considerable natural history data has been collected on the species, 
but little work has been undertaken along the west coast of penin- 
sular Florida. Much of the knowledge of the natural history of the 
spotted trout has been gathered incidental to investigations of the 
commercially more important and more readily available gray trout 
of the Atlantic. In many cases the number of specimens of C. nebu- 
losus collected with C. regalis was not very large, and little-known 
habits of this species were often assumed to be similar to those of 
regalis. 

George Brown Goode (1884) compiled natural history data on 
the spotted trout. His observations were made along the North Car- 
olina coast, and included meager notes on distribution and move- 
ments, breeding seasons, growth, and migrations. Eigenmann (1901) 
studied the natural history, especially the food habits of young 
squeteague in Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts. Welsh and Breder 
(1924), in a study of the Sciaenidae of the eastern United States, 
contributed much to the knowledge of breeding and embryology 
of the sea trout. They were particularly interested in the gray trout, 
but included considerable information on young spotted trout. Hil- 
debrand and Schroeder (1928), in a study of the fishes of Chesa- 
peake Bay, contributed to the knowledge of the spotted trout in 
that area. Pearson (1929) investigated the commercial Sciaenids 
of the Texas coast and obtained much information on the spotted 
trout. His paper included data on spawning, growth and age, size 
and age at maturity, seasonal distribution, food habits, and other 
natural history data. Ginsburg (1929) examined a large number of 
sea trout in a review of the weakfishes of the Atlantic and Gulf 
coasts, and contributed greatly to an understanding of the species 
and their respective ranges. Hildebrand and Cable (1934), working 
on the Atlantic coast of the United States, further contributed to 
natural history data on the spotted trout, and worked especially 
with spawning, and development and growth of very small trout. 
Gunter (1945), in a study of the marine fishes of Texas, added to 
the knowledge of environmental requirements of the species, and 
to natural history data in the Gulf of Mexico. 


NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SPOTTED TROUT 149 


The purpose of this study was to investigate the natural history 
of the spotted trout in the Cedar Key area. Information was desired 
on seasonal distribution and movements, spawning, growth, and 
food habits of young and adult fish. Attention was paid to tempera- 
ture, salinity, and other ecological factors in order to determine 
their importance in the life of the trout. 

The cooperation and aid of many people contributed materially 
toward the completion of this study. I would particularly like to 
thank the following for their generous contributions to this work. 

I am indebted to Dr. E. Lowe Pierce for his many helpful sug- 
gestions and practical criticisms during the course of the study. 

The following people were of service in the identification of ma- 
terial: Dr. Fenner A. Chace, Jr., Curator of the Division of Marine 
Invertebrates of the United States National Museum, for his identi- 
fications of Decapod Crustacea; Dr. John T. Nichols, Curator of 
Fishes of the American Museum of Natural History, for his identi- 
fications of fish; and Mr. Erdmann West of the University of Flor- 
ida Agricultural Experiment Station, for identifying marine sperma- 
tophytes. 

I am grateful to the many persons who have given freely of their 
time and energy in the collection of specimens. In this capacity 
I wish particularly to acknowledge the help of Mr. R. B. Davis, 
who made available to me on numerous occasions the resources 
of his fish-house at Cedar Key. Finally I wish to thank Mr. George 
Vathis, Supervisor on Conservation of the Florida State Board of 
Conservation, for furnishing a permit for collecting. 


METHODS 


Throughout the course of this study collections were made in the 
Cedar Key area at least once a month, and twice a month when pos- 
sible. On occasions when the collection of specimens proved diffi- 
cult or impossible as a result of bad weather or other causes, addi- 
tional trips were made as frequently as once a week to obtain the 
desired data. 

In order to obtain sufficient numbers of both young and adult 
trout throughout the year, several methods of collecting were em- 
ployed. No one technique could be used satisfactorily for trout of 
all sizes. Almost all young trout were taken by trawling. The equip- 
ment used for this purpose was an ordinary beam trawl measuring 
approximately five feet between runners and standing about one 


150 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


foot in height. A five or six-foot bag constructed of minnow net- 
ting (one half inch stretched mesh) was attached to the beam and 
runners, and to a wire connecting the bottoms of the runners. In op- 
eration, the trawl was let out behind the boat 30 to 50 feet, depend- 
ing on the depth of the water, and pulled slowly along the bottom 
for several minutes. 

This type of collecting was successful for most of the year, but 
it was limited to the capture of relatively smail trout. It was of 
little use during the winter months when the young trout had 
reached a size which enabled them to escape the trawl. The trout 
taken in the trawl ranged between 20 and 134 mm. in length”. Their 
mean length was 53 mm. Trout over 100 mm. in length were rarely 
taken in the trawl. A few small trout were also taken by seining 

Approximately half of all adult trout were obtained from fish- 

houses at Cedar Key. Local fishermen catch trout during most of 
the year, and many earn their living almost exclusively by fishing 
for this species. During this study 330 trout were examined at fish- 
houses. 
. As many data as possible were recorded in the field. Data on 
location of collection, depth, water and air temperature, and ecology 
were recorded for each collection. Small trout were preserved entire 
and examined at a later date in the laboratory. Large trout which 
could not be conveniently preserved entire, were examined in the 
field and the stomach, gonads, and other portions to be more closely 
examined, were wrapped in cheesecloth and preserved for future 
examination in the laboratory. All specimens were measured to the 
nearest millimeter, and examined for food content, parasites and 
sexual maturity. 

To arrive at an estimate of the importance of various food items, 
the volume of these items was measured. A graduated cylinder was 
partially filled with water. The item to be measured was placed 
in the cylinder and the increase in volume was recorded. The larger 
food organisms which were complete or only slightly decomposed 
were measured directly and their volumes recorded. Partially de- 
composed or otherwise incomplete organisms were compared with 


2All measurements of length are given in standard length unless other- 
wise stated. Standard length is taken to represent the linear distance from 
the anterior end of the snout to the structural base of the most caudal 
vertebrae. 


NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SPOTTED TROUT 151 


similar entire specimens of known volume and this measurement 
was recorded. Oiolithes, crystalline lenses, bones and other fish 
remnants not revealing sufficient evidence for volumetrical recon- 
struction were merely recorded, and no volume was estimated. 
Salinities, as well as air and water temperature, were taken peri- 
odically in order to determine the optimum conditions and tolerance 
limits for the trout in its natural environment. Salinities were taken 
at or near the surface in all areas except the Waccasassa River, 
where on several occasions both surface and bottom samples were 
taken. The water samples were collected in 12 ounce magnesium 
citrate botiles in the field and examined in the laboratory. The salt 
content was determined by measuring the density of the water, 
using one of a series of three hydrometers of the type used by the 
United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. The hydrometers were 
calibrated to an accuracy of 0.0001 gram/cubic centimeter. 


DESCRIPTION OF THE CepAaR Key AREA 


Cedar Key is a small town located on the west coast of Florida, 
approximately 90 miles north of Tampa. The town is situated on 
Way Key, the largest of a number of small islands which lie close 
to the mainland between the Waccasassa and Suwannee Rivers. — 

The shoreline features of the area are essentially those of a 
drowned coast. The gradual slope and low elevation of the main- 
land is manifested by broad coastal marshes which extend inland 
for more than a mile throughout this region. Numerous small 
streams drain the lowlying inland areas and empty into the tidal 
marshes bordering the Gulf. In many places outcroppings of the 
rocky substrata are exposed. Oyster bars occur in great abundance 
along the outer fringes of the marsh, and often extend for consider- 
able distances into the marsh and up the creeks. 

The offshore features are quite varied. The gradual slope of the 
land continues beneath the water and results in an extensive shal- 
low region which borders the coast. The area around Cedar Key 
delimited by the one fathom line extends from two to six miles 
offshore. Many parts are so shallow as to be partially exposed at 
low tide. 

The greater portion of these shallow areas is covered by a lux- 
uriant growth of submergent vegetation. This vegetation consists 
primarily of the following spermatophytes: turtle grass, Thalassia 
testudinum; manatee grass, Cymodocea manatorum; cuban shoal- 


152 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Ind 
> 
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wi oS Se 
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Ww Ss s ., 
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és se ‘ “e fos So atte. 
z oe. or be a0 eve 
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(fia, ate on 


Figure 1. Chart of the Cedar Key area. 


weed, Halodule wrightii; and, to a lesser extent Halophila engel- 
mannii. These grasses are usually found together, and rarely did 
one flourish to the exclusion of the others. 

Channels extending shoreward from deeper water converge near 
Way Key, and tend to cut the large shallow area into separate flats. 


NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SPOTTED TROUT 153 


Most of the channels vary in depth from two to three fathoms. 
Many portions of the channel bottoms are swept bare by tidal cur- 
rents, and ragged masses of rock are exposed. In the more protected 
channels and flats, where tidal currents are mild, soft mud and 
sand accumulate on the bottom to a marked extent. The transpar- 
ency of the water in the channels is very slight because of the 
large amount of suspended material which it customarily contains. 

Thirteen miles east of Cedar Key the Waccasassa River empties 
into Waccasassa Bay, a large shallow area rarely exceeding five 
feet in depth. Numerous oyster bars are scattered throughout the 
bay. The chief submergent vegetation, particularly along the inner 
portions of the bay, consists of the alga Sargassum pteropleuron 
Grunow, which is sessile and grows from rock or oyster formations 
in the shallow water. This alga often grows three or four feet long, 
and can be seen protruding above the water in many of the shallow 
areas along the shore where low salinities are found. 


PuysicaL DATA 


The location of two relatively large rivers to either side of Cedar 
Key and the presence of many lesser streams along the coast re- 
sult in a general lowering of the salinity in the area. The large ex- 
panse of shallow water makes possible more extreme temperature 
variations than are normally found in deeper water. 

The difference in salinity in different parts of the area is large, 
ranging from fresh water in the upper portions of the rivers to 
water approaching normal Gulf salinity near Seahorse Reef. The 
range of salinity in any local area throughout the year is also quite 
large. This can be explained in part by assuming that the fresh 
water from the rivers and streams is incompletely mixed with the 
saline water of the Gulf as a result of complex tides, currents, and 
local weather conditions. Because of the shallow depths in the area 
and of the wave and tide action which prevent stratification of the 
water, temperature and salinity variations with depth are negligible 
in the channels. 

Salinity 

No great difference was found to exist between salinity of the 
water on the flats and that of the adjacent channels. The mean 
monthly salinities taken in the main ship channel at Cedar Key for 
1949 are shown in Figure 2. The mean annual salinity for the same 
year was 24.9 parts per thousand. The range of mean monthly sal- 


154 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


po AIR AND WATER 


; TEMPERATURE 


i MAIN SHIP CHANNEL 


Is48—49g 


—=—— AIR TEMP. 
WATER TENP. 


DEGREES CENTIGRADE 


MONTHLY RAINFALL 


INCHES 


SURFACE SALINITY 


ae sar MAIN SHIP CHANNEL 
APNE al A ale 


VARIATION IN SALINITY 
FOR A SERIES OF 
HIGH AND LOW TIDES| | 
IN DECEMBER, 1949 


H— HIGH TIDE 
L=— LOW TIDE 


PARTS PER THOUSAND 


Figure 2. Physical data of the Cedar Key area. 


inity during 1949 was 5.5 parts per thousand, while the range of 
the extremes from the channel was much greater. A high of 28.5 
parts per thousand was taken in November of 1948, and a low of 
16.0 parts per thousand was recorded in April of 1949, showing a 
range of 12.5 parts per thousand. The periods of lowest salinity at 


NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SPOTTED TROUT 155 


Cedar Key were found in January, April, and during August and 
September, 1949. A comparison of the graphs of mean monthly 
salinity and precipitation (Figure 2) shows that salinities are lowest 
during greatest precipitation. The fluctuation of salinity with tide 
in the main ship channel on some occasions exceeded three parts 
per thousand. The outgoing tides move the water from Waccasassa 
Bay towards Cedar Key and normally result in lower salinity near 
Cedar Key during low tides. The Tide Tables of the Coast and 
Geodetic Survey for 1950 show an annual tide range at Cedar Key 
of 2.5 feet, and a spring range of 3.3 feet. Figure 2 shows salinity 
fluctuations with tides for several successive days. 

Samples taken in Waccasassa Bay and River show a gradual de- 
crease in salinity from Cedar Key to the Waccasassa River, and the 
presence of salt water for several miles upstream from. the mouth 
of the river. Samples were taken in the Waccasassa River in Janu- 
ary, February, and December of 1949, and during February and 
April of 1950. These samples were taken at three different locations 
in the river: one station was at the mouth, another was one mile 
upstream, and a third was two miles upstream. The mean salinities 
for these locations were respectively 10.4, 3.8, and 2.2 parts per 
thousand. A large fluctuation of salinity was found to occur at 
each of these locations with changes of water level in the river and 


with the height of the tide. 


Temperature 


The mean air temperature for 1949 at Cedar Key was 23.7° C and 
the mean for surface water in the main ship channel was 23.9° C. 
A close relationship between air and surface water temperatures 
was normally found to exist. The mean monthly water temperatures 
showed a low of 15.7° C for January and a high of 29.7° C for 
June, 1949, a range of 14° C. for the year. Individual water tempera- 
tures taken in the main ship channel ranged from 33.6° C in June 
of 1948 to 13.5° C in January, 1949, a difference of 20.1° C. The 
mean monthly air and water temperatures are shown graphically 
in Figure 2. 

Air and water temperatures were recorded in the Waccasassa 
River on three occasions during cold periods in winter. Water tem- 
perature fluctuations in the river were not found to be as extreme | 
as those found on the flats and in the channels at Cedar Key. Tem- 


156 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


peratures recorded from the Waccasassa River ranged from 16.3° C 
on January 4, 1949, to 21.0° C on February 26, 1949. Temperatures 
taken in the main ship channel at Cedar Key on January 8, 1949, 
showed a low of 13.5° C, indicating that the temperatures in the 
river was somewhat higher than that of the water around Cedar 
Key during the colder periods. 


Turbidity 

The water throughout much of the area is always somewhat tur- 
bid. During tidal changes and in areas where currents or wave 
action are present, turbidity of the water is great. At no time was 
it possible to observe the bottom in the channels or over the deeper 
flats. Many times the bottom was obscured in water less than three 
feet in depth. | 

The offshore water is usually clear of sediment during good 
weather. In the vicinity of Seahorse Reef the bottom can usually 
be seen clearly in depths of one or two fathoms. In the Waccasassa 
River and the inner part of the bay some discoloration of the water 
is always present, and is probably due to organic materials in solu- 
tion. 

SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION AND MOVEMENTS 


Adult spotted trout are resident in the Cedar Key area throughout 
the year. The trout of all ages prefer the shallow areas over bot- 
toms which are densely covered with vegetation. They apparently 
move about in small schools, and seem to swim in and out with the 
tides in the more shallow areas. The adults prefer deeper water than 
the young, and are usually found in greatest abundance in water 
from one to two fathoms in depth. The trout inhabit the channels 
to a lesser extent than the shallow grassy areas, although on some 
occasions they are taken in abundance in the main ship channel 
at Cedar Key. During the low tides, when the water over the flats 
becomes shallow, the trout concentrate along the channels, in the 
deeper holes, and over the deeper flats. A definite preference for 
grassy areas was noticed on Seahorse Reef on several occasions. 

Dvring cold periods in winter large numbers of trout move into 
the rivers and deeper streams along the coast. This movement is 
undoubtedly an attempt to escape the low water temperatures 
which are found in the more shallow areas during this time. The 
trout do not ascend the rivers during the first cold periods of the 


NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SPOTTED TROUT 157 


year, but only late in winter when the average temperature of the 
outside water has dropped very low. Such a situation was observed 
on January 11 of 1949, when 25 trout were taken from the Wacca- 
sassa River. During this time the water temperatures in the main 
ship channel at Cedar Key dropped as low as 13.5° C. The trout 
apparently do not move into the river at the same time every year 
since they were not found in the Waccasassa during 1950 until Feb- 
ruary 19. It seems unlikely that they ascend the rivers to feed, be- 
cause almost all specimens taken in the Waccasassa contained no 
food in their stomachs. The food examined in the few which were 
not empty proved either to be fishermen’s bait or badly decomposed ' 
forms of marine origin. Salinity is apparently not a decisive factor 
either in affecting their movement into the rivers, as the fish are 
able to tolerate a wide range of salinity. Numerous specimens were 
taken two miles upstream from the mouth of the Waccasassa in 
water having a salinity of 1.2 parts per thousand. Gunter (1945) 
found that in Texas waters spotted trout inhabit areas varying in 
salinity from 2.3 to 34.9 parts per thousand, but found the greatest 
numbers of the species between salinities of 5.0 and 20.0 parts per 
thousand. 

Recently hatched trout appeared in June of 1949. These young 
showed a marked preference for the shallow grassy flats, which 
undoubtedly furnish them with protection and food. The smallest 
trout were usually quite concentrated, and tended to become more 
widely distributed over the flats as they grew larger. The young 
became scarce in trawl catches in December, and by January had 
almost disappeared. This was probably due to their increased size 
which enabled them to escape the trawl, rather than to any ex- 
tensive movement from the area. Several first year trout were taken 
in Deep Creek in February of 1949, which suggests that the young 
move into the rivers and creeks along the coast during the cold 
periods in late winter, as do the adults. 


SPAWNING 


The spotted trout spawn in the Cedar Key area from late March 
or early April to October. Although ripe females were found widely 
scattered throughout the area, it is probable that actual spawning 
takes place inshore over the grassy areas. The young were most 
abundant over the shallow grassy flats, and efforts to collect them . 
from channels and the more offshore areas were not successful. 


158 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Pearson (1929), found that in Texas waters the spotted trout 
spawned largely, if not entirely, in the bays and lagoons along the 
coast from March or April until late October. He found females 
of the species in varied stages of ripeness throughout the spawning 
season, and concluded that the species spawned over a period of 
several weeks. His observations show a climax of spawning to occur 
in Texas in April and May. 

Data on the season and duration of spawning in the Cedar Key 
area was obtained from two main sources. One was by examination 
of the gonads of mature trout to determine their stage of maturity. 
The other was furnished by observing the presence, abundance, 
size, and location of young trout collected in the area. 

Observations were made of the gonads of all specimens of adult 
trout taken during the course of the study. The adult specimens 
were easily sexed, as the appearance of the ovaries and testes was 
quite different, especially so during the breeding sason. The normal 
ovary during most of the year is long and small in diameter, with 
a translucent pinkish coloration. During spawning the ovary be- 
comes greatly enlarged, and assumes a yellow granular appearance. 
The proportions of the immature testis are similar to those of the 
immature ovary, but it is roughly triangular in cross section and 
has an opaque whitish coloration. The testes also enlarge during 
spawning, but not to the extent of the ovaries. The spent condition 
was not easily recognized and was not identified with any certainty 
until near the end of the spawning period. A spent ovary resembles 
the immature ovary to some extent, but often assumes a bluish or 
dark rose coloration and is somewhat flaccid. The development of 
the ovaries of females prior to spawning could be detected more 
easily than could the development of the testes of males, and was 
therefore regarded as a better indication of the imminence of 
spawning. For this reason the conclusions drawn from observation 
of gonads concerning the advent of spawning and its duration are 
based primarily on the results of observations of roe in females. 
Preparations were made of ovarian material showing various stages 
of maturity of roe. These sections were examined microscopically. 
Plate 1 shows photomicrographs of some slides prepared from this 
material. 

The first evidence of the 1949 spawning came from examination 
of a mature female trout caught in Waccasassa Bay in February, 


NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SPOTTED TROUT 159 


Se 


Plate 1. Photomicrographs of ovarian material. (Approx. 75 x) 


1 
1. immature ovary. 

2. partially mature ovary. 
3. mature or ripe ovary. 
4, spent ovary. 


Observation of the gonads of all mature females collected from 
March through October indicated that spawning probably did not 
occur to any extent before late March, and that it continued through 
September and probably extended into October. During February 
one mature female in 16 examined showed the presence of roe, 
whereas in April 74% and in July 99% contained roe. Table 1 pre- 


160 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


sents graphically by months the percentages of mature female trout 
with ripe or ripening roe. 


Months | Percentage 
JAMUATY cei ie hae ahs he Rete Be no «eines te eae 0 
February: 220s «ov ey «Sn Choe. . ~ i ee 8 
Marchi. rcs ae an oral oes Re eee + +. eieg R ee A 40 
April. shed ses € sos aS ees pie anes . 9 TELA Oh a 74 
May assis capa5 Pang ake + sel a AE ws o 1 ee ee 80 
JUNC ck 5 G-G  Os e a  e « «=, ee ee 86 
Jahy aces ee tas bela oR cs Baletee « » » REE ee err 99 
AUBUSE sista ce cok WR eke ees sb ue «ode ee een cee 89 
September.:. ci. as ses Sook ode oad. oo ee 16 
October...... Bag a said Saratededas oe ae Bets SRR rr 0. 
November: ..)ci0e od. obsa ei hecetekenns aeons ee 0 
December, ooi5.0 bis sos ears 8 5d lane ds aes ee 0 


Table 1. Percentage by months of adult female trout containing ripe or 
nearly ripe roe. 


Additional information on spawning in the Cedar Key area was 
obtained from collections of young trout. The first collection of 
trout spawned in 1949 was taken on June 12, from a shallow grassy 
flat inshore from Seahorse Key. These young trout ranged in length 
from 32 to 74 mm. Obviously there must be a time lag between 
spawning and the presence of young trout. Since many of the young 
trout taken in June were too small to have resulted from spawning 
the previous year and too large to have been spawned in June, it is 
apparent that spawning first began somewhat earlier than June, 
probably in late March or early April of 1949. As has been men- 
tioned above, the spent condition in females was not recognized 
until near the end of the spawning season, and it was therefore 
not possible to use this evidence along with the presence of young 
trout as an indication of spawning during the early portion of the 
period. 

Very young trout measuring between 20 and 30 mm. were found 
in varying abundance in the area from June to October, indicating 
that some spawning must take place during this period. In October 
and during the following months, however, only increasingly larger 
young were taken, suggesting that spawning for the year was over. 


NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SPOTTED TROUT 161 


The eggs and larval stages of the species were not collected. 
Smith (1907), found that in North Carolina the eggs hatch in 40 
hours in water at a temperature of 77°F. Pearson (1929), states 
that the eggs are probably buoyant, and drift and hatch over the 
grassy bottoms in shallow water; the young seeking protection in 
the thick aquatic vegetation. 

The approximate number of mature and almost mature eggs con- 
tained in a nearly ripe 397 mm. female taken in April was found 
to be 464,000. The ovary examined was 111 mm. long and had a 
volume of 18.4 ml. The computation was made by weighing and 
counting the eggs in a small sample of the ovary and then calculat- 
ing the number in the whole ovary which had been weighed. Pear- 
son (1929), determined the approximate number of eggs in two 
nearly ripe females measuring 480 and 620 mm., and found them 
_ to contain 427,819 and 1,118,000 eggs, respectively. 


GrRowtTH AND MATURITY 


Monthly summaries of length-frequency were prepared from 
measurements taken of 954 spotted trout from Cedar Key and vicin- 
ity from October, 1948, to December, 1949. Data from correspond- 
ing months in 1948 and 1949 were combined in order to group as 
many specimens as possible in any one month. As little variation 
was found to exist in growth during corresponding periods of 1948 
and 1949, it is believed that combining data for the two years is 
warranted. 

The growth of the young spawned in early summer can be traced 
throughout most of the year. Members of this first year class ap- 
peared in trawl catches in June, and ranged from 82 to 74 mm. in 
length. The growth of these young was rapid, and by November 
they had reached a length of 100 to 180 mm. Spawning after June 
reached a climax in August and September, and resulted in a wide 
length-frequency distribution in the following months. The data 
indicate that in June, after approximately one year of growth, the 
trout had reached a length of about 200 mm. This is somewhat 
larger than would be expected from a comparison with other studies 
of growth of the species. 

Reference to the length-frequency summaries (Figure 3) shows 
the difficulty involved in tracing age groups. With the exception of 
the youngest group, no age groups are clearly indicated. Pearson 
(1929:182) observed this situation during a study of length-fre- 


162 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


AUGUST 


Pea 


SEPTEMBER 


Ha 
Pt ae 


ae 

oD 

oe ire OCTOBER 
“CIN 
oO 

: CUA le] pew ALA lahat 
LJ 

3 TA 

= heya | | | NOVEMBER 


MARCH 


| eee 


APRIL 


CPE RRR 


LENGTH IN 


Figure 8. Monthly length-frequency curves asi spotted trout from the 
Cedar Key area. 


NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SPOTTED TROUT 163 


quency distributions of approximately 3,000 spotted trout collected 
in Texas. He found that although “size groups appear in the fre- 
quency summaries, no one definite year class, save the youngest, 
can be clearly traced or recognized throughout the entire period of 
collection. There is a decided tendency for the various age groups 
to overlap one another to such an extent as to render any estima- 
tions of the growth and age from length-frequency studies unreli- 
able.” Pearson further stated that he “had noted this fact previously 
with respect to a series of length measurements made in 1925 upon 
several hundred trout taken at Pamlico Sound, North Carolina.” 

Welsh and Breder (1923), examined the scales of 20 trout from 
Punta Gorda, Florida, and calculated average length of these trout 
for the first six winters (Table 2). Pearson (1929), examined scales 
of 554 spotted trout in Texas and arrived at the average lengths of 
the species in that area for the first eight winters. A comparison of 
their findings is listed on Table 2. 


Florida Fish Texas Fish 

(Punta Gorda) | (Corpus Christi) 
vor: irda ae 110-120 mm. 150 mm. 
SELIILL Loe en aoa 230 240 
reenter. 20S AL ee. . 310 300 
LPC CD 2 ee 360 350 
LLL Sie i 400 400 
SUED) ie a ee ee 430 440. 
SETEUIL TREE acpi pa aes eae Ine a, ea 490 
Riehl Wanber 25. S peblie| Sah ae in Set a 520 


Table 2. Mean growth of Florida and Texas spotted trout for the first 
eight winters. 


The data obtained from the Cedar Key area compare quite closely 
with Welsh and Breder’s, and Pearson’s findings. The length-fre- 
quency summaries (Figure 3) show a range in November preced- 
ing the first winter from 30 to 130 mm., and a range for the second 
winter from 200 to 300 mm., with a mode in December of 250 mm. 
Age groups beyond these first two are not clear. Limitations im- 
posed by equipment reduced the amount of data in the 100 to 
200 mm. range and complicated estimation of rate of growth and - 
size reached during the latter part of the first year. 


164 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


The mean length of adult specimens examined was 273 mm. Fe- 
males were found to be larger than males. The mean length of adult 
females was 285 mm., while the mean for adult males was 265 mm. 
The largest female measured 485 mm. and the largest male, 872 mm. 
The species measured in the Cedar Key area was not as large as in 
certain other portions of its range. Pearson (1929), recorded speci- 
mens as large as 680 mm. in Texas. 

Examination of the roe during spawning season showed that the 
females were able to spawn and had thus reached maturity between 
210 and 250 mm. in length. The smallest female taken with ripening 
roe measured 210 mm. Of 260 females with roe that were examined, 
only two were less than 220 mm. in length. The size at which ma- 
turity was reached in the males as indicated by ripening of the 
testes appeared to be somewhat smaller than in females, probably 
between 200 and 240 mm. in length. Apparently the trout do not 
normally begin spawning before they have reached a length of 240 
to 250 mm. As a result they probably are not able to spawn until 
their second or possibly third summer. 


Foop OF THE SPOTTED TROUT 


The stomachs of 954 young and adult spotted trout, taken from 
the Cedar Key area from October, 1948, to December, 1949, were 
examined for food content. Of these specimens, 511 or approxi- 
mately 54% contained food; in the following analysis of food habits 
only the latter are considered. The large number of empty stomachs 
probably reflects the sporadic feeding habits of the trout. 

The spotted trout is a voracious feeder and shows a preference 
for live active food. Undoubtedly the preference shown by the 
species for the shallow grassy areas may be largely attributed to 
the great abundance of food forms which inhabit such areas. The 
presence of particles of grass in about 10% of the stomachs ex- 
amined indicates that the trout feed to a considerable extent in the 
grass near the bottom. Little extraneous material other than this 
vegetation was found in the stomachs. 

The food of both the young and adult trout consists almost en- 
tirely of various forms of marine fish and crustacea. The principal 
factor affecting the selection of food during the growth of the trout 
appears to be the relative size of the food organism. Figure 4 shows 
the percentage of stomachs of young and adults containing one or 
more of four major food groups. From this figure it can be seen 


NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SPOTTED TROUT 165 


THE PERCENTAGE OCCURRENCE OF THE FOUR MAJOR mss) 
GROUPS IN THE STOMACHS OF TROUT OF VARIOUS SIZES 
— COPEPODS 


CARIDEA 
=> \PENEIDEA 


PERCENTAGE 


50. 100 150 200 250 
LENGTH IN MM. 


Figure 4. The percentage occurrence of the four major food groups in 
the stomachs of trout of various sizes. 


that a succession of three major crustacean groups form a series of 
foods from young to adult. It is also apparent that fish form an 
item in the diet of both young and adult trout, and increase in 
importance in the diet of the larger trout. 

The small trout ranging in size from 20 to 30 mm. fed largely on . 
copepods. From Figure 4 it can be seen that in 20 mm. trout over 


166 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


80% of the stomachs? contained this group. An average of 52 cope- 
pods per stomach were present in this size trout. Although trout 
under 20 mm. in length were not collected or examined, the trend 
of this food group suggests that copepods probably form an even 
more important food for sizes smaller than those examined. 

One or more species of Mysidacea formed an important supple- 
mentary food group in young trout from 20 to 70 mm. in length. 
Approximately 23% of the stomachs of 20 mm. trout contained 
mysids. This group gradually decreased in abundance and disap- 
peared entirely from stomachs of trout over 70 mm. in length. In 
the 20 and 30 mm. trout an average of about 1 mysid per stomach - 
was present. Even though this group was not as recurrent or abund- 
ant in the stomachs of these small trout as were copepods, they 
formed a moderate portion of the food of the very young. 

Young trout from 40 to 150 mm. in length fed to a large extent 
on several species of small shrimp of the Tribe Caridea. Although 
these smal] shrimp were found in stomachs of 30 to 350 mm. trout, 
they were most abundant and comprised the major food group of 
40 to 100 mm. trout. Approximately 80% of the stomachs of 50 to 
80 mm. trout contained one or more of these forms. 

The Tribe Caridea was represented in stomachs by three families 
and eight species. The most important family, Hippolytidae, was 
represented by Angasia carolinensis (Kingsley) and Hippolyte sp. 
Angasia carolinensis was present in stomachs of 40 to 280 mm. trout, 
but occurred in greatest abundance in 40 to 100 mm. fish. Hippolyte 
sp., the most abundant of the Caridea, was about ten times as 
abundant as Angasia carolinensis and formed the bulk of the food 
of 40 to 100 mm. trout. 

The family Palaemonidae was represented in stomachs by the 
following species: Palaemon floridanus Chace, Palaemonetes pugio 
Holthuis, Palaemonetes intermedius Holthuis, Periclimines longi- 
caudatus (Stimpson), and Periclimines americanus. Of these spe- 
cies, Periclimines longicaudatus was the most abundant form found 
in stomachs, and occurred most often in 40 to 80 mm. fish. It was 
about one fifth as abundant as Hippolyte sp. The remaining species 
of Palaemonidae were found in relatively few stomachs and did not 
appear to form important food items in the diet of young trout. 
Listed in order of their frequency of occurrence they were as fol- 


3Only stomachs containing food are considered. 


NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SPOTTED TROUT 167 


lows: Palaemonetes pugio and Palaemonetes intermedius, Pericli- 
mines americanus, and Palaemon floridanus. The family Crangon- 
idae was represented by a single unidentified species in the stomach 
of a 60 mm. trout. 


A noticeable shift in the diet of the trout is seen to take place at 
the 150 mm. size (Figure 4). At this size the carid shrimp are rap- 
idly decreasing as an important food item, and the fish and peneid 
shrimp become the major food items for the larger trout. Since the 
food of 150 mm. and larger trout is similar, trout of this size group 
for the purpose of the discussion on food, are considered with the 
adult or larger trout. 


Fish were eaten by both young and adult trout, but were of rela- 
tively small importance in the diet of the young. The common 
anchovy, Anchoviella mitchilli, was the principal food fish found in 
trout smalier than 150 mm., while the pinfish, Lagodon rhomboides, 
predominated in the larger fish. Approximately 50% of all identified 
fish found in the stomachs of the adults were pinfish, and many 
of the unidentified forms were probably of this species. An accurate 
picture of the recurrence of the various species of fish in the trout 
stomach was complicated by the large number of forms which were 
decomposed to such an extent as to preclude identification. Approx- 
imately 83% of the fish found in stomachs could not be identified 
specifically. Many of the unidentified fish resembled and were 
probably pinfish. Of the fish which could be identified, the fol- 
lowing were found to occur in limited abundance in stomachs: 
Cynoscion nebulosus were found in the stomachs of three adult 
trout ranging from 270 to 300 mm., Mollienisia latipinna were found 
in the stomachs of two trout taken in Deep Creek. Mugil cephalus, 
Menidia sp., Gobiosoma sp., Bairdiella chrysura, Chloroscombrus 
chrysurus, and a species of the family Scombridae, occurred only 
once in stomachs. 

The peneid shrimp food of the adult trout was represented in 
stomachs by a single species, Peneus duorarum Burkenroad. This 
species was numerically the most prominent form found in stomachs 
of trout over 150 mm. in length, although volumetrically it repre- 
sented about 87% of the foal of trout of this size. Young trout ap- 
parently do not begin eating these shrimp until they fesich a size 
of about 50 mm., and do not take them in abundance until around 
150 mm. in length. Figure 4 shows that 40 to 60% of the stomachs 


168 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


of trout ranging from 150 to 300 mm. in length contained this food 
group. In the larger fish ranging in size from 300 to 450 mm. this 
food is less prominent in the diet, and the fish become the most 
important group both in percentage of occurrence in stomachs and 
in volume. 

Several incidental items not forming ‘impart food for the trout 
were found in stomachs. Amphipods occurred in a few stomachs of 
small trout. Swimming crabs of the family Portunidae were present 
in the stomachs of six trout taken at Seahorse Reef. One squilla 
(Order Stomatopoda) was found in a single specimen. Extraneous 
material such as wood, shell, tunicates, and sponge each occurred 
once in stomachs. 

A volumetric comparison of the two major food groups of the 
adult trout for the four seasons of the year is shown on Table 3. 
The percentage volume of the two groups was similar during the 
spring and summer months, but during the fall and winter months 
an increasing abundance of fish was found in the stomachs. In the 
fall months approximately 70% of the volume of food was repre- 
sented by fish, and during the winter months about 77% of the 
volume was attributable to fish. Thus it can be seen that while 
fish and crustacea are taken in equal abundance volumetrically 
during the spring and summer, fish predominate during the fall 
and winter and form from 70 to 77% of the food volume of the 
larger trout. 


Percentage Percentage 

Season Fish Crustacea 
Spring (March—May)i) =). 200. Sora 52 48 
Summer (June—August)............... 54 46 
Fall (September—November)........... 68 32 
Winter (December—February).......... 76 24 


TABLE 3.—A Seasonal Comparison of the Volume of Fish and Crustacea Eaten 
by Trout 150 mm. and Longer 


DIscussION 


The spotted trout occur in the shallow areas along the coast from 
Chesapeake Bay to Texas. It is essentially a warm water fish, pre- 


NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SPOTTED TROUT 169 


ferring the shallow water over grassy bottoms. Within the limits 
of its extensive range the species is subject to a large amount of 
variation in its physical environment. These variations effect its 
distribution, movements, food and other aspects of its natural his- 
tory. 

In the more northern portion of its range the species is apparently 
most abundant during certain seasons of the year. It has been ob- 
served in Chesapeake Bay that from March to May and from Sep- 
tember to November the species is most numerous, apparently 
moving offshore to deeper water during the colder months. In 
Texas, where extensive offshore bars separate large lagoons from 
the open Gulf, the trout spend the greater portion of the year in © 
the lagoons, large numbers moving into the deeper passes and into 
the Gulf during the cold periods. In the Cedar Key area the species 
is present during the entire year, invading nearby rivers and streams 
for short periods in the coldest weather. The trout in this area may 
also move into the deeper waters of the Gulf to escape the cold, 
although no evidence to indicate this was found. 

The rate of growth, season of spawning, size at maturity, and 
food habits of the species appears to be similar for the trout taken 
from the Florida and Texas Gulf coast, although larger specimens 
were reported from Texas waters than were taken in the Cedar 
Key area. In all parts of the range in which it has been investigated, 
the species has shown a tolerance to wide variations in salinity, 
and a marked negative reaction to low water temperatures. 

In the Cedar Key area C. nebulosus shows a decided preference 
for the grassy flats during practically the entire year. A closely re- 
lated species, C. arenarius, is found predominantly in the channels 
of the area. As a preference for different types of habitats is shown 
by the two species, little interspecific competition probably occurs. 


SUMMARY 


1. The results of a study of the natural history of the spotted trout, 
Cynoscion nebulosus, in the Cedar Key, Florida, area are pre- 
sented. The study was in progress from October, 1948, to De- 
cember, 1949. 

2. A brief description of the major ecological aspects of the Cedar 
Key area is included. | 

3. The spotted trout was found to be resident throughout the year, 


170 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


and to prefer the shallow grassy inshore areas. Seasonal move- 
ments into the rivers and deeper streams along the coast were 
observed to take place in late winter, primarily in January and 
February, to escape the occasional low water temperatures 
which occur in the shallow portions of the area. 

4, Spawning occurred from late March or early April to October. 
The young appear in the shallow grassy areas prior to tes and 
are found there until late in winter. 

5. Growth was rapid. A length of approximately 130 mm. was at- 
tained by the first winter and 250 mm. by the second winter 
after spawning. . 

' 6. The trout become mature by the time they reach 240 to 250 mm. 

in length, or by the second or possibly third winter. 

The food of the young and adult was found to consist of various 

forms of marine fish and crustacea. The young fed on copepods, 

mysids, carid shrimp, and small marine fish, while the adults 
fed primarily on larger marine fish and peneid shrimp. 


= 


List oF REFERENCES 


ANDERSON, W. W., and M. J. LINDNER 
1943. A provisional key to the shrimps of the family Penaeidae with espe- 
cial reference to American forms. Trans. Amer. Fisheries Soc. 73:284- 
319. 
ANDERSON, A. W., and E. A. POWER 
1949. Fishery statistics of the United States 1950. U. S. Dept. of Interior 
Statistical Digest 18. Fish and Wildlife Service. Govt. Print. Office, 
Washington. 
BREDER, CHARLES M., JR. 
1948. Field book of marine fishes of the Atlantic coast from Labrador to 
Texas. pp. i-xxxviii, 1-382 (Rev.). Putnams Sons, New York. 
EIGENMANN, CARL H. 
1901. Investigations into the history of the young squeteague. Bull. U. S. 
Fish. Comm. 21, 1901 (1902) :45-51, illus. 
GINSBURG, ISAAC 
1929. Review of the weakfishes (Cynoscion) of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts 
of the United States, with a description of a new species. Bull. Bur. 
Fish. 45:71-85. 
GOODE, GEORGE BROWN 
1884. Natural history of useful aquatic animals. Bull. U. S. Fish. Comm. 
Sec. 1(3):362-865. 
GUNTER, GORDON 
1945. Studies on marine fishes of Texas. Pub. Inst. Marine Sci. 1(1):1- 
190, 11 figs.. 75 tables. 


NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SPOTTED TROUT E71 


HAY, W. W., and C. A. SHORE 
1918. The decapod crustaceans of Beaufort, N. C., and the surrounding 
region. Bull. Bur. Fish. 85:371-475, pls. 25-39. 
HILDEBRAND, S. F., and LOUELLA E. CABLE 
1934. Reproduction and development of whitings or kingfishes, drums, 
spot, croaker, and weakfishes or sea trouts, family Sciaenidae, of 
the Atlantic coast of the United States. Bull. Bur. Fish. 48:41-117. 
HILDEBRAND, S. F., and W. C. SCHROEDER 
1928. The fishes of Chesapeake Bay. Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish. 48:1-366. 
PEARSON, JOHN C. 
1929. Natural history and conservation of the redfish and other commer- 
cial sciaenids on the Texas coast. Bull. Bur. Fish. 44:129-214. 
PRATT, HENRY S. 
1935. A Manual of the common invertebrate animals (exclusive of insects). 
pp. 1-854(Rev.). Blakiston Co., Philadelphia. 
SMITH, HUGH M. 
1907. The fishes of North Carolina. N. C. Geol. and Economy Survey. 
2:806, pls. 15-19. 
U. S. DEPT. OF COMMERCE, COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY 
1948. Tide tables east coast North and South America for the year 1950. 
U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Pub. No. 719. pp. 1-226. U. S. 
Govt. Print. Office, Washington. 
WELSH, WILLIAM W., and CHARLES M. BREDER, JR. 
1924. Contributions to the life histories of the Sciaenidae of the eastern 
United States coast. Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish. 39( 1928-1924) :141-201 
60 figs. 


Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(3), 1949( 1950) 


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THE FISHES OF ORANGE LAKE, FLORIDA?* 
GrorcE K. Rem, Jr. 


Despite the great abundance of lakes in Florida, and the varied 
and interesting lacustrine fish fauna that occurs in the state, no de- 
tailed published account of the fishes of a specific lake appears to 
exist. Harkness and Pierce (1940) presented a list of fishes which 
occurred in Lake Mize, a small sinkhole lake, and Dickinson (1949) 
listed the fishes found in some small ponds and ditches in northern 
Florida. Earlier more general papers on Florida ichthyology include 
a checklist and bibliography of Florida fishes (Evermann and Ken- 
dall, 1899) and a key to freshwater fishes (Carr, 1937). The only 
annotated faunal accounts of fishes of particular localities or situa- 
tions are those of Hubbs and Allen (1944), Allen (1946). Herald 
and Strickland (1949), treating the fauna of two calcareous springs, 
and that of Goin (1948), which lists the species occurring in the 
water hyacinth community. A section in Bailey and Hubbs (1949) 
lists the peninsular endemics. Although the United States Fish and 
Wildlife Service has recently shown considerable interest in the 
fisheries resources of Orange Lake, and has just completed an in- 
vestigation of conditions there, no ichthyological results have been 
published. It has thus seemed worthwhile to compile an annotated 
list of the fishes known to inhabit Orange Lake, which is one of 
the larger of the hundreds of lakes that occur in the central section 
of peninsular Florida. 

Orange Lake is the largest of three major lakes lying within a 
drainage basin of nearly six hundred square miles in north-central 
Florida. The basin forms a tributary of the St. Johns River through 
Orange Creek to the Oklawaha River. Except for the extreme north- 
eastern tip, which lies in Putnam County, all of the lake is within 
the boundaries of Alachua County. Orange Lake is approximately 
sixteen miles long and four miles wide at the widest point. Open 
surface of the lake covers approximately 14,000 acres and this is 
surrounded by marginal marsh that is nearly a mile wide in places. 
Subsurface drainage probably contributes considerably to the water 
volume since surface runoff is mostly confined to River Styx, a 
small creek at the northwestern end of the lake. 


1A contribution from the Department of Biology, University of Florida. 


174 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


The bottom is composed of thick layers of silt and plant detritus 
over sandy clay and limestone. It slopes from shore to an average 
maximum, fairly uniform depth of approximately 30-35 feet. 


Chemically the water was circum-neutral (pH: 6.8-7.2) during 
1947-1948, except in June, 1948, when the pH was 8.2. Surface tem- 
peratures varied from 33° C. in June, 1948, to 13.5° C. in January 
of the same year. Orange Lake water is usually turbid and tinted 
brownish or greenish by considerable amounts of suspended detri- 
tus and its extractives and by the presence of considerable quantity 
of plankton. 


Vegetation in the open water areas consists of sparse growths of. 
submerged Ceratophyllum demersum and scattered patches of such 
emergent plants as Nymphaea macrophylla and Panicum paludiva- 
gum. The littoral zone is marked by marshy areas of submerged 
vegetation consisting predominantly of Ceratophyllum demersum, 
with lesser stands of Nais guadalupensis and Philotria densa. The 
marsh is characterized by thick stands of N. macrophylla, Sagittaria 
spp., Persicaria sp., Mariscus jamaicensis, P. paludivagum, and other 
emergents growing in profusion and intermixed with several species 
of floating plants such as Lemna minor, Azolla caroliniana, and, in 
places, the very abundant water hyacinth, Piaropus crassipes. Great 
mats of hyacinths, and floating islands of compacted plant debris 
and roots supporting large shrubs and emergent plants (Persicaria, 
Panicum, Sagittaria, etc.) are conspicuous vegetational features of 
the lake. Invertebrate organisms used by fishes as food are abundant 
in the littoral vegetation. Crustaceans, such as the scud (Hyalella 
azteca), and shrimp (Palaemonetes paludosa), Cladocera, and 
Copepoda, are especially abundant. Odonata and Diptera larvae are 
quite plentiful, seasonally, and comprise important items in the diet 
of many fishes. 


This list is an outgrowth of an investigation which was carried on 
intensively from February, 1947, through May, 1948. In addition, 
considerable data taken previous and subsequent to that period 
are at hand. 


Collections were made by means of various types of seines and 
traps, and by hook-and-line fishing; much information was ob- 
tained by examination of catches of sport and commercial fisher- 
men. 


FISHES OF ORANGE LAKE 175 


The common names employed are those given by Carr (loc. cit.) 
except for a few which through continued local usage have seemed 
preferable. 

I am grateful to Dr. Coleman J. Goin for helpful criticisms and 
assistance during the course of the investigation and preparation 
of the original manuscript. Appreciation is also expressed to Dr. 
Archie F. Carr, Jr., for reading the manuscript, and to many friends 
in the Department of Biology, University of Florida, and at Orange 
Lake, for aid in many ways. I wish particularly to acknowledge 
the co-operation of and generous loan of equipment by Mr. Homer 
J. Klay, Jr., proprietor of Orange Lake Fishing Camp. 

Specimens were collected under a permit granted by Mr. John 
F, Dequine, Chief Fisheries Biologist of the Florida Game and 
Fresh Water Fish Commission. 

List OF FISHES 

The following list includes thirty-seven species of fishes known 
to occur in Orange Lake. Two additional forms (Ictalurus spp.), 
although not definitely recorded by the author, probably occur in 
the lake. It is believed that this represents a nearly complete list 
of the fishes in the lake. 

Lepisosteus platyrhincus De Kay 
FLoripA SPOTTED GAR 

Gars are common in Orange Lake and its tributaries. This species 
is found more frequently near the shoreline and in the marshes 
where it feeds on small fishes. It was observed in considerable 
abundance among hyacinths at the northwest end of the lake. 
Gravid females are usually noted in early summer. 

Amia calva Linnaeus 
BowFIn, MUvupDFISH 

This species, known locally as mudfish, is common in the lake. 
Individuals of large size (10-12 pounds) are frequently taken by 
sport fishermen. Brightly marked young were collected at the upper 
end of the lake in March, 1947. They were approximately 55 mm. 
in standard length and were guarded by a somewhat vicious adult. 

Signalosa petenensis vanhyningi Weed 
FLoripaA LESsER SHAD 

These forage fish were not observed in Orange Lake until July, 
1948. On the basis of my collections, I do not believe them to be 
overly common in the lake. 


176 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Dorosoma cepedianum (LeSueur ) 
NORTHERN GiIzZARD SHAD 

This species appears to be much more common in Orange Lake 
than the lesser shad. Known locally as “shadine minnow,” it occurs 
frequently in large schools and it forms an important part of the 
food of bass (McLane, 1949) and crappie (Reid, 1950a) in this 
vicinity. ! 

Neither Signalosa nor Dorosoma appears to be hardy. Both die 
almost instantly upon being taken from the water. In September, 
1948, several kinds of fishes were observed in the cove at Orange 
Lake Fishing Camp. All seemed very weak and were gulping at 
the surface. Hundreds of dead shad were observed floating on the — 
surface and represented by far the most abundant casualty group. 

Examination of stomach contents of shad in Orange Lake re- 
vealed their food to consist almost entirely of ostracods, copepods, 
and cladocerans, with phytoplankton in much lesser quantity. 

Erimyzon sucetta sucetta (Lacépéde) 
EASTERN LAKE CHUB-SUCKER, SUCKER 

Suckers attain comparatively large size (850 mm. in standard 
length) in lakes in this area. They were taken frequently in the 
chicken-wire traps used for collecting specimens, and appear to be 
common in the lake. 

Notemigonus crysoleucas boscii Valenciennes 
FLoripA GOLDEN SHINER 

This species is one of the more common forage fishes in Orange 
Lake. Shiners are of great importance in this vicinity as bass bait. 
Hundreds are sold daily during certain seasons by fishing camps. 
Large size (200-300 mm. in standard length) is attained and they 
appear to be hardy and resistant. They occur most commonly in the 
marsh and in patches of Panicum and Nymphaea. 

Opsopoeodus emiliae Hay 
Puc-NOsED MINNOW 

This species is represented in my collections by specimens taken 
from small sandy areas near the shore and from among the roots 
of plants on floating islands. 

Notropis maculatus (Hay) © 
RED MINNOW 
During summer months this species occurs occasionally in large 


FISHES OF ORANGE LAKE Fit 


schools breaking the surface, apparently eluding larger fishes. In- 
dividuals acquire brilliant orange-red to red coloration which is 
doubtless associated with breeding. Although probably common in 
Orange Lake, “red minnows” are most apparent during breeding 
season. At other times = are not taken frequently by ordinary 
collecting methods. 

Ictalurus spp. 

Although none of these forms was observed by the author, local 
catfishermen assured me that “channel cats” are taken from Orange 
Lake. It is quite likely that the channel catfish referred to is Ictalu- 
rus lacustris punctatus. The white catfish, Ictalurus catus, is known 
to occur in adjacent Lochloosa Lake, which is connected with Or- 
ange Lake and it may likewise occur in the latter. 


Ameiurus nebulosus marmoratus (Holbrook) 
MARBLED BROWN BULLHEAD, SPECKLED CAT 

This species was taken quite commonly on “catlines” in the lake. 
From observations made of the catches of local commercial fish- 
ermen, I judge it to be the most common of the catfishes, and rather 
abundant in the lake. 

Ameiurus natalis erebennus Jordan 
YELLOW BULLHEAD, YELLOWBELLY 

Yellow Bullheads are abundant in Orange Lake. They were ob- 
served in considerable quantities in the catches of local fishermen 
and constituted a large portion of their take. Young of this species 
were seen on numerous occasions swimming in compact masses 
herded by an adult. On May 1, 1947, there appeared to be an upset 
in the oxygen-carbon dioxide balance in the water in the cove at 
Orange Lake Fishing Camp. The young catfish, which for a num- 
ber of days preceding this date had been behaving normally in the 
school, were scattered and swimming at the surface, gulping. By 
noon of the same day the water apparently had become normal, for 
the young catfish had again schooled and were moving below the 
surface. 

Schilbeodes mollis (Hermann) 
TADPOLE Maptom 

This species, the smallest of the local catfishes, occurred com- 
monly in the grassy regions along a causeway across the upper end 
of the lake, and among the submerged roots of hyacinths and plants _ 


178 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


composing floating islands. 


Esox niger LeSueur 
CHAIN PICKEREL, J ACKFISH 
Although not usually sought after as a food or game fish in this 
vicinity, this pickerel is taken frequently on casting plug or live 
bait. It appears to be more abundant in the open water than in the 
littoral zone. 
Esox americanus Gmelin 
BULLDOG PICKEREL 
This species is the smaller of the pickerels known to occur in 
Florida. It was taken commonly while seining in the dense vegeta- 
tion along the shoreline of the lake. 


Anguilla bostoniensis (LeSueur ) 
) AMERICAN EEL 
Eels are taken occasionally on hook-and-line. One individual was 
captured in a fish trap during the investigation. They are believed 
to be rather common in the lake. 
Chriopeops goodei (Jordan) 
RED-FINNED KILLIFISH 
This small cyprinodont was found to be abundant in the marsh 
and underneath floating islands. C. goodei is endemic to peninsular 
Florida. 
Leptolucania ommata (Jordan ) 
OcELLATED KILLIFISH, TARGET FIsH 
Target fish do not appear to be as common as the other cyprino- 
donts. They were taken in the grassy margins, usually in associa- 
tion with Gambusia affinis holbrookii and Heterandria formosa. 


Fundulus chrysotus (Gunther ) 
GOLDEN TOPMINNOW 
During the winter months this species is in great demand as bait 
for black crappie; thousands of topminnows are sold daily. F. chry- 
sotus does not appear to be overly abundant in the lake proper, 
although it was found quite commonly in the swampy areas border- 
ing the lake. 


Fundulus dispar lineolatus (Agassiz) 
EASTERN STAR-HEADED TOPMINNOW 
Siar-heads were taken rather infrequently as compared with other 


FISHES OF ORANGE LAKE 179 


cyprinodonts of Orange Lake. They were found occasionally in the 
swampy portions of the lake and in connecting ditches. 


Jordanella floridae Goode and Bean 
FLAGFISH 
This small, colorful fish was found commonly in the shallow 
grassy regions of the lake and in roadside ditches which are con- 
nected with the lake. It does not seem to be common in the marshy 
areas of the main body of the lake. This species is restricted to 
peninsular Florida. 
Heterandria formosa (Agassiz) 
LEasT KILLIFISH 
This small, viviparous form abounds throughout the lake where 
vegetation is dense. It was found underneath floating islands con- 
siderable distances from shore. 
Gambusia affinis holbrookii (Girard) 
EASTERN Mosguito-FisH, Por Gut 
This ubiquitous fish is abundant in practically all situations in 
Orange Lake. It occurs in much the same habitat as Heterandria 
formosa. 
Mollienisia latipinna LeSueur 
SAILFIN, MoLiy, SULPHUR MINNOW 
Sailfins do not appear to be abundant in Orange Lake. They 
were found more commonly in the roadside ditches and swamps, 
although a few individuals were taken in the marsh and along the 
shoreline. 
Aphredoderus sayanus (Gilliams) 
PIRATE PERCH 
This species is found commonly in the marshes and was taken fre- 
quently from underneath floating islands and hyacinth mats. 


Hololepis barratti (Holbrook) 
FLORIDA SWAMP DARTER 

This was the only species of darter taken. It appears to be fairly 
common, although never abundant, in the shallow shore zones and 
underneath floating islands. 

Pomoxis nigro-maculatus (LeSueur ) 
BLACK CRAPPIE, SPECKLED PERCH 

Although black crappie are commonly found in many of the 

streams and lakes throughout the state, it appears that the lakes of. 


180 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


the central highlands region afford a habitat conducive to maxi- 
mum growth and abundance. Crappie of 300 mm. in standard 
length, and weighing nearly three pounds, are not uncommon in this 
area. 

In Orange Lake the habitat preference of the adult crappie dur- 
ing the non-breeding season appears to be open water. During the 
breeding period, which usually begins in January and continues 
through April, crappie are most abundant along the outer edges 
of the marsh, where the redds are placed. A marked sexual dimor- 
phism is particularly conspicuous during the spawning season. The 
male crappie assumes a much darker appearance through more in- 
tense pigmentation, especially on the venter and cheeks. 

Food of crappie consists primarily of fishes, amphipods, and in- 
sect larvae. 


Mesogonistius chaetodon elizabethae Bailey 
BLACK-BANDED SUNFISH 

Until January, 1947, this small sunfish had not been found in 
Orange Lake (Reid, 1950b). At present, only two specimens have 
been taken. It is believed that this species is rare in the lake proper, 
although it is common in an adjacent lake to the southward, Haw- 
thorne Prairie, which at previous times was connected with Orange 
Lake. 

Chaenobryttus coronarius (Bartram ) 
W ARMOUTH 

The warmouth appears to be quite common in the lake, especially 
in the marsh and swamps, and is often found among hyacinth rafts 
and around floating islands. It is highly esteemed as a panfish. 


Enneacanthus obesus (Girard ) 
BANDED SUNFISH 
Only one specimen of this form has been taken by the author. 
It is probably rare in this lake. Chable (1947) considers this species 
to be more characteristic of lotic environments. 


Enneacanthus gloriosus (Holbrook) 
BLUE-SPOTTED SUNFISH 
This attractive small centrarchid occurs commonly throughout 
all of the densely vegetated areas of the lake. It was often found 
under floating islands and in shallow areas along the northwestern 
end of the lake. 


FISHES OF ORANGE LAKE 181 


Lepomis macrochirus purpurescens Cope 
BLUEGILL, COPPERHEAD, BREAM 

Known locally as “brim”, this species is probably the most abun- 
dant of the panfishes in Orange Lake. During breeding season, 
usually in late spring and summer, bluegills are taken in tremendous 
numbers. Catches of forty individuals in a single morning by one 
fisherman are not uncommon. In years past, this species chose 
patches of Nymphaea for breeding sites and congregated in consid- 
erable numbers, the redds in water up to ten or twelve feet deep. 
Of late, the patches of Nymphaea have become sparse, so that pres- 
ent spawning sites are not clearly defined. A coppercolored stripe 
across the nape of the adult fish, especially actively breeding males, 
accounts for the name “copperhead”. 

Food of the bluegill is composed of amphipods, entomostracans, 
insect larvae, and molluscs. 


Lepomis microlophus microlophus (Giinther ) 
SHELL-CRACKER 
Although quite common in Orange Lake, this species does not 
appear to be as abundant as the bluegill. Shell-crackers seem to 
have much the same habits as bluegills in their choice of spawning 
sites and food, although breeding during 1946 and 1947 occurred 
several weeks later than that of bluegills. 


Lepomis punctatus punctatus (Cuvier ) 
STUMP-KNOCKER 
These smaller sunfishes do not seem to be abundant in Orange 
Lake. They were collected occasionally from swampy areas and 
marsh zones. 
Lepomis marginatus (Holbrook) 
FLORIDA LONG-EARED SUNFISH 
This highly colored and retiring sunfish occurs frequently in the 
marsh and densely vegetated areas of the lake. Its habitat appears 
to be similar to that of Enneacanthus gloriosus. 


Micropterus salmoides floridanus (LeSueur ) 
FLORIDA LARGE-MOUTHED Bass 
Large-mouth bass are common in Orange Lake. Like black crap- 
pie, bass appear to find conditions in the lakes in this region highly 
favorable and they attain great abundance and size. Different color 
patterns were noted during the investigation. Some of the large indi- 


182 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


viduals were a light brown or tan, while others were colored with 
the more characteristic green pattern. 


Elassoma zonatum (Jordan) 
BANDED PigMy SUNFISH 

Several specimens of this species were collected at the north- 
western end of the lake in the densely vegetated areas near the 
mouth of River Styx. This record represents an extension of the 
known range of the form, since it has been known previously only 
as far south as the Santa Fe River drainage in northern Florida. 
E. zonatum is believed to be comparatively rare in Orange Lake. 


Elassoma evergladei Jordan 
EVERGLADES Picmy SUNFISH 
This species is common among the roots of hyacinths and under- 
neath floating.islands. Because of the deep iridescent blue mark- 
ings of the males, this fish is much sought by local aquarists. Much 
of its brilliance is soon lost, however, unless dark bottom or back- 
ground is provided. 


Labidesthes sicculus vanhyningi Bean and Reid 
FLoripA Brook SILVERSIDES, GLAss MINNOW 
The glass minnow, as this fish-is commonly known in this region, 
seems to be essentially an open water inhabitant. It does not occur 
as abundantly in the turbid water of Orange Lake as in the clear, 
sand-bottom lakes of the highlands section of the state. 


LITERATURE CITED 
ALLEN, E ROSS 
1946. Fishes of Silver Springs, Florida. Published by the author. 1946: 1-36. 
BAILEY, REEVE M., and CARL L. HUBBS 
1949. The Black Basses (Micropterus) of Florida, with Description of a 
New Species. Occ. Papers Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich., 516 1-40, Pls.. 1-2. 
CARR, ARCHIE F., JR. 
1937. A Key to the Fresh-water Fishes of Florida. Proc. Fla. Acad. Sci., 
1: 72-86, 1 fig. 
CHABLE, ALPHONSE C. 
1947. A Study of the Food Habits and Ecological Relationships of the 
Sunfishes of Northern Florida. (Unpub. Master's Thesis, Univ. Fla. 
Library, 1947). 
DICKINSON, J. C., JR. 
1949. An Ecological Reconnaissance of the Biota of Some Ponds and 
Ditches in Northern Florida. Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci. 11(2-3): 
1-28, Pls. I-II, Maps 1. 


FISHES OF ORANGE LAKE 183 


EVERMANN, BARTON W. and WILLIAM C. KENDALL 
1899. Check-list of the Fishes of Florida. Rept. U. S. Comm. Fish and 
Fisheries for 1899. (1900: 35-108. 
GOIN, COLEMAN J. 
1948. The Lower Vertebrate Fauna of the Water Hyacinth Community of 
Northern Florida. Proc. Fla. Acad. Sci. 6(3-4): 148-154. 
HARKNESS, W. J. K. and E. LOWE PIERCE 
1940. The Limnology of Lake Mize, Florida. Proc. Fla. Acad. Sci. 5: 96-116. 
HERALD, EARL S. and ROY R. STRICKLAND 
1949. An Annotated List of the Fishes of Homosassa Springs, Florida. 
Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci. 11(4): 99-109. 
HUBBS, CARL L. and E. ROSS ALLEN 
1944, Fishes of Silver Springs, Florida. Proc. Fla. Acad. Sci. 6:110-180, 
Figs. 1-4. 
McLANE, WILLIAM M. 
1948. The Seasonal Food of the Largemouth Black Bass, Micropterus sal- 
moides floridanus (Lacepede), in the St. Johns River, Welaka, Flor- 
ida. Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci. 10(4) :108-188. 
REID, GEORGE K., JR. 
1950a. Food of the Black Crappie, Pomoxis nigro-maculatus (LeSueur), in 
Orange Lake, Florida. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. In press. 
1950b. Notes on the Centrarchid Fish. Mesogonistius chaetodon elizabethae, 
in Peninsular Florida. Copeia. In press. 


Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(3), 1949( 1950) 


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VITAMIN ‘P’ PROTECTION AGAINST RADIATION 


Boris SOKOLOFF, JAMES B. REDD AND RAYMOND DUTCHER? 
Southern Bio-Research Laboratory 


Florida Southern College 


Griffith, Anthony, Pendergrass and Perryman (1947) were the 
first to demonstrate the protective action of flavonoids in radiation 
injury. Submitting the extremities of rats to X-ray radiation they 
discovered a beneficial effect from rutin therapy. The restorative 
process was considerably accelerated and local hemorrhages were 
prevented. They also were able to prevent the increase in capillary 
fragility in rats submitted to peritoneal administration of radon oint- 
ment by treating the animals with rutin. Clark, Uncapher and Jor- 
dan (1948) investigated the effect of total-body radiation given 
in a single dose to guinea pigs. A dose of 220-225 r consistently 
killed 67 per cent of the animals, with 50 per cent dead within 13 
days. They fed the animals daily with drinking water containing 
0.2% of calcium flavonate prepared fresh every day. The calcium 
flavonate was actually an extract of lemon peel, free of water, 
sugars, and hesperidin. This preparation was given for seven days 
before the application of X-ray radiation (225 r). The mortality 
rate was decreased to 35 per cent. The investigatiors concluded 
that, “under the experimental conditions described, a flavonoid 
preparation derived from lemons, administered in the drinking wa- 
ter, reduces the mortality from total-body roentgen irradiation by 
about half,” and that “the hemorrhagic symptoms (petechial hemor- 
rhages, ecchymoses, generalized purpura) of the treated animals 
were considerably less marked than those of the controls.” 

Field and Rekers of the Department of Radiation Biology, Uni- 
versity of Rochester, School of Medicine (1948-1949) conducted 
an investigation with 37 dogs of the beagle breed on the protective 
action of vitamin ‘P’ factors. They established that when the stan- 
dard total body single dose of 350 r was given to the dogs, 60 per 
cent of them succumbed in 20 days. In 64 per cent of the radiated 
dogs there appeared typical leukopenia, thrombocytopenia and an- 
emia, which were followed by gross bleeding. They accepted the 
end-mortality of treated and control dogs as the most reliable basis 


1Carll Tucker Fellow. 


186 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


for the evaluation of anti-irradiation agents. Various flavonoids were 
given to the dogs for 35 days altogether, for seven days prior to ir- 
radiation and continuing until 28 days post-radiation. The prepara- 
tion was given three times a day, by mouth, a daily dose of 150 mil- 
ligrams. They found that some flavonoids (rutin, morin, flavonol 
hesperidin, eriodictyol and d-catechin) protected the dogs against 
radiation to a considerable degree. The mortality was reduced to 
10-17 per cent (11 per cent in the case of rutin) with a significant 
reduction in the hemorrhagic diathesis. On the other hand, naringin, 
quercitin, quercitrin and methyl chalcone hesperidin were found 
to be ineffective as far as the protection against radiation was con- 
cerned. According to these investigators ascorbic acid gives no pro- 
tection against radiation but when ascorbic acid was given together 
with quercitin the mortality of the dogs was reduced to 10 per cent. 
Since Szent-Gyorgyi (1936) and associates suggested that ascorbic 
acid probably exerts a catalytic effect potentiating the action of 
Vitamin ‘P’ this observation seems to support their point of view. 


It was observed that severe thrombopenia present in all radiated 
dogs was not significantly altered by the administration of vitamin 
‘P’ factors. Thus it might appear that vitamin ‘P’ factors affect the 
vascular system directly, perhaps participating as a principal in the 
“wear and tear’ of a part or all of the vascular system by inhibiting 
its degeneration and stimulating its regeneration. 


Field and Rekers (1949, p. 750) concluded “that previous mis- 
understanding of the nature of vitamin ‘P’ has arisen from both the 
failure to recognize that several flavonone analogues possess very 
similar antihemorrhagic activity and that ascorbic acid has the 
capacity to potentiate activity in other flavonones.” 


In our investigation 50 rats were submitted to X-ray irradiation. 
They were of British brown breed obtained from Dr. Francis Car- 
ter Wood of St. Lukes Hospital, New York City. They were divided 
into two groups. One group of 20 rats served as control, while the 
second group of 30 rats was given vitamin “P” compound (CVP 
compound ) isolated from citrus waste and compound of four identi- 
fied flavonoids. The average weight of the rats was 180 grams, the 
rats were kept on regular Purina Laboratory Chow. The radiation 
factors were: 250 kv, 15 ma, with 0.5 mm Cu and 8.0 mm Bakelike 
Filters. Target distance was 27.5 cm and 210 r/min dose rate. All 
rats received 800 r total-body X radiation in a single exposure. 


VITAMIN ‘P’ PROTECTION AGAINST RADIATION 187 


Sixteen rats of the control group, or 80 per cent, succumbed dur- 
ing the second and third weeks after the exposure (Table 1). One 
of the animals succumbed as early as the 1lth day while one lived 
23 days after the exposure to radiation. All of them manifested gross 
hemorrhages of various gravity and pronounced pathological lesions 
in the adrenal glands. The fasciculata and reticularis were particu- 
larly affected with argentaffin fibrils showing signs of degeneration. 
Four rats, or 20 per cent, survived in spite of the presence of numer- 
ous petechial hemorrhages and generalized purpura. 


TABLE 1.—Control Group of 20 Rats 


Number of Days of 
SCT Re ee ar 11 | 12] 13) 14] 15} 16) 17) 18) 19 | 20] 21 | 22} 23 


Nemberet hats souccumbed| 1; 2| 2| 1] 3) OdnSto2l LJ) 0) .0;)-0) 1 


Mortality Rate: 80 per cent 


The treated animals were divided into two groups. 10 rats re- 
ceived orally 4 milligrams of vitamin ‘P’ compound per day during 
ten days, three days prior to radiation and seven days post radia- 
tion. 20 rats received 5 milligrams of vitamin ‘P’ per day for 30 
days, seven days prior to radiation and 23 days post radiation. 

In the first group of animals, which received 40 milligrams of 
vitamin “P’ compound altogether, the mortality was reduced to 40 
per cent (Table 2). The rats which did succumb to the injurious 
effect of radiation lived longer than control animals. Only one died 
during the third week after the exposure while the rest succumbed 
on the 22nd, 23rd, and 24th days respectively. The petechial hemor- 
rhages in the treated animals were considerably less pronounced 
but some pathological changes in the adrenal cortex were observed, 
mostly in the zone reticularis (vacuolization ). 


TABLE 2.—The Rats Which Received 40 Milligrams of Vitamin ‘‘P”’ 


23 | 24 


Number of Days of Survival............... 18 |.19 | 20 | 21 | 22 


Number of Rats Succumbed............... 1 0 0 0 1 


Mortality Rate: 40 per cent 


188 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


In the second group of rats, which was given 150 milligrams of 
vitamin ‘P’ compound altogether during 30 days, the mortality was 
reduced to 10 per cent (Table 3). One rat succumbed on the 18th 
day and the other on the 24th day after the exposure to X-ray radi- 
ation. In this group of treated animals petechial hemorrhages were 
very little pronounced and in some of the rats apparently absent 
altogether. The rats which survived the exposure remained alive 
for several weeks after the experiment was terminated. 


TABLE 3.—The Rats Which Received 150 Milligrams of Vitamin “P”’ 


Number of Days of Survival.......... 18 19" (20° 222 eee ee 


Number of Rats Succumbed....... vous) dil Ode O08) POR hs Os ita il 


Mortality Rate: 10 per cent 


From this observation it appears that so-called vitamin “P” com- 
pound, containing four flavonoids naturally present in citrus fruit, 
gives a considerable protection to rats against a total-body, near- 
lethal dose of radiation. 

In our previous publication. (Sokoloff and Redd, 1949) we 
stressed the importance of making a clear distinction between in- 
creased capillary permeability and capillary fragility. In the case 
of radiation injury there seems to be present a pronounced increase 
in capillary fragility which might be prevented by large doses of 


flavonoids naturally present in citrus fruit. 


REFERENCES 


GRIFFITH, J. Q., JR., E. ANTHONY, E. PENDERGRASS and R. PERRY- 
MAN 
1947. Effect of Rutin on Recovery Time from Radiation Injury in Rats, 
Proc. soc. exp. Biol. Med., Vol. 64, pp. 332-8. 
CLARK, W. G., R. P. UNCAPHER and M. L. JORDAN 
1948. Effect of Flavonoids (Vitamin P) on Mortality From Total Body 
Roentgen Irradiation, Science, Vol. 108, pp. 629-680. 
REKERS, P. E. and J. B. FIELD 
1948. Control of Hemorrhagic Syndrome and Reduction in X-Irradiation 
Mortality with a Flavonone, Science, Vol. 107, pp. 16-7. 
FIELD. J. B. and P. E. REKERS 
1949. Studies of the Effects of Flavonoids on Roentgen Irradiation Dis- 
ease. 11. Comparison of the Protective Influence of Some Flavonoids 
and Vitamin C in Dogs, J. Clin. Invest., Vol. 28, pp. 746-751. 


VITAMIN ‘P’ PROTECTION AGAINST RADIATION 189 


ARMENTANO, L. A. BENTSATH, T. BERES, St. RUSZNYAK and A. 
SZENT-GYORGYI 
1986. Uber den Einfluss von Substanzen den Flavongruppe auf die Per- 
meabilitat der Kapillaren. Vitamin P, Deut. med. Wochschr., Vol. 62, 
pp. 13825-1382. : 
SOKOLOFF, B. and J. B. REDD 
1949. Study on Vitamin P. Capillary Permeability and Fragility, Mono- 
graph, Florida Southern College, pp. 1-152. 


Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(8), 1949(1950) 


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NUTRITIVE VALUE OF MANGROVE LEAVES 
(RHIZOPHORA MANGLE L.) 


Boris SOKOLOFF, JAMES B. REDD AND RAYMOND DuTCHER* 
Southern Bio-Research Laboratory | 


Florida Southern College 


The Mangrove family of Rhizophoraceae is composed of fifteen 
genera and more than fifty species. Two species of mangrove are 
most common in the bays and gulfs of Southern Florida, namely 
so-called red mangrove, or Rhizophora Mangle L. and white man- 
grove, Laguncularia racemisa. Red mangrove grows prolifically 
around the Ten Thousand Islands as well as in Monroe and Collier 
Counties. It is found in considerable quantities along the West 
Coast up to Tampa Bay. Here, however, the mangrove leaves are 
much smaller and the plant itself is found only occasionally. Man- 
groves grow most extensively in salt water although they tend to 
penetrate up the rivers. 

The important feature of mangrove physiology is that the differ- 
ence between the osmotic pressure of leaves and roots is higher 
than in many other plants, according to the investigation of Blum. 
Due to this fact and to the constant supply of minerals from sea 
water, mangrove leaf is particularly rich in sodium and potassium 
and, to a lesser extent, in magnesium. Although considerable litera- 
ture exists about the tannin content of mangrove bark we were 
unable to find any reference as to the nutritive value of the leaves 
of this plant. Our investigation was limited to the species of Rhizo- 
phora Mangle (red mangrove) and we have no information con- 
cerning Laguncularia racemisa. Its nutritive value might or might 
not correspond to that of red mangrove. Our material was obtained 
mostly from the Fort Myers area and it is possible that some varia- 
tion in the content of essential factors exists depending on the place 
of growth. The water content of mangrove leaf varies from 78 per 
cent up to 79 per cent and all our data are estimated on a dry 
material, obtained from fresh leaves, with a moisture content not 


higher than 3-4 per cent. 


VITAMIN, MINERAL AND AMINO-ACID CONTENT OF MANGROVE LEAF 
Our particular attention was directed to the vitamin content of 


—— es 


1Carll Tucker Fellow. 


192 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


mangrove leaf. There was some variation in the vitamin content of 
several batches of dried mangrove leaves but this variation was 
within the limit of 15 per cent. An exception to this rule was caro- 
tene. Here we found a much greater variation in the potency of 
the samples tested. The method of preparation of dry material 
affected the vitamin A content to a considerable degree. Sun cured 
mangrove leaves have shown as low as 30 units of carotene per gram 
of im material, but the leaves dried in vacuum gave as much as 
90-100 units per gram. 

Our investigation disclosed that mangrove leaf in dry form con- . 
tains: vitamin B* (thiamin) 1.56 - 2.03 mcgs per gram; vitamin B» 
(riboflavin) 4.5 - 5.6 megs per gram; folic acid 0.60 - 0.67 mcg per 
gram; niacin 20.3 - 28.0 mcgs per gram; and pantothenic acid 4.0 - 4.5 
mcgs per gram. 

The protein content of dried mangrove leaves is relatively high— 
12.1-14.3 per cent—which might be compared with the protein con- 
tent of alfalfa meal (16 per cent), alfalfa leaf meal (20 per cent), 
corn (9 per cent), oats (12 per cent), barley (13 per cent), and 
wheat (12 per cent). We gave some attention to the amino acid 
content of this material although our investigation is not yet com- 
plete in this respect. Table 1 gives some figures of essential amino 
acids of mangrove leaf. 


TaBLE 1.—Amino Acids, Pounds per Hundredweight 


Material Protein Arginine Lysine Methionine 
per cent per cent per cent per cent 
Mangrove leaf dehy- 
diated), > #dvier-mcHe 14.3 1+ 0.9 0.42 
Material Cystine Tryptophane | Glycine 
per cent per cent per cent 
Mangrove leaf, dehydrated.......... 0.24 0.36 0.8 


Dried mangrove leaf contains 18.9 per cent of crude fiber and 2.9 
per cent of crude fat. The calcium content is 16.1-16.4 mcgs per 
gram; sulphur 0.62 per cent; iodine 8 mgs per kilogram; with man- 
ganese estimated as 27 mgs per kilogram. Ash — 6.65 per cent. 


NUTRITIVE VALUE OF MANGROVE LEAVES 193 


CuHick FEEDING TEST 


Two lots of chicks (100 chicks in each) served for this trial. Both 
lots were kept on Payne’s ration (consisting of yellow corn, wheat, 
barley, meat scraps, fish mean, soy bean meal, calcium carbonate, 
salt, vitamin D concentrate (20 grams per 100 pounds) and man- 
ganese sulphate (10 grams). In lot number I, alfalfa meal, dehy- 
drate, 17 per cent of protein (10 pounds per 100 pounds) was used. 
Lot number I was fed the same ration but the alfalfa was replaced 
by mangrove leaves (10 pounds) supplemented with 0.75 pounds 
of vitamin A concentrate (1,362,000 U/lb.). The results of this 
trial are incorporated in Table 2. 


TABLE 2. 
Average Weight, Pounds 
Lot I Lot II 
és WHEGIES) CEG 6 ae 0.603 0.620 
2 URGES CE GIGGy Te eee ae 1.678 1.726 
Loe HERES! Ol 200 ee 2.91 3.2 
FSGS DICTA ee 9 a 
Total feed per bird in 12 weeks (in pounds).... 10.61 10.68 


From this table it appears that the increase of weight in Lot II 
containing mangrove material was as good if not better than in Lot 
I with alfalfa. This trial seems to indicate that mangrove leaf prop- 
erly dehydrated and supplemented with vitamin A might be used in 
chick rations instead of alfalfa. 

Although no feeding test was conducted with mangrove meal on 
cattle there is a possibility that this material might be used for this 
purpose. 


SUMMARY 


The leaves of Rhizophora Mangle L., known as red mangrove, 
were investigated on nutrients. 

It was found that the protein content of mangrove leaf varies 
from 12.1 to 14.3 per cent with the amino acid composition similar 
to that of alfalfa leaf. 


194 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


The carotene content of mangrove leaf is inferior to alfalfa leaf; 
the thiamin, riboflavin, folic acid and pantothenic acid contents 
approach that of alfalfa. 

A chick feeding trial indicates that mangrove leaf properly de- 
hydrated and supplemented with vitamin A might be used in chick 
rations instead of alfalfa. 


LITERATURE CITED 
BLUM, G. 
1941. Osmotic Investigation on the Mangrove. Ber. Schweiz. Ges. Vol. 
51, pp. 401-409. 
PAYNE, L. F.. M. J. CALDWELL and J. S. HUGHES 
1945. Vitamin Supplements for Low Grade Alfalfa Meal. Poultry Science, 
Vol. 24, pp. 375-6. 


Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(8), 1949( 1950) 


NOTES ON THE FOOD OF THE LARGEMOUTH BLACK 
BASS, MICROPTERUS SALMOIDES FLORIDANUS 
(LeSUEUR), IN A FLORIDA LAKE? 


WILLIAM M. McLANE 


Buck Pond is one of several hundred small solution lakes in the 
Central Highlands region of Northern Florida. It is fifteen miles 
east of Mill Dam Lake, Marion County, and lies in the Ocala Na- 
tional Forest. The total surface area of the lake is approximately 
eighteen acres occupying a basin which is shaped like a figure 
“eight.” A shallow shelf extends out from the shoreline about 
twenty-five feet. Beyond the edge of this shelf the bottom drops 
off rapidly to a maximum depth of twenty-five feet in the central 
portions of the lake. The firm sandy bottom of the lake is covered 
with a thin layer of organic matter derived from the aquatic vegeta- 
tion which grows only in the shallower portions of the shore zone. 
No surface streams enter or flow out of Buck Pond and its water 
remains unstained and quite transparent throughout the year. The 
only aquatic vegetation observed at the time of this study included 
species of: Panicum, Leersia, Myacca, Nymphoides, Sagittaria, Jun- 
cus, Pontederia, and H ypericum. 

In connection with his studies on fish populations of some small 
lakes in Florida, Dr. O. Lloyd Meehean, then of the U. S. Fish 
Hatchery at Welaka, Florida, poisoned the fishes of Buck Pond on 
July 17, 1941. His results were published shortly thereafter (1942). 
At Dr. Meehean’s suggestion I collaborated in the field work at 
Buck Pond and obtained there the data presented in this paper. 

APPLICATION OF POISON 

The poison used was derris powder with 5% Rotenone content, 
mixed with water to form a thin paste, then further diluted until 
thin enough to use with a spray nozzle. Sufficient derris was applied 
to give a mixture of .5 parts per million in the lake. The poison 
was distributed uniformly by the use of an orchard type pump 
mounted on a fifty gallon drum. This equipment was placed in an 
eighteen foot sponson canoe powered with an outboard motor. The 
first treatment was begun at nine oclock in the morning and the 
entire shore zone was sprayed. After this vegetation zone was cov- 
ered the nozzle was removed and the end of the hose placed just 


1Contribution from the Department of Biology, University of Florida. 


196 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


in front of the outboard motor propeller. Then the remainder of 
the lake was treated while making decreasing circular patterns with 
the canoe. Immediately afterwards a second application of poison 
was sprayed on the vegetation zone. The entire process of applying 
the derris took about three hours. 


OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS 


The unusual results obtained on the food of the largemouth black 
bass in Buck Pond can be understood more clearly with the aid 
of the following observations from my field notes presented in 
chronological order. 

Spraying with derris commenced at nine o’clock in the morning. 
Five minutes later bass were observed striking at affected fishes 
in the vegetation zone. Fifteen minutes after spraying began many 
suckers were seen jumping out of the water onto dense mats of 
vegetation at the bases of Hypericum plants and some jumped out 
onto the shore. Bass, bluegills, shell-crackers and warmouth bass 
were noticeably affected at approximately 9:45 A. M. At this time 
also many partially digested regurgitated sunfishes and suckers 
were observed on the lake bottom at depths of four to ten feet. 
Some severed heads and bodies of sunfishes and suckers were like- 
wise seen lying on the bottom. ‘At six o’clock in the afternoon the 
inflated air bladders of fifteen suckers were counted floating, fully 
inflated, on the surface of the lake. Two softshell turtles, Amyda 
ferox (Schneider ), were seen at this time swimming crazily around 
in the middle of the lake with their heads above water. Between six 
and seven o clock, approximately nine hours after poisoning began, 
Hololepis was observed at the surface for the first time. Three to 
four hundred of these darters were seen in the open waters of the 
lake swimming around in small circles with their snouts breaking 
the surface of the water. No other species of fish was seen alive 
at this time. | 

The bass obtained were measured and weighed, and the stomach 
contents preserved in a 10% formalin solution. To aid in identifica- 
tion of stomach contents, a synoptic collection was obtained of all 
species of fishes found in the lake. Dying and dead fishes were col. 
lected and preserved during and after completion of the poisoning 
with the help of volunteers from a local CCC camp. One hundred 
and twenty bass were obtained on July 17 and an analysis of the 
stomach contents of one hundred and ten individuals containing 


FOOD OF LARGEMOUTH BLACK BASS 197 


food is presented in Table 1. The following list shows the species 
composition of this lake habitat and the first five forms are arranged 
in descending order of abundance as based on total fishes recovered 
after poisoning. 


1. Erimyzon sucetta sucetta (Lacépéde)—Eastern Lake Chub- 
sucker 

2. Lepomis macrochirus purpurescens Cope—Eastern Bluegill 

3. Lepomis microlophus (Giinther )—Shell-cracker 

4. Chaenobryttus coronarius (Bartram)—Warmouth Bass 

3. Micropterus salmoides floridanus (LeSueur )—Florida Large- 
mouth Bass 

6. Gambusia affinis holbrookii (Girard)—Eastern Mosquito-fish 

7. Heterandria formosa Agassiz—Least Killifish 

8. Labidesthes sicculus vanhyningi Bean and Reid—Southeast- 
ern Brook Silverside 

9. Hololepis barratti (Holbrook)—Florida Swamp Darter 

10. Fundulus dispar lineolatus (Agassiz)—Eastern Star-headed 
Minnow . 

11. Fundulus chrysotus Holbrook—Golden Topminnow 


DISCUSSION OF FOOD AND FEEDING 


The effects of poisoning on Buck Pond fishes present some inter- 
esting facts on the feeding habits and food of largemouth bass. A 
much higher percentage of stomachs contained food (92%) than 
was reported for the stomachs of bass from the St. Johns River 
(68% ) (McLane, 1948), which were not obtained by use of poison. 
Though evidence was found of some cases of regurgitation this fac- 
tor was much lower than is experienced when using more conven- 
tional methods of obtaining bass. The severed heads and cutup 
bodies of fishes seen on the bottom are attributed to the feeding 
activities of the soft-shelled turtles, which, though they were affect- 
ed by derris, apparently fed to some extent on the affected fishes 
before succumbing themselves. 

An examination of the data in Table 1, augmented by the field 
observations presented, shows that the bass fed quite heavily on 
all species of fishes known to occur in Buck Pond, except Fundulus 
chrysotus. It appears that the bass captured food in all the differ- 
ent ecological situations present. However, the strikingly high per- 
centage of darters in the stomachs is probably due to distortion of | 


198 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


AV. SIZE (STAND. LENGTH MM) 


TOTAL ORGANISMS © 
NO. STOMACHS 

AV. PER FISH 
MAX. (ONE FISH) 


LIST OF ORGANISMS EATEN 
Decapoda 

Palaemonetes paludosa 
Procambarus fallax 
Odonata 

Undet. nymphs 

Undef. adults 

Orthoptera 

Opshomala v. vitreipennis 
Coleoptera 

Phyllophaga sp. 
Hypotrichia sp. 

Undet. insects 

Araneida 

Dolomedes ft. triton 

Pisces 

Erimyzon s. sucetta 
Lepomis m. microlophus 
Micropterus s. floridanus 
Centrarchids (undet.) 
Chaenobryttus coronarius 
Fundulus dispar lineolatus 
Heterandria formosa 
Undet. fish 

Lepomis m. purpurescens 
Lepomis sop. 

Gambusia a. holbrookii 
Labidesthes s.vanhyningi 
Hololepis barratti 
Miscellaneous 

Fish eggs 

Myacca sp. 

Detritus 

Total food organisms 


oO 
0 
DOWWNMNONN——-—-N—-—-AWANGAN—-W 


OABNOW-Hh-—-NW ~p 


TABLE 1 


Food of 110 specimens of Micropterus salmoides floridanus (LeSueur), 101- 
470 millimeters in fork length, from Buck Pond, Marion Co., Florida. 


FOOD OF LARGEMOUTH BLACK BASS 199 


the normal feeding pattern by the poisoning of the water. Hololepis 
is a quiescent, bottom-dwelling form seldom found in bass stomachs. 
None of the five hundred individuals eaten in the present case had 
been extensively digested, and it seems evident that they were cap- 
tured as they rose from the bottom or gasped at the surface on feel- 
ing the effects of the derris poison. In contrast, the Centrar chids 
and specimens of Labidesthes were found in different stages of 
digestion. My observations of food of bass from lakes Pee to 
Back Pond made over a period of years indicate that these latter 
forms are staples in the normal diet of bass. 

The maximum number of fishes eaten by one bass was recorded 
from a specimen 177 millimeters in fork length, which contained 
47 specimens of Hololepis with an average standard length of 17 
millimeters and 1 Gambusia 15 millimeters long—a combined total 
of 814 millimeters. Nine of the specimens of Hololepis were exam- 
ined and the following organisms recorded from their stomachs: 
$2 Chaoborus sp., 37 Chydorus sp., 15 Cyclops sp., 2 Chironomidae, 
and 2 Amphipoda. 

A total of 988 fishes were consumed by the 110 bass, giving an 
average of 8.98 fishes per bass. By contrast, in the St. Johns River 
I found (1948) that the average number of fishes eaten per bass 
was 1.14. The extremely high ratio found in Buck Pond (due pri- 
marily to the consumption of Hololepis) shows how derris poison- 
ing may alter the results of a food study by increasing the avail- 
ability of food items that are not normally present in the diet of 
the largemouth black bass. 


S1zE GROUPS 


In addition to the 120 bass examined for stomach contents, 222 
specimens, some of which floated to the surface during the night 
and were recovered on July 18, contributed to the length-frequency 
data presented in Figure 1. The smallest bass obtained measured 
101 millimeters and may represent the minimum growth of bass 
hatched during the 1941 (?) breeding season. Eighty-eight per cent 
of the 342 bass fall in the first two size groups, whereas only 12 
per cent represent bass weighing one pound or more which were 
available to anglers up until the time of poisoning. Buck Pond with 
only 2.2 desirable bass per acre may represent a body of water that 
has been effectively fished by anglers, or was intrinsically low in 
productivity. 


200 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


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FORK LENGTH IN MILLIMETERS 


FIGURE 1 


Size distribution of 842 specimens of Micropterus salmoides floridanus (Le- 
Sueur) from Buck Pond, Marion Co., Florida. 


FOOD OF LARGEMOUTH BLACK BASS 201 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 


I wish to express my gratitude to Dr. Benjamin B. Leavitt, De- 
partment of Biology, University of Florida, for critically reading 
the manuscript; and to the Staff Artist, Miss Esther Coogle, for 
making Table 1 and Figure 1. 


LITERATURE CITED 
McLANE, WILLIAM M. 
1948. The seasonal food of the largemouth black bass, Micropterus salmoi- 
des floridanus (LeSueur), in the St. Johns River, Welaka, Florida. 
Quart. Jour. Fla. Acad. Sci., 10(4): 108-138, 2 figs. and 7 tables. 
MEEHEAN, O. LLOYD 
1942. Fish populations of five Florida lakes. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 71: 
184-194, 7 tables. 


Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(3), 1949( 1950) 


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NOTES ON AN APPARENT “RAIN” OF ORGANIC 
MATTER IN FLORIDA? 


WILLIAM M. McLANE AND GIDEON E. NELSON 


In a summary of spurious and authentic rains of organic matter 
McAtee (1918) states, “Other jelly rains have proved to consist of 
the egg masses of midges, and of colonies of infusoria,’ but cites 
no specific case nor reference to such a case in the literature. There- 
fore it is felt that the following account is worthy of publication. 

At the University of Florida Conservation Reserve, Welaka, Put- 
nam County, Florida, a very heavy summer thundershower, accom- 
panied by a slight Northwest wind, commenced at two oclock on 
the afternoon of July 23, 1949, and lasted until about five o'clock 
that afternoon. Shortly after the rain ended one of us (Nelson) 
came out of Apartment 3 on the Reserve and was startled to observe 
that the entire front of the apartment was peppered with thousands 
of gelatinous masses which had not been present just before the 
rain started. He immediately called the senior author over to see 
this phenomenon and we collected random samples of the gelatin- 
ous masses placing some in 70% alcohol, 5% formalin, and in tap 
water. Several photographs were taken just before sundown in 
hopes of obtaining a record to illustrate the density of the mate- 
rial, (Plate 1). These gelatinous masses averaged approximately 
5 x 10 mm. in size, were blue-green in color to the naked eye ( a few 
were colorless), and were present in greater density on the window 
screens, lower siding baseboard, and the outer one-half inch square 
mesh hardware cloth on the lower half of the front screen door. 
The samples in tap water disintegrated within ten (10) days. 

We were unable to find any of this material on the lawn, the 
shell road or sidewalks; however, scattered masses were observed 
on the Northwest end of the laboratory building and the Northwest 
corner of the garage building on the Reserve. On July 24 this ma- 
terial was found on Jean’s Grill in Welaka, one mile away, and at 
the Star Theater, Crescent City, which is nine air miles Southeast 
of Welaka. At no place was the density as great as on Apartment 
No. 8. 

The only explanation for the sudden occurrence of this organic 
matter seemed to be that it had rained down. We suspected that it 


1Contribution from the Department of Biology, University of Florida. 


204 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


represented either the egg masses of some mollusk or was some 
form of Algae. The U. S. Weather Bureau in Jacksonville, Florida 
supplied the information that no unusual winds had been reported 
for the area for the week ending July 28 and that the only disturb- 
ance for the State was a small tornado 10 miles North of Madison, 
Madison County in North Western Florida on July 20 (180 air miles 
from Welaka ). 


PLATE 1 


Chironomid egg masses on the outside walls of Apartment Number 3, Uni- 
versity of Florida Conservation Reserve, Welaka, Putnam County, Florida. 


Samples were sent to Dr. William J. Clench, Harvard College, 
and to Dr. Henry van der Schalie, Michigan Museum. They replied 
that the material did not represent the egg masses of Mollusks; 
however, the samples at Michigan were identified as insect eggs 
by Drs. J. Speed Rogers and T. H. Hubbell. 

On August 20 Mr. Arnold F. van Pelt observed globular masses 
of jelly in small areas on the sides of the laboratory building and on 
Apartment Number 2 at the Reserve and recorded the follow- 
ing data: “temperature, 22°C, relative humidity, 100%, heavy rains 
in early afternoon later tapering off until the sky was overcast with 


AN APPARENT RAIN OF ORGANIC MATTER 205 


the sun in evidence for short periods of time. Some of the globules 
had become brown in drying up, while others remained very gel- 
atinous.” Samples that were placed in boiled rain water cooled to 
room temperature deteriorated by August 27. On August 22 we ob- 
served the areas mentioned above and found only brownish masses 
of dried protoplasm. In contrast, the dried up masses still on Apart- 
ment Number 3 were blue-green and very glassy in appearance on 
this date. (It is interesting to note that the organic matter observed 
on July 23 and August 20 was noted after heavy rains). 


On August 23 at 2:00 A. M. the senior author scooped up about 
a dozen Chironomids from the screen door of Apartment Number 4 
on the Reserve and threw them into the freshly changed water of 
a bowl containing a young pet turtle. Most of the midges flew up 
off the water so this performance was repeated and some of the 
insects were pushed down under the surface to wet their bodies 
and wings. While eating breakfast on the same date four gelatin- 
ous masses were observed in the turtle bowl. These appeared identi- 
cal to those previously collected on the buildings, but like those 
from Apartment Number 2, were a slight brownish color and with 
no trace of blue-green. Two of the four masses were preserved in 
70% alcohol on August 25 when it was first observed under the 
microscope that some of the eggs inside the masses were hatching. 
Hatching was first observed at noon in the laboratory at which 
time the water temperature was 31°C and the air temperature 
31.5°C. By September 5 all the larvae in the above culture (esti- 
mated at 100) had died except for two specimens which could be 
seen actively moving in their tubes of sand grains. We identified 
these larvae as members of the family Chironomidae. Careful micro- 
examination of the preserved masses from the July 23, August 20 
and 23 collections revealed that they were all very similar in struc- 
ture, arrangement of the eggs inside the individual masses and in 
size, and are believed to be egg masses of Chironomids. The late 
Dr. Melvin A. Brannon, University of Florida, kindly identified 
the material responsible for the blue-green color of the Apartment 
Number 3 sample as Myxophyceae. 


July to December are months when great swarms of midges are 
known to occur in this region of the St. Johns River and these 
swarms are attracted by lights much as the mayflies are during 
some years in the Lake Erie region. Many midges were observed 


206 JOURNAL OF FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


at lighted windows and doors during these months at the Reserve 
by us; however, the gelatinous egg masses were found only after 
very heavy rains on the dates given in this note. The senior author 
has spent approximately three years at the Conservation Reserve 
and this is the only known instance of the occurrence of this phe- 
nomenon during this period. 


LITERATURE CITED 
McATEE, W. L. 


1918. Rains of organic matter. U.S.D.A. Weather Bureau, Monthly Weather 
Review, 45 (1917): 217-224. 


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Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(3), 1949( 1950) 


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Vol. 12 December 1949 (1950) No. 4 
Contents 

St. John—The Evolution of the Ophioglossaceae of the 

MPP IRIECO SUALCS aoe vic ial eve eee Hin © «0 ejp vidio ies 207 
eee NEI 88 ie ort Saupe engi 468 Sia sieleoe qecerae 219 
Jackson—A Key to the Genus Scleria Berg in South Florida.... 220 
Rae MMO SCHON CS ec a) ee a bee Feld le ed enc ene es 222, 
Ray—Biochemical Aspects of the Cancer Problem............ 223 


Edson and Smith—A Preliminary Investigation of the Growth 
Response of Aspergillus niger to Various Levels of Copper 
as a Biological Method of Determining Available Copper 


PLE 22 dg RUDRA SRE ee eat na GA 235 
Brodkorb—The Number of Feathers in Some Birds.......... 241 
Yudowitch—Particle Size by X-Ray Scattering.............. 246 
EMER SERIOUS aio eihe ka ahs wie vans oie es os bess elelace 251 
DPD ELE | LA OUEE Ae RE Re Sos AI 253 


ae 
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f may 1 1951 
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SS aaron 


VoL. 12 DECEMBER 1949 (1950) No. 4 


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VoL. 12 DECEMBER 1949 (1950) No. 4 


THE EVOLUTION OF THE OPHIOGLOSSACEAE OF 
THE EASTERN UNITED STATES? 


E,pwarp P. St. JOHN 


Floral City, Florida 


The Ophioglossaceae are commonly considered the most primi- 
tive of living ferns. They are small plants and very simple in struc- 
ture. In several species the underground rootstock produces but 
a single leaf each year. 

They form a closely related family of three genera; Helmintho- 
stachys contains but one species, and is confined to the Australian 
and Indo-Malayan regions; Botrychium is assigned 23 species in 
the latest monograph of the family (Clausen:1938), and is world- 
wide in distribution;; Ophioglossum is credited with 28 species by 
the same authority, and is found on all of the continents. Nearly 
one-half of the known species are found in the United States. Five 
of the seven subgenera of Botrychium and Ophioglossum are well 
represented; the other two include but four species. 

The family is so differentiated from other primitive plants that 
since the beginning of systematic botany it has been an unsolved 
phylogenetic puzzle. Such men as Prantl, Hooker, Campbell, Chris- 
tensen, and Bower, with other contemporary botanists of note, have 
given special attention to the problem; Clausen in his monograph 
cites 68 authorities and 115 different titles. Research has been 
largely in the fields of morphology and cytology, and much knowl- 
edge of the anatomy of these plants, and of the earlest stages 
of ontogenetic development, has been accumulated. On this basis 
several possible lines of descent have been suggested, but in the 
Ophioglossaceae specialization has been carried so far that useful 


1Kssential parts of the investigation were made possible through an A.A. 
A.S. research grant from the Florida Academy of Sciences. 


208 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


comparisons are not readily made, and anatomical evidence of 
genetic relationship has not been conclusive. 


The most obvious structural peculiarity of the Ophioglossaceae, 
and the one which has been the chief basis of attempts to trace 
their lineage, is the apparently adaxial branching from the petiole 
or blade of the fertile segment of the leaf. A second character, 
which is found in no other ferns, is the presence of a direct vascular 
supply to the sporangia. A third equally distinctive trait is the 
subterranean habit of the gametophyte. 


When one turns from anatomy to the life history of these plants 
similarly striking characteristics demand explanation. Why was 
the evolution of these plants arrested at an early stage so that they 
form, as Bower (1926) puts it, “an imperfectly modernized relic 
of the Paleozoic flora’? How were these small and simple plants 
able to survive until now among countless competitors that have 
far more varied and elaborated equipment for the struggle for 
existence? Why are there so few species in a family of plants that 
have had so long a history and that have made their way into all 
parts of the world? Why is it that among these plants, as in no 
‘other group, well differentiated forms that few if any botanists 
would otherwise hesitate to recognize as species are connected 
by chains of intermediate plants that make the delimitation of 
species almost impossible? Why has specialization in a few essen- 
tial organs been carried so far that apparent continuity with 
related plants has been lost? 


This study is based upon the belief that the peculiarities that 
raise the questions contain the answers. These plants could not 
have survived the long and intense competition that they have 
endured unless the extreme divergencies from the usual forms 
and habits of comparable plants were adaptive. When the signifi- 
cance of these adaptations in the life history of the living plants 
has been ascertained we have both a guide to the course of the 
evolutionary processes that have been at work and a test of the 
validity of any hypothesis as to the evolutionary steps that pro- 
duced the plants of today. In this study, which has been carried 
on for twelve years past, the approach which has been suggested 
has directed and supplemented the morphological investigations. 


EVOLUTION OF THE OPHIOGLOSSACEAE 209 


1.—THE DOMINANT FACTOR IN THE EVOLUTION OF THE FAMILY— 
THE GAMETOPHYTE 


In all terrestrial species of the Ophioglossaceae the gametophytes 
originate and perform their functions several centimeters below 
the surface of the soil; in the two epiphytic species they are buried 
in decaying vegetable matter. In all, sunlight is excluded from 
the developing sporophyte, and growth is made possible by sym- 
biotic relationship with a fungus. The embryo is so dependent 
upon saprophytic nourishment that it dies unless infection takes 
place at an early stage. 

Elsewhere among living plants the subterranean gametophyte 
is found only among the Psilotaceae and the majority of the Lyco- 
podiaceae, groups of primitive plants which significantly resemble 
the Ophioglossaceae in arrest of development at an early stage, 
in obscure delimitation of species, and in world-wide distribution 
of identical or closely related forms. If it is believed that the 
Ophioglossaceae were directly derived from plants related to the 
Psiltotaceae or the Lycopodiaceae it might be argued that the 
subterranean gametophyte is hereditary but, as will appear later 
in this paper, the presence of this trait is rather an argument 
against such a line of descent. If descent was from the primitive 
Filicales the trait was acquired at the point of departure from 
the ancestral line, and is to be explained by its connection with 
changing environmental conditions which forced radical adjust- 
ments in the life history of the plants. 

In search for such conditions attention turns at once to the ex- 
treme competition to which these Paleozoic plants were subjected 
on the appearance and wide distribution of flowering plants, with 
their many new adaptations to aid in the struggle for survival. 
Observation of the distribution of ferns in central Florida suggested 
the great importance of the subterranean gametophyte in this 
connection. Here the climate provides alternation between periods 
of frequent rains and prolonged drought. The porous limestone 
of the region absorbs large quantities of water during the rains 
and gives it off slowly during the dry periods. As a result ferns 
are almost invariably associated with rocks, except that a few 
species grow in the immediate vicinity of swamps or ponds. In 


210 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


the grottos, and in forests where boulders and ledges are thickly 
scattered, the rocks support abundant sporelings, while the ground 
between bears no young plants. These conditions only exaggerate 
those that exist over a large part of the land area of the world. 
Wherever even brief periods of drought occur small plants with 
undeveloped root-systems are greatly limited in habitat by the 
lack of a continuous supply of moisture. Every year countless bil- 
lions of fern spores fail to produce plants, not because they lack 
vitality, nor because of absence of ecological conditions suitable 
for mature plants, but because of the exacting requirements of 
the young plants in the earliest stages of their growth. 


In the intense competition with other plants the Ophioglossaceae 
found the continuous moisture which the gametophytes require 
by adopting the subterranean habit,? and were thus enabled to 
move into unoccupied areas of soil. Consequently they had little 
competition with other spore-bearing plants, and in later plant 
associations competition with flowering plants was greatly reduced. 
The importance of the acquisition of this very unusual trait can 
hardly be overemphasized. Wide and careful study of the plants 
in their habitats indicates that this character alone might account 
for the survival of these primitive plants to the present time. 
However, survival was secured at the expense of evolutionary 
advance. ) 


The subterranean life of the gametophyte necessitated certain 
adjustments of the sexual parts. Eames (1932) describes the game- 
tophytes of Botrychium as tuberous bodies from one to twenty 
millimeters in length, varying from thick-ovoid to dorsi-ventral 
form. In B. obliquum the flattened structure bears on its upper 
surface a ridge upon which the antheridia are located, while the 
archegonia are in lower positions on each side of the ridge. In 
Ophioglossum the general form is cylindrical, with considerable 
branching in the epiphytic species, and the position is vertical. 
The descriptions of botanists seem to imply that the antheridia 


2The Lycopodiaceae afford clear evidence that the subterranean habit of 

the gametophyte is derived (Eames 1986, p. 189). It is not present in all 
species; and gametophytes that are normally subterranean sometimes 
develop on the surface and produce chlorophyll. This has also been 
observed in the Ophioglossaceae. 


EVOLUTION OF THE OPHIOGLOSSACEAE 211 


and archegonia are indiscriminately scattered over the upper half 
of the gametophyte, but their drawings show the antheridia 
predominating on the upper parts. Eames states that development 
proceeded from the “undoubtedly primitive cylindrical form” to 
the dorsi-ventral type of Botrychium. It is obvious that the position 
of the antheridia above all or most of the archegonia facilititates 
fertilization as water passes downward through the soil. 


The connection between the life history of the plants and this 
course of evolution is clear. When crowding of the more favorable 
habitats by other plants brought about the transition from terres- 
trial growth of the gametophyte to the subterranean habit the 
opportunity for cross-fertilization through close association of the 
gametophytes was greatly reduced; and the ease with which self- 
fertilization was accomplished in the changing but not yet fully 
adapted gametophyte was also lessened. Hence any variation that 
would facilitate self-fertilization would have high selective value. 
The tendency toward self-fertilization enabled the gametophyte to 
descend to lower levels where the supply of moisture was better, 
and this action again increased the selective value of self- 
fertilization. 


While special adaptation for self-fertilization has been generally 
recognized by botanists who have given special attention to these 
plants, no one seems to have called attention to the fact that under 
the conditions that have been described hybridization, or even 
cross-breeding within the species, is almost impossible. In order 
that either may be accomplished two viable spores from different 
plants must be carried by percolating water to the same place an 
inch or more below the surface of the ground; and the gametophytes 
derived from them must produce functioning sexual parts at the 
same time. Even after this has been accomplished, and if the 
gametophytes are in actual contact, self-fertilization is more likely 
to occur. 


The evolutionary effect of this condition is very great. The almost 
complete absence of inter-breeding between varying forms elimi- 
nates the most effective means of bringing about recombination of 
genes, and the range of variation can little exceed the limits of 
mutation and recombination in the individual plant. The usual 
effect of geographic isolation does not appear, for plants in the 


212 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


same colony are almost as effectively segregated, so far as cross- 
breeding is concerned, as those that are separated by thousands 
of miles of space. Whatever further evolution takes place must 
be extremely conservative in nature. It will consist almost entirely 
in the elaboration of characters which the plants already possess. 
Here is a condition which is entirely sufficient to explain the per- 
sistence of these ancient plants in substantially their original form 
through a period in which the greater part of the evolution of 
flowering plants was accomplished. 


The taxonomy of the Ophioglossaceae affords many examples 
that illustrates the general statements of the preceding paragraph. 
One of the outstanding peculiarities of this group of plants is that © 
while they are of world-wide distribution the number of species is 
very small. Since they are of ancient origin it might be supposed 
that a considerable number of species has been lost, and in case 
of the strongly differentiated monotypic genus Helminthostachys 
this is surely true; but there is little, if any, evidence that this has 
happened since the generic types were established in Botrychium 
or Ophioglossum. In each genus the species are closely related, and 
usually the course of evolution is clearly indicated by transitional 
and juvenile forms. There is but one “missing link” in the evolution 
of the species of eastern North America. This has to do with the 
origin of the epiphytic Cheiroglossa (O. palmatum), and here 
the juvenile plants throw clear light on the problem. Furthermore, 
the species that now exist are found in substantially the same forms 
in the most widely separated regions. B.Lunaria has made its way 
around the world, and is found from Alaska and Iceland in the 
north to Australia and Patagonia in the south. O.vulgatum is 
widely distributed in the entire northern hemisphere. In both 
genera other species have encircled the globe in north-temperate 
or tropical regions with but slight tendency toward the formation 
of geographical varieties. The small number of species and their 
conservatism of form are precisely what is to be expected because 
of the extreme rarity of cross-breeding. 

The absence of cross-breeding affects the evolutionary process 
in another way that is especially significant in these plants. Inter- 
breeding produces variation, and if the new forms provide better 
adaptation they are preserved and may lead on to new specific 


EVOLUTION OF THE OPHIOGLOSSACEAE 213 


forms, while selection and the production of lethal mutations 
eliminate such forms as cannot be incorporated into the new 
species-group. But the self-fertilizing Ophioglossaceae reproduce 
the individual plant with but slight variation, and eliminate forms 
almost wholly by ecological selection. It is not strange that in 
these plants well differentiated species are still connected by 
chains of transitional forms.? 

In still another way the enforced in-breeding of the Ophiglos- 
saceae has affected the processes by which the plants have been 
enabled to survive through ages of intense competition. Without 
cross-breeding the production of lethal combinations of genes is 
less than among hybridizing plants. In generalizing evidence from 
many sources Julian Huxley (1942, 84) says, “Inbreeding will also 
promote the rejection of unfavorable and the spread of favorable 
mutations..... Elimination of the more deleterious mutations will 
be greater when the frequency of homozygosis is increased by 
inbreeding or self-fertilization”. In this way the ability of small 
populations to maintain themselves may have been so considerably 
increased as appreciably to affect survival. 


Inbreeding, consequent upon the subterranean habit of the 
gametophyte, has not merely dominated the course of structural 
evolution in these plants; indirectly it has shaped after one general 
pattern the life histories of all. They were small plants from the 
first, for their vascular patterns show that they were derived by 
a short step of transition from primitive plants of small size whose 
patterns of branching and venation were wholly dichotomous. 
They were unfitted for assertive competition with more robust 
plants, and were unable to escape from this condition because of 
the limitations upon further development which were enforced 
by the absence of inter-breeding. Their strategy of survival was 
of necessity to make the most of the smallest unoccupied areas and 
of the brief seasonal periods when the competing plants were in 


8The persistence of transitional forms that arise while new species are 
taking form is favored by another characteristic of the Ophioglossaceae. 
At present all of the species are rare plants, and there is every reason to 
believe that this relationship with other plants has existed for a very long 
time in the past. Therefore competition has not been within the species, 
but between the species and other plants. It follows that divergent forms 
will persist as long as they meet the minimum requirements for survival. 


214 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


less active growth. In Botrychium both of these adaptations are 
conspicuous. The successive appearance of species in the phylogeny 
of the genus was in general accompanied by successive reduction 
in size. There is a parallel trend toward shortening the annual 
period of growth. In some of the larger ternate species the leaf 
is retained, and presumably functions, until that of the next year 
appears; in some of the smaller species the period of active growth 
lasts but four or five weeks. In Ophioglossum the same tendencies 
are carried to extremes. Plants of several species produce- spores 
at less than three centimeters in height, and the leaf may complete 
its growth and mature spores within one month. In one tropical 
species reduction has been carried so far that the blade has dis- | 
appeared and the plant sustains itself wholly as a saprophyte, 
only the sporebearing part appearing above ground. Only the 
epiphytes fail to show this tendency, and they are the exceptions 
that prove the rule. Having been driven into the trees by their 
competitors they found an uncrowded habitat on the trunk of tree- 
ferns and palms, and developed the largest leaves that are found 
in the family. 


. There seems to be convincing evidence that the subterranean 
gametophyte has limited and directed the processes by which the 
Ophioglossaceae acquired their present form and their ecological 
relationships with other plants. If that is true the stage in the 
phylogeny of the plants at which this trait was acquired must 
throw light on the origin of the family. Because of its limiting 
effect upon the acquisition of new characters it appears that it 
could not have been acquired before the essential traits of the 
family had been established. The dorsi-ventral leaf, the character- 
istic fertile segment, and perhaps even the generic types are too 
great innovations to have been produced by plants that do not 
inter-breed. For reasons that will appear in later discussion of 
the fertile segment it seems probable that the transition from the 
terrestrial to the subterranean habit of the gametophyte rather 
closely paralleled the development of the generic traits. That this 
occurred after the appearance of the fern-like leaf was strongly 
indicated by Chrysler’s early studies (1910, 1926) and important 
further evidence will appear in later discussion of the evolution 
of the leaf of both Botrychium and Ophioglossum. 


EVOLUTION OF THE OPHIOGLOSSACEAE 215 


SUMMARY 

1. The subterranean gametophyte of the Ophioglossaceae has 
enabled this group of plants to survive from Paleozoic times 
to the present day. 

2. The absence of cross-breeding, consequent upon the subter- 
ranean habit of the gametophyte, offers satisfactory explana- 
tion for: . 

a. The early arrest of evolution in these plants; 

b. The small number of species in the ancient and widely 
distributed family; 

c. The persistence of transitional forms that were involved 
in species-making; 

d. The extreme degree of specialization that has taken place 
in a few essential organs; 

e. The general tendency toward reduction and withdrawal in 
the competitive experience of the family. 

3. Since the subterranean habit of the gametophyte practically 
ended cross-fertilization, and so limited the acquisition of new 
characters, the stage in the phylogeny of these plants at which 
the trait was acquired will throw light on the ancestry of the 
Ophioglossaceae. 


I].—SPECIALIZATION IN THE ROOTSTOCK AND THE ROOTS 


Campbell (1940, et al.), Bower (1926, et al.), and others have 
given much attention to morphological and cytological study of 
the stem or rootstock, and the roots, of the Ophioglossaceae. Little 
attention has been given to the ways in which they function in 
the life history of the plants, or to the specialization which these 
relationships have produced. Observation of the various species 
with these considerations in mind reveals a considerable number 
of data that are of interest to the taxonomist. 

The rootstock of the Ophioglossaceae is buried in the soil at 
about the same depth as the gametophyte and, like it, benefits 
from the more regular supply of water that is thus secured. Be- 
cause of its subterranean position it is little subject to alteration 
from response to ecological conditions, but two forms of speciali- 
zation are quite apparent. 

In Botrychium the rootstocks are vertical in position, and more 
or less completely approach cylindrical form. In Ophioglossum they 


216 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


range from long-cylindrical to oblate-spheroidal form. The long 
cylindrical forms are found in species that occupy the drier habitats, 
and show adaptation to the lower level of moisture in superficial 
layers of the soils of such places. The ovoid and globose forms are 
found in species that grow in low Bound and seem to have been 
derived from the longer type. 

The leaves are produced in spiral succession, and therefore the 
cylindrical rootstocks are successively lengthened at the apex; in 
globose forms expansion is largely lateral. Therefore the rootstocks 
of young plants of species which are characterized by different 
forms show more resemblance than do those of older plants; but 
the characteristic form for the species is constant in mature plants, 
and is a character of taxonomic significance. The number of leaf 
scars is indicative of the age of the plant, and is a valuable char- 
acter for distinguishing plants of small species from young plants 
of larger species having leaves of similar form. In subtropical 
species of Ophioglossum the number of leaf scars does not give 
exact information as to the age of a plant, since usually more than 
one leaf is produced at a time, and in three species seven func- 
tioning leaves have been found on one plant. 

An important function of the rootstock is to serve as a reservoir 
of stored nutrients which make possible the rapid growth of the 
leaf when it first appears above ground, and which in some species 
must be accomplished in very brief time. Usually this function is 
shared with the roots, and in such species the roots persist through 
more than one period of growth. The bulbous form of the root- 
stock in some species shows adaptation for this purpose. Ophio- 
glossum crotalophoroides illustrates its extreme form; in plants 
that are no more than six centimeters tall the globose rootstock 
may be nearly a centimeter in diameter, and the roots are very 
slender and live only until the leaves and spores are fully matured. 

Saprophytic nourishment is essential to the life of the gameto- 
phyte and embryo, and the symbiosis which produced it may be 
supposed to have originated when subterranean growth of the 
gametophyte was established. It has carried over to the sporophyte 
and has an important part in its life processes. Eames (19386, p.136) 
says, “The reduction of the leaf blade is doubtless connected with 
this condition, as is the case with many plants with fungous asso- 
ciates.” Bower states (1926, p.86) that “The mycorhizic condition 


EVOLUTION OF THE OPHIOGLOSSACEAE 217 


does not necessarily entail a marked state of reduction, though in 
extreme cases this may be seen.” The direct cause of reduction 
in the plants that are under consideration seems to be found in 
ecological selection, but mycorhizal symbiosis certainly favors it, 
and perhaps is an essential enabling factor in some cases. 

The chief importance of saprophytic nourishment in the sporo- 
phyte may well be in connection with the long periods of dormancy 
between the periods of functioning of the leaves. These may ex- 
tend through four-fifths of the year, and occur at times when 
conditions are most unfavorable for the plants. Both survival 
through the long resting period and accumulation of nutritive 
material for later use are favored by the symbiosis. 

Although it can have had no effect upon the evolution of the 
family, it is worthy of record that the subterranean habit of the 
rootstock gives complete protection from injury by fire in both 
Botrychium and Ophioglossum. This certainly has had great influ- 
ence upon the abundance of the plants in Florida at the present 
time; and facts that appear in connection with it throw light 
upon the role of these plants in the existing plant associations. 
The Florida peninsula is especially subject to devastating fires be- 
cause of its long dry season and because of over-drainage of the 
sandy soil through underground drainage systems which are so 
complete that they frequently issue from the ground near the 
coast as navigable rivers. It is known that for several hundred 
years past large areas of a kind that include most of the habitats 
of Ophioglossum are annually burned over. In the areas where 
the fires have occurred the shrubby species of the plant associations 
are greatly retarded in growth for several years, thus producing 
very favorable conditions for small plants that have escaped in- 
jury. One of the notable habitats of several species of Ophioglossum 
is a level area, about twenty acres in extent, which is divided into 
nearly equal parts by a road which acts as a barrier against the 
spread of fire. When it was discovered the plants were abundant on 
the east side of the road, and infrequent on the west side. A few 
years later fire swept over the west side, and within three years 
the plants were abundant there and were becoming rare on the 
east side. Seven years later the western area was burned over, and 
again the number of plants in that part of the habitat was mul- 
tiplied within a few years. The story of this habitat illustrates 


218 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


how an adaptation may at a critical time in the phylogeny of a 
species have a value quite different from that which produced it. 

The roots of the Ophioglossaceae show considerable specializa- 
tion, and afford several characters of taxonomic significance. They 
are without root-hairs, and usually are fleshy or swollen in appear- 
ance, from adaptation for storage or symbiosis; but in species in 
which these functions are performed by the rootstock they may 
be exceedingly slender. When they serve as storage reservoirs they 
tend to be large and abundant. In some species both of Botrychium 
and of Ophioglossum the exaggerated size of the roots in propor- 
tion to that of the leaves is striking. 

In three species that occupy the drier soils vegetative reproduc- 
tion by budding from the roots is common, and it is occasional in 
at least two species of the wet lands. In O.petiolatum seven plants 
have been found on one root-system. In color the roots of different 
species vary from translucent white to yellows and browns of 
several shades. O. tenerum, which has been much confused with 
other small species with which it is associated, can be positively 
identified by the bright yellow color of the roots during the 
time of their growth. 


SUMMARY 


1. The rootstocks of the Ophioglossaceae show adaptations to vary- 
ing degrees of moisture which afford characters of taxonomic 
significance. 


2. Specialization for storage of nutritive materials in rootstocks 
and roots varies among the species and provides reliable taxo- 
nomic characters. . 


8. Saprophytic nourishment is important in the life history of the 
Ophioglossaceae, as regards both survival and perrenation. 


4. The deeply buried rootstock is protected from damage by fire, 
and the response to “burning over” of the habitat strikingly 
reveals the place of the Ophioglossaceae in the present plant 
associations. . 

5. The roots of the Ophioglossaceae, and espceially of Ophioglos- 
sum, show considerable specialization, and thus provide char- 
acters which may be used in the identification of species. 


EVOLUTION OF THE OPHIOGLOSSACEAE 219 


LITERATURE CITED 
BOWER, F. O. 
1926. The Ferns. Vol. II. Cambridge Press. 
CAMPBELL, DOUGLAS H. 
1940. The Evolution of the Land Plants. Stanford University Press. 
CLAUSEN, ROBERT T. 
1938. A monograph of the Ophioglossaceae. Memoir of the Torrey Botani- 
cal Club vol. 19. 
EAMES, ARTHUR J. 
1936. Morphology of vascular plants. McGraw-Hill. 
BUXLEY, JULIAN -S. 
1942. Evolution. The Modern Synthesis. Harper and Brothers. 


FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
OFFICERS FOR 1951 


PUERUT Ei ek ee a oe Oe Taylor R. Alexander (Botany) 
University of Miami, Coral Gables 

(RES PUES FE: PG ae ea ee ea R. S. Bly (Chemistry ) 
Florida Southern College, Lakeland 

Secretary-Treasurer_____- A. C. Higginbotham (Physiology) 
Florida State University, Tallahassee 

US PADD ceeeete ten dee es ae a H. K. Wallace (Biology) 
University of Florida, Gainesville 

ASSHOMICMEOUOT = J. C. Dickinson, Jr. (Biology) 
University of Florida, Gainesville 

BQSGE RIE: SGU TSG a LT Le EE To be appointed 
Chairman, Physical Sciences Section... K. L. Yudowitch (Physics) 
Florida State University, Tallahassee 

Chairman, Biological Sciences Section... H. Arliss Denyes (Physiology ) 
Florida State University, Tallahassee 

Chairman, Social Sciences Section____________________- S. deR. Diettrich (Geography ) 


University of Florida, Gainesville 
Louise Williams (Biology ) 
Lakeland High School 


Council Members-at-Large____...-----. A. M. Winchester (Biology ) 
John B. Stetson University, DeLand 

Chairman, Local Arrangements Committee____....... Clyde T. Reed (Biology ) 
University of Tampa, Tampa 

astmEresTaCnt W900! 2. ne ed al Fit H. H. Sheldon (Physics ) 
University of Miami, Coral Gables 

BeSIBEICSIOCHY NOAO 2s ees J. E. Hawkins (Chemistry ) 


University of Florida, Gainesville 


Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(4), 1949( 1950). © 


A KEY TO THE GENUS SCLERIA BERG 
IN SOUTH FLORIDA 


Curtis R. JACKSON 


Florida State University 


The genus Scleria Berg of the family Cyperaceae is well repre- 
sented in the sedge flora of South Florida. This genus is exceeded 
in number of species by only a few other genera and can be 
found in abundance in pinelands, meadows, hammocks and road- 
side fields. All species that are listed here are found in moist 
habitats although other edaphic factors for each species may vary 
widely. A general habitat type has been indicated following each 
species description. 


The southern part of peninsular Florida south of the northern 
shore of Lake Okeechobee is the area included in this study. Nine 
species have been found in this area and are considered by the 
author to represent a fairly complete record of the species of this 
genus.’ Descriptions of these species have been made from speci- 
mens collected within the indicated range since the available 
information? has frequently seemed misleading. 


The following key to the species has been constructed upon 
achene characteristics as this structure appears to be the most 
invariable and distinct feature of a species. 


Achene body smooth or ridged lengthwise. 
Achene body smooth 
Hypogynium absent 
Plant densely pubescent; spikelets in separate clusters 


alone stem?si4G 2 oe eee S. hirtella 
Plant glabrous or nearly so; spikelets terminal or 
texminaland axillary. 2! 22) ee _ S.lithosperma 
Hypogynium present 
Hypogynium papillose-crustaceous ___...-_- S. triglomerata 


Hypogynium bearing many (8-10) papillose tubercles S. oligantha 
Achene body with longitudinal ridges from base to apex 


1§. georgiana Core has been reported from Lee and Dade Counties and S. 
Curtissii Britton from Dade County. 

2The “Manual of the Southeastern Flora” by Small (1933) has been fol- 
lowed with few exceptions. 


A KEY TO THE GENUS SCLERIA 221 


Ridges numerous (at least more than three), pronounced S. costata 
Ridges 3, low, rounded, sometimes obscure -..---..-----.--.--- S. lithosperma 
Achene body papillose, reticulate or wrinkled (not ridged 
lengthwise ) 
Achene papillose 
“ee” OVEN ee MARE ES UPRY a Og LT Caan ts Ae) Co S. ciliata 
ebrTHaS LA TOUS) 2. eR DMRiG ID inlet owt) Pina, area Ay s S. Brittonii 
Achene reticulate or wrinkled 
Achene reticulate; spikelets terminal or terminal and 


Pevibnaneee ern eae NEM KO Oo Tose S. Muhlenbergii 
Achene wrinkled or rarely somewhat reticulate; spike- 
lets in separate clusters along stem ___-__--_--------- S. verticillata 


_S. hirtella Sw. 1-6 dm. tall, stems slender; leaf blades 1.5 -4mm. wide, blades 
and sheaths pubescent; clusters of spikelets grouped laterally along stem; 
bracts about as long as spikelets, ciliate; scales reddish-brown, 2-4 mm. long 
with acute or attenuate tip, ciliate; achene smooth, white, 1.5-2 mm. long, 
sub-globose; hypogynium absent. Low, wet sandy fields, Broward and Palm 
Beach Counties. 

S. lithosperma (L.) Sw. 3-7 dm. tall, stems slender, sometimes reclining; leaf 
blades 1-2 mm. wide, scabrous, channeled with ciliate keel; spikelets ter- 
minal or terminal and axillary; bracts filiform; achene 2.5 mm. long, ovoid, 
white, smooth, many times with three low, rounded ridges from base to 
apex; base narrow, depressed between ridges; hypogynium absent. Found in 
hammock clearings, Dade County. 

S. triglomerata Michx. Stout, clumpy, reclining, up to 1 m. tall; leaf blades 8-7 
mm. wide, glabrous; spikelets terminal or terminal and axillary; some bracts 
much longer than the spikelets, acute; scales 5-9 mm. long, brown or pale; 
achene 3.5-4 mm. long, smooth, white, ovoid with a short obtusely triangular 
papillose-crustaceous hypogynium. Sub-tropical hammocks and other hard- 
wood associations, Dade and Broward Counties. 

S. oligantha Michx. Stout, 7-9 dm. tall, growing in clumps; leaf blades 3-4 mm. 
wide, scabrous; spikelets usually terminal, many flowered; bracts up to 6 
mm. long; achene ovoid, white, smooth, 3-3.5 mm. long; hypogynium low, 
angular; area between achene body and hypogynium bearing numerous 
(8-10) papillose tubercles. Wet, sandy soil, edges of Lake Okeechobee and 
lower Kissimmee flood plain. 

S. costata Britton Up to 1 m. tall, glabrous; leaf blades 1-4 mm. wide; spike- 
lets terminal; scales up to 9 mm. long; achene 3-8.5 mm. long, white, globose 
with sharp tip, prominently longitudinally ridged; base of achene triangular 
with shallow pits; hypogynium absent. Low sand or marl soils, Dade, Collier 
and Palm Beach Counties. 

S. ciliata Michx. Slender, up to 9 dm. tall, often reclining, pubescent (some- 
times sparingly ); leaf blades 1-3 mm. wide; clusters of spikelets terminal or 
terminal and axillary; scales 4-6 mm. long, brown to reddish-brown, often 
with a ciliate keel; achene 2.5-3 mm. long, white, papillose (sometimes 
wrinkled), sub-orbicular; hypogynium with 8 slightly notched tubercles. 


222 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Sandy and calcareous soil, Dade, Broward, Palm Beach and Collier Counties. 

S. Brittonii Core Plant 6-8 dm. tall, glabrous; leaf blades 2-3 mm. wide; 
spikelets usually terminal and axillary; scales greenish-brown, glabrous, 4-5 
mm. long, attenuate; achene 2-2.5 mm. long, globose, white (sometimes 
dark), papillose and somewhat wrinkled; hypogynium pronounced, 8-lobed, 
each lobe in turn being 2-lobed, lobes finely papillose. Low sandy meadows 
and pinelands, Broward and Okeechobee Counties. 

. Muhlenbergii Steud. Plants up to 7 dm. tall, slender, spreading; leaf blades 
2-5.5 mm. wide; spikelets terminal and axillary; scales 3-5 mm. long, light 
brown, sharply acute; achene 2.5-3 mm. long, globose, strongly reticulate, 
the ridges beset with pale or rufous pubescence; hypogynium 3-lobed, ap- 
pressed-ascending on the achene body. Low meadows and roadsides, Broward 
and Okeechobee Counties. (S. setacea Poir) 

. verticillata Muhl. Plant up to 7 dm. tall, slender; leaf blades 1-3 mm. wide, © 
lower sheathes finely pubescent; spikelets in separate clusters along upper 
part of stem; scales 1.5-2.5 mm. long, green; achene about 1.5 mm. long, 
sub-globose, wrinkled or rarely reticulate, narrowing into a stipe-like base; 
hypogynium absent. Dry pinelands, low sand or marl prairies, Dade and © 
Broward Counties. 


iv a) 


72) 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 


The author wishes to thank Dr. W. M. Buswell, Dr. T. R. 
Alexander and Mr. R. O. Woodbury of the Botany Department, 
University of Miami for their help and interest in this study and 
Dr. Earl L. Core, Department of Biology, West Virginia University 
for his helpful comments and information concerning this genus. 


MEMBERSHIP CATEGORIES 


Patrons — Who contribute $1,000 or more to the Academy. 

Lire Members — Who have given to the Academy $100 during any calendar 
year. 

SUSTAINING MEMBERS — Who pay annual dues of $10.00 or more. 

CONTRIBUTING MEMBERS — Who pay annual dues of $5.00. 

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CoLLEGIATE MEMBERS — Who pay annual dues of $2.00 (restricted to college 
students. ) 

INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS — Which make annual contributions of $25.00 or 
more (or any amount set by the Council) to the Academy. 


Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(4), 1949( 1950) 


BIOCHEMICAL ASPECTS OF THE CANCER PROBLEM? 


FRANCIS E.. Ray 


The disease, cancer, as we are familiar with it today, although 
known to the ancients, was first described scientifically by Rudolf 
Virchow in about 1857. In recent years, it has been the focus of 
perhaps more attention and intense research than any other disease 
of man; yet, it remains one of medicine’s major mysteries. In the 
normal body there seems to be a limiting or controlling principle 
that inhibits growth when the proper size is reached. When the 
cells go wild and multiply without limit, often migrating to other 
parts of the body and initiating a similar proliferation, we have 
the condition known as cancer. Why and how these unchecked 
tumorous growths start and continue is not completely understood, 
but we now know that certain chemicals can cause cancer. 


Cancer causes upward of 190,000 deaths a year in the United 
States. It is now the number two killer, being exceeded only by 
heart disease. In 1900 it was number seven and 64 persons per 
100,000 died of cancer. The rate had risen in 1947 to 132 per 100,000. 
From the standpoint of age, 98 percent of all cancer deaths occur 
after the age of 30, and 90 percent after 40. The disease is some- 
what more common in females than in males; approximately 52 
percent of all cancer deaths being women. This percent has dropped 
in recent years. This is probably due to the great educational ~ 
campaign carried out by the American Cancer Society. The site of 
the primary lesion differs in the sexes. Approximately 80 percent 
of cancer in males is in some part of the alimentary tract, while 
in females about 80 percent is in the breast or uterus. 


So far as climate is concerned, the warmer areas have lower 
cancer rates than the colder sections, both in the United States 
and Europe. Cancer of the skin alone is more prevalent in the 
South and is generally twice as prevalent in the country as in the 
city. The type of cancer varies somewhat in different parts of the 
world. Cancer of the liver, for example, is much more prevalent 
in the Orient than in Europe or America. 


1A contribution from the Cancer Research Laboratory, University of 
Florida. 


224 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Occupational or industrial cancers have long been known to 
occur among cotton workers, iron workers, gas-stokers, glass work- 
ers, and particularly among workers in the coal-tar and chemical 
industries, 

Over a century ago, in 1775, it was noticed by Percival Potts 
that chimney sweeps often developed cancer, particularly of the 
scrotum. The suggestion was made that this form of cancer was 
an occupational disease but the idea was ridiculed and = but 
forgotten. 

CARCINOGENIC HyDROCARBONS 

Early in 1900, however, it was observed that workmen engaged 
in coal tar distillation were susceptible to skin cancer, which was 
commonly called “tar cancer”. The number of these cancers gave 
rise to the obvious inference that there was some agent or com- 
pound in the coal tar which was causing the cancers. At first all 
tests on animals were negative but in 1915, Yamagiwa and Ichikawa 
of Japan succeeded in producing skin cancers by applying coal 
tar distillate to the ears of rabbits over a long period of time. 
Kennaway (1924, 1925) then showed that synthetic products may 
cause cancer. Tars produced by the action of aluminum chloride 
in tetralin (1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalene) and by the reaction of 
hydrogen with isoprene and acetylene at high pressure caused 
cancer on long application. The next logical step was to answer 
- the question: What particular substance or substances in coal tar 
distillate possessed carcinogenic action? 

Bloch and Kennaway (1930) found that it was the high boiling, 
neutral, nitrogen-free fractions of coal tar that possessed carcino- 
genic activity. Intense research was begun at the Cancer Hospital 
in London to determine the active carcinogenic compounds of the 
high-boiling fractions. All tests on known compounds were negative; 
thus, they were faced with the conclusion that tar cancer was due 
to some unknown compound or compounds. The search for this 
unknown was long and arduous because the biological assay re- 
quires as much as a year for each test. Furthermore, large num- 
bers of pure strain mice must be used for each particular test. 
Then came a most important observation. Hieger (1930) showed 
that carcinogenic tars gave characteristic fluorescence spectra with 
bands at 4,000, 4180 and 4400 A’*. This fact centered attention 
upon anthracene and its derivatives. A closer approximation to 


BIOCHEMICAL ASPECTS OF THE CANCER PROBLEM 225 


oy por BP 


a 


I 
CH; 
OR 
avg | vy 


fe. OrO4 O-On 


(00-12) @-3) (0 (o) NHoccy 
CH, og? *>w ==) NV Cre ane i 


Ix 


NHoccu, NHOCCH, 


HO 
ary ieee MES or 
XL 


226 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


the desired spectra was found in 1,2-benzanthracene I, but the 
bands were displaced toward the shorter wave lengths and the 
compound was not carcinogenic. This, nevertheless, gave the im- 
portant clue that carcinogenic compounds were probably poly- 
nuclear hydrocarbons of the benzanthracene type. An examination 
of compounds of this type was undertaken. It is important to note 
the band spectra of 1,2-benzanthracene was displaced toward the 
shorter wave lengths. By increasing the molecular weight, a shift 
of the bands in the desired direction would be expected. Cook 
(19383) of the Cancer Institute, in a series of brilliant investiga- 
tions, synthesized and tested a great number of such compounds. 
The quest for a compound with the desired spectrum led to | 
1,2,5,6-dibenzanthracene, II, which had been synthesized in 1918. 
While this was not exactly the same as that of carcinogenic coal 
tar it was fairly close. The hypothesis that there exists a close 
relationship between a definite fluorescence spectrum and carcino- 
genic activity proved true, for 1,2,5,6-dibenzanthracene produced 
carcinomas when applied to the skin of experimental animals. It 
was found, moreover, that the 1,2-benzanthracene nucleus possesses 
latent carcinogenic activity, for on substitution in the 5 and 6 
positions with alkyl groups, carcinogenic activity became apparent. 
More cases of this type will be considered later. It is important 
that all the compounds prepared by Cook at this stage of his 
investigations were structurally related to benzanthracene. 


Employing the criterion of band spectra, Cook (1935) and 
coworkers isolated from two tons of pitch, by an almost endless 
process of extraction, crystallization, and distillation, a few grams 
of very active carcinogenic compound. It proved to be an unknown 
hydrocarbon—1,2-benzpyrene. The structure was established by 
syntheses from pyrene. On the basis of the yield of 1,2-benzpyrene 
from the pitch, they calculated that it is present in coal tar to the 
extent of about 0.003%. The formula is usually written as in II 
or IV which shows relationship to 1,2-benzanthracene. 1,2-Benz- 
pyrene is more potent carcinogenically than 1,2,5,6-dibenzanthra- 
cene, and the fluorescence spectrum is exactly that described 
by Hieger for cancinogenic tars, except that the bands are better 
defined. The evidence is that this is the compound which causes 
tar cancer. 


BIOCHEMICAL ASPECTS OF THE CANCER PROBLEM 227 


Metastasis has been observed to occur in many cases of artifi- 
cially produced carcinoma, although the sites of injection are not 
especially favorable for it to occur. The tumors produced are 
often identical with those that occur spontaneously. 

So far, the study of carcinogenic compounds, as we have seen, 
had attacked the problem of one type of purely occupational 
cancer and had solved it, but in about 1934 a new discovery 
broadened the field tremendously and brought out many startling 
relationships. 

In 1933, Wieland and Dane dehydrogenated dihydronorcholene 
with selenium and obtained a yellow aromatic hydrocarbon; they 
assigned it structure V and called it methylcholanthrene. An ex- 
amination of the formula reveals it to be a derivative of 
1,2-benzanthracene. 

Kennaway (1925) and Cook and Haslewood (1933) had realized 
a possible relationship between the bile acids and benzanthracene 
compounds and were doing research on it before the appearance of 
Wieland and Dane’s work. Later (1934), Cook and Haslewood 
made the important announcement that methylcholanthrene is 
a powerful carcinogenic agent—in fact, the most powerful then 
known. Fieser and Newman (1935) showed that methylcholan- 
threne could be prepared from cholic acid—a still more important 
bile acid than desoxycholic acid. Thus, for the fiirst time, we have 
evidence that cancer may be caused by the presence of a com- 
pound of known structure which may be prepared from compounds 
found in the human body. Possible relationships between the sterols 
and sex hormones will be considered later. 

RELATIONSHIP OF CARCINOGENIC ACTIVITY TO STRUCTURE 

The testing of these compounds for carcinogenic activity is 
carried out either by applying dilute solutions of the compound to 
the skin of mice or by the subcutaneous injection of crystals or a 
dilute solution. It has been found that a pure strain of mice is 
necessary, for the tumors produced by these agents obey the law 
of genetic transplantation and are thus only transplantable in mice 
of the same strain. Also, the tumors in “stock” mice appear irregu- 
larly, which is not conducive to positive results. The transplan- 
tation of tumors is the most convincing test of malignancy. 

_ A number of the hydrocarbons that have been tested for carcino- 
genic activity have been classified as derivatives of 1,2-benzan- 


228 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


thracene. Although 1,2-benzanthracene is probably not carcino- 
genically active, it does possess a latent cancer producing power 
which is manifested on substitution in certain positions. It is found 
that these positions are most always 5, 6, 9 and 10. 

Considering the 5 and 6 positions, the activity depends little 
upon the nature of the substituents as long as both positions are 
substituted. Thus, 5,6-dimethyl-1,2-benzanthracene behaves the 
same as 1,2,5,6-dibenzanthracene. The inactivity of the compound 
containing the isopropyl radical at the 6-position shows that the 
character of the radical is of some importance. It also is usually 
considered that the 5-position has slightly greater influence upon 
the activity than the 6-position. 

We may regard methylcholanthrene as 6-methyl-5,10-dimethy- 
lene-1,2-benzanthracene. 9,10-dimethyl-1,2-benzanthracene is the 
most powerful carcinogen known. Carcinogenic activity is thus 
very definitely connected with the 9- and 10-positions. 

BIOCHEMICAL THEORY OF CARCINOGENESIS 

With the discovery that methylcholanthrene could be prepared 
from the bile acids, desoxycholic and cholic acid, there was an 
immediate tendency to postulate such a chemical transformation 
in the body and thus account for the appearance of tumors. The 
chemical reaction would represent the abnormal metabolism of 
bile acids or cholesterol. The reactions necessary are oxidation, 
hydrogenation, ring closure, and dehydrogenation and all of these 
are known to occur in the human organism. There is no proof that 
this transformation occurs nor is there proof that it does not occur. 
The fact that methylcholanthrene, cholesterol, and the bile acids 
all contain the 5-membered ring has been pointed out as signifi- 
cant in the interrelationship of these compounds. Since this ring 
has been shown to have no especial influence on carcinogenic 
activity, the evidence for this hypothesis is somewhat weakened. 

Many years before the discovery of the chemical structure of 
the sex hormones and the carcinogenic compounds, there were 
numerous observations that warranted some connection between 
cancer and estrogenic substances. Leo Loeb (1915) and co-workers 
carried out breeding experiments, very similar to those of Maud 
Slye (1913). They found that it is possible to develop various 
strains of mice in which the appearance of mammary cancer was 
almost constant for one particular strain, although it could vary 


BIOCHEMICAL ASPECTS OF THE CANCER PROBLEM 229 


as much as 0% to 100% from strain to strain. This same rate was 
also found in the offspring. With this knowledge, some very inter- 
esting experiments were possible. Using a strain of mice, the 
females of which were characterized by a high rate of mammary 
cancer, Loeb found that if the ovaries were removed at the age 
of 3 to 4 months, there was a marked decrease in the number of 
cancers appearing over that which would be expected. Removal of 
the ovaries after 8 months had no effect on the rate of incidence 
of the tumors. The conclusion of this work is that there is a 
definite relation between hereditary influences, the ovarian hor- 
mones, and cancer. . 

Since 1934, one of the female sex hormones—estrone—has been 
available in the crystalline state. Many investigators, in testing 
the compound for estrogenic activity in mice, noticed that in 
numerous cases cancer of the mammary gland appeared. Cook 
(1985), who has reviewed the literature extensively, reports that 
there are thirty to forty instances in which male mice receiving 
estrone have developed cancer of the breast. In 1934, Cook, Dodds, 
Hewett and Lawson found that 9,10-di-n-propyl, 9,10-dihydroxy 
and 9,10-dihydro-1,2,5,6-dibenzanthracene were very active estro- 
genic substances; 0.025 mg. was sufficient to induce estrus when 
injected in ovariectomized mice. Cook also found that 1,2-benz- 
pyrene and 5,6-cyclopentano-1,2-benzanthracene were estrogenic in 
large doses (100 mg.). Bachman and Bradbury have synthesized 
several other compounds of the 1,2-benzanthracene type with alky] 
groups at the 9 and 10-positions and showed that they were 
estrogenic. 

Azo Dyes 


It has been found that Butter Yellow, 4-dimethylaminoazoben- 
zene, produces liver cancer when fed to rats. Azobenzene, VI, and 
4-aminoazobenzene, VII, were inactive while 4-monomethylaminoa- 
zobenzene, VIII, was active. The effect of methyl substituents on 
the ring has been summarized by Miller and coworkers (1949) 
in diagram IX in which Butter Yellow has an activity of 6. It will 
be observed that substituents in the 2 and 3-position destroy the 
activity entirely. A substituent in the 2’-position reduces the activity 
one-half but one in the 3’-position doubles the activity. The 4’- 
position gives a compound less than one-sixth as active as Butter 


Yellow. 


230 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


The elimination of the Azo group gives a biphenyl derivative. 
This proved to be less active than Butter Yellow, showing that the 
Azo group intensifies the action but is not essential to 
carcinogenicity. 

AMINOFLUORENE 


In 1941 Wilson, DeEds and Cox discovered the carcinogenic 
activity of 2-acetylaminofluorene (AAF), X. The carcinogenic 
hydrocarbons seldom cause tumors except at the cite of injection. 
Butter Yellow when fed, produces mostly liver tumors. In con- 
trast to these, AAF’, when fed, causes a wide variety of tumors— 
breast, bladder, intestine, kidney, liver, lung, ear duct, etc. In 
fact, it causes a reaction more like a metastasising spontaneous 
cancer than any of the compounds previously discussed. 

The only metabolite reported is 7-hydroxy-2-acetylaminofluo- 
rene, XI, Bielschowski (1945). This is weakly carcinogenic. Morris 
and Westfall (1948) have found that AAF attains a maximum con- 
centration in the various organs in 2 to 4 days. But inasmuch as 
only 32 percent of the original dose could be accounted for, 
other metabolites must be present. To aid in isolating and identi- 
fying these, we have recently prepared AAF with radioactive C-14 
in the 9-position, and in a separate compound, AAF with radio- 
active carbon in the methyl position of the side chain (Ray and 
Geiser, 1950). The final results are not yet available but prelimi- 
nary studies, Morris et al (1950), show quite conclusively that the 
acetyl group is removed in the organism. Radioactive carbon diox- 
ide, in considerable amounts, is exhaled starting within a very 
short time after ingestion of the compound labelled in the side 
chain. No radio carbon dioxide is eliminated when the AAF labelled 
in the 9-position is fed. In contrast to the 32% recovery that 
Morris and Westfall obtained by chemical analysis, these radio- 
active compounds give 95% or better recovery. AAF has just 
recently been synthesized, Ray and Angus (1951), in our labora- 
tory with N-15 (isotopic nitrogen). This will enable us to determine 
the fate of the nitrogen during metabolism. 

In a further study of the effects of the side chain, we have pre- 
pared the benzoyl! derivative of 2-aminofluorene and the p-toluene- 
sulfonyl derivative. The benzoyl group is less readily removed in 
vivo than is the acetyl. If the free amine is necessary to carcino- 


BIOCHEMICAL ASPECTS OF THE CANCER PROBLEM 231 


genesis, then the benzoyl compound might be expected to be 
less potent. In harmony with this, it is found that fewer tumors 
are produced and that the induction time is somewhat longer. 
So far as is known, no enzyme system will remove the p-toluene- 
sulfonyl (or tosyl) group. The ingestion of this compound produced 
no tumors. Metabolism studies showed that only 0.5 percent of 
the ingested dose is eliminated in the urine in contrast to 25 
percent of AAF. 

Summing this work up then, it seems evident that the free 
amine must be available either by direct administration or as a 
product of metabolism. 

Pinck (1948) has postulated that two molecules of acetylami- 
nofluorene become joined together in the 9-position to form 
2.2’-diacetyldiaminobifluorylidene and that this is the essential 
carcinogen. It could react with protein molecules by means of the 
Michael reaction which, after several steps, results in the joining 
together of the protein molecules and the regeneration of the 
bifluorylidene. In order to test Pinck’s hypothesis, we made both 
the bifluoryl, XII, compound and the bifluorylidene, XIII, Weis- 
burger, Weisburger and Ray (1949). Preliminary tests show that 
the bifluoryl compound is noncarcinogenic, while the bifluoryli- 
dene is carcinogenic, but probably no more so than acetylamino- 
fluorene itself. According to Pinck’s hypothesis it should be more 
highly carcinogenic. 

Another test of Pinck’s hypothesis has been made from an 
entirely different standpoint. Bielschowsky (1945) found that the 
only metabolite of AAF that has been isolated, contained the 
hydroxyl group in the 7-position. To determine whether hydro- 
xylation of AAF is a necessary prelude to carcinogenesis, we have 
prepared 7-chloro-2-acetylaminofluorene. Tests of this material 
show it to be noncarcinogenic. Evidently the blocking of the 7- 
position by chlorine makes it impossible for the AAF to function 
as a Carcinogen. 

Now the introduction of chlorine in the 2 and 7-positions has 
been shown to greatly increase the activity of the 9-position. If 
Pinck’s hypothesis were correct, 7-chloro-2-acetylaminofluorene 
should be a more active carcinogen, whereas it seems to be en- 
tirely inactive. 


232 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


The question then arose whether some active group in the 7th- 
position would also destroy the potency of the compound. To 
investigate this, we prepared 2,7-diacetyldiaminofluorene. On test- 
ing, this seemed to be more actively carcinogenic than AAF itself. 

It has recently been shown by Miller and coworkers ( 1949’) 
that the methylene bridge in the 9-position is not essential for 
carcinogenesis. When replaced by sulfur, the incidence of tumors 
in the mammary gland and ear duct was about the same as with 
AAF. When converted to the sulfoxide, the activity was reduced 
but not destroyed. When oxygen replaced the methylene bridge, 
the compound was still capable of producing tumors. In fact, 
when the bridge was omitted entirely, as in N,N-dimethyl-4- 
aminobiphenyl, the compound still produced tumors. In the light 
of these results, it can be seen quite definitely that while the 
7-position in fluorene must be reactive, the 9-position is nonessential. 

It would seem, therefore, that Pinck’s hypothesis is faulty in 
that it neglects to take into consideration the importance of the 
7-position and emphasizes the importance of the 9-position. 

We hope, by continuation of these investigations, to learn some- 
thing about the mode of initiation of cancer by chemicals and 
perhaps to gain a clue as to how spontaneous tumors originate. 


LITERATURE CITED 


BACHMANN, W. E. and BRADBURY, J. T. 
1987. Synthesis of 5-phenll-9,10-dialkyl-9,10-dihydroxy-9,10-dihydro-1,2- 
benzanthracene and related compounds. J Org. Chem., 2:175-182. 
BIELSCHOWSKI, F. 
1945. A metabolite of 2-acetamidofluorene. Biochem. J., 39:287-289. 
BLOCH, E. H. and KENNAWAY, E. L. 
1930. Further experiments on cancer producing substances. Biochem. J., 
24:497-504. 
COOK, J. W. 
1933. Experimental production of malignant tumors. Proc. Roy. Soc. B113: 
277-281. 
COOK, J. W. 
1935. Carcinogenic hydrocarbons and their relation to sterols. Chem. Week- 
blad, 32:563-566. 


COOK, J. W. 
1937. Chemical factors in the etiology of cancer. Bull. soc. chim., [5] 
4:792-804. 


COOK, J. W., DODDS, E. C., HEWETT, C. L. and LAWSON, W. 
1934. Estrogenic activity of condensed ring compounds in relation to their 
biological activities. Proc. Roy. Soc., B114:272-286. 


BIOCHEMICAL ASPECTS OF THE CANCER PROBLEM 233 


COOK, J. W. and HASLEWOOD, G. A. D. 
1938. Conversion of a bile acid into a hydrocarbon derived from 1,2-benza- 
thracene. Chem. and Ind., 52:758-759. 

COOK, J. W. and HASLEWOOD, G. A. D. 

1934. A degradation product of desoxycholic acid. J. Chem. Soc., 428-431. 
FIESER, L. and NEWMAN, M. S. 

1935. Methylcholanthrene from cholic acid. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 57: 961. 
HIEGER, I. 

1980. Spectra of Cancer producing tars and oils. Biochem. J., 24:505-511. 
KENNAWAY, E. L.. 

1924. The formation of cancer producing substances. J. Path. Bact., 

27 :233-238. 
KENNAWAY, E. L. 
1925. Experiments on Cancer producing substances. Brit. Med. J., 2:1-6. 
LATHOP, A. E. C. and LOEB, L. 

1915. Further investigations on the origin of tumors in mice. I. Tumor inci- 
dence and tumor age in various strains of mice. J. Exper. Med., 
22:646-673. 

MILLER, E. C., MILLER, J. A., SAPP, R. W. and WEBER, G. M. 

1949. Studies on the protein bound aminoazo dyes. Cancer Research, 9: 
336-340. 

MILLER, E. C., MILLER, J. A., SANDIN, R. B. and BROWN, R. K. 

1949. Carcinogenic activities of certain analogues of 2-acetylamino-fluorene 
in the rat. Cancer Research, 9:504-509. 

MORRIS, H. P. and WESTFALL, B. B. 

1948. Distribution of N-acetyl-2-aminofluorene in the rat following a single 
feeding. J. Nat. Cancer Inst., 9:149-154. 

MORRIS, H. P., WEISBURGER, J. H. and WEISBURGER, E. K. 

1950. The distribution of radioactivity following the feeding of Carbon 
14-labeled 2-acetylaminofluorene to rats. Cancer Research, 10:620- 
624, 

PINCK, H. 

1948. A biochemical hypothesis of the genesis of cancer. Ann. N. Y. Acad. 

scr., 00:1-17. 
PORT, P. 

1775. Chirurgical observations relative to the cataract, the polypus of the 
nose, the cancer of the scrotum, the different kind of ruptures and the 
mortification of the toes and feet. London. 

RAY, F. E. and ARGUS, M. F. 

1951. The synthesis of 2-acetylaminofluorene-2-N15, Cancer Research, (in 
press ) 

RAY, F. E. and GEISER, R. C. 

1950. Synthesis of 2-acetylaminofluorene-9-C14 and 2-acetylamino-fluorene- 
6-C14, Cancer Research, 10:616-619. 


234. JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


SEXM. 
1918. The incidence and inheritability of spontaneous cancer in mice. 
Zischr. f. Krebsforsch., 18:500-504. 
1926. Nature and heredity in Cancer. J. Cancer Research, 10:15-49. 
WEISBURGER, J. H., WEISBURGER, E. K. and RAY, F. E. 
1949. Compounds for Cancer Research. IV. J. Org. Chem., 14:448-491. 
WIELAND, H. and DANE, E. 
1988. The constitution of bile acids. LII. Z. physiol. chem., 219:240-244. 
WILSON, R. H., DeEDS, F. and COX, A. J. 
1941. The leat and carcinogenic activity of 9-ncbtj aie elude cis) 
Cancer Research, 1:595-608. 
WILSON, R. H., DeEDS, F. and COX, A. J. 
1947. The Carcinogenic activity of 2-acetylaminofluorene. Cancer Research, 
7:444-558. 
YAMAGIWA, K. and ICHIKAWA, K. 
1915. The production of tumors by the application of a solution of coal-tar 
to the ear of the rabbit. Mitt. med. Fak. Tokio, 15:295-299. 


INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERS 
FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Florida Southern College John B. Stetson University 
Lakeland, Florida DeLand, Florida 

Florida State University St. Petersburg Junior College 
Tallahassee, Florida St. Petersburg, Florida 
University of Florida Rollins College 

Gainesville, Florida Winter Park, Florida 
Jacksonville Junior College University of Miami 
Jacksonville, Florida Coral Gables, Florida 
University of Tampa Rose Printing Company 
Tampa, Florida Tallahassee, Florida 


Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(4), 1949( 1950) 


A PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION OF THE GROWTH RE- 
SPONSE OF ASPERGILLUS NIGER TO VARIOUS LEVELS 
OF COPPER AS A BIOLOGICAL METHOD OF DE- 
TERMINING AVAILABLE COPPER IN SOILS? 


5s. N. Epson and F. B. SmirH 


The determination of plant nutrients in soils by the use of fungi 
has been practiced for a considerable period of time. However, 
the use of these microorganisms for measuring available minor 
elements in the soil is of recent origin. 

Impetus for more active research in this field has followed the 
publication of such methods as the lettuce-pot-culture test of Jenny 
(1944) and the Neubauer Seedling Method (Neubauer and 
Schnieder 1933), which takes from six to ten weeks to produce 
results. Mulder (1938) used a modification of the Neubauer 
Method in his first attempts to solve the reclamation of soils in 
Holland. Here again, the time required for the test proved to be 
a great disadvantage even though the results obtained were quite 
satisfactory. In the meantime, considerable information on the 
nutrition of fungi had accumulated. Steinberg (1919) suggested 
the use of Aspergillus niger for the study of minor elements as 
early as 1919. Later, he confirmed the essentiality of heavy metals 
for the nutrition of this organism (1934, 1939, 1945). Mulder re- 
duced the time element for these tests to four or five days by 
using the fungus that the work of Steinberg suggested. With the 
use of Aspergillus niger Mulder was able to complete his research 
on the “reclamation disease” on Dutch soils and at the same time 
present a biological test for available copper, magnesium, and 
molybdenum in soils. 

The work of Foster 1989 and Beadle (1944) indicates that certain 
minor elements function as catalysts in the metabolism of both 
higher and lower plants. Without the minor elements, the enzymes 
become inoperative and, consequently, no growth results. Con- 
sidering a large group of enzymes that require magnesium, zinc, 
iron, manganese, and copper, it appears that most of the heavy 
metals are nonspecific and, to some extent, interchangeable. How- 


1A Contribution from the Department of Soils, University of Florida. 


238 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


ever, copper seems to be an exception, since it is confined to the 
copper oxidase enzymes, tyrosinase, laccase, and ascorbic oxidase 
(Foster 1949) which are known to be responsible for the black 
and brown pigmentation that accompanies the spore formation 
of Aspergillus niger. 

It is with the pronounced color effect that the following pre- 
liminary investigation of the growth response of Aspergillus niger 
to various levels of copper was concerned. If the physiological 
changes in relation to increments of copper are sufficiently different 
in their effect on the physical appearance of the spores, then a 
useful biological test for available copper in soils is indicated. 


EXPERIMENTAL 


Aspergillus niger was isolated from a fresh soil sample which 
had been treated with glucose and buffered at a fairly low acid 
reaction. 


Pfeffer's (1895) medium was selected for the study of available 
copper instead of Mulder medium, principally because it is 
buffered at a lower pH. This was a definite advantage since CaCO; 
was used to purify the basal medium which, in turn, would exert 
a considerable influence on the reaction of the solution. Ammonium 
nitrate was used instead of potassium nitrate in order to maintain 
an acid reaction. The use of sucrose in place of glucose is con- 
sidered beneficial, because the non-reducing sugars are known to 
be better able to stand the high temperature of the autoclave 
without loss of available carbon. 


With some revisions, the procedure of Mulder (1939-40) was 
adopted, the principal changes being the method of purification 
and the size of the flasks used in the test. The Steinberg (1919) 
CaCO; coprecipitation method was utilized to purify the basal 
medium and 500 ml flasks were used. Two solutions were employed 
in this, namely, solution A with the purified basal medium plus 
copper; and solution B with the purified basal medium plus cop- 
per, iron, manganese, zinc, and boron. In each instance a prelimi- 
nary test was performed, using no copper as compared to 2 ppm 
of copper in two small 125 ml flasks. Results of the preliminary 
test indicated the approximate response of this organism to copper. 
One set of standard cultures was grown in each of the two media, 
using none, 0.12, 0.25, 0.50, 1.0, and 2.0 ppm of copper. The growth 


GROWTH RESPONSE OF A NIGER TO COPPER 237 


on the soil culture with an unknown amount of copper was com- 
pared with these standards to determine the amount of available 
copper present in the soil sample. The entire procedure can be 
conveniently presented in the following steps: 


ue 


Weigh out two % gm samples of air-dry soil, previously 
passed through a 20 mesh sieve. Place in 500 ml Erlen- 
meyer flasks. 

Add 20 ml of nutrient solution containing the following 
ingredients to each flask of soil: 

(A) Pfeffer’s Basal Medium plus Cu 


EEROSCt | Shinn. con yaiczasiaec, <peay ats 30.0 gm 
MORE oe en ag SROs 10.0 gm 
Lg = G1 AUG pele altlimatagpariad Saas We oes 5.0 gm 
[PSL ils 66 Ailend bes 2.5 gm 
CIOS US ra LE bs Oe iat reesnagelenpeteeteraten ( variable ) 

(B) Pfeffer’s Basal Medium plus Cu, Mn, Zn, Fe, B 
ST EC neon ie. eee 50.0 gm 
II IN CG) recog ake eel tse 10.0 gm 
S15 E pimonamneteh ce: Salen Sete petit 5.0 gm 
|)" yt @ PAT 5 © giant Seen 2.5 gm 
SESE FON die Soa rcazeyn 3 wt hs ( variable ) 

Pee SC) se ATO, foc Paes. oss cick 0.75 ppm Mn 
= E15 U0) Selon Mellie I gaat al dine, Renan 0.75 ppm B 

Le Sale Ss et O ide eeenine batts sae 10.00 ppm Fe 
TES o ed 5 Gt 0 site mmiiatemel pier eines & Mee 4.00 ppm Zn 


To remove traces of Cu from the basal medium, heat nu- 
trient solution 15 minutes at 15 Ibs. pressure in the presence 
of 15 grams per liter of pure CaCOs, filter while hot. 

Add the desired Fe, Mn, Zn, B, and Cu salts to the nutrient 
solution after filtration. 

The nutrient solution is now sterilized in the autoclave at 
105 C for 5 minutes. 


. Prepare in the same manner without soil, a series of six 


500 ml flasks, containing CuSO..5H:O in the following 
amounts: O, 0.12, 0.25, 0.50, 1.00, 2.00 ppm. 

To avoid absorption of the Cu on the glass surface of the 
flask, the CuSo;.5H,O is added to the solution after 
sterilization. 


238 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


8. Inoculate the solution in the flasks with a few drops of a 
heavy spore suspension of Aspergillus niger. The suspension 
is prepared by washing the growth of a 5 day old slant 
with 2 or 3 ml of copper-free nutrient solution. 

9. Incubate the culture at 28 C for 100 hours. Refer the un- 
known sample to the series of culture standards and record 
the comparative development of spores in terms of ppm 


of Cu. 
10. Cu in ppm of air-dry soil.? 
Less than’ 0.4) ppm'Gu “ino ee ee Very deficient 
OMe. Payppm Cates, Sor ee ms: .... Slightly deficient 
Greater than 2.0 ppm Cu ......- 7% Not deficient 


The preliminary results provided sufficient contrast for both 
solution A and B to warrant further investigation. A noticeable 
difference in the amount and nature of mycelium was evident in 
solution A, probably due to the lack of interchangeable or sup- 
porting minor elements. 

The results obtained from the standard cultures further sup- 
ported the findings revealed by the preliminary studies. In solu- 
tion A a decided variation in amount of mycelium was produced. 
The optimum appeared to be about 1.0 ppm of copper. There 
was a noticeable inhibition of growth with 2.0 ppm of copper. 
The rate of development progressed proportionally to a maximum 
effect at about 4 days. In solution B a very vigorous growth oc- 
curred, starting rapidly within the first 24 hours. At the end of 
3 days, a large amount of pure white mycelium was produced in 
all flasks. On the fourth day, black spores first appeared at 2.0 
ppm of copper and gradually spread, in proportion to the amount 
of copper to the blank, which had little or no spore formation. 
The contrast was easily distinguishable by the amount of black 
spore color present. The optimum seemed to be at about 100 hours. 

The unknown with % gram of the soil sample corresponded to 
about 0.25 ppm of copper for solution A and about 0.30 ppm of 
copper for solution B. According to the values prescribed by Mulder, 
less than 0.4 ppm of copper would be considered very deficient. 
This value, of course, would have to be fixed for local conditions; 
i.e., type of soil, crops, and climate. 


2Adapted from Mulder’s values for copper deficient soils. 


GROWTH RESPONSE OF A NIGER TO COPPER 239 


It is of interest to note that the optimum changed from 1.0 ppm 
for copper alone, to over 2.0 ppm when iron, boron, manganese, 
and zinc were present. 

The medium with iron, zinc, manganese, and boron present is 
considered more satisfactory than the one without these elements, 
since it is reasonable to assume that the small amount of soil used 
in the test will have minute amounts of these elements present. 

SUMMARY 

A preliminary study of the effects of copper on the morphological 
characterisics of Aspergillus niger is reported. 

Pfeffer’s basal medium was used for the investigation, because it 
contained sufficient buffer capacity and utilized sucrose as a 
source of energy. 

When used alone, copper produced black spores and greatly 
affected the amount of growth present in proportion to the con- 
centration of this element. Optimum spore formation and amount 
of mycelium occurred at about 1.0 ppm of copper. 

Copper, in addition to zinc, iron, manganese, and boron pro- 
duced an abundant amount of mycelium for all concentrations of 
copper. However, the maximum spore formation occurred at 2.00 
ppm of copper and varied in proportion to decreasingly smaller 
amounts of copper. The blank showed little or no spore formation. 
When % gram of soil was added to 20 ml of the conper-free nu- 
trient, a characteristic spore formation occurred which appeared 
to be in proportion to the amount of copper present in the soil. 
This amount is referred to the culture standards to determine the 
ppm of available copper present. 

The results obtained warrant further investigation of Aspergillus 
niger as a simple biological method of analysis for available copper 
in soils. 

LITERATURE CITED 


BEADLE, G. W. 
1944. Genetics and metabolism of Neurospora. Physiol. Rev. 25:648. 


FOSTER, J. W. 

1939. The heavy metal nutrition of fungi. Bot. Rev. 5:207-239. 
FOSTER, J. W. 

1949. Chemical activities of fungi. Academic Press, New York, N. Y. 
JENNY, H. 


1944, Nutrient level determinations by greenhouse and field methods of 
studying fertilizer needs. Unpublished work. 


240 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


McGEORGE, W. T. 
1946. Modified Neubauer method for soil cultures. Soil Sci. 62:61-70. 
McGEORGE, W. T. 

1946. Soil properties contributing to citrus chlorosis as revealed by seedling 

tests. Ariz. Agr. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 112:129-165. 
MULDER, E. G. 

1938. Over DeBeteekenis Van Koper voor den Groei van Planten, pp. 38-48. 

Diss. Landbouwhoogeschool, Wageningen, Holland. 
MULDER, E. G. 

1939-1940. On the use of microorganisms in measuring a deficiency of 
copper, magnesium, and molybdenum in soils. Antony Van Leeu- 
wenhoek 6:99-109. 

NEUBAUER, H., and SCHNEIDER, W. 

1923. Die Nahrstoffaufnahme des Keimpflanzen und Ihre Anwendung auf 
die Bestimmung des Nahrstoffgehalts der Boden. Atschr. Pflanzener- — 
hahr. u. Dungung. 2:329-362. 

PFEFFER, W. 

1895. Ueber Election eae ca) Nahrstoffe. Jahrb. wiss. Botan. 28:205- 

26827) 
STEINBERG, R. A. 
1919. A study of some factors in the chemical stimulation of the growth of 
Aspergillus niger. Amer. Jour. Bot. 6:380. 
STEINBERG, R. A. 
1984. The so-called chemical stimulation of Aspergillus niger by iron, zinc, 
. and other heavy metals. ue Torrey Bot. Club. 61:241. 
STEINBERG, R. A. 

1939. Growth of fungi in synthetic nutrient solutions. Bot. Rev. 5: No. 6, 

pp. 327-350. 
STEINBERG, R. A. 

1945. Use of microorganisms to determine essentiality of minor elements. 

Soil Sci. 60:185-189. 


Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., .12(4), 1949( 1950). 


THE NUMBER OF FEATHERS IN SOME BIRDS! 
PrerRcE BRODKORB 


Information on the number of feathers in various species of birds 
is scarce, the most extensive work being that of Wetmore (1936), 
who investigated 73 species of passerine birds and six representa- 
tives of four other orders. Four additional species were reported 
by Dwight (1900), Knappen (1932), and Ammann (1937). In all 
83 species, representative of six orders, have been studied. In the 
present paper counts of 16 species are given, raising the overall 
total of species to 94 and the number of orders to eleven. 

The feathers were removed individually with forceps, counted, 
and discarded. The smaller ones were counted under a dissecting 
microscope. Since counting is very tedious work, a tally of each 
hundred feathers or less was kept. Counts on an individual bird 
were made at intervals over a period of several days, to mitigate 
satigue and consequent error. 

Unless otherwise specified, only the contour feathers were 
counted. In cases of doubt as to the type of feather magnification 
was used. Since my birds were under refrigeration for some time, 
during which significant weight losses may have occurred, data on 
the weights of the bird and its plumage were not obtained. Rough 
calculations, however, indicate that in many species the weight 
of the feathers exceeds that of the skeleton. 

In further work of this type it would be desirable to record 
the feather number by pterylae. When I first began counting no 
record of the distribution of feathers was made. On later counts 
I divided the body into regions, but these included parts or all 
of several pterylae. | 

The number of feathers in relation to body size has been used 
to derive formulae relevant to the temperature control mechanism | 
(Hutt and Ball, 1938). Before such formulae can have much 
meaning, however, several other factors need to be investigated, 
such as the weight of the feathers, the texture of the feathers 
(whether lax or compact), the presence or absence of bare areas 
of skin, the occurrence and size of aftershafts, and especially the 
density of the downy under layer. 

Little is known about the variation in the number of feathers 
among individuals in the same species. Wetmore recorded 1119- 


1A Contribution from the Department of Biology, University of Florida. 


242 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


2973 contour feathers among members of the Passeriformes. In 
this same order 3138-4342 contour feathers were reported by 
Dwight, by Ammann, and by Staebler (1941). My counts in this 
order, 3183-4607, are in close agreement with those of the latter 
group of authors. My counts of non-passerine species are also sub- 
stantially higher than Wetmore’s figures for non-passerines. 

For aid in securing the specimens used I am indebted to Julian 
J. Baumel, Byrum W. Cooper, Thomas W. Hicks, Benjamin B. 
Leavitt, Joseph C. Moore, Gideon E. Nelson, Jr., James A. Oliver, 
and Paul G. Pearson. 

COLYMBIDAE 

Podilymbus podiceps podiceps. Pied-billed Grebe. Female. Col- 
lected December 30, 1948, 12 miles southeast of Bronson, Levy — 
County, Florida. Total contour feathers 15,016. These were dis- 
tributed as follows: head and neck 7912, body and legs 5412, left 
wing 779, right wing 913. 

ARDEIDAE 

Ixobrychus exilis exilis. Least Bittern. Male. Collected May 20, 
1949, at Payne’s Prairie, Alachua County, Florida. Total contour 
feathers 3867; total powder downs 846. The powder downs were 
distributed as follows: left pectoral 206, right pectoral 192, left 
femoral 235, right femoral 213. I also counted 256 filoplumes, but 
this figure does not represent the total number of that type. 

ANATIDAE 

Anas crecca carolinensis. Green-winged Teal. Female. Collected 
January 28, 1949, at Sheepshead Creek, Levy County, Florida. 
Total contour feathers 11,450. These were distributed as follows: 
head 4832, neck 2226, body 1690, oil gland 22, tail 378, left leg 
160, right leg 152, left wing 976, right wing 1014. 

Anas acuta tzitzihoa. Pintail. Male, nearly adult. Collected Jan- 
uary 28, 1949, at Sheepshead Creek, Florida. Total contour feathers 
14,914, distributed as follows: 10,492 on head and neck, 2701 on 
legs and body, 1721 on wings. On the rump there were found 
02 semiplumes; no others were seen in other regions. I also pulled 
off incidentally and counted 379 downs, but this figure was only 
a small fraction of the total. I estimate that the number of downs 
on a duck approximates the number of contour feathers. 

Two other species in this family have been counted. Knappen 
(1932) recorded 11,903 in a mallard (Anas platyrhynchos), and 


NUMBER OF FEATHERS IN SOME BIRDS 243 


Ammann (1987) reported 25,216 on a whistling swan (Cygnus 
columbianus ). 
RALLIDAE., 

Rallus longirostris scotti. Florida Clapper Rail. Female. Col- 
lected April 30, 1949, at Cedar Key, Levy County, Florida. Total 
contour feathers 7224, distributed as follows: 8956 on head and 
neck, body and legs 2233, left wing 515, right wing 520. 

Fulica americana americana. American Coot. Female. Collected 
November 16, 1949, at Welaka, Putnam County, Florida. Total 
contour feathers 13,918. They were distributed as follows: head 
4989, neck 2899, left wing 723, right wing 720, body and legs 
4551, rectrices 14, oil gland 17. 

SCOLOPACIDAE 

Erolia minutilla. Least Sandpiper. Female. Collected April 30, 

1949, at Cedar Key, Florida. Total contour feathers 4480. 
STRIGIDAE 

Otus asio asio. Southern Screech Owl. Male. Collected February 
18, 1949, two miles north of Gainesville, Alachua County, Florida. 
Total contour feathers 6458, distributed as follows: head 2345, 
neck 340, body 896, left wing 763, right wing 818, left leg 659, 
right leg 637. 

Strix varia georgica. Florida Barred Owl. Male. Collected June 
24, 1949, at Gulf Hammock, Levy County, Florida. Total contour 
feathers 9206. This specimen had a great many pin-feathers. The 
screech owl which I counted, however, had very little down and 
still fewer semiplumes, so the barred owl figure is believed to be 
fairly accurate. 

CAPRIMULGIDAE 

Chordeiles minor minor. Eastern Nighthawk. Female. Collected 
April 30, 1949, at Cedar Key, Florida. Total contour feathers 
8332, distributed as follows: head and neck 1252, legs and body 
1115, left wing 445, right wing 520. Wetmore (1936:166) reported 
2034 and 2265 contour feaathers in two specimens of this race. 

TROCHILIDAE 

Archilochus colubris. Ruby-throated Hummingbird. Female. Col- 
lected May 15, 1949, at Gainesville, Florida. Total contour feathers 
1518, distributed as follows: head 881, neck 162, body and legs 
684, left wing 143, right wing 148. Wetmore (loc. cit) reported 
940 feathers in a male of this species. 


244 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


PICIDAE 
Centurus carolinus carolinus. Carolina Red-bellied Woodpecker. 
Male. Collected April 24, 1949, at Santa Fe River, near High 
Springs, Alachua County, Florida. Total contour feathers 3665, 
distributed as follows: head 1557, neck 258, body and legs 1034, 
left wing 456, right wing 365. 
CORVIDAE 
Cyanocitta cristata cristata. Southern Blue Jay. Juvenile female. 
Collected July 25, 1949, at Gainesville, Florida. Total contour 
feathers 3778. Wetmore (loc. cit.) reported 1898 feathers in a 
male of the northern blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata bromia). 
MIMIDAE 
Mimus polyglottos polyglottos. Eastern Mockingbird. Male. Col- — 
lected March 18, 1949, at Gainesville, Florida. Total contour feath- 
ers 3297. The downs were estimated at several hundred. Wetmore 
(op. cit.: 167) reported 1601 feathers in a female of this subspecies. 
Toxostoma rufum rufum. Eastern Brown Thrasher. Juvenile fe- 
male, full grown. Collected July 9, 1949, in Escambia County,, 
Florida. Total contour feathers 3379. Wetmore (loc. cit.) reported. 
1960 feathers in a male of this form. 
ICTERIDAE 
Seannclle magna argutula. Southern Meadowlark. Male. Collected 
February 15, 1949, two miles south of Kenansville, Osceola County, 
Florida. Total contour feathers 4607. 
FRINGILLIDAE 
Hichingaden: cardinalis floridana. Florida Cardinal. Female. Col- 
lected July 26, 1949, at Gainesville, Florida. Total contour feathers. 
3183. Wetmore (loc. cit.) reported 2280 feathers in a male of the 
eastern race, Richmondena cardinalis cardinalis. 


LITERATURE CITED 
AMMANN, G. A. 
1937. Number of contour feathers in Cygnus and Xanthocephalus. Auk, 54: 
201-202. 
DWIGHT, J. 
1900. The sequence of plumages and moults of the passerine birds of New 
York. Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci., 13: 73-360, pl. 1-7. 
HUTT, F. B., and L. BALL 
1938. Number of feathers and body size in passerine birds. Auk, 55:: 
651-657. 
KNAPPEN, P. 
1982. Number of feathers on a duck. Auk, 49: 461. 


NUMBER OF FEATHERS IN SOME BIRDS 245 


STAEBLER, A. E. 
1941. Number of contour feathers in the English sparrow. Wilson Bull., 
58: 126-127. 
WETMORE, A. 
1986. The number of contour feathers in passeriform and related birds. 
Auk, 58: 159-169. 


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Quart. Journ. Fla. Acad. Sci., 12(4), 1949(1951) 


PARTICLE SIZE BY X-RAY SCATTERING 


K. L. YupowItTcH 
Florida State University 


Consider the measurement of particle size by two radiation 
techniques. First let us examine the range of particle size measure- 
able by imaging or microscopy. From the resolution limit: 


eee = ) min’N“ max 
= ) max/N4A min 


where: d = particle size 
= wavelength ~ 
= numerical aperture. 


Inserting the extreme values of wavelength and numerical aper- 
ture attainable with light and electrons: 


dmin 
Light 4000/2 = 2000 
Electrons | 0.05/0.002 = 25 


dmax 
A max/® = ~@ 
A max’? = © 


where: lengths are in Angstrom Units.. 


Now consider the range of application of the second technique, 
diffraction. From a Bragg’s Law relation: 


pee = \ min”? *” §max 
dman = \ max’? si2 §min 
where: 6 = half difffraction angle. 


Inserting the extreme values of wavelength and half diffraction 
angle attainable with light, electrons and X-rays: 


dmin dmax 
Light 4000/2 = 2000 | 6000/0.002 = 3 x 108 
Electrons | 0.05/2 = 0.025 0.1/0.002 = 50 
X-rays ODi2e= 


0.25 2/0.002 = 1000 


where: lengths are in Angstrom Units. 


PARTICLE SIZE BY X-RAY SCATTERING 247 


From the above figures it appears that there are adequate over- 
lappings of range to permit measurement by at least one of these 
techniques of any particle size. However, the electron bombard- 
ment and specimen desiccation make it impossible to utilize 
electron microscopy for many materials. If, in addition, we con- 
sider experimental imperfections, we arrive at the following con- 
servative ranges: (in Angstrom Units’) 


X-ray (or electron) diffraction | — 100 
| Blectrn imaging (if available) 500 — 50,000 
Light imaging (or diffraction) 5000 — oo 

Ordinary X-ray diffraction and electron or light microscopy 
leave a gap of 100 to 500 or 100 to 5000 Angstrom Units. This 
range intermediate between atomic and microscopic regions was 
characterized by Ostwald in 1915 as “die Welt der vernachlassigten 
Dimensionen.” The new realization of the significance of colloids 
in the plastics, rubber, oil, food and dyestuffs industries and of 
toxins and viruses in fundamental medicine has created a practical 
as well as academic interest in this heretofore neglected range. 

A number of ingenious methods have been developed for meas- 
uring these small particles. These methods are mainly based on 
sedimentation velocities and surface effects like absorption. One 
sometimes obtains a particle weight, sometimes a particle count, 
sometimes a particle surface. Usually the result is a sort of aver- 
age—different averages from different methods. In the event of a 
particle of unknown or unsymmetrical shape or carrying surface 
,zayers, the problem is complicated indeed. Suffice it to say tnat 
these methods alone do not give us all the information we might 
desire about our particles. The remainder of this discussion is 
concerned only with efforts to extend the X-ray diffraction method 
above the conservative 100 Angstrom Unit limit, and supplement 
these methods. 

The first of two X-ray diffraction techniques employed in particle 
size measurement is known as line broadening. Line broadening 
is observed as a diffuseness in the lines of a Debye-Scherrer X-ray 
powder pattern as the crystalline particles become smaller than a 
few hundred Angstrom Units. This phenomenon is quite analogous 
to the lack of resolution of spectral lines from an optical grating 
as the total number of grating lines is reduced. The approximate 
intensity distribution may be expressed by a Gaussian. 


248 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Within the past decade a second X-ray technique for particle 
size measurement has been developed. By treating the particle 
as a homogeneous mass of electronic scattering centers, a distribu- 
tion is derived for the intensity of X-rays scattered at small angles 
from the main beam. The Rayleigh-Gans expression for this inten- 
sity distribution is commonly approximated by a Gaussian. 

For both cases, the Gaussian distribution may assume the same 
logarithmic form: 


where: I 
C 


log I = C — (kd/A)? 


intensity of scattered X-rays 
constant of specimen: 

scattering angle 

1.17 (cos 6)¥? for line broadening 
0.93 for small angle scattering 
Bragg angle for line 


oan AS 
HS a ah 


In both of these X-ray techniques, as in optical diffraction, the 
angular broadening (g) is proportional to and approximately equal 
to (,\/d). To achieve an ideal broadening of several degrees, it 
is necessary that the wavelength of radiation used be about one 
order of magnitude smaller than the particle size. To best measure 
100 to 5000 Angstrom Unit particles, we require ideally about 
100 Angstrom Unit radiation. As this X-ray-ultra-violet radiation is 
so difficult to produce and use, we choose to compromise on about 
10 Angstrom Unit X-rays. Such X-rays are termed “soft,” and 
must be used in vacuum to avoid excessive air absorption. 

The use of such long wavelengths improves the resolution by 
spreading the diffraction pattern over such large angles that the 
geometric smearing covers a relatively small increment of the pat- 
tern. That is, the soft X-rays give rise to sufficient true broadening 
to make insignificant the spurious broadening from experimental 
imperfections. | 

In addition it should prove possible under favorable conditions 
to resolve the weak secondary intensity maxima about the main 
beam, which are predicted by the rigorous small angle scattering 
theory. These maxima are analogous to the corona rings fre- 
quently observed about the moon. The location of one or more 
of the intensity maxima affords another means of determining the 


PARTICLE SIZE BY X-RAY SCATTERING 249 


particle size. Theory predicts the peaks at values of (kg/xd)d 
= 1.76, 2.72, etc. 

As an example of the application of soft X-rays, consider this 
study of colloidal gold with aluminum k-a X-rays ,) = 8.32 Ang- 
stoms ). Figure 1 shows the small angle scattering pattern obtained 
on the film. Figure 2 shows a log I vs. (kg/\)2 plot from the 
densitometer record of this pattern. A curve obtained with con- 
ventional hard copper radiation is shown in the same figure. 


Fig. 1. 


The particle size may be obtained directly as the square root 
of the slope. The aluminum curve yields a value of 602 Angstroms. 
The linear portion of the copper curve, however, is crowded to 
immeasureably small angles. An attempt to deduce particle size 
from this curve leads only to a minimum value of about 300 
Angstroms. 

The first secondary peak on the aluminum curve, correspond- 
ing to (kg/)d = 1.76, is found at (kg/\) = 3.05 x 10°%. The 
particle size from this peak position is then (1.76/3.05) x 10* or 


250 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


576 Angstrom Units. This peak is completely absent on the copper 
curve. whe ¢ 

We have, by employing soft X-rays, measured 600 Angstrom 
particles ‘to within about 5% error. Conventional X-rays with the 
same technique gave unreliably low results. We may conclude that 
the use of soft X-rays extends the applicability of size determi- 
nation by diffraction above 100 and towards 5000 Angstroms. 


100 


LoeI vs. (K@/X)- 
50k. FOR 
ALUMINUM AND COPPER RADIATION 


INTENSITY 
° 


SLOPE =—3.62 x10” 


3 bi 8 10 12 14 
(KO/))~ [x10 © ANGSTROM~2] 


Fic.2 


NEWS AND COMMENTS 


It has been brought to the attention of the Editor that some 
members apparently are under the impression that manuscripts 
may be submitted for publication in the Journal only at certain 
times. That is absolutely not the case. You may submit manu- 
scripts to the Editor any day in the year; incidentally, manu- 
scripts should be mailed directly to the Editor. Sometimes manu- 
scripts are handed or mailed to us by persons other than the 
author that turn out not to be intended for publication. Therefore, 
we preter to receive manuscripts directly from the author. 

The Council met in Lakeland on October 28, 1950. President 
H. H.-Sheldon called the Council to order at 8:30 A. M. The 
following members were present: J. Corrington, T. S. Dietrich, 
J. E. Hawkins, W. Melcher, C. S. Nielsen, C. T. Reed, B. P. Reinsch, 
Earl Smith, H. K. Wallace, G. F. Weber, A. M. Winchester. Items 
of possible interest to the membership at large from the Secretary's 
minutes are as follows: 

The Secretary-Treasurer’s report indicated the Academy was 
heading into harder times. It was also reported that the Printer 
had indicated he was being forced to increase prices. If more 
income is not forthcoming something will have to be done about 
the size of the Journal. 

The Editor reported no manuscripts on hand for Volume 12, 
Number 4. 

The Editor reported that since Science Hall at Gainesville had 
been condemned all of the back numbers of the Academy Journal 
had been re-wrapped and stored in the University Library. 

The Advertising Manager reported that there had been no 
response from the Advertising Committees set up from the various 
institutions to solicit advertising. Only one ad had been secured 
up to the time of his report. This is one way in which the size of 
the Journal can be maintained or increased—each ad will pay 
for several pages of printing. 

The President reported no progress had been made on the 
problem of state taxation on Academy publications. The Council 
voted this problem into the lap of the Public Relations Committee, 
but every member should take the opportunity to “educate” the 
local representatives when the occasion presents itself. 


252 JOURNAL OF THE FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


The following members were reported as deceased by the 
Necrology Committee: C. E. Bell, R. W. Harrison, L. H. Hadson, 
A. McBride, J. E. Spurr, J. H. Terrill. 

The President appointed a Library Committee consisting of 
C. J. Goin (Chairman), J. E. Hawkins, H. K. Wallace. 

Clyde T. Reed (University of Tampa) was appointed A. A. A. S. 
representative to attend the Academy Conference in Cleveland 
at the Christmas Meeting. 

The meetings in Lakeland on the campus of Florida Southern 
College, December 1 and 2, were quite enjoyable. Highlights 
included the weather, the banquet, the hospitality (both native 
and foreign). Tampa was selected as the site for the 1951 meet- 
ings. Mr. Edward P. St. John was awarded the 1949 A. A. A. S. 
Grant-in-Aid to help finance publication of his researches on the 
Ophioglossaceae of Florida. 

In Volume 12, Number 1 we reported the presence of Dr. W. C. 
Allee, of the University of Chicago, on the campus of the Uni- 
versity of Florida as a guest. Now we are pleased to report that 
he has taken up residence in Gainesville and is the new head of 
the. Department of Biology. Dr. Allee has friends and former 
students throughout the state who will be delighted to learn of 
his migration. . 

Dr. John H. Davis, Jr. (Botany, U. of F.) has recently returned 
full:of vim and vigor from a year’s trip to New Zealand, bearing, 
among other things, as gifts to the Department of Biology, two 
specimens of the rare “Sphenodon”. John declares that life “down 
under’ is a little more austere than we are used to here at home. 

Dr. Lewis Berner (Biology, U. of F.) has also recently returned 
from a trip, only he traveled in Africa, making an entomological 
investigation of the Volta River basin. 

News from Florida State University includes the publication of 
an outstanding book “Catholic Social Thought” by Melvin J. 
Williams (Sociology) and the arrival on the campus of Meyer 
F. Nimkoff to assume the duties. of Head of the Department of 
Sociology. Dr. Nimkoff was formerly Chairman of the Department 
of Sociology at Bucknell University and President of the Eastern 
Sociological Society. He replaces Raymond E. Bellamy, long-time 
Council member and one of the founders of the Academy. Dr. 
Bellamy had requested relief from administrative duties in order 


NEWS AND COMMENTS 253 


to devote more time to teaching and research. We were pleased to 
note the presence of Dr. Nimkoff at the meetings in Lakeland. 

Miss Louise Williams did a mighty fine job organizing and con- 
ducting the meetings of the Junior Academy in Lakeland. The 
program looked interesting and the banquet was a sell-out. Dr. 
Winchester was also involved as coordinator for the Junior Acad- 
emy. Congratulations to both of you. 

Congratulations, too, to T. Stanton Dietrich (Sociology, F. S. U.) 
for a fine job as our first Advertising Manager. The ads which 
appear in this number are the result of his efforts. The first ads 
are probably the hardest to secure. Now that the ice is broken 
the Advertising Manager’s job may not be so formidable (we 
hope). Incidentally, Dr. Dietrich is the only Academy member 
who has responded to my pleas for material for the News and 
Comments section. 

The By-Laws were amended in December, 1949, to increase the 
number of classes of membership so that there would be one to 
fit the pocketbook of every member. Have you increased your 
classification? If not please see the membership categories listed 
elsewhere in this number, keeping in mind that no decreases are 
desired or contemplated. 


REsEARCH NOTES 


RHODODENDRON CHAPMANII FOUND BETWEEN TWO PREVIOUSLY 
REPORTED STATIONS. — Rhododendron Chapmanii had, until 1942, been 
considered to be confined to the low pine woods of West Florida, more 
specifically the lower reaches of the Apalachicola River and pin pointed in a 
relatively small area north of Port Saint Joe. 

In March of 1942 Dr. Henry R. Totten of the University of North Carolina, 
then major in the army at Camp Blanding, located a small colony of Rhodo- 
dendron Chapmanii on the shores of Kingsley Lake, the report of which colony 
is recorded in Vol. 7, Nos. 2-3, of the Proceedings of the Florida Academy of 
Science for 1944. 

This is to report another site in which are hundreds of plants extending, in 
various concentration, over some forty acres. This site is in Gadsden County, 
about 15 miles southward from Quincy off the Lake Talquin road. It is far 
enough removed from either of the previously reported areas to constitute a 
new station. The plants were observed in bloom and carefully checked against 
yard specimens of the author obtained ten years ago from the Port Saint Joe 
station. — JOHN O. BOYNTON, Florida State University. 


INDEX TO VOLUME 12 


Aspergillus niger, A Preliminary In- 
vestigation of the Growth Re- 
sponse of, to Various Levels of 
Copper as a Biological Method of 
Determining Available Copper in 
Soils, 235 


BOOK REVIEW, 145 


BRODKORB, PIERCH, 241 

Cancer Problem, Biochemical Aspects 
of, 223 . 

Carotid Sinus Syndrome, The, 45 

Cirsium Smallii Britton, 65 


Cynoscion nebulosus, A study of the 
Natural History of the Spotted 
Trout, in the Cedar Key, Florida, 
Area, 147 


DAVIS, CHARLES C., 67 

DE VALL, WILBUR B., 21 

DE VANE, CLAUDE L., 21 
DUTCHER, RAYMOND, 185, 191 


EDSON, SETON N., 105, 235 
ESHLEMAN,S. KENDRICK, III, 35 


EVANS, ELWYN, M.D., 45, 139 

Feathers, The Number of, in Some 
Birds, 241 

Fishes of Orange Lake, Florida 
The, 173 


HARPER, ROLAND M., 1 
Institutional Members, 234 


JACKSON, CURTIS R., 220 


KING, JOSEPH E., 109 


Litcht chinensis Sonn., Anatomy and 
Secondary Growth in the Axis of, 
51 Membership Categories, 222 


Micropterus salmoides flottdanus(Le 
Sueur), Notes on the Food of the 
Largemouth Black Bass, in a 
Florida Lake, 195 


MOODY, WILLIAM DEAN,147 
MURRILL, WILLIAM A.,61, 65 
MCLANE, WILLIAM M., 195,203 


NELSON, GIDEON E., 208 


News and Comments, 63, 251 


Officers for 1950, 50 

Officers for 1951, 219 

Ophioglossaceae, of the Eastern United 
States, Evolution of, 207 

Particle Size by X-ray Scattering, 246 


Pebble Phosphate Striplands, A Field 
Survey of Florida’s, 21 : 


Pericarditis, Acute Benign Nonspecific, 
in a Subtropical Climate, 139 


Plankton of the West Coast of Florida, 
A Preliminary Report on, 109 


Plankton taken in Marine Waters of 
Florida in 1947 and 1948, Obser- 
vations of, 67 


Plants of Florida, A Preliminary List 
of the Endemic. Part IJ]—Notes 
and Summary, 1 


Rain of Organic Matter, Notes on an 
Apparent, 203 

RAY, FRANCIS E., 223 

REDD, JAMES B., 185, 191 


REID, GEORGE K., Jr., 173 
Research Notes, 65, 253 


Rhizophora mangle L., Nutritive Value 


of Mangrove Leaves, 191 


Scleria Berg, A Key to the Genus, in 
South Florida, 220 


SMITH, F. B., 105, 235 


SOKOLOFF, BORIS, 185, 191 


Sponges, A Key to Florida’s Fresh- 
Water, with Descriptive Notes, 35 


ST. JOHN, EDWARD P., 207 


Streptomyces albus, Antibiotic Action 
of, against Mold Decay Organisms 
of Citrus Fruits, 105 


THORNTON, GEO. D., 105 


VENNING, FRANK D., 51 

Violet, A New Florida, 61 

Vitamin ‘P’ Protection against Ra- 
diation, 185 

YUDOWITCH, K. L., 246 


YOUNG, F. N., 145 


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FLORIDA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Contributions to the Journal may be in any of the fields of the 
sciences, by any member of the Academy. Contributions from 
non-members may be accepted by the Editors when the scope of 
the paper or the nature of the contents warrants acceptance in 
their opinion. Acceptance of papers will be determined by the 
amount and character of new information and the form in which 
it is presented. Articles must not duplicate, in any substantial way, 
material that is published elsewhere. Articles of excessive length, 
and those containing tabular material and/or engravings will be 
published only with the financial cooperation of the author. 
Manuscripts are examined by members of the Editorial Board or 
other competent critics. 


MANUSCRIPT FORM.——(1) Typewrite material, using one side of 
paper only; (2) double space all material and leave liberal 
margins; (3) use 8% x 11 inch paper of standard weight (avoid 
onion skin); (4) do not submit carbon copies; (5) place tables on 
separate pages; (6) footnotes should be avoided whenever possible; 
(7) titles should be short; (8) for bibliographic style, note closely 
the practices employed in Vol. 11, No. 4 and later issues; (9) a 
factual summary is recommended for longer papers. 


ILLUSTRATIONS.——Photographs should be glossy prints of good 
contrast. Make line drawings with India ink; plan linework and 
lettering for at least one-half reduction. Do not use typewritten 
labels on the face of the drawings; provide typed legends on sepa- 
rate sheets. 


PROOF.——Proof should be corrected immediately upon receipt 
and returned at once, with manuscript, to the editor. Ordinarily 
page proof will not be sent to the author. Manuscripts and plates 
will not be returned to authors unless requested. Abstracts and 
orders for reprints should be sent to the editor along with corrected 


galley proof. 


REPRINTS.——Should be ordered when galley proof is returned. 
A blank form, with reprint prices, accompanies proof for this 
purpose. No reprints are furnished free to authors. Payment for 
reprints will be made by authors directly to the printer. 


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