Quarterly journal of microscopical science

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COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY,

AT HARVARD COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, MASS.

Founded by private subscription, In LSGL.

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Deposited by ALEX. AGASSIZ.

Bayt.

QUARTERLY JOURNAL

OF

MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE:

EDITED BY

EDWIN LANKESTER, M.D., F.RB.S., F.LS.,

AND

GEORGE BUSK, F.R.C.8.E., F.R.S., Sze. LS.

VOLUME VI.—New Series.

GHith Allustrations on Wood and Stone.

LONDON:
JOHN CHURCHILL AND SONS, NEW BURLINGTON STREET.

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INDEX TO JOURNAL.

VOL. VI, NEW SERIES.

A.

Achromatic condenser, additional stop
recommended for oblique illumina-
tion with the, by B. Wills Richard-
son, 86.

Acarus, on a new species of, by C.
Robertson, 201.

Edogonium, on the resting-spores of,
149.

Aphides, reproduction of, by Balbiani,
253.

Archer, W., remarks on genera, 141.
Ascaris Dactyluris, on the anatomy of,
by Alexander Macalister, 79.

»» wigrovenosa, on the develop-
ment of, by E. C. Mecznikow, 25.
an . on the develop-
ment of, 100.

B.
Balbiani, on reproduction of aphides,
254

Barkas, T.B ., on the stanhoscope, 263.
Beale; Lionel, Dr., F.R.S., micro-
scopical researches on the Cattle
Plague, 141.
Beale’s, Dr., glass reflector, 105.
Berkeley, Rev. M. J., on parasitic
fungi, 260.
Binocular microscope, Collins’s, 49.
ne vision, note on, 50.
Birmingham Natural History and
Microscopical Society, 195.
British Association, papers from, 259.
Bryozoa, on the perforating, of the
family Terebriporide, 157.

C.

Cattle plague, microscopical researches
on the, by Dr. Lionel Beale, F.R.S.,
141.

Cecidomyiz, Meinert on, 255.

Cells, on, 161.

VOL. VI. NEW SER.

Cilio-flagellate Infusoria, proofs of the
animal nature of, 44.

Circulation of the inferior animals, 93.

Connective-tissue, Ordonez on, 257.

Corethra plumicornis, the raetamor-
phoses of, 88.

Crystallization, further remarks on,
by R. Thomas, 177. .

Curtis, F., on improvement of micro-
scope, 264.

Cypridinze, on the organization of the,
35.

Cypris ovum, nearer knowledge of the
young forms of, 33.

D

Diatoms, how to make them stick,
168
» mounting, 106.
Dipterous larve, on the reproduction
of, 33.
Dublin Microscopical Club, proceed-
ings of, 58.
0 2 » 120.
NGO:
2 29 ” 266.
Duncan, P. Martin, histology of the
reproductive organs of the Irid, 12.

E

Echiniscus Sigismundi, of the North
Sea, 92. ;

Entozoa, the so-called “spurious of
diseased meat,” 96.

F.

Frog’s skin, on the ephemeroid layer
of the, 38.

23 ”

G.

Gregarinide, 40.
Greville, Dr. Robert Kaye, F.R.S.1.,
199.

| Growing slides, 105.

U

282

Gulliver, George, F.R.S., on raphides
as natural characters in the British
flora, 1.

H

Hackney Microscopical Society, 194.

Hesse on a new crustacea, 255.

Hyperosmic acid, on the action of, on
animal tissues, 39.

i.
Icthydium, on, by E. C. Mecznikow,
41

Illumination, Count Francisco Castra-
cane’s new method of, 48.

Tllumination, stops recommended for
oblique, by B. Wills Richardson,
FoC.S.1;, 10.

Intestine of the child, on the nervous
plexus in the, 39.

Irid, histology of the reproductive
organs of the, by P. Martin Dun-
can, M.B. Lond., 12.

L.

Larval eyes, 88.

Leptothrix-swarms, and their relation
to the vibriones, 155.

Light reflected from transparent sur-
faces, 167.

M.

Macalister, Alexander, on the anatomy
of Ascaris dactyluris, 79.
Manchester Literary and Philosopbical
Society, proceedings of, 73.
22 2 130.
Mecznikow, E.C., on the development
of Ascaris nigrovenosa, 25.
on Icthydium, &c.,

= on Rhapéocera, 25.
Meinert on Cecidomyie, 255.
Microphotography with high powers,

164.

Microscopical Society, proceedings of,
53, 108, 170.

Moxon, Dr., on motor nerve termira-
tion, 235.

N.

Nervous laminz, on the, of motor
fibres, 42.

Nerve, on termination of motor, by
Dr. Moxon, 235.

Noctiluca, Robin and Legros on, 258.

INDEX TO JOURNAL.

O.

Ordonez on connective-tissue, 257.
Oxford Microscopical Society, 137,
HE :

Parasitism in an undescribed animal,
43.

Pediculus, on the structure of the
mouth in, 95.

Phreoryctes Menkeanus, on, with re-
marks on the structure of other
annelids, 37.

Polyzoa, on the development and fat-
corpuscles of the, by F. A. Smith,
99

Prussie acid, effects of, by T. S. Ralph,
163, 225,
Q

Quekett Microscopical Club, 119.

R

Ralph, T.5., on the effects of prussic
acid, 163, 225.

Raphides, on, as natural characters in
the British flora, by George Gulli-
ver, F.R.S., 1.

Raphides, 46.

Rhabdocela, Mecznikow on,
Rhynconella Geinitziana, on the micro-
scopic structure of the shell, 45.

Richardson, B. Wills, on stops recom-
mended for oblique illumination, 10,
a on an additional stop re-
commended for oblique illumination
with the achromatic condenser,

Robertson, Charles, on a new species
of Acarus, 20.

Robin and Legros on Noctiluca, 258.

Royal Society of Tasmania, 36.

8.

Spermatozoa, on the, and their deve-
lopment, 89.

Stanhoscope, 8S. P. Barkas on, 263.

Sympathetic cord, researches on, 154.

es

Tubes, on cleaning glass, 49.

Ms
Vorticellidan parasites, anatomy and
physiology of, 159.
Vulcanite cells, price of, 168.

PRINTED BY J. E. ADLARD, BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE.

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

On Raruipes as Naturat Cuaracrers in the Britisu
Frora. By Grorce Guiiiver, F.R.S., &c.

Iv has been well remarked by Dr. Lankester, that “the
biography of our British plants has yet to be written, micro-
scope in hand; and it is not till the minute details of the
cell-life of each plant have been recorded that we shall be in
a position to arrive at the laws which govern the life of the
vegetable kingdom.” And, it may be added, until due atten-
tion has been paid to this important subject, we shall never
be able to comprehend and realise all the mysterious plans
and specifications by which nature has marked, for our
instruction, her own affinities and contrasts among allied
groups of that kingdom.

As a fragment towards this desirable object, it is now pro-
posed to give an abstract of my researches on the distribution
of raphides in the British Flora, compiled from numerous
papers published piecemeal in the ‘ Annals of Natural His-
tory’ and other journals ; with elucidations, by some expe-
rimental trials and facts, now first submitted for publication.
Besides these new observations and the inherent interest of
the subject, the present digest may afford materials for useful -
help to such botanists as may like to try the value of
raphides as natural characters in our native plants, and for
the employment of these characters, should the verdict be
' favorable to them, in appropriate parts of future editions of
the British Flora.

Of the former papers a summary, with many fresh observa-
tions, was given in the ‘ Popular Science Review’ for October
last ; but I was then so much engaged with the exotic Flora
and other parts of the subject as to be obliged to dismiss
our indigenous plants with a curt and insufficient notice.
How easily and pleasantly these researches may be made,
and with what hopes of success, I have shown in that
Review. And now it remains to display more particu-

VOL. VI.—NEW SER. A

2 GULLIVER, ON RAPHIDES.

larly the treasures in question of our own Flora, ever bounti-
fully spread before us for the prosecution of the inquiry, and
well fitted to afford many agreeable and instructive “ half-
hours with the microscope.”

Though nothing like a primary importance is claimed for
the raphidian character, it is constant in and diffused through-
out the species, snd sometimes exhibits the only visible dis-
tinction at all, as in fragments of plants; while I believe
that a fair examination will prove that raphides may give a
diagnosis at once as fundamental and universal, and as simple
and truly natural, between plants of some different and
proximate orders, as any one of the secondary characters
heretofore used for this purpose in systematic botany. That
raphides are a true exponent of an essential function of the
cell-life is shown by their constancy in certain plants ;
bearing in mind, too, that the question is not merely one of
such saline crystals as have ever yet been made by the art
of the chemist. An excellent observer, Edwin Quekett,
thought he had formed them artificially, and Mr. Rainey has
given several very instructive observations concerning the
mineral structure of vegetable and animal cells. But John
Quekett, Payen, and others, came to the conclusion that
raphides either have an organic basis or pellicle ; and certain it
is that they commonly occur in bundles, within a living and
beautiful cell, the whole forming an organism as inimitable
by mere chemistry as a spore oragrain of pollen. We must,
therefore, attach a far higher meaning to raphides than would
be implied only by the term crystals.

Concerning the exact value in systematic botany of the
raphidian character, far more observations are required than
I have been able to make. As these are extended, more or
less irregularities and exceptions will surely be found, some
in proof of and others irreconcilable with the rule, especially
in the Flora of the World. Among exotic species I have
already met with anomalies in the Palms, Vines, an Onagrad,
and a Chenopod. But a close examination might show that
many of these exceptions are rather apparent than real. The
abundance of raphides throughout the frame of the foreign
Thelyyonum, as well as the thicker, larger, and angular crys-
tals in the testa of that plant, cannot yet be reconciled with
our present knowledge of the intimate structure of the species
of English Chenopodiaceze. But the Palms may, in truth, in-
clude more than one order. The deviation in Vines occurs in
Rhaganus, a genus lately removed, on other grounds, from this
order ; and Montinia, in which I have failed to find raphides,
perhaps does not really belong to the order Onagracee.

GULLIVER, ON RAPHIDES. 3

' An amusing and not uninstructive asserted exception among
our indigenous Exogens was lately brought to my notice by
a friend. He took a fragment from a plant in his collecting-
box, put it under the microscope, and told me to look and
declare fairly what I saw. Plainly many small raphides. I
then learned that the plant was a Dodder; and much to my
surprise, as I had never found raphides in our plants of this
genus. Accordingly some flowers and bits of its stem were
carefully examined, and with much interest, when no raphides
could be detected. The plant was at last given to me, when,
in reply to my question as to the part in which he had
shown them, he pointed to what he called the scales. And
these turned out to be nothing more than small withered
leaves, probably of Sherardia; certainly forming no part of
the Dodder, and as surely belonging to a species of the raphis-
bearing order Galiacex !

Even granting that the production of raphides, or other
plant-crystals, as the spheraphides of Rhubarb, may be more
or less modified, either by climate, soil, situation, or other
conditions, numerous experiments have led me to the con-
clusion that such agents or influence have so little power as
not to affect the value of raphides as natural characters in
the British Flora, if in any flora; and we shall soon see
how constantly they are present in the plant at all stages of
its growth.

Of our native Onagrads I have for years, and at all seasons,
been examining specimens from various localities, and ever
with the very same result as.to the raphidian character of
these plants ; and so, too, of the Daffodil, Blue-bell, and Star
of Bethlehem. Raphidian and exraphidian plants variably
preserve these respective characters in my garden. A Bed-
straw and St. John’s-wort will always show this difference,
though taken in the same clod from the hedge-row; so will the
Black Bryony and its supporting Guelder-rose or Hawthorn,
and their red berries ; while the next bank, whereon the wild
Thyme grows, mingled with the Little Field-madder, will as
surely never fail to give through them the same answer when-
ever questioned. A profusion of Daffodils and Ramsons grow
together, and often in very contact, under cover of a wild
thicket, whence I have always obtained an abundance of
raphides in these Daffodils, and none at all, in any single
instance, from their companions the Ramsons ; this, too, after
attentive examinations during several seasons and years, and
in the face of my opinion, before entertained, of finding results
to the contrary. Two or three species of Duckweed, touching
each other in the same pool, will differ constantly in the quan-

4 * GULLIVER, ON RAPHIDES.

tity of their raphides. The Bur-reed and Water Plantain
grow with their roots close together in a neighbouring ditch,
and yet I find the former plant regularly abounding in
raphides, while the latter plant is as surely destitute of
them.

To turn from nature’s own experiments to artificial trials :
I have often had growing, from their seeds onwards, in one
pot of mould, a raphidian and an exraphidian plant, when
both of them preserved these distinctive characters as well as
in the wild state. In short, I know of no means by which
a raphidian plant can be grown in health, if at all, so as to
extinguish this character, nor by which a plant regularly
devoid of raphides can be made to produce them. If we
sprinkle over the surface of a pan of soil seeds of a Willow
Herb and Loosestrife, plants not far apart in our Flora,
every one of the former species may be easily picked out,
merely by the raphidian character, as soon as the seed-leaves
are well grown. But nature, no doubt, requires much
further questioning as to the constancy of raphides and their
cells, their significance and form, and the conditions under
which they may or may not be produced or checked, or
modified either in quantity or quality. A multiplication of
such inquiries would be easy and desirable in different
localities, and a pleasant and instructive addition to rural
amusements.

Many more experiments than are here mentioned have I
made to the same effect, especially on seedlings of different
orders, and seldom without the questions occurring to my
mind—- What other single character, heretofore used in
systematic botany, would serve for the diagnosis between
these infant plants; or, during the winter months, by mere
fragments of the roots and underground buds, between old
plants of the same kind and others with which they are
liable to be confounded? How can a character invariably
present in the seed-leaves, and thenceforth throughout the
frame, from the cradle to the grave, be otherwise than a
natural result of an important and intrinsic function of that
plant? And how can a phenomenon thus constant in the
cellular tissue be without a certain share of the value belong-
ing to this most fundamental or elementary organ of the
vegetable kingdom? Moreover, as no botanist is likely, in
the present day, to underrate the importance of this tissue,
surely its structure and functions, when at all characteristic,
ought to form a part of the history of every plant, not-
withstanding the present neglect thereof throughout the
descriptions of allied orders, and their subdivisions, even

GULLIVER, ON RAPHIDES. 5

in the latest, truly valuable, and most comprehensive books
of systematic botany. Therefore it is hoped that this
memoir may pave the way for British botanists to pursue
at least some part of this subject, and with the effect of
establishing a few diagnoses at once novel and true, easy
and useful, in their own Flora. To this end raphides will be
chiefiy considered now; and, for the sake of perspicuity,
short characters first given of raphides, crystal prisms, and
spheraphides, leaving casual exceptions to be dealt with in-
cidentally, and referring for measurements, more particular
descriptions, and further information, to the October number
of the ‘ Popular Science Review.’

Raphides are the well-known needle-shaped crystals occur-
ring in bundles within an oval or oblong cell. They are very
easily separable from each other and from their cell; each
raphis is generally without any obvious faces or angles on
the shaft, which gradually vanishes, without any angular ap-
pearance, to a point at either end.

Crystal prisms are also acicular forms, but occur, for the
most part, scattered singly, seldom more than two or three
in contact, and then as if partly fused together; they are
with difficulty separated from the plant-tissue or from each
other; faces and angles are always plain on their shafts,
which do not gradually taper to points at the ends, but pre-
sent either variously sloping angular shapes or pyramids
there. These prisms are for the most part larger, and some-
times smaller, than raphides. The best examples of crystal
prisms occur in exotic plants, as Quillaja, Guajacum, Four-

-croya, and [ris ; they may be seen, too, in most of our Iri-
daceze, and, of smaller size, with occasional modifications of
form, in the ovary-coat of British Cynarocephalee, and in
the bulb-scales of the Onion and Shallot. -

Speraphides are more or less rounded bodies, aggregations
of minute crystals, sometimes with a granular surface, and
often with the tips of the crystals jutting so as give a stellate
appearance to the spheraphides. This term includes the
conglomerate raphides of Quekett and the cystoliths and
crystal glands of Continental writers. Sphzraphides occur
in very distinct cells, and sometimes so regularly in acellular
network as to form that which I have depicted under the
name of sphzraphid-tissue. Good examples of this tissue
occur in the leaves or sepals of our Lythracez, Geraniacee,
&c., and in the leaves and bark of exotic Araliaceze. Sphe-
raphides are more or less abundant in many orders of the
British Flora.

And now, proceeding in company with Professor Babing-

6 GULLIVER, ON RAPHIDES.

ton’s ‘Manual of British Botany,’ taking the objects in lineal
sequence as they occur in that book, the exotic Flora will
only be noticed when some of its members may be cited as
additional evidence as to the character of a British order.

DIcOTYLEDONS.

Of this class I have never seen true raphides in any of our
trees and shrubs, nor in any of our Spurges. The confusion
arising from the vague application of the term raphides to all
microscopic crystals in plants has led to the prevailing state-
ments as to the frequency of raphides in the Lime, Elm, and
many other trees, &c.; while the starch-sticks of the latex of
the Spurges, as described in the ‘ Annals of Natural History’
for March, 1862, p. 209, have probably been mistaken for saline
crystals. Only three orders of British Dicotyledons can as yet
be characterised as raphis-bearers, and these are—

Balsaminacee, Onagracee, and Rubiacee.—In our Flora
this character isso truly diagnostic that by it a plant of either
of these three orders may be easily distinguished at any
period of its growth, even in the seed-leaves, from the plants
of its neighbouring orders; and the diagnosis has never yet
failed in the many trials which I have made of all the
exotic species at my command of the first two orders,
excepting Montinia before mentioned. Even in the some-
what irregular members of Onagracez, Circea and Lopezia,
the character is as good as in the other genera, and I have
examined one or more species of all the sections placed by
Lindley under Onagraceze. But the exotic Rubiacez, com-
prising very different plants, divided by that eminent botanist
into the two orders Galiaceze and Cinchonacee, afford different
results. While I have never found any plant of Galiacee,
native or foreign, devoid of raphides, I have always failed
to find them at all im the large or shrubby Cinchonacee ;
and yet in the herbaceous species of this order raphides
occur as in Galiacez, that is to say, commonly less in size
and quantity than in Onagracez. But in the trees or shrubs
of Cinchonacee spheraphides are beautiful and abundant.

In the event of a revision of the old order Rubiacez, sys-
tematic botanists will have to consider what value may belong
to these characters. And, besides the interest which I have
shown to be possessed by the raphidian character in exotic
plants, as detailed in the ‘ Popular Science Review,’ the re-
markable conflux and limitation of this character to three
widely separated orders of our native Dicotyledons so surely
indicate an important and intrinsic function of the plants of

GULLIVER, ON RAPHIDES,. C

these orders as henceforth should claim a place in every true de-
scription of their nature. Were Lindley’s plan of Alliances used
in our Flora, the shortest and most constantly present mere
diagnosis for Balsaminacee might be—Geraniales, abounding
in raphides ; and in like manner of the two other orders.

MonocryLepons.

Raphides are much more plentiful in this than in the pre-
ceding class, so no wonder that a partial examination should
have led to the belief that “they are abundant in Monoco-
tyledons generally.’ This and other such vague and incor-
rect statements are current in our best and latest treatises of
phytotomy; whereas the truth is that, however raphides may
abound in many Monocotyledons, they are either very scarce
or absolutely wanting in several’ extensive orders of this
class. As before mentioned, our indigenous plants only are
now under consideration ; and we shall soon see that about a
fifth part of the ‘ Manual of British Botany’ is occupied by
Monocotyledons and Cryptogamez Ductulosz, which I have
searched in vain for raphides.

Dictyogene.—In all our plants of this group raphides are
plentiful, and they occur in every one of the exotic members
of it that I have examined; only in Roxburghia raphides are
mostly replaced by crystal prisms. I have found that the
beautiful shrub Lapageria is also a raphis-bearing plant.
In the lineal series of the natural arrangement the Dictyo-
gene stand isolated by this character between Coniferze and
Hydrocharidacez, two orders in which it is wanting.

Hydrocharidacee.—This order is remarkable as devoid of
the raphidian character, though standing between two groups,
Dictyogenz and Orchidacee, in fuil possession thereof.

Orchidacee.—Raphides were found in every plant, British
and foreign, that I have examined of this order. They are
by no means confined to the sepals, as might be supposed
from current descriptions, but are common in the placenta
and ovary, in the stem and leaves, and parts which are mo-
difications of leaves, and in the roots. The raphides are
commonly much shorter than their soft pale cells, and may
be well seen without disturbing them through the semi-
transparent edge of the leaf of Neottia spiralis.

Iridacee.—True raphides are scanty and often not to be
detected in this order, but it abounds in crystal prisms
(‘ Annals of Nat. Hist.,’? March, 1865). These last occur in
all our plants except Sisyrinchium anceps, in which, as well as
in the exotic S. Bermudianum and S. striatum, I have failed

8 GULLIVER, ON RAPHIDES.

to find any such crystals. They are very remarkable in the
common garden species of Iris.

Amaryllidacee.—In all our Amaryllids raphides occur.
They may be well seen in the leaves, scape, ovary, bulb-
scales, and bulb; and smaller and less plentiful in the bulb
and perianth.

Asparagacee.—All our plants of this order are raphis-
bearers. This character is common in the root, leaves, peri-
anth, and ovary of Asparagus, &c., and more remarkable in
the perianth than im the leaves of Ruscus.

Liliacee.—Of the four tribes of this order, as they stand
in the ‘Manual of British Botany’—I, Tulipez, destitute of
raphides; II, Asphodelez, with Gagea and Allium, also de-
void of raphides, though they abound in Ornithogalum and
Scilla ; 111, Anthericez, perhaps without raphides, as I could
not find them in a dried bit of Simethis ; while in both plants
of IV, Hemerocallidez, raphides are abundant. Crystal prisms
also occur more or less, especially in the exotic plants of the
order, and these, with the distribution of raphides in foreign
and native Liliacez, and a notice of the prismatic crystals in
the bulb-scales of certain Onions, are more fully described in
the ‘ Annals of Nat. Hist.’ for April, 1864, and March, 1865.
In our plants it is easy to distinguish by the raphidian cha-
racter alone, even in mere fragments of the leaves, the He-
merocallidez from Tulipez and Allium.

Colchicacee.—Excepting a few minute raphis-like objects
in the root-fibres, the British plants of this order are quite
without raphides. The sphzraphid-tissue occurs in Tofieldia ;
and, among the foreign plants, Veratrum presents beautiful
examples of this tissue, and abounds also in raphides.

Eriocaulacee.—I could find no raphides in dried leaves of
Eriocaulon septangulare.

Juncacee.—In our indigenous species of Luzula and
Juncus I have in vain searched for raphides. A few small
raphides, or objects resembling them, occur in the leaves of
Narthecium.

Alismacee.—Raphides are wanting in our native species,
as well as in the few foreign ones that I have examined.

Typhacee.—All our plants are raphis-bearers.

Aracee.—Raphides abound in drum, but are wanting in
Acorus. All the exotic Araceze that I have examined are
raphis-bearers, and so are all the orders of Professor Lind-
ley’s Aral Alliance. As to Acorus, it is placed by him in the
Juncal Alliance of his ‘ Vegetable Kingdom ;’ and as the type
of the distinct order Acoracez, between Juncacee and Jun-
caginacee, among our native plants in his ‘School Botany.’

GULLIVER, ON RAPHIDES. 9

And as I have found these last two orders, like Acorus, defi-
cient in raphides, an additional reason appears for separating
this genus from an order in no species of which have raphides
yet been found wanting. I have, however, discovered a few
small raphides, like those of Narthecium, in the exotic Gym-
nostachys.

Lemnacee.—Raphides occur in all our plants, more abun-
dantly in Lemna minor and L. trisulca than in L. gibba and
L. polyrrhiza ; and are very plentiful, with sphzraphides, in
the tropical Pistia Stratiotes.

Potamogetonacee, Naiadacee, Cyperacee, Graminacee, and
Cryptogamee Ductulosee.—In none of these plants, which
conclude and form so large a share of the ‘ Manual of British
Botany,’ have I yet found raphides.

Thus, besides the Cryptogamez Ductulosez, above half of
the British Monocotyledons would appear to be devoid of
raphides ; and it is remarkable that most of these plants, still
more than half of all our species of Monocotyledons, occur
together at the end of this class in the ‘ Manual.’ Among the
foregoing orders the results are equally noteworthy. Dictyo-
genee abounding in raphides, though these crystals are totally
wanting in the orders immediately preceding and succeeding
that subdivision. Our plants of Hydrocharidacez are, on
the other hand, without raphides, which yet abound in the
orders between which that order is placed; and, indeed, as
far as my observations have yet gone, the orders of the
Hydral Alhance of Lindley’s ‘ Vegetable Kingdom’ are de-
void of the raphidian character. Raphides are plentiful
again in the next succeeding orders, except Lridacez, as
far as, and inclusive of, some sections of Liliacee; then
suddenly disappearing or deficient in the four continuous
orders Colchicaceze, Eriocaulacee, Juncaceze, and Alisma-
cez; present again profusely in Typhacez, Aracez, and
Lemnacez, three orders thus characterised, and yet stand-
ing together between Alismacez and Potamogetonacez, two
orders in which, on the contrary, this character is want-
ing; and finally wanting also in all the succeeding orders.
Thus, the main or parallel-veined group of Monocotyledons
begins and ends with exraphidian orders. And not less re-
markable is the contrast between Lindley’s Aral and Hydral
Alliances, the former pregnant with, and the latter sterile of,
raphides. Of Liliacez, the regular presence of raphides in
the whole or parts of some sections, and the equally regular
absence of raphides from the whole or parts of other sections,
are phenomena of which the exact significance can be learned
only by further research in this direction. And, in truth,

10 RICHARDSON, ON STOPS FOR OBLIQUE [LLUMINATION.

how far the raphidian character may prove useful in the re-
vision which this and some of the other orders seem to re-
quire remains to be decided after a careful extension and
correction of these observations, especially as regards the
Flora of the World, by judicious inquirers, who may have the
requisite materials at their command, and the will to use
them, for the elucidation of the question of the value of
raphides and their cells as natural characters in systematic
botany. Meanwhile it is hoped that the present memoir
may induce some of our countrymen to study the subject in
their own Flora.

Stops recommended for Oxsutque ILtumination with the
Acuromatic ConpenseR. By B. Wiis Ricwarpson,
F.R.C.S.1., Surgeon to the Adelaide Hospital, Dublin.

Tue attempts to resolve the markings of certain diatoms
with oblique light are frequently attended with considerable
difficulty, so much so that the management of oblique illu-
mination requires very great patience to prevent failure. One
moment the field is too milky, at another the glare is most
distressing, next the valves are too thick, and at last, after a
great deal of trouble and strain of vision, a tolerably good
view is obtained. But, on the other hand, we may not be so
fortunate, and, notwithstanding all our perseverance, com-
plete failure in procuring a satisfactory demonstration is often
experienced. Of course, I assume that the object-glasses are
properly adjusted, a neglect of which is of itself sufficient to
interfere with the delineation.

Not only have I seen the difficulties enumerated expe-
rienced with the mirror and condenser, but likewise with
the prism, when used for oblique illumination. And even
when the diatom markings are sharply brought out with the
latter, there is often a milkiness of the field and object very
distressing to the eye of the observer.

During the course of the summer I devoted a few evenings
to the making of a variety of stops for my achromatic con-
denser, hoping that by so doing I might succeed in construct-
ing stops better adapted for rapid demonstration of markings
by oblique illumination than the solid discs I had hitherto
been in the habit of using.

RICHARDSON, ON STOPS FOR OBLIQUE ILLUMINATION. ll

After numerous trials I was successful in forming some
stops for my Smith and Beck’s achromatic condenser, with
the assistance of three of which, in particular, the markings
of many diatoms requiring

oblique illumination can be

quickly and beautifully exhi- & ©
bited, and with a field, I

may say altogether, free from

the glare and milkiness so

often experienced with the

mirror, as well as with the

prism.

Ido not know a more exqui-
site microscopic object than a
properly mounted P. Hippocampus, seen with stop third of
the illustration and Smith and Beck’s 1th objective. In fact,
nothing could be more perfect than the definition of both
sets of lines on that diatom with the above combination.
Again, P. angulatum, which requires a nicer management of
the light than P. Hippocampus, with the mirror, condenser,
and ordinary disc stop, is instantly resolved clear and sharp
with the same objective, and either stops second, third, or
sixth of the illustration. The fourth stop will be found
useful for exhibiting diatoms with only one series of lines,
longitudinal or transverse. And the first and fifth are also
adapted to illumination of some diatoms with the so-called
double lines. The first likewise gives a very excellent black
ground with low powers, and is a useful stop for examining
Coscinodiscus, Arachnoidiscus, Heliopelta, Triceratium, &c.

As the only high powers of English makers I have used were
the 1th and 1th of Smith and Beck, I cannot, of course, say
how the stops would act with their higher objectives, or with
the glasses of other English opticians ; but I can confidently
recommend the second, third, and sixth particularly to those
microscopists who possess Smith and Beck’s powers above
mentioned, for to my eye, at least, the definition of their 1th
and 1th with those stops could scarcely be exceeded.

It is essential for the most perfect illumination with the
stops, they should be so arranged that they can be rotated.
The tube, therefore, which carries them ought only to slide
in that of the achromatic combination, and should also be of
sufficient length to project inferiorly, in order that it may be
easily got at for rotation and for rapid change of stops, if
required.
The projecting extremity should be provided with a milled
rim, at least half an inch wide.

12

Since the above was put in type I have made
a seventh stop for oblique illumination, and which
Ȣ produces such excellent results with the condenser
that I likewise had an engraving made of it.
This stop works well with the jth.

The Wistotocy of the Repropuctive Oreans of the Irip,
TiGRIDIA CONCHIFLORA ; with a DESCRIPTION Of the Puz-
NomENA of its Imprecnation. By P. Marrin Duncan,
M.B. Lond., Sec. Geol. Soc., &c.

ConrtTENTS.

I.—IJntroduction.
I1.— General description of the anatomy and development
of the ovule.
IlI.—The pollen-tube, its origin, growth, cellularity, func-
tion, and decadence.
IV.—The changes in the ovule consequent upon impregnation.
V.—Remarks.

I.—Some years ago, when the great German structural
botanists were investigating, and not with their usual calmness,
the phenomena of the development of the embryo in flower-
ing plants, I was led to follow in their path of research. In-
stead of examining the complicated phenomena of the impreg-
nation of Dicotyledonous ovules, I laboured amongst Mono-
cotyledons ; and the following history of ovular development,
of the growth and function of the pollen-tube, and of the
impregnation of the embryo-sac, may be taken as a fair
Son of part of the philosophy of reproduction in that
class.

The abstract of the original paper, which was read at the
British Association, and published in the ‘ Transactions,’ gave
a fair analysis of the new matter. Since then the notion
that the embryo was formed out of the end of the pollen-tube
has been proved to be fallacious by its once very resolute
supporters. It is a matter of satisfaction that the ideas of
English botanists have passed safely through the ordeal, and
that time has proved the correctness of the following obser-
vations.

The Tigridia conchiflora was chosen for the following
reasons :

DUNCAN, ON THE TIGRIDIA. 13

lst. The flower is very large, and therefore easily studied.

2nd. The organs of generation are very distinct, and there
s no fear of impregnation taking place before the expansion
of the perianth.*

3rd. The life of the flower is very short, and the passage of
the pollen-tube down the long style very rapid.

4th. The ovary is large, the impregnation of one of each
pair of associated ovules very certain, and the facilities for
‘making transverse sections are very great.

5th. There are several flowers in each spathe; they bloom
in succession, and the development of the ovule and the
maturation of the seed may be studied in the same plant.

IJ.—The flowers blow in July and August, opening at
about 8 o’clock a.m., and the perianth closes and decays long
before sunset.

The stamens encircle the style for three inches and then
become separate, and the style, suddenly losing its protect-
ing tissue, issues forth to end in a triple termination. The
anthers are large, and their opening is external. The ovary
is large, inferior, and its apex is surmounted and surrounded
by the origin of the combined stamens. The style, even at its
entrance to the ovary, is thread-like, but is supported by the
encircling filaments of the stamens. The tripartite stigma is
covered with papillz, and has an oleaginous secretion. The
remote end of the style is continuous with the tissues com-
posing the axis of the ovary which supports the ovules, and
whose tissues are to be traversed by the pollen-tubes.

The ovary is divided into three cells ; each cell has its rows
of ovules, and placentze, and is separated from its fellows by
strong tissue.

A transverse section of the ovary shows two ovules, side by
side, in each of the cells (Pl. I, fig. 1); the ovules are attached
to the central axis by the continuity of their vessels and
general structure, and the micropyle (fig. 1, e) is external
and touches the placenta (fig. 1, e).

The placentary axis of the ovary is a very complicated
affair; it has to give off vessels to three pairs of ovules, over and
over again; moreover, it has to produce, under each micropyle,
a papillary structuret (fig. 1, c), which is usually perforated by

* Some imagine that impregnation occurs only in the perfect flower, but
this is a mistake, and that it is so may be well proved in the Leguminose.

{ This papillary structure cannot be the homologue of even part of the
placenta; it is perforated by the pollen-tubes, and has nothing to do with
the nutrition of the ovule. The whole of the nomenclature of the sexual
parts of flowers has been complicated by the attempt tO recognise the

14 DUNCAN, ON THE IMPREGNATION

the pollen-tubes in their passage from the axis to the micro-
pyle; neither the axis, the placentz, nor the papillary struc-
ture, are hollow for the passage of the pollen-tubes; on the
contrary, the tissues are remarkably cellular and well supplied
with moisture.

The ovules, when ready for impregnation, are large, very
cellular and transparent; and a very simple manipulation
splits off the external coat from the long and narrow nucleus.

Each ovule is attached to the axis by its hilum, is a long
oval in shape, and the orifice through which the pollen-tube
has to pass is external to the hilum. Transverse sections show
this orifice very well. The orifice of the micropyle is not at
the extremity of the ovule, but is close to the hilum; the
ovule is therefore “ anatrope” in appearance, but not so in
reality, for there is no reflection of the ovule during its
development, but one half of it is, from the first, devoted to the
vascular system, and the other to the formation of the coats
and embryo-sac. There is no space between the ovule and
the walls of the ovary until long after impregnation. The
micropyle is very distinct, being situated in the long mam-
miilary end of the nucleus, which projects considerably below
the external coat (figs. 1, b, e; fig. 4, c).

For all the purposes of the study of its impregnation, the
ovule may be first examined in the rudimentary flower, whose
anthers are as yet uncovered by the perianth ; secondly, when
the anthers are covered; and thirdly, immediately before
impregnation, or when the flower is in bloom.

1. A transverse section (through the axis) exhibits the
ovules adherent by their cellular and vascular tissue to the
axis (at the placenta), shows the projection of the nucleus
cropping out of the external cellular coat, and presents to
the eye the situation of the upper and globular part of the
nucleus, covered now by the external coat, distinguishing it
by a track of transparent tissue. By gently removing one of
the ovules, and placing a piece of thin glass over it, and
pressing the glass gradually with the handle of the knife, the
nucleus may, in the majority of instances, be slipped out of
its external cellular coat.* Then the nucleus is proved to
be cylindrical, rounded at one end, and tubular, with the
micropyle at the other (fig. 2). It is very tender, and
consists of two parts—a body and a neck. ‘The neck is

homologies of the sexual apparatus in animals. The anatomist may well be
perplexed at a placenta inside an ovary, and part of it perforated by the
male element.

* This external coat is cellular, the cells being square in their outline ; it
leaves more than two thirds of the neck of the nucleus uncovered,

OF TIGRIDIA. 15

the part which projects, and which is tubular and nearest the
hilum of the ovule; it is open at its free extremity—the
micropyle—and is traversed by a canal, leading from this open
extremity to the body of the nucleus—the canal of the micro-
pyle. Its structure is cellular, the cells being long ovals,
their long axes being parallel to the canal. The orifice is
formed by a circular series of these cells (fig. 4, c;
fig. 2, c*). The body of the nucleus is joined to the neck, and
at the point of junction the canal ceases. The rounded end
of the body is imbedded in the cell structure of the ovule,
and at this early stage is barely cellular; but nearer the
neck, square cells (fig. 2, d”), with a cell-nucleus in each,
are seen. The contents of the body of the nucleus at this
period are fluid; there are neither granules nor cells in it,
and the canal of the micropyle is in existence, but barely patent.

2. At this period the external coat has covered all but the
free third of the neck of the nucleus; the canal of the micro-
pyle is recognised by a dark line in the axis of the neck,
and the micropyle is more open and better rounded (fig. 2,
a, 6, c.) The same plan of manipulation as in 1, sets free
the nucleus, whose body is now seen to be perfectly cel-
lular outside, and filled with more than a simple plasma or
fluid. Proceed now as follows:—Having obtained several
nuclei free from their external cell-coats, take a fine-pointed
knife and operate, under the 13-inch object-glass. Glycerine
and water, plain water, and olive oil, are good media, and
should be tried separately. Pierce the nucleus at its round
extremity, and place it under a piece of thin glass; use the
handle of the knife as before, and with a little jerking pres-
sure a delicate globular-looking film will escape through the
rent in the nucleus. This is the early embryo-sac; it is of
tolerable distinctness, being composed of a very fine layer of
cells, forming a membrane and enclosing a quantity of fluid.
The embryo-sac nearly fills the body of the nucleus, and its
contents are not granular; neither is there any trace of cell
growth in them. 'The membrane of the sac is so delicate that
the edges of its cells are barely distinguishable, but their
position may be inferred from the presence of cell-nuclei
(fig. 2, e). It requires an object-glass of +-inch focus
to determine the structure of the embryo-sac, but one of
4-inch focus is sufficient for the examination of the nucleus ;
but in all cases, the lowest power must precede the employ-
ment of the higher.

The anterior extremity of the embryo-sac, when it is within
the nucleus, is in contact with the canal of the micropyle;
and the effect of the cylindrical shape of the nucleus at this

16 DUNCAN, ON THE IMPREGNATION

spot is to make this extremity of the sac rather angular in
outline.

A dark line shows the margin of the embryo-sac when the
nucleus is examined by transmitted light, and the globular
shape and refractile contents of the sac throw the sides of the
nucleus in shade, and its centre in high light (fig. 2).

The cells of the nucleus are more perfect.

3. The ovule, when ready for impregnation, is larger than
in the imperfect flower, the neck of the nucleus is more
covered by the external coat, and the micropyle is close
to and touches the “ papillary structure. The same method
of manipulation suffices to show that the canal of the mi-
cropyle is open, that the cell-coat of the embryo-sac is perfect,
and that its anterior extremity blocks up the end of the
canal. The embryo-sac is now of considerable size ; its con-
tents are not granular, however, but consist of simply colour-
less fluid. The appearance of the membrane of the sac is
now distinctly cellular, the cells being delicate, and, generally
speaking, they overlap each other at the edges (fig. 3, c).

The cells. of the external coat of the nucleus are larger,
more perfect, and firmer. The ovule is now ready for the
pollen-tube.

I have never found any cells in the embryo-sae, and it is
evident that the cells of the membrane of the sac, when seen
through, cause many illusive appearances in the fluid below
them.

I1I.—The pollen-tube issues from the pollen-grain, in-
sinuates itself between the papille of the stigma, passes into
the central tissue, and descends the style. The base of the
style is traversed, and the tube enters the axis of the ovary ;
the ovules are then only separated from the pollen-tube by the
tissue of the axis and the “ papillary structure” opposite and
touching the micropyle. The tube has to deviate from its
course and pass at right angles to.gain the base or attach-
ment of the “ papillary structure ” to the axis, and this devia-
tion is determined by the direction of the vascular bundles,
which pass from the axis at right angles to reach the hilum
of the ovules. The pollen-tube cannot traverse the dense
tissue of the vessels, but is turned outwards and runs along
them to the base of the placenta, and the “ papillary struc-
ture,” whose cellular structure is easily pierced, the cells
making way for and nourishing the tube in its marvellous
course. Arrived at the margin of the “ papillary structure,”
the micropyle, being open and pressing against the papille, is
speedily gained ; the tube now passes along the canal of the
micropyle and abuts against the anterior and convex end of

OF TIGRIDIA. Se

the embryo-sac. I propose to describe the pollen-tube in
various parts of its course, to state the results of experiments
performed by Dr. Maclean* and myself, upon the indepen-
dence of the tube of the pollen-grain after it has once passed
into the style, and to explain the change which occurs in the
tube at its contact with the embryo-sac.

The pollen-grain of Tigridia is large, oval, and contains in
its external coat much oil; it is barely visible to the naked
eye, yet it is the originator of a tube which passes along at
least four inches of stigma, style and axis, in less than twenty-
four hours ; this tube perforates the stigma, insinuates itself
between the cells of this organ, and reaches the so-called con-
ducting tissue of the style. This tissue ought, for reasons
presently to be given, to be called nourishing tissue.

The fact is that the life of the pollen-tube is very short, and
the period which elapses between the application of the pollen-
grain and the entrance of the tube into the ovule must be
found out before the phenomena of impregnation in the plant
in question can be determined with any accuracy.

The received ideais as follows :—That upon the stimulus of
the secretion of the stigma upon the pollen-grain a tubular
prolongation of its internal membrane is ejected and thrust
between the papille and superficial cells of the stigma; that
this tube reaches the central tissue, and finally gains the
ovule—and all along the course the tube acts as the pipe
through which the granular fovilla, spermatic fluid, and its
granules, pass from the pollen-grain to the ovule ; whether
the theory that in the ovular end of the pollen-tube the
future embryo is developed holds good or not, the theory of
the descent of the contents of the pollen-grain has always
been inferred.

I wish to be understood that I am now about to speak of
Tigridia alone, and that I believe that the following processes
occur in all Monocotyledonous plants, with long styles.t The
experimenter must remember, before he follows the path of
these investigations, that water influences the pollen-tube in
the following manner—it swells out the tube between the
denser and solid parts in the axis of the tube and the tube-
wall; it moreover puts an end, generally speaking, to the
movement of the granules, but oil or glycerine will give a
good idea of the normal size of the tube.

The mechanical ideas of the primary formation of the pollen-
tube must be abandoned ; it is essentially a vital process, and

* Allan Maclean, M.D., of Colchester, one of the greatest raisers of
hybrids and a most careful observer.

+ The phenomena can be readily traced in the Crocus.

VOL. VI.—NEW SER. B

18 DUNCAN, ON THE IMPREGNATION

is not dependent upon endosmosis and exosmosis; it is a
growth of the cell-wall of that layer of the pollen-grain which
contains the granules and fluid usually termed protoplasma.
The growth is peculiar to the perfect pollen-grain, and occurs
at a certain period when the viscid secretion of the papille of
the stigma is strong enough to hold the pollen-grain in perfect
apposition, and to resist the effects of the pressure exercised
by the end of the pollen-tube upon the tissue of the stigma
before entering. Were this viscidity insufficient, the gentle
force of perforation could not take place; and when the
viscidity is sufficient the growing tube, with its conical tip, is
held forcibly against the cell-structures of the stigma; the force
to cause these to diverge and to admit the tube between them
is “ growth.” “The amount of force employed may be roughly
estimated by adding water to the viscid secretion, some hours
after perforation has taken place ; the pollen-grain is released
from its durance vile and jumps away from the stigma; its
restraining fluid having been rendered inefficient.

Once entered between the cells of the stigma, the pollen-
tube, consisting of a cell-wall enclosing the spermatic mate-
rials, closed by a conical end, and continuous with the pollen-
grain, begins to elongate with extraordinary rapidity (fig. 5,
a,b). The following are the results of experiments by Dr.
Maclean and myself :

1. Four hours after the application of pollen to the stigma
the pollen-tubes were detected one inch down the style; day
fine, and good sun.

2. Highteen hours after application, the pollen tubes were
detected at the base of the style, three and a half inches from
the end of the stigma.

3. Twenty-four hours after application, the pollen-tubes
were seen in the micropyles of several ovules.

4. Thirty hours, impregnation is complete, and the pollen-
tubes are wasting in the micropyle.

Series 1].—Ezperiments by Dr. Maclean and myself.

lst. Tigridia fertilised with pollen-grains by twelve o’clock
in the day (not much sun).

The perianth closed as usual about five o’clock, and at
nine o’clock two inches of the style were removed with the
stigma, and the rest of the flower placed in water.

In these two inches of style, hundreds of pollen-tubes ex-
isted, and the diameter of the style was considerably increased
by their presence. They were cellular, and the cells of the

OF TIGRIDIA. 19

pollen-tubes were long and very distinct (fig. 5, a, 6), some
being filled with granules, others containing but few, and
those near the end of the cells.

At twenty-four hours after the application of the pollen-
grains, the rest of the style and the ovary were examined.
Pollen-tubes were found in both, and many of the ovules
contained pollen-tubes in their micropyle-canals (fig. 6 e,
Pies fig: 7,4, 0):

2nd. Tigridia fertilised with the last. At the same hour
in the evening all the style but one inch was removed. Ovary
examined at the same time as the other, viz., twenty-four
hours after the application of the pollen-grain, and multi-
tudes of pollen-tubes were in the cells of the ovary and in
the ovules.

3rd. These experiments repeated, with same results.

4th. Two inches of the style and stigma were removed four
hours after fertilisation, and in the removed portion, the
pollen-tubes were seen in abundance.

5th. Dr. Maclean endeavoured in vain to prevent the
plants seeding, by removing the style from the axis before
the perianth had fallen.

From these experiments it is proved that the impregnation
is perfected in a little more than twenty-four hours; that the
pollen-grain produces a tube-cell, which grows according to
the manner of cells, which passes through stigma, style, and
to the remotest ovule in the ovary—a space oftentimes of five
inches—in twenty-four hours; that, taking the average length
of the tissue to be perforated to be four inches, the pollen-
tube grows at the rate of one inch in six hours; that before
the pollen-tubes are half way down the style, if their con-
nection with the pollen-grain be destroyed, they still grow and
impregnate; that after the pollen-tube has fairly entered the
style it is independent, both as regards its subsequent growth
and impregnating properties, of the pollen-grain; and that
the varying conditions of the atmosphere influence the ra-
pidity of the growth of the pollen-tube, and consequently
impregnation.

Tearing the style with needles suffices to show the long
pollen-tubes, and it is as well always to examine a non-impreg-
nated style with the impregnated. No one can mistake the
one for the other ; the abundance of very long cellular tubes,
where all divisions are at right angles to the cell-walls, and
which are to be traced several times across the field of the
microscope, indicates the fertilised style.

It is evident that a force of some kind is requisite to propel

20 DUNCAN, ON THE IMPREGNATION.

the conical end of the pollen-tube at the rate of an inch in
six hours, at the rate of an inch in four hours, and sometimes
at even double that rate, through cellular tissue whose forma-
tion is very much adapted for the transition. It is demon-
strable, from repeated experiments, that this force is exercised
most efficiently when the direct sunlight and heat are accom-
panied by a warm and humid atmosphere, and most ineffi-
ciently when there is no sun. In fact, the greatest stimuli
to vegetable growth are those which strengthen all the powers
of the pollen-tube.

From the above experiments it is to be proved that the
force just spoken of is exercised when the pollen-grain, and
even one half of the pollen-tube, are removed.

It is manifestly no force arising from the pollen-grain as a
fixed point. The whole secret is contained in the pollen-
tube itself; and in Tigridia, if by careful manipulation in
making longitudinal sections of the style and tearing with
the needle a few tolerably lengthy pollen-tubes are exposed,
it will be noticed that the pollen-tube is not one continuous
elongation of the cell-wall of the pollen-grain, but that it is
CELLULAR (fig. 5, a, 4). Transverse inflections of the
tubular cell-wall exist every now and then, and the pollen-
tube is really a tube formed by elongated cells. These cells
resemble, in a most singular manner, those of the Conjuga-
teze, when their spiral contents are removed ; the cell-wall is
beautifully definable by the highest powers, and it is evident
that the cylindrical shape of the tube is often lost when, pass-
ing between the long cells of the style, no great space can be
obtained. I have found the cells of the pollen-tube in all
parts of the style, and also within the canal of the micropyle.
The force of the progression of the pollen-tube is then cell
growth; the cells, in their passage through the style and
axis, are nourished by the juices of the cells of the style-tissue
contiguous to them; and each cell, by its elongation upwards
and downwards, tends to produce a force which thrusts the
free end of the pollen-tube along. It may be observed that
the pollen-tube is in intimate contact with eells throughout
the whole of its course, and that these cells are as delicate in
structure as itis. The stimuli to cell growth affect the nu-
trition of the cells of the style, and these contribute, under
most favorable circumstances, to the most rapid nutrition and
consequent elongation of the cells of the pollen-tube. The
contrary is equally true. The cutting off the pollen-grain,
and the bisection of the pollen-tube, before its free end has
even reached half an inch below the line of incision, prove
the independence of the remaining part of the tube to depend

OF TIGRIDIA. 21

upon its cellular character. Each cell is independent of the
one above it, that is to say, of the one nearer the pollen-
grain. The influence of the female organ in thus nourishing
the male “spermatic tube” is very interesting, and is seen in
the animal kingdom in the effects of the vaginal and uterine
mucus upon the spermatozoa.

The length of the cells of the pollen-tube varies; and it
appears to me that whenever any difficulty in the passage has
to be overcome by a little exertion of fresh force the cells
are nearer together, and that when the passage is free the cell
is found very long.

The contents of the pollen-tube, the fertilising agents, are
granules; these often contain—more especially in the terminal
cell (Schact noticed this years ago in Pedicularis silvestris) —
small highly refractile globules, larger masses of filmy looking
stuff, and the fluid of the tube. This fluid is certainly denser
than water, for the application of this swells the space between
the fluid of the cell and the cell-wall. This liquor seminis
is secreted by the cell-wall of the pollen-tube, after the
formation of the first cell in the tube; and its individuality
and specific male properties are not influenced by any length
or any amount of subdivision into cells.

In many spots the cell-contents are very scanty, and the
tube is ribbon-shaped, but the free end of the tube, and
especially where it passes from the papillose placenta into
the canal of the micropyle, is cylindrical, very turgid, and
filled with granular masses and cell-fluid (fig. 5, c).
I have already noticed that at the time of impregnation the
Open micropyle is in contact with the papillary structure
close to the placenta, and it will be as well to observe that
there is an indubitable vital attraction between the end of the
pollen-tube and the micropyle of the ovule, quite as great as
there is in many plants between the anthers and the stigma.

Once within the canal of the micropyle, the pollen-tube is
nourished by the contiguous cells of the nucleus ; and here a
cell is usually added to the pollen-tube, and oftentimes two.
The free end, completely fillmg the canal of the micropyle
(fig. 7, a, 6), passes onwards, and as the nutrition of
the cells of the nucleus is active, so is its progress rapid; it
impinges, at last, against the anterior convex cellular wall of
the embryo-sac. The progressive force still continues, and
the terminal cell of the pollen-tube presses the embryo-sac,
at the point of contact, backwards, until, at last, the end of
the pollen-tube-cell is hidden by the wall of the embryo-sac.*

* This was well shown by Schleiden, but he mistook the bulbous end for
the embryo.

22 DUNCAN, ON THE IMPREGNATION

According to the previous turgidity of the terminal cell of
the pollen-tube, so is the amount of pushing inwards which
the embryo-sac-wall suffers, and the more rounded does the
end of the pollen-tube become (fig. 6, a, y).

It must be distinctly understood that no foxiemtiea of the
embryo-sac occurs; that the pollen-tube presses the sac
inwards, and produces, as the finger does upon a bladder, a
concave depression ; and that the pollen-tube swells out from
a vis a tergo, and fills the whole of this artificial depression.
If the pollen-tube be pulled out of the canal of the micropyle
its very shortness will tend to disprove the idea that it per-
forates the embryo-sac.

Twenty-four hours after impregnation, and forty-eight
hours after the application of the pollen-grain to the stigma,
the terminal cell of the pollen-tube—z. e. that im contact
with the embryo-sac—is found to be nearly empty. The
anterior surface of the embryo-sac, which was in contact
with the end of the pollen-tube, is perfectly identical, in its
overlapping cell structure, with the rest of the sac; but
within the sac,in its former cell-less, granule-less contents,
a change has occurred. After this time the pollen-tube
decays.

IV.—The appearances of the embryo-sac and the non-
granular plasma within it, in the flower whilst in bloom, but
before impregnation, have been noticed; the overlapping,
circular, or ovoid cells of the sac, each with a distinct nucleus,
are most delicate, and the simplest pressure will cause them
to take on various forms or to rend. After the contact of
the cell-wall of the pollen-tube, the ceils of the embryo-sac
being pressed in upon the fluid contents of the sac, and
yet not ruptured, suffer great flattening, and this must also
be the case with the end of the pollen- tube. The trans-
mission of the contents of the last or ultimate pollen-tube-
cell—its fluid plasma and granules—from the interior of the
tube-cell to the interior of the embryo-sac, is effected very
shortly after the contact of the end of the tube-cell with the
small cells of the embryo-sac; and in a few hours the
contents of the embryo-sac have become granular, whilst
’ the pollen-tube’s last is empty cell (fig. 9, e). If the
pollen-tube be forced out of the canal of the micropyle
forty-eight hours after the pollen has been added to the
stigma, and the nucleus, with its large embryo-sac, submitted
to the compressorium, under the lowest power of the micro-
scope, and then the anterior part of the embryo-sac examined
with the highest powers, it will be seen to be intact, to have

OF TRIGIDIA. 23

retained a somewhat concave form, but the small cells
are overlapping, and present no symptom of violence
(fig. 9, a, 6).

On the third day after the impregnation of the ovule, the
granular contents of the impregnated embryo-sac have col-
lected together in a more or less elongated form, the anterior
extremity being in contact with the imner surface of that
spot of the embryo-sac where the contact with the pollen-
tube occurred. The anterior end receives a sort of concave
edge from the still existing depression in the anterior part of
the embryo-sac. Ten days elapse, and the ovules, greatly
increased in size, have a tough external coat, and the embryo-
sac is very remote from the micropyle ; the presence of cells
is now evident within the sac, whose simple overlapping cells
are becoming thick and hard.

V.—There is no difficulty in the manipulation necessary
for these investigations ; the ordinary flat knives and needles
will suffice as instruments, and water, glycerine, and the
usual reagents, are necessary. The impregnation of the ovule
differs as regards the time it occupies in most species ; more-
over, temperature and moisture determine its rapidity. The
stigmas of some plants are impregnated before the flower is
perfectly open; others remain virgin for a long period. It
will then happen that, unless the nature of the efflorescence,
the duration of the flower, and the time of the increase of the
diameter of the style be noticed, the microscopist may look
in vain for any trace of pollen-tubes. The rapidity with
which some ovules in plants with very short styles are im-
pregnated can be well imagined after what has been brought
forward in reference to the rate of pollen growth in Tigridia.

Immediately after the impregnation, changes commence in
the pollen-tube, as well as in the whole of the female organs.
The tubes become flaccid, all granular movement ceases, and
they lose their tenseness. The style is swollen by the de-
scent, through cell-growth, of the numerous pollen-tubes ;
the nutrition of its central cell system is at its height, and
this vital activity is kept up until the tubes pass into the axis
of the ovary. Then the stigma and upper part of the style
droop, and the perianth begins to lose its brightness, to be-
come flabby, and to fold. The ovules are not yet impreg-
nated. After a few hours the pollen-tubes passing down the
axis, nourished by its juices, are turned off laterally by the
barriers formed by tough vascular tissue which passes off to
each ovule; the tubes pass through the papillary structure
near the placenta, and reach the micropyle. The nutritive

24 DUNCAN, ON TRIGIDIA.

processes of the upper part of the axis are vastly increased in
activity, the tissue swells, and the nutrition of the perianth,
the style, and the filaments of the stamens, is interfered with
by a pressure from within outwards, which diminishes the
calibre of their cells and vessels. The ruin of the flower is
clearly produced, in part, by the increase in calibre of the
lower part of the style and the upper part of the axis. The
balance between the rapidity of the pollen-tube growth and
the development of the micropyle of the embryo-sac is, of
course, exact when the impregnation is being perfected, and
it is the chance of this balance being incomplete which ren-
ders fertilisation by strange pollen generally so difficult. The
influence of the female organ in nourishing the male element
is very suggestive.

TRANSLATION.

On the DrvetorpMENT of ASCARIS NIGROVENOSA.
By E. C. Mrcznixow.

(From Reichert and du Bois-Reymond’s ‘ Archiv,’ 1865, p. 409, pl. x.)

In the following pages the anthor proposes to communicate
the result of researches on the peculiar development of Ascaris
nigrovenosa, which have been conducted in the laboratory at
Giessen, and of which a brief report has already been given
by Prof. Leuckart.*

The fully developed worm, as is well known, inhabits the
lungs of the brown frog (R. esculenta), and feeds upon its
blood.

The lips surrounding the mouth are but very slightly
developed. Behind the oral orifice lies a minute cavity with
chitinous walls, and usually regarded as the pharynx. To
this succeeds the so-termed cesophagus, in the interior of which,
besides the transverse striz, may be noticed opaque granules
and clear nuclei. The cuticle of the body, as well as the
subjacent muscular layer, are comparatively thin, a circum-
stance which well accounts for the little mobility of the
animal. The remainder of the cavity of the body is filled
with numerous granules, either isolated or aggregated into a
few common masses.

Ascaris nigrovenosa deposits a great number of ova 0'013 mm.
in length, and which contain fully developed embryos, whose
development has been already described by Kolliker.t

The fully formed embryos when liberated from the egg
are 0°36mm. in length, and present the following charac-
ters. They are cylindrical in form, tapering more behind
than in front. The mouth is surrounded by a cuticular lip,
and it communicates with an organ resembling the pharynx
of the parent worm. The esophagus presents two enlarge-

* « Helminthologische Experimental-untersuchungen,” 4 Reihe, ia ‘ Got-
tinger Nachrichten,’ 1865, No. 8, p. 219.

ft Miiller’s ‘ Archiv,’ 1843.

VOL. VI.—NEW SER. Cc

26 MECZNIKOW, ON ASCARIS NIGROVENOSA.

ments, the second of which contains a peculiar chitinous
apparatus first described by Professor Leuckart. The intestine
runs straight backwards, terminating in a rectum; its wall
exhibits clear nuclei surrounded by a granular cell-substance.
In the middle of the body is placed a largely developed
rudimentary reproductive organ, in which may be perceived
numerous cell-nuclei inclosing nucleoli, and which are lodged
in a.common protoplasm. Similar cells occur in the caudal
and in the anterior portions of the body.

These embryos therefore are characterised especially by the
considerable development of the rudimentary sexual organ,
and by the double dilatation of the cesophagus—character
which they possess in common with the free-living genus
Diplogaster (Rhabditis), and which characters have previously
been pointed out by Professor Heuckart as existing in the
young larve of Dochmius trigonocephalus (I. c.).

From the lungs, the ova, that is to say the embryos, find
their way into the intestinal canal of the frog, collecting
themselves for the most part in the rectum. In this situation,
though increasing considerably in size (0°55 mm.) , they undergo
no other changes, which do not occur until the embryos have
been voided, and been deposited in the moist earth.* Under
these conditions the young larvz continue to grow as before,
and cast their skin for the first time at the end of about twelve
hours. But it should be remarked that the length of this
period depends very much upon the season of the year, so
that in summer the entire development of the free larve
requires only half the time that it does in autumn.

After this ecdysis, individuals of two kinds may be distin-
guished. One of these kinds presents a close similarity with
the early larval form, from which they differ merely in their
larger size and the rather considerable growth of the sexual
organs. But the second kind of individuals exhibits much
greater differences, the most striking of which consists in a
considerable shortening and curving of the caudal extremity.
In these individuals the rudimentary sexual organ assumes
the form of a band, which extends as far as the rectum;

* In water the embryos invariably perish, to which circumstance the
miscarriage of my first experiments was due. But in order to afford the
embryos an opportunity of further development, the contents of the
rectum of the frog in which they were found must be mixed up with the
moist earth, and placed in a watch-glass in a moist room, It should here
also be remarked (as pointed out by Professor Leuckart, |. ¢., p. 227), that
the Ascaridan larve, taken directly from the body of the parent, do not
become completely developed ; a circumstance which would seem to indicate
the necessity of a residence in the rectum.

MECZNIKOW, ON ASCARIS NIGROVENOSA. 27

which part of the intestine, moreover, is distinguished by its
thickness and solidity.

The further growth, besides the increase in size, consists
in a further differentiation of other organs, and, above all, in
the transformation of the sexual rudiment into perfectly de-
veloped reproductive organs. These changes are completed
as early as the third day of free life (in summer), at which
time the distinction between the males and females is ob-
vious ; and it will be found that the former are produced from
the short-tailed individuals above described, and the females
from the others.

Thus it is manifest that the larve of Ascaris nizrovenosa,
which differ in many respects from their parents, enjoy a free
existence, in which they attain to a sexual development.

The organization of the fully developed males of this free
generation of A. nigrovenosa resembles, in general, very
closely that of the above described short-tailed larvee, but
differs from it in the further differentiation of certain organs.

The body of the male is tolerably plump, its length being
not more than about 14 to 1, as compared with its diameter.
In dimensions, individuals differ considerably, some attaining
a length of 1°] mm., whilst others are not more than 0°55 mm.
The inwardly curved tail is tolerably thick and blunt; and
on each side of this part may be observed a row of minute
conical projections (Zapfen) which are connected together by
a delicate membrane, and thence represent the similar organs
which occur so frequently in various free and parasitic
nematodes.

In other respects, the external organization of the body of
the males differs from the structure above described of the
younger larve simply in the presence of a special excretory
orifice in the anterior part. During the course of develop-
ment, the intestine undergoes no particular modification,
whilst at the same time the cells occupying the anterior part
of the body constitute a central nervous ring. And at this
stage also differentiated muscular fibres may be discerned.

The reproductive organs consist of a single tract, at whose
upper (usually curved) end the sperm-cells are visible, behind
which lie the excessively minute spermatic corpuscles. The
inferior portion of the sexual apparatus consists of a thick-
walled vas deferens, which opens into the rectum. From the
walls of the same part of the intestine arises the copulatory
organ, consisting, in the present instance, of two connate
spicule and an undivided chitinous sheath or groove.

In the caudal portion of the body is lodged a mass of glan-
dular cells, which opens on the exterior.

28 MECZNIKOW, ON ASCARIS NIGROVENOSA.

The female differs from the male chiefly in in its longer
and slenderer tail. The excretory orifice is present as in the
male; but it is otherwise as regards the nervous system,
which in the female appears to consist simply of an aggrega-
tion of undifferentiated cells.

The fully developed female possesses a plumper form than
the male, its length not being more than twelve times its
diameter. During the growth of the ova, that is to say, of
the embryos, the female continues to increase in thickness.
In length it generally exceeds the male, but differences in
this respect may be observed. Whilst some individuals may
be seen 113mm. in length, others will be found barely
0°65 mm. long.

The vagina is situated in the middle of the body ; it leads

into the double reproductive organs, which are of extremely

simple structure. They consist merely of contiguous cells,
which are developed into ova, of which only those which lie
nearest the sexual orifice complete their development. In
the female reproductive organs I have been unable to detect
any special walls, whose existence has been affirmed by Pro-
fessor Leuckart (l.c., p. 228). And the impregnated ova
also are equally without any membranous covering.

The embryonic development of the new generation goes on
in the interior of the free-living female, and presents nothing
worthy of remark;,, The new embryos, which are not enclosed
in any special sac; and are developed to the number of from
one to four, straighten themselves out soon after their com-
pletion, and exhibit spontaneous movements in the interior of
the maternal body. Atthe same time they begin to devour the
undeveloped ova, as well as to prey upon the internal organs
of the mother, in consequence of which they grow very ra-
pidly. At the end of a few hours nothing remains of the
maternal body except the cuticle, within which the actively
moving embryos may be perceived, surrounded with nume-
rous opaque granules.

On the fifth day after the exit of the young larve of As-
caris nigrovenosa from the rectum of the frog, the embryos
of the new generation just described are ready to quit the
cuticle of their devoured parent. These new larve, about
0°65 mm. long, differ from their parents in their lively move-
ments and far slenderer form, the proportion of their length
to the diameter being as 25 tol. ‘Their cuticle exhibits dis-
tinct, sharply defined longitudinal strize. The minute oral
orifice leads into the cesophagus, which for some time, as in

‘the parents, is furnished with two dilatations; but subse-
quently this conformation disappears, when the cesophagus

MECZNIKOW, ON ASCARIS NIGROVENOSA. 29

represents a slender elongated organ, dilated at the extremity.
The intestine continued from it is straight and cylindrical,
with a contracted calibre. The anal orifice is placed in the
hinder part of the body. The sexual rudiment of these larvie
is placed in the middle of the body, and is of very inconsider-
able size.

The habits of the above-described larve differ from those
of their parents in the circumstance that they are normally
aquatic, and are capable of performing extraordinarily rapid,
serpentine movements.

In this condition the larve live for an indefinite time in
the mud without undergoing any change whatever, until they
have entered the body of the frog.* When small frogs
(especially the green frog) are fed with the mud in which the
new generation of Ascaris nigrovenosa has been developed,
the larve are afforded an opportunity of making their
entrance into the lungs. When they have reached this
locality they cast their skin for the first time, and at the
same time some other changes will be observed to take place.
The old longitudinally-striped cuticle is now cast off, in con-
sequence of which the tail appears much blunter than before.
The head, after the ecdysis, presents minute projecting lips
encircling the oral orifice. In individuals in this condition
the excreting orifice is also apparent, as well as a differentia-
tion of the future muscles, which at this time consist of an
exterior homogeneous and an internal granular layer con-
taining cell-nuclei.

During their abode in the frog’s lung the larve increase
considerably in size. On the fourth day of their parasitie cxist-
ence the author has noticed some already well-grown larvee in
the act of their second ecdysis, but unfortunately was unable
to preserve them alive sufficiently long to allow of drawings
being made from them. Eight days after the migration of
the young larve into the body of the frog he observed
these parasites in a further stage of development. Their
length is now about 1°25mm. The oral orifice snrrounded
by minute lips leads iuto a cavity furnished with chitinous
walls. The succeeding csophagus, like that of the fully
developed Ascaris nigrovenosa of the frog’s lung, exhibits
only a terminal enlargement, and in the interior, granular
transverse streaks and clear cell-nuclei. The intestine of

* The mediation of the fresh-water molluscs in the transmigration of the
Ascaridan larvee into the frog, which from the earlier observations on this
subject (Leuckart, |. c., p. 229) was deemed to be requisite, has been shown
to be unnecessary, since the larve are able to effect a direct entrance by
themselves.

30 MECZNIKOW, ON ASCARIS NIGROVENOSA,

individuals in this stage is an elongated tube with glandular
walls, which runs straight to the rectum, and is always seen
to be filled with reddish-brown contents consisting of the
altered blood-corpuscles of the frog. The rectum, as usual,
is represented by a slender canal, which opens on the ventral
aspect of the body. At the point where it is continuous with
the proper intestine, gland-cells of large size are placed;
and cells of less size are also to be seen in the caudal pro-
longation.

In the above-described individuals will also be observed a
peculiar granular gland lying on the ventral side of the
anterior part of the body, and communicating by a duct with
the excretory orifice. In the interior of this glandular body
one or two cell-nuclei containing nucleoli will be seen. The
nervous system at this period consists of an cesophageal ring
and of two trunks, which become fused into the muscular
layer. The muscles appear as completely developed fusiform
cells. The strongly-developed lateral lines consist of closely
contiguous cells 0°013 mm. in diameter, in which may be
perceived a nucleus containing a large nucleolus 0:006 mm.
in diameter. I have been unable to perceive any lateral
vessels.

All parasiticindividuals of Ascaris nigrovenosawhichtheauthor
has had an opportunity of examining in the above-described
stage of development have proved to be females. This cireum-
stance speaks strongly in favour of the supposition thrown
out by Leuckart (1. c. p. 230) that the parasitic female of
Ascaris nigrovenosa is parthenogenetic.* The female gene-
rative organs are double, and even at this stage exhibit a
differentiation into ovary, vagina, and uterus. In the first of
these three divisions large germinal vesicles, with a germinal
spot 0°025mm. in diameter, are lodged. The vagina is
represented by an elongated canal.

All the observed parasitic specimens in the just-described
stage were taken in the act of ecdysis, since the old skin could
be seen raised up from the surface of the body.

When the individuals inhabiting the frog’s lung just
described are compared with the fully developed para-
sitic Ascaris nigrovenosa, we shall be satisfied that the
difference between them is only a gradual one, consisting as
it does mainly in the greater size of the latter, and in the
disappearance of certain internal organs. On this account,
the want of observation of the later intermediate stages be-
comes of less consequence.

* It is equally favorable also to the view expressed by ourselves in 1846,
that the parasitic guinea-worm was a parthogenetic female.—G. B.

i ee ee es, ee he ee

MECZNIKOW, ON ASCARIS NIGROVENOSA. 31

But, from what has been observed, it is manifest that As-
caris nigrovenosa has two sexual generations, of which one is
parasitic, whilst the other, which presents the characters of
the genus Rhabditis, enjoys a free existence.

This fact shows not only a remarkable mode of propaga-
tion, but also indicates peculiar relations between the para-
sitic and free modes of life. The correspondence of certain
free nematodes with the parasitic has been partially recog-
nised by many earlier writers. Goeze and Dujardin,* for
instance, observed that the young larvee of Ascaris acuminata
are capable of living in water; and Willt has shown that
Angiostoma limacis occurs, not only in the interior of snails,
but also free in the water.

But the genetic relations between the parasitic and free
nematodes were first made clear by the observation of Pro-
fessor Leuckart, who watched the growth in the free state of
the Rhabditis-like larvee of Dockmius trigonocephalus.

These intimate relations, as well as the circumstance that
the nematodes possess a much better-developed digestive ap-
paratus than all the other parasitic helminths, suffice to
prove that the mode of life of the parasitic nematodes must
exhibit peculiarities of some kind. It appears more than
probable that many of the nematodes found in the intes-
tines of animals are not true parasites, since they feed, not
upon the living tissues, but upon the excrementitious matters
of their host. In favour of this view may be adduced the
observation made by Dujardin fourteen years ago, of the pre-
sence in the intestine of Ozxyuris curvula of various solid
vegetable particles. The author has also found in the intestine
of the Sclerostomum of the sheep abundance of fecal particles
in great variety belonging to that ruminant.

Having thus indicated the principal circumstances attending
the development of A. nigrovenosa, the author feels compelled
to pass to a more unpleasant and far less scientific task, viz., to
the assertion of his right to the credit of this discovery, which
has not been fully admitted by Professor Leuckart.

The Professor speaks thus: ‘‘ What I have to relate in the
following pages contains only that part of my observations
which has been brought to a more or less complete conclu-
sion. The greater part of my researches were instituted during
the past winter semestre, and in them I have in almost every
point enjoyed the assistance and co-operation of Herr Meczni-
kow” (1. ¢., p. 221).

* * Hist. des Helminthes,’ 1845, p. 228.
+ ‘Archiv fir Naturgesch.,’ 1849, p. 179.

32 MECZNIKOW, ON ASCARIS NIGROVENOSA.

Although the terms “ assistance” and “ co-operation” have
no definite meaning, no one, probably, would understand
them as conveying a recognition of perfectly independent dis-
coveries, no small number of which it has fallen to the author’s
lot to make. The most important of all the facts adduced by
Professor Leuckart in the memoir above cited is, beyond
doubt, the peculiar mode of development of A. nigrovenosa,
which was discovered by him alone during the autumn vaca-
tion, when Professor Leuckart himself was no longer at work
in the laboratory. But not only was the fact of the origin or
a sexual free larval generation from the embryos of Ascaris dis-
covered and demonstrated by the author, but the method also
in which the experimeats must be conducted (consisting in
the placing of the young larve in moist earth) was determined
by him quite independently of Professor Leuckart, who had
recommended him to try various other unsuccessful modes.

In the anatomical investigation of the various stages of de-
velopment he owns himself indebted to Professor Leuckart for
directing his attention to several particulars, and especially
to the existence of chitinous structures in the second eso-
phageal enlargement (as before remarked).

The last stages of the development of A. nigrovenosa in the
frog’s lung were observed by himself alone.

Lastly, he ventures to express the hope that the reader, as
well as Professor Leuckart himself, will not hesitate to recog-
nise his claim to the discovery.

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE OF MICROSCOPICAL
SCIENCE.

GERMANY.—Kolliker'’s und Siebold’s Zeitschrift. Fourth
Part, 1865.—< New Researches on the Reproduction of the
Viviparous Dipterous Larve,’ by M. Hanin, Prosector in the
University of Charkow. The author of this paper, which
deals with a most interesting subject, gives the following con-
slusions to be drawn from his observations:—1. That the
development in these animals does not result from the corpus
adiposum. 2, That the young larve originate from eggs,
which develop in an ovary. 3. That the process of egg
formation presents some resemblance to the formation of the
egg among some mature Diptera (Musca vomitoria, Sarco-
phaga carnaria). The egg originates from more cells, and is
further distinguished from the egg of mature insects by the
deficiency of the germinal vesicle. 4. That the egg, before it
becomes fertilised, commences to develop embryos, and that the
commencement of the development of the embryo has some
likeness to the development of the same among some perfect
Diptera. The development of the embryo proceeds from one
part of the primitive embryonal mass. And finally, 5. That in
consequence of what has been said, the phenomenon of the
increase of the larve, instead of being an enigma, as it appears
according to Wagner’s interpretation, receives a very natural
explanation.

“ Contributions to a nearer knowledge of the Young Forms
of Cypris ovum” is the title of a paper by Dr. C. Claus. His
results are as follows :—1. The Ostracoda pass through a kind
of metamorphosis, in so far as in the various steps of their
free state of existence they possess a varying form of
shell, and first acquire the full number of their limbs by
gradual development. 2. The youngest stages are shells
bearing Nauplius-forms, with three pairs of limbs for move-
ment, namely, the two antennz and the mandibular “‘append-
ages. 3. There are in Cypris ovum nine successive stages,
which are distinguishable from one another ; of these the last

VOL. VI.—NEW SER. D

34 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

represents the sexually mature form. 4. These stages of de-
velopment are marked by the stripping off of the skin; there
are therefore eight corresponding moults. 5. The mandibles
arise first in the second stage, as powerful j ek -prolongations
at the basal joint of the mandibular foot. 6. Only the hinder
antenne already possess at the youngest age the complete
jointing and figure of the sexually mature animal. 7. In the
second stage the anterior maxille and anterior feet, except
the antennz and mandibles, are attached. 8. The maxillze of
the second pair originate first in the third stage, consequently
later than the following pair of jointed bodies, distinguished
as the first foot. 9. The maxillee of both pairs and the hinder
foot present in their first appearance a nearly corresponding
form as a triangular plate running out into a little hook.
10. The anterior feet proceed from the top to the base in
their jointing. 11. The abdomen gives rise to two long furcal
joints.

: Dr. Claus also contributes a paper “ On the Sexual Differ-
ences in Halocypris.”

A very lengthy and exhaustive memoir also appears from
Professor Wilhelm Keferstein, entitled ‘‘ Contributions to the
Anatomical and Systematic Knowledge of the Sipunculide,”
which, though perhaps not a microscopical paper, will doubt-
less be found of much value by the readers of this Journal.
A complete résumé is given of all that is known of the ana-
tomy of these doubtful annelids, and the known species dis-
cussed, while many new forms are added to the list and new
anatomical details described

The same indefatigable naturalist contributes a paper on
the “ Anatomy of Janella bitentaculata, Q. et G., of New
Zealand.

Herr Mecnikow has a paper “ On some little-hnown Lower
Animals,’ in which he deals with the anatomy, &c., of
Chetonotus, Chetura, Icthydium, and others.

Perhaps the most valuable paper in the quarter’s ‘Zeitschrift’
is that by Dr. Hermann Dorner, “On the genus Branchiobdella
of Odier.’ In this paper the author deals in a most able
manner with the anatomy of Branchiobdella and its allies,
and discusses the homologies of its organs and those of the
genera investigated by Claparéde, Kélliker, Herring, and
others.

Dr. Leonard Landois publishes the fourth part of his
monograph “ On the Lice which infest Men.’ In this part he
treats of the Pediculus capitis, and also reverts to Pthirius
inguinalis.

We avail ourselves of a short translation of a paper by

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 35

Professor Claus “ On the Organization of the Cypridine,”
given in the ‘ Annals and Magazine of Natural History,’ the
original of which we chronicled last quarter as appearing in
‘Kolliker’s und Siebold’s Zeitschrift, p. 143. During a
residence at Messina Professor Claus turned his attention to
the little Crustacea which swarm in the waters of the sea.
He was particularly struck by a small Ostracode, of the genus
Cypridina, in which he detected, even with a low power of
the microscope, an accessory single eye in addition to the
large, paired, compound eye, and a heart beating with regular
pulsations. This latter discovery naturally surprised him,
as in the other two families of Ostracoda (the Cypride and
the Cytheride) the heart is entirely deficient. A more atten-
tive examination of these Crustacea soon showed, however,
that the Cypridine differ much more from the other Ostra-
coda than the Cypride and Cytheride from each other. The
fact that an organ so important as the heart may sometimes
exist and sometimes be deficient in animals so nearly allied to
each other is doubtless surprising, but by no means without
precedent. Thus, it has been demonstrated that the Copepoda
are in the same case. M. Claus himself has shown that if the
Cyclopide, Harpactide, and Coryceide are always destitute
of a heart, the allied Pontellide and Calamide are always
furnished with one. Moreover, the author is not the only
person who has observed the heart in the Cypridine, as M.
Fritz Miller mentions it in a recent work (‘ Fir Darwin,’
1864). The sole visual organs hitherto known in the Cypri-
dine were the paired eyes, in which M. Lilljeborg has detected
a complication of organization very similar to that of the
eyes of the Cladocera, although the latter are fused into a
single mass, forming, as it were, a median eye. Nevertheless,
traces of a primitive division into two halves in the Side, the
Lyncei, and the Estheria, enable us to establish unhesitatingly
the homology of this apparently single eye of the Cladocera
with the paired eyes of the Cypridine. A further homology
is presented when we find in the Cypridine, besides the large
compound eyes, a small, simple, median eye, perfectly similar
to that which exists, in addition to the compound eye, in the
Daphnia. The Cypridine present other peculiarities worthy
of mention. As a general rule, the Ostracoda are characterised
by the small number of their appendages, as there exist only
two, or at most three, pairs of locomotive appendages behind
the gigantic maxille. In fact, the last pair of feet disappears
completely, and the others are converted into organs of
manducation. On the other hand, the mandibles are con-
verted into locomotive appendages. The antennz also serv-

36 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

ing for locomotion, we find that throughout their whole life
the Cypridine employ the three anterior pairs of appendages
as locomotive organs. Now, this is exactly the case in all
Entomostraca during the Nauplius-phase, and furnishes a
new argument to be added to those adduced by Fritz Miller
in favour of the derivation of all Crustacea from the Nauplius-
form.

Max Schultze’s Archiv fur Mikroskopische Anatomie.—The
second and third parts of this valuable contribution to
microscopical periodical literature have appeared, forming
a part about equal in size to the first part. The contents
are of equal value and interest to the former, and the illus-
trations are copious and excellent. The sight of such copious
and well-executed plates, eleven in number, and all but two
of quarto size, and nearly all more or less coloured, makes
us wonder more and more, and still more lament the strange
condition of things that wholly prevents our doing the same
in this country. Whether it be owing to an absolute dearth
of artists capable of making such drawings, which, we fear,
is very much the case, or the far higher rate of payment pub-
lishers are compelled to submit to, the truth is no less cer-
tain that the illustrations given in nearly all the numerous
journals, &c., of Germany and France, but especially of the
former country, completely put to shame our puny attempts
in the same line. The time really appears to be coming
when we shall be obliged to have recourse to foreign artists
and lithographers for the proper illustration of natural his-
tory works. It is true we may justly be proud of several
artists in that line, who are excelled by none of any country,
and perhaps scarcely equalled in any; but no one can deny
that the number of good artists available for the current
exigencies of periodical literature more especially is very re-
stricted, and only those who know it can tell how much this
scanty supply necessarily enhances the cost of all illus-
trations at all worthy to compete with such as issued so
copiously in such journals as that we are now noticing,
Kolliker’s ‘ Zeitschrift,’ Reichert’s ‘Annalen, and several
others which might be named, in Germany, France, and else-
where.

Having thus vented the natural feelings of an editor, we
will proceed to state the contents of the present part of the
‘ Archiv fiir Mikroskopische Anatomie.’

1. The first is a long and elaborate article, by Professor
W. His, of Basle, entitled “‘ Observations on the Structure
of the Mammalian Ovary.” Professor His’s observations
refer chiefly to the mature ovary of the cow and its corpora

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 37

lutea. The ovary of the cat, whose structure has already
been amply discussed by Schroén and Pfluger, has also formed
part of his study, im consequence of which he has been
enabled, he says, to establish rather more definitely than
before certain points with respect to the mode and formation
of the membrana folliculi. He has also added some prelimi-
nary observations on the structure of the human ovary in the
foetus. And his researches on this subject have led him on
to the study of the earliest stages of development of the
sexual glands, a subject of great general interest.

2. The second paper is one by L. Cienkowski, “ Contribu-
tions to a Knowledge of the Monadina,” in which will be
found much matter of great interest to all microscopical ob-
servers, but of which it will be needless here to say more, as
we shall hope, in our next number, to give a translation or
full abstract of this valuable communication. The author,
we may say, is not inclined to adopt the opinion of those who
regard all the Monadina as motile spores of various Algz
and Fungi, being convinced that, although this may be true
of a great many of these Infusoria, still there are whole series
of whose independent existence there can be no doubt.

3. The next contribution is ‘‘ Researches on the Develop-
ment of the Urinary and Sexual Systems,” by Dr. C. Kupffer,
of Dorpat.

4. “ On Phreoryctes Menkeanus, Hofm., with Remarks on

the Structure of other Annelids,” by Professor Leydig, of
Tubingen.—The extraordinary worm which forms the subject
of Professor Leydig’s communication was originally discovered
by Herr Menke, in a brook at Pyrmont, and it was first de-
seribed by Hofmeister in the ‘ Archiv fiir Naturgeschichte’
for 1843, under the name of Haplotaxis Menkeana, which
was afterwards changed to its present appellation. A further
account of it will be found, by the same author, in his
‘ Arten der Regenwiirmer’ (1845). Fora long time the only
known habitat was the original site in which the worm was
discovered, or its immediate vicinity; but it has since been
met with by Leydig at Tubingen, and it is stated by
Leuckart (1860) to be common at Giessen, so that we may
hope to hear of its occurrence in this country. A second
species, apparently belonging to the same genus, was de-
scribed by Schlotthauber in 1859, in the ‘ Report of the Got-
tingen Meeting of Naturalists, who proposed to change the
generic name to Georyctes.

‘It is impossible here to give even a summary of the excel-
lent account, illustrated by beautiful figures, given by Leydig,
of the structure and affinities of this remarkable creature

38 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

and we shall content ourselves with a description of its ex-
ternal form and appearance.

The worm, which from the figure strongly resembles a
Gordius, has a cylindrical body about half a line thick, and
more than a foot long. When viewed alive with the naked
eye or a pocket lens, it is at once seen to present all the
characters of a true Annelid. The body is divided into very
numerous segments, of which the most anterior forms a pointed
‘“head-lobe,” in which lies the upper portion of the nervous
ring, and beneath which lobe is placed the mouth. The an-
terior or cephalic extremity, except just at the point, is less
attenuated than the posterior or caudal, nor is it so much
tinged with red; whilst in the rest of the body the trans-
parent walls allow the numerous red blood-vessels to be seen
through them. There are four rows of setz on the sides and
ventral aspect, each segment presenting on either side a larger
seta, which is placed quite on the ventral aspect, as in the com-
mon earthworm, and a smaller one, which might, from its posi-
tion, almost be termeddorsal. Everysegment, except the cepha-
lic and the penultimate and ultimate caudal, are thus furnished.
In the middle portion of the body the ventral setz some-
times occur in pairs on either side, but more usually only
one is met with. The sete themselves have a slight sigmoid
flexure, with a slight enlargement in the middle. The free
end is blunt and straight, whilst the other is usually sharp-
pointed and sickle-shaped. According to Schlotthauber, the
proper habitat of the worm is moist earth; but according to
Leydig’s observations it would seem to be truly aquatic, or
at any rate to require exceedingly wet mud for its abode.

In the remaining part of the paper numerous interesting
observations will be found relative to various pomts in the
organization of other Annelids, and especially of Lumbricus
and Hirudo.

5. “On the Epidermoid Layer of the Frog’s Skin,” by Dr.
M. Rudneff, of St. Petersburg.—In his investigation of this
structure the author employs a weak solution of nitrate of
silver (1 to 1000), in which the swimming membrane of the
frog is immersed for a quarter, or at most half, an hour, when
the animal, having been rendered motionless by the adminis-
tration of a few drops of alcohol, the microscopic examination
is proceeded with. By this procedure the author is able to
define accurately the outlines of the epidermic cells, which
are marked by black lines, and has discovered the existence,
in the intercellular spaces, of bodies having, at first sight,
the appearance of cell-nuclei, with which it is probable they
have hitherto been confounded, but from which the bodies in

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 39

question differ in the capacity they possess of being black-
ened by the argentine solution. In speculating upon the
nature of these peculiar bodies, which are of a cellular nature,
the author suggests that they may bear some analogy with
the peculiar bodies described by M. Schultze in the nasal
mucous membrane, or those noticed by Hensen, also in the
frog’s epidermis, as being connected with nerve-fibres; he
also adduces the bodies described by Schultze, Kolliker, and
HH. Miiller, in the epidermis of Petromyzon. And it appears
not improbable that they may, in fact, represent a sort of
corpuscula tactis.

6. ‘Further Remarks on the Action of Hyperosmic Acid
on Animal Tissues,” by M. Schultze and Dr. M. Rudneft.—
These observations are in continuation of those given in the
former part of the ‘ Archiv’ on the same subject. The prin-
cipal subject in which the acid was employed seems to have
been in the investigation of the luciferous organ of Lampyris,
and the chief property of the reagent is that of rendering
the nerve-fibres distinct, in consequence of the readiness with
which the nervous tissue is coloured by it. It would seem to
possess properties well worthy the attention of histologists.

7. “On Nobert’s Test-plates,” by M.Schultze.—M. Nobert,
it seems, now prepares his celebrated “ tests” in a new form.
The specimens described by Schultze contain nineteen groups

1 ut

of lines, from =,” to +4,” apart, and thus arranged :

Ist set, +50: Ath set, s55, &c.
4 es eee 18th ,,- osc:
3rd +P) ZV o° 19th ” 70000"

The highest set M. Schultze has been able to define with
central illumination is the 9th, which is resolved by Hart-
nack’s immersion system No. 10, and by Merz’s immersion
system ;. With oblique illumination he has not been able
with any combination to get beyond the 15th. He considers
the most difficult specimens of Pleurosigma angulatum to be
about equal to the 8th or 9th set of Nobert’s lines, and the
larger instances to correspond with the 7th.

Reichert’s und Du Bois-Reymond’s Archiv (Muller’s).— In an-
other part of our pages we publish a translation of a paper
which appears in the ‘ Archiv,’ by Herr Elias Meczniknow,
“ On the Development of Ascaris nigrovenosa.”

Dr. Albert Eulenburg, of Greifswald, publishes a long
essay in the same journal on the “ Action of Sulphate of Qui-
nine on the Nervous System,” in which the physiological part
of the question more particularly is dealt with.

“ On the Nervous Plexus in the Intestine of the Child” is

40 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

the title of a paper by Dr. P. Schroder, in which he gives the
following as the results of his labours:—1. The observers
who hitherto have written on the nerves in the intestine are.
not in accordance as regards their statements; they have
only this in common, that they view the structure in ques-
tion as belonging to the nervous system. 2. The bodies of
Billroth become developed from a network of vessels filled
with stagnant blood, as Reichert, and after him Hoyer, have
already some time since described. 3. The bodies named
belong to the part of vascular system which is intermediate
in the passage of the capillary to the vein, and forms net-
works in the stratum vasculosum. 4. The bodies of Billroth
are wanting in every characteristic mark of nerve-fibres, or
ganglion-corpuscles, or of nerves and ganglia. 5. By injec-
tion of the vessels of the intestine with carmine solution one
can find injected uetworks in the stratum vasculosum, which
have quite the structure of the “ bodies of Billroth.” Through-
out the injected mass one can perceive the characteristic for-
mation for the same. 6. Passages between undeniable ves-
sels and the Billrothian bodies can with certainty be deter-
mined. 7. Also in intestines of growing animals, in which
it is not usual to find the networks in question, one can
detect these same bodies, by skilful management, in the re-
gion of the portal vein. 8. The formation of Billroth’s bodies
can be prevented in the intestines of new-born animals if
the conditions under which they arrive at completion be
removed.

It is so long since anything has appeared on the Grega-
rinide that a paper from Dr. Lieberkthn on some points
connected with them is of great interest. In the ‘ Trans.
Mic. Soc.’ for this quarter also will be found a paper
on Gregarinide. Dr. Lieberkiihn, whose researches on
the Monocystis Lumbrici are so valuable, observes that
in the perivisceral cavity of the earthworm are to be
found, between the intestine and integument, numerous
cylindrical Gregarine, which exhibit a uniform longitudinal
striping of changeable length and breadth, disposed on the
inner surface of the whole cortical substance of the saccule
which constitutes the Gregarina. 'They may be observed to
perform lively movements in water, whereby the fluid matter
contained in their interior, together with the granules and
vesicle, are driven about from end to end. The same moye-
ments were observed in other examples which were under-
going the pseudo-conjugation peculiar to these creatures. In
these cases the Gregarine were so tightly jomed as not to
be separable without tearing, and the body wall was observed

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 4

to be as thick at the line of junction as elsewhere, and the
long striations as perceptible. Here and there a Gregarina
is to be found still moving iése/f, but enclosed by a structure-
less, enveloping, elastic “ veil,” which resembles a cyst-mem-
brane. The Gregarina, frequently swollen in the middle,
is so placed that the finer ends are bent towards the thick-
ened wall, so that they touch, the one under the other. The
body-contents are alternately driven from the middle into the
turned-up ends, and back again; or into one of the ends,
when the walls of the hollow sac fall together, and part again
so soon as the granules and fluid return. If the enveloping
“veil” burst, the Gregarina stretches itself out straight again.
The appearance of Gregarine within cells has been observed
tooccur. They are often found in the vesicular corpuscles of
the testicular sacs of the earthworm, when the spermatic
filaments, in various stages of development, are disposed
around their outer envelope. Such a Gregarina is sometimes
so small as not to equal in size the third part of the diameter
of the filamentous vesicle, in other cases so large that it quite
fills up the vesicle, and in others it is still wider. These
must not be confounded with the cyst-membranes, in which
also the Gregariné sometimes show movements. By the
movements of a large round Gregarina in water the hyaline
cortical layer may be seen to thicken itself at particular spots,
and thereby the upper layer to sink in. If the thickening
extends itself upon the whole Gregarina annularly, it appears
more or less laced in; the thickenings may also appear in
more spots at the same time, and the resulting depressions
- give the Gregarina the appearance of an Ameeba with short
pseudopodia. In smaller examples this alternate thickening
and thinning does not occur, since the cortical layer is too
thin to permit of the separation appearing. It has been
as yet universally admitted that the Gregarine become sur-
rounded by a cyst, when the formation of pseudo-navicule or
psorosperms takes place. As a rule, this is the case; and
the published researches of Kolliker, Stein, and others thereon
have received confirmation and assent. The formation of
pseudo-navicels, however, takes place without encystation, as
is evidenced by the minute groups of pseudo-navicules to be
found in the testes of worms unencysted, yet held together
by some glutinous substance.

The remaining papers do not deal with microscopical mat-
ters, excepting a very short one by Dr. Anton Schneider,
“ On the Hematozoa of the Dog.”

Archiv fur Naturgeschichte (Leuckart und Troshel), Third
Part, 1865.—There are the following papers in this journal

42 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

dealing with micro-zoology, which will, therefore, interest our
readers :—Professor Grube, “ On the Genera Estheria and
Limnadia, and on a New Apus.’ Dr. J. E. Schédler, “ Di-
agnoses of some Daphnide.” Professor Fritz Miiller, “ On
the Cumaceans.” 'This appears to be a very valuable contri-
bution to our knowledge of these remarkable little Crusta-
ceans, which have been already written of by Kroyer, Van
Beneden, Milne-Edwards, Goodsir, Spence Bate, and others.

The two most interesting papers, however, are by Profes-
sors Leuckart and Mecznikoff, the one “ On the a-sexual
Reproduction of the Larve of Cecidomyia,’ and the other
on the development of the same larva. The results of
Herr Hanin’s paper on the same subject we have already
given above, and intend to return to Professor Leuckart’s
paper hereafter.

A short but interesting communication from Professor
Mayer, ‘‘ On the Chorda Dorsalis in Fishes,” completes the
list of microscopical papers in this journal.

Hedwigia——We have two numbers (6 and 7, of 1865) of
this spirited little journal before us, which is devoted to eryp-
togamic botany, and is printed in the German characters.
No. 6 contains a paper by Dr. Ferdinand Cohn, of Breslau,
“On Two New Beggiatoe.” The first of these is Beggiatoa
(Oscillaria) mirabilis, the second B. pellucida. Dr. Cohn
also describes a variety B. alba, var. marina. The species
are carefully drawn in a plate accompanying.

In No. 7 Dr. Cohn describes a form of Chlamydomonas,
C. marina, which he obtained, as also his Beggiatoe, from his
marine aquarium. The Chlamydomonas, which is of very ©
simple structure, and colours water green by its presence, is
illustrated in a woodcut. The same number contains a re-
view of Mr. Mordecai Cooke’s little book, “ On Rust, Smut,
Mildew, and Mould.”

FRANCE.—Comptes Rendus.—A communication from Pro-
fessor Kuhne, “ On the Nervous Lamine (pldques) of Motor
Fibres,” occurs in the ‘ Proceedings of the French Academy’ of
the 16th of October. The nervous laminz, which the author
described as the continuation of the cylinder axis in the
nervous cones of the muscles, has been contested by some
authors. Thus, M. Rouget (an abstract of whose researches
will be found in our Chronicle of last April) believes that it
is produced only by a series of fissures, of vacuoles, and
coagulations, which form after death. He rests the prin-
cipal proof of his explanation on the fact that some parts of
the lamina offer no continuity with the nervous fibre. Kuhne
found this also himself, but believes that all the parts of the la-

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 43

mina form a complete organ, without interruptions. Moreover,
he has made his examinations on fresh specimens of tissue, in
which contractility and irritability still remained. Sections
were cut from frozen muscles, by which means very thin yet
unchanged specimens could be obtained. Osmic acic (OsO‘)
was used to test whether the terminal lamina possessed pro-
perties similar to those of the medullary part of the nerve.
It was found that there was no coloration of the tissue, and
hence it is inferred that the terminal lamina has none of the
medullary matter of the nerve in it.

“ On a New Mode of Parasitism observed in an Undescribed
Animal” is the title of a paper by Dr. Lacaze-Duthiers in this
journal for the 13th of November. In studying the marine
fauna of the coast of Tunis M. Duthiers observed on the
polyp of an Antipatharian little, flattened, reniform bodies,
of arose colour. On opening one of these bodies a colony
of living animalcules escaped, which were seen to be embry-
onic Crustacea. The body from which they escaped appeared
to be a nest, but when placed beneath the microscope it was
found to be a living organism. It has the appearance of a
minute lobster, with six pairs of claws, and a large alimentary
canal of a brown colour. Dr. Duthiers proposes to call this
little Crustacean Laura Gerardie. The most remarkable
part about the animal is its mode of parasitism; it is at-
tached to the polyp by a number of little tubular “ roots,”
which spring from the carapace, and plunge into the tissues
of the Gerardia. The liver is very largely developed indeed ;
the circulatory and respiratory organs are at a minimum.
The generative organs are very remarkably disposed, since
the parasite is hermaphrodite. M. Duthiers promises other
memoirs as the result of his investigations when on his voy-
ages.

In the ‘Comptes Rendus’ for the 20th November the same
author publishes a paper “ On the Multiplicity and Termina-
tion of the Nerves in the Mollusca.” He takes Thetys lepo-
rina as his type, and proceeds in the present memoir to deal
with the distribution and termination of the buccal nerves
in a most detailed and careful manner.

The same number contains some interesting researches by
M. P. Bert “On Animal Grafting.” The microscope may
well be applied to investigate the phenomena of growth which
are here manifested.

Annales des Sciences Naturelles.—The June number of this
journal contains two valuable microscopical papers, one by
M. Lacaze-Duthiers, “ On the Spicules of Gorgonie” as
specific characters, and the other by M. Alexander Agassiz,

44 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE,

“‘ On the Embryology of the Echinodermata,” in which he gives
the results of some very careful observations, leading him to
differ, to a certain extent, from the views of Johannes
Miller and others. The July number contains ‘ A second
Memoir on the Antipatharians,’ by that most diligent and
accomplished naturalist, M. Lacaze-Duthiers; whilst the
August number is devoted to a very valuable and extensive
memoir “ On the Family of the Tridacnide,” by M. Léon Vail-
lant, in which many microscopical matters concerning the
anatomy of these molluscs are entered into.

ENGLAND.—Annals and Magazine of Natural History.—
In the October number of this journal is a valuable paper by
Professor H. James Clark, read before the American Academy of
Science and Arts, with the title “‘ Proofsof the Animal Nature of
the Cilio-flagellate Infusoria, based upon Investigations of the
Structure and Physiology of one of the Peridinia (Peridinium
cypripedum, un. sp.).’’ The author commences by speaking of
Darwinism as a resuscitation of previously advanced doctrines,
wherein we must be allowed to remark that he appears to
misunderstand the work which Mr. Darwin has done. The
species of Peridinium which Professor Clark has studied differs
from those described by Professor Allman, in the third volume
of this Journal (1856), and for it he proposes the name cypripe-
dum. It has an oblique, pyriform outline, more than one
third longer than its greatest breadth, and hollowed on one
side by a broad longitudinal depression, extending from the
narrower end to a short distance beyond the broadest part of
the body. Not far from the narrower end the so-called
flagellum is attached, in the middle line of the broad depres-
sion, and is so long as to project beyond the end near to
which it is situated. As the narrower end is always the pos-
terior, and the broader end the anterior, in the act of swim-
ming, and the relations of the other parts of the body, such
as the position of the mouth, and particularly of the cesopha-
gus, correspond to these, the one which precedes should be
called the anterior, and the other the posterior, end of the body.
Two shallow furrows encircle the body; the whole of it pos-
terior to the narrower of these furrows is clothed with vibra-
tile cilia, but the anterior end is devoid of them, and appears
to be covered by a low cap, in the form of the segment of a
sphere. Close to the posterior end is the large, clear, con-
tractile vesicle, which has hitherto escaped notice, owing, it
is believed, to the incessant and rapid movements which the
animal performs.

Professor Clark manages to confine his Peridinia by strewing
the glass slip on which the water containing the specimens

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 45

is to be placed with abundance of indigo. In this way little
lagoons are formed, in which the Infusoria become imprisoned,
and are examined without the use of a glass cover. The
systole of the vesicle takes place once in forty seconds ; be-
tween diastole and systole the vesicle is more or less irregu-
lar in outline, but gradually approximates to a spherical form,
and the contraction is sudden and rapid. If the water in
which the specimen is placed be not renewed the systole
occurs five or six times in a minute, owing to the unhealthy
condition. Tincture of opium stops the action of the con-
tractile vesicle at once; the effect is to swell it to an enor-
mous size, and then, breaking through the posterior end of
the animal, it expands to a dimension often exceeding that
of the whole body before it bursts. The mouth, esophagus,
and digestive vacuoles, are carefully described. It appears
that the flagellum has nothing to do with the mouth, which
is entirely dependent on the small cilia surrounding it for
the introduction of food. The vacuoles are sometimes very
large, but the particles of food taken in are excessively
minute. No anus was detected, as, indeed, was not expected.
The flagellum is composed of several filaments, which fre-
quently divide into two groups or are spread out at times as.
a brush. Its function appears to be that of a powerful rud-
der and axis of gyration. ‘The so-called cuirass is evidently
a part of the whole investing tunic, but differs from the rest
in its punctuation. The nucleus in December had a U-shaped
form, and was of large size. Frequently it was observed to
be invested by a delicate envelope, and close to its dorsal re-
gion a vesicular corpuscle, appareutly the nucleolus or testi-
cule, was observed overlying it. Reproduction from the egg
was not observed, but transverse division, as observed by
Allman, occurred in many instances.

“ On the Microscopic Structure of the Shell of Rhynconella
Geinitziana” is the title of a paper, by Dr. Carpenter, in the
November number. It may be remembered that a somewhat
unequal discussion has been going on between Dr. Carpenter
and Professor King, of Galway, as to whether, as Dr. Carpenter
ably maintains, the shell in question and the Rhynconellide
generally are imperforate in their histological structure, or
whether, as Professor King asserts, the Rhyncopora Geinitziana
has a perforated structure similar to that of the Terebratu-
lide. Dr. Carpenter has re-examined his preparations made
from specimens supplied by Mr. Davidson, and clearly points
out the origin of Professor King’s mistake. The internal sur-
face of the debated shell is pitted. When the outer surface
is abraded these pits appear as complete perforations ; and a

46 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

careful examination of vertical and horizontal sections, made
with a binocular microscope and a magnifying power of 120
diameters, shows this to be the case. Professor King used only
a Stanhope lens and unprepared specimens. Dr. Carpenter
very fairly urges, upon similar grounds, the improbability of
Professor King’s assertions with regard to another histological
matter, viz., the foraminiferous nature of Hozoon Canadense,
which the Galway ‘ savant’ pronounces to be a product of che-
mical and physical agencies.

Raphides.—Professor Gulliver is still adding to his proofs
of the importance of microscopical structure in the diagnosis
of allied orders of plants. In the November number of the
‘ Annals’ he compares Vitacez with Araliacez, and gives the
results of his examinations of Heemodoracez.

He has now examined species, including Pterisanthes, of
each of the genera included by Lindley under Vitaceze. They all
prove to be characterised by an abundance of true raphides, ex~
cepting Bersama and Natalia (Rhaganus), in which two genera
raphides are replaced by crystal prisms. Sphzraphides also
occur plentifully with the raphides in the typical Vitaceze. In
Aralia spheraphides only appear, and this often in a spheera-
phid-tissue, which forms a beautiful microscopic object im
the A. spinosa. He recommends the leaves of this plant and
of Vitis apicifolia for comparison. As to Professor Lindley’s
observation that, ‘if Aralia had an adherent calyx, erect ovules,
with stamens opposite the petals, it would be a Vitis,” Mr.
Gulliver now shows that the addition also of raphides to an
Aralia would be required to make it a Vitis.

The departure of Rhaganus from the true structure of a
Vitis is a curious fact in favour of the value of the raphidian
character, for Rhaganus has lately been separated on other
grounds, by Bentham and Hooker, from Vitacez.

Of Hzmodoraceze Mr. Gulliver has examined fragments of
species of Lindley’s three subsections, and finds raphides
abundant in Heemodorex and Conostylee, but wanting in
Velloziez ; an interesting observation when we recollect that
Don proposed to make an order of the Vellozias, but which
Lindley well declared would be premature till their structure
and that of the bloodroots had been thoroughly investigated.

In the December number of the ‘ Annals’ Mr. H. J. Carter
has some remarks on Professor Clark’s paper “ On Peridi-
nium.’ He considers that Professor Clark is mistaken in
supposing his animalcule to be a Peridinium. It is, he states,
Urocentrum Turbo, of Ehrenberg. He further observes that
Professor Clark “has confounded two kinds of Infusoria,
which, although extremely alike, belong, one to the animal,

ry

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 47

and the other to the vegetable, side of the imaginary (?) line
which divides the two great kingdoms of organized beings.”
In fact, the deductions as to the animal nature of the Péi-
dinens which Professor Clark seeks to draw from his re-
searches do not apply to these beings, since the Infusorian
he examined was not a Peridinium, but a Urocentrum. This
does not, however, detract from the value of Professor Clark’s
observations.

Miscellaneous—An ingenious device for a growing slide is
given in ‘ Silliman’s American Journal of Science’ for Sep-
tember, 1865, by H. L. Smith, of Kenyon College, U.S.
The “slide” consists of a rectangular glass cell 3 x 2 inches,
and about th inch deep. A small hole is drilled in the
cover, which is closely fitted and cemented to the cell, ex-
cepting at one corner, which is cut away so as to allow the
introduction of water into the cell by a pipette. The living
object which it is desired to keep supplied by fresh water is
placed near the small hole drilled in the cover, and it and
the hole are both covered by a piece of thin glass. As the
water in which the object is placed dries, more is absorbed
by capillary attraction from the cell through the small hole.
The cell will need replenishing (through the larger hole left
by the cutting away of the corner of its cover) but once in
three days. ‘This simple little appliance seems to be a very
valuable addition to microscopical apparatus.

NOTES AND CORRESPONDENCE.

Count Francisco Castracane’s New Method of Ilumination.—
Will you allow me to offer a few remarks on the letter refer-
ring to a new mode of illumination by Count F. Castracane,
which appears in the last number of the ‘ Quart. Journ. Mic.
Sci.,’ especially with reference to the diatoms on which it is
desirable to test the powers of the new method of illumina-
tion. It is perfectly true that a few years ago Pleurosigma
angulatum was recommended as a valuable test object for
good objectives; but it, ike the scales of Podura, is now
scarcely recognised as a test for the best 4-inch and higher
objectives of large angular aperture. You very properly
observe in your foot-note P. angulatum is now recognised as
very easy of resolution. I beg to suggest to Count F. Castra-
cane the desirableness of his trying experiments with all or
any of the following diatoms, the striz on which are much
more faint and close than are those of P. angulatum, and the

proper resolution of which is a severe test, not to tths and

ths only, but to objectives of even higher power.

If the monochromatic mode of illumination suggested by
Count F. Castracane enables him to resolve with moderate
distinctness the markings on Pleurosigma arcuatum, Donkinia
carinatum, D. rectum, D. minutum, its adoption would be of
great service to all microscopists who are interested in the
study of Diatomacez.

I have endeavoured, but unsuccessfully, to resolve the
markings of the diatoms just enumerated, and have used an
excellent 1th with Nos. 1 and 3 eye-pieces and draw-tube.
Pleurosigma angulatum, Foxonidea insignis, Pleurosigma lan-
ceolatum, and other finely marked diatoms, are easily resolved
by the appliances I have at command; but the other forms
named baffle all my endeavours to resolve them.

I shall be most happy to supply Count F. Castracane with
specimens of all the Diatomacez I have named, gathered from
the Northumberland coast, either mounted ready for inspec-
tion or prepared in readiness for being mounted. No address

MEMORANDA. 49

is given in connection with the count’s letter; I therefore
beg you will grant me this mode of addressing him.—
T. P. Barxas, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

[We have received a communication from Mr. Barkas, in
which he says that since forwarding his note relative to Count
F. Castracane’s new method of illumination he has succeeded
in resolving the striz in Donkinia rectum, D. carinatum, and
D. minutum, with the appliances named in his paper, but that
the lines are exceedingly faint and difficult to detect.—
Count F. Castracanez, “ Rome.”—Ed. Q. J. M. 8.)

On Cleaning Glass Tubes——I have just been reading the
communication of Mr. Wenham in the October number of
your Journal, and certainly felt great surprise in learning the
marvellous effects of passing a metal wire through a glass
tube, the more so as I have for years been in the constant
daily habit of cleaning my tubes precisely in the manner
described without in a single instance observing the result
mentioned. I use glass tubes with an internal diameter of
say 1th and ;!,th of an inch. These are used to draw from the
test-tubes the supernatant water in cleaning diatoms, and are
afterwards most carefully cleaned by being first washed out
and then having a pellet of cotton-wool forced through the
bore by means of a metallic knitting-needle. This practice I
have followed constantly for upwards of ten years, and have
never experienced the bursting and cracking recorded by Mr.
Wenham. I need scarcely say that the wire came in contact
with the tube as frequently as not. Possibly the phenomenon
mentioned in Mr. Wenham’s paper may be only produced in
tubes of larger diameter and stouter glass. It is nevertheless
very strange I should never have witnessed it in the small
ones.—Geo. Norman, Hull.

Collins’s Binocular Dissecting Microscope.—This is a cheap,
handy, and convenient instrument. We would particularly
allude to the great advantage of binocular vision for low
powers in dissecting ; and to the superiority of this little in-
strument over others at present employed, on account of its
portability and great efficiency when in use. The case, when
closed, measures 6 in. by 33 in. The top and front let down
by hinges, and on them can be fitted the instruments requi-
site for dissecting, as shown in the diagram. The sides
draw out 5 in., and serve the purpose of rests for the hands.
A circle of glass is in the centre of the gutta-percha trough,

VOL. VI.—NEW SER. E

50 MEMORANDA.

so that light can be transmitted from the mirror. Altoge-
ther it is the best and most useful instrument we have seen.

It is made by Mr. Charles Collins, 77, Great Titchfield
Street, Oxford Street, from the plan of Dr. Lawson, Pro-
fessor of Histology at St. Mary’s Hospital—Lancet.

Note on Binocular Vision.—I have made what I consider a
very important observation, and one which, so far as my
reading is concerned (which is rather extensive on subjects of
this kind), is new. I scarcely dare call it a discovery.

In order to explain myself, I will relate a few observations
which I made about thirteen years ago, when stereoscopic
science was in its infancy. I must premise that for many
years past it has been an uncontrollable habit of mine to
converge the optic axes of my eyes upon any two objects of
whatever kind, similar or dissimilar. The following experi-
ments, made, as I said, thirteen years ago, astonished me
amazingly.

I laid myself on my back, with my head directly under a
cane-bottomed chair, looking towards the ceiling of the room.
I combined the two contiguous openings, when a beautiful
example of solidity and lustre was produced; but when I
combined one opening with the second from it, thus,

the bottom of the chair instantly separated into
662d two distinct planes, the one the natural distance,
which I could touch with my finger, and the other removed
to a considerable distance. But the strangeness of the thing
consists in this, that the holes of the more distant ones were
apparently double the size of the nearer ones, and the whole

MEMORANDA. 1

plane expanded likewise to double the size. The effect was still
more striking when I superposed each third.

In the latter case the size of the holes was SO Od
colossal. When I say I have performed 1000 experiments
in this direction, I do not in the least degree exaggerate.

Tending to the same point were experiments made in
taking stereoscopic pictures with one camera (single). If I
take two landscapes without moving the camera, 7. e. at the
same angle, and combine them in the stereoscope, all objects
near at hand and afar off are projected upon the same plane,
so that a person standing, say fifty yards from the camera,
and say fifty yards nearer than a house, he seems in absolute
contact with the house, and therefore, of course, immensely
large. The same experiment succeeds, though not so strik-
ingly, by taking two cartes de visite from the same negative,
and superposing them in the stereoscope.

On the contrary, if two pictures be taken of the same view
and of not very distant objects, at a large angle, say ten or
twenty yards, the combined picture, instead of being a true
representation of nature, is nothing more than a small model,
and the nearest objects almost seem to touch the nose. The
conclusion, therefore, to be drawn from these experiments is
this—the larger the angle the nearer the objects, and the smaller ;
and, conversely, the smaller the angle the more distant the
objects, and the larger they are. This I have proved in in-
numerable instances, and in no simpler way than the follow-
ing :—Frequently, when I am reading the services of the
Church, my eyes almost touch the words, then the words are
extremely minute; but instead of being apparently on the
surface of the paper, they are suspended in the air, about
midway between the surface and my eyes, and surrounded
with intense lustre. If, without converging the optic axes,
I shut one eye and look at the letters with the other near,
they are, of course, magnified im proportion to nearness.
Besides, if I take a pair of stereoscopic pictures, and make a
very sudden effort at superposing them, instead of getting
the usual effect, the combined picture is suspended midway
in the air, and, as I said before, almost buried in lustre.

And now to the microscope (the binocular). When the
rays from the object emerge from the left-hand tube (en-
closed) they do so at a great angle, and therefore, according
to what I have shown, the picture is formed near the eye,
and comparatively small, notwithstanding the magnifying
power of the glass. If the left-hand eye-piece be brought to
a state of nearer parallelism with the right-hand or vertical
one, the angle of emergence will be diminished, and the pic-

52 MEMORANDA.

ture will be thrown further from the eye, and be very largely
increased in size. The picture no longer seems to touch the
end of the tube, but is formed far away from it. The effect
altogether is to me astonishing.

I proceed in this way :—I use the second pair of eye-pieces
with the l-inch objective. I draw them as far out of the
tube as they will bear, to: hold, and, as they fit rather loosely,
I grasp the two eye-pieces with my left hand, and bring them
as parallel as I can, when the picture will instantly start off
to a great distance and become magnified; and if the left-
hand eye-piece is moved backwards and forwards, 7. e. from
left to right, &c., the image will alternately approach and
diminish, and recede aud enlarge, in a strange way.

This is a subject which requires both physiological and
mathematical investigation. For the absolute truth of the
principle I can vouch.—Reyv. J. Maynarp, Cape of Good

Hope.

Ar a soirée given by the Professors of University College
on the 14th instant we had an opportunity of seeing the ap-
plication of a new mode of illumination of opaque objects,
when viewed by high powers, in an instrument exhibited by
Messrs. Smith and Beck, and in one shown by Messrs. Powell
and Lealand. The illumination was, we believe, effected in
the same way in either case, although in Messrs. Smith and
Beck’s instrument the object-glass was 1th, and in Messrs.
Powell and Lealand’s ~,th. The effect was marvellously
beautiful, and the definition of the object (the scales of some
Coleopteron) remarkably good and distinct. The way in
which this successful result was brought about is remarkably
simple, consisting simply of a piece of thin plate glass intro-
duced into the lower part of the tube, immediately above the
object-glass, and placed in an oblique position, so that rays
of light impinging upon its under surface, and received
through a small lateral opening, and thrown down through
the object-glass, and of course concentrated in the focus of
the latter upon the object, whilst the transmission of the
magnified image is not appreciably interfered with by their
passage through the thin glass reflecting diaphragm. In the
American contrivance for the same purpose the light is
thrown down in the same way by a metallic reflector, which
covers about one half of the object-glass, and thus, of course,
destroys at least half of the illumination. The contrivance
above described, we believe, was hit upon about the same time
by the two celebrated firms we have named.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Microscoricatn Society.

OcroBeEr 11¢h, 1865.
JamMES GuAIsHER, Esq., President, in the Chair.

Mr. Roper read a communication received by him from the
Royal Society of Tasmania, and added that copies of the “ Trans-
actions ”’ of that Society had been transmitted and would be placed
in the library.

The Secretary stated that there were no papers to be read. He
also announced the resignation of the late Curator of the Society,

‘and the appointment of Mr. Evans to that office. The members

were requested to return to the Secretary all books, &c., belong-
ing to the Society, in order that a proper account might be taken
of the Society’s property. With reference to papers to be read
at future meetings the President suggested that he should be in-
formed beforehand of their subjects, so that notice might be given
in the ‘Athenzeum,’ and otherwise, thus giving gentlemen qualified
to discuss them the opportunity of coming to the meetings pro-
perly prepared.
«s Mr. Ince called the attention of the Society to some diseased
wheat from Droxford, Hants. It was grown on a field of three
acres and three quarters, and the crop was so seriously damaged
that the whole sold for only £6. He hoped by thus bringing the
matter before the Society to elicit some information as to the
nature of the disease in question.

Mr. Stack said—If I had known that there were no papers to
be laid before the Society this evening, I would have brought and
shown to the Society the new form of spectroscope I received, a
few days ago, from Mr. Browning. I expressed at the last meet-
ing a belief that the best spectroscope would be a direct vision
one. I thought that looking round a corner was an inconvenient
thing for microscopists to do, and if a spectroscope could be
arranged to pull in and out with facility, and capable of being
adjusted with nicety, it would be highly appreciated. Now Mr.
Browning has been experimenting with Mr. Sorby for some time
on a spectroscope which is being brought out, and I believe he

54 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

calls it the “Sorby-Browning spectroscope.”’ It is a few inches
long, contains an eye-piece, and between the two lenses of the
eye-piece there is an apparatus for adjusting the slit. You can
adjust the slit in the usual way by a side screw, so as to get any
amount of opening you like. You can further adjust a vertical
shutter up or down the slit, so as to reduce the limits of the
spectrum in that direction. That you can form a little cage in
which small objects can be optically placed, and isolated from all
surrounding objects. The prism fits on the top of the eye-piece,
which carries the slit and other apparatus, and indeed very much
in the same way in which you can put the analysing prism of a
polariscope on the top of an ordinary eye-piece. By removing
the prism or opening the slit you look through the two lenses
of the apparatus which constitutes an eye-piece, through your
object-glass, and see the object that you have in the field. You can
then bring any portion you wish into the centre of the field, and
adjust the dimensions of the field, if necessary, in two directions,
and obtain your spectrum either by transmitted light, viewing the
object as a transparent one, or by reflected light, viewing it as an
opaque one. There is also a provision for sending a second beam
light through the prism, it enters on one side, strikes against a
little right-angled prism, and passes through the slit to the chief
prism: thus you can easily get two spectra for comparison, at
the same time, in the field. The general arrangement of the
apparatus carries out the ideas that were expressed in this place,
by Mr. Wenham and other gentlemen who have discussed this
subject. Historically speaking, I believe the matter stands thus:
To Mr. Sorby belongs the merit of introducing this kind of inves-
tigation, and he applied it at first exclusively to small quantities
of fluids contained in cells. Mr. Huggins then sent in a paper
which was read a meeting or two back, and Mr. Wenham made
some special remarks on it. That paper and Mr. Wenham’s
observations called our attention to the importance of obtaining
the spectra of opaque objects, and to the very curious fact that
some mineral and other objects yielded mono-chromatic light,
while others were deficient of the rays they might be expected to
possess. I saw, and others who are here also saw, a card with
a small drop of dried blood upon it, and I was told that Mr.
Sorby had obtained an excellent spectrum from that object. Now,
in this instrument of Mr. Browning’s these things can be accom-
plished with very great ease; you take an infinitesimal quantity of
blood, and you may either view it as an opaque object when dry,
or as a transparent one, and you can immediately detect its
characteristic spectrum. Remembering the hint of Mr. Wenham,
I took a small quantity of fresh blood, and viewed it under Messrs.
Smith and Beck’s excellent =,th. I isolated a single globule,
closing the slit horizontally and vertically, so that there was no
other globule in the field. I immediately got, as Mr. Wenham
said we should get, a beautifully characteristic spectrum with the
two distinct dark bands indicating blood. This form of spectro-

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 55

scope can be placed under the stage when it is required, but it is
my present opinion that this will not be a very frequent mode of
using the instrument. It appears to me that the plan of putting
it on as an eye-piece would in the majority of cases be most con-
venient. When you have an ordinary-sized drop that would fall
from a bottle of any such fluid as aniline-dye, you do not want an
object-glass at all, as you get its spectrum clearly without. If you
operate upon a good-sized drop you can do it very well with a
three inch or two inch power; if you take a very small drop such
a power as a three inch would be convenient, and with a smaller
quantity you may work with as high a power as Messrs. Smith
and Beck’s 35th, or even with Powell’s 25th. I found a very con-—
venient mode of operation to be, to put a glass stage upon the
microscope with a rim all round so as effectively to prevent corro-
sive fluids from running over, and, if I had one made on purpose,
I should make the bottom rim stick up a little at an acute angle.
If you take a little piece of glass tube and draw it out to the size of a
needle and turn it round the corner, like the crook of an umbrella,
you can hook up a small quantity of fluid and transfer to the glass
stage a drop so small as to have no chance of falling down, and
which will yet last several minutes without disappearing from
evaporation. JI find that in this way a series of minute experi-
ments could be carried on with great facility. The union of
spectroscope with microscope opens a most interesting range of
inquiry, and not the least interesting result, in one point of view,
will be the getting a better notion of what the colours of certain
objects really are. It is well known that we can take two solu-
tions which are very nearly alike to the ordinary eye and are
perhaps undistinguishable by it, and yet the spectroscope dis-
criminates them at once. I apprehend that when we view an
object—a transparent or an opaque one, as the case may be—the
spectroscope shows us precisely what our eyes would show us if
they were more exact; and it is interesting to know exactly what
rays are deficient in particular colours, and also to see how the
application of small quantities of different reagents can effect
such molecular or chemical changes as to change the spectrum.

Mr. Slack did not know, when making those observations, that
some of the new spectroscopes were in the room.

The PrestpEntT announced that several microscopes to which
the Sorby-Browning principle was applied were in the room for
the inspection of the members.

Mr. Lozs gave an account of a vacation visit to Oakshott, near
Leatherhead, in Surrey, and to Keston, near Bromley, in Kent.
At Oakshott he had found in a spring on the heath great abun-
dance of Closteria, with scarcely any admixture of other genera.
The gathering was exceedingly pure. At Keston he had obtained
Desmidiacee of almost every genera and species figured in Ralfs :
among them he had discovered what he thought was a new species
either of Cosmarium or Staurastrum ; there was, however, a diffi-
eulty in deciding which. The frond has conic spmes round the

56 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

edges, each segment being full of granular endochrome, surrounded
with thickly-set hyaline rays extending to some distance beyond
the segments, similar to those of Actinophrys Sol, but far more

Y yy Z

Af yy
NY Ui e

[>

closely set together ; between the segments the rays extend in a
straight line, the frond having something of this appearance.
Should it be a new species, Mr. Lobb thought it might not be in-
aptly named Cosmariuwm radiatum.

NovEeMBer 8th, 1865.
JaMES GLAIsHER, Hsq., F.R.S., in the Chair.

JaBEz Hoaa, Esq., F.L.S., read a paper entitled “ Further
observations on vegetable parasites, particularly those infesting
the human skin.” (‘Trans.,’ p. 10.)

Dr. Hunt said: Mr. President,—As Mr. Hogg has very
kindly mentioned my name in connection with his paper, I take
the liberty to rise for the purpose of making a few remarks upon
it. The subject of skin diseases is not attractive to those who
are not engaged in medical practice. It is one of those depart-
ments of nature which illustrates (and in a very important
manner) certain laws of nature. I think in the paper read to-
night there is involved a very important question, viz.: the
question relating to that law of nature by which Providence pre-
pares a remedy for all physical evils. Wherever there is a decay
nature immediately prepares some animal or vegetable structure
to remove the decayed matter. That we are familiar with from
the carrion crow to the mites in cheese. We know that decay or
even death cannot be, but there must be some animal or vegetable
designed by Providence to carry away the dead or. decayed
matter. Now, from my experience in skin diseases I may say

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 57

that they all tend to produce decayed matter on the surface of
the body, and this matter is sometimes situated too deeply to be
cleared away by ablution. Here Providence has prepared the
parasite to eat it away or to be sown into, and, so to speak,
nourish it away. Where the parasite is vegetable there is a soil
produced; in that soil the parasite thrives, and it carries away
the soil until at length, in many cases—the common ringworm for
instance—though nothing is done to remove it, the whole soil is
after a few years absorbed by the parasite, and the disease is
cured by the parasite—cured by its own agency irrespective of
the physician. Now, there is a tendency in all diseases to be
cured by nature. There never was a fever or any other disease
in which there was not to be found (if you would search for it)
an effort of nature to remove that disease. We are apt some-
times to be blind to this; but, if we have anything to do as
medical men, it is to find out what nature is doing to assist
nature when she seems feeble, and to check her when she seems
to be doing too much—for, strange to say, nature often does too
much. Sometimes to relieve inflammation she produces gangrene ;
gangrene would destroy life, and therefore we must cut off the
gangrene. Sometimes parasites do too much, and, as Dr. Tilbury
Fox has rightly remarked, they produce disease ; but they do not
originate disease, for disease always originates them. I deny
that the so-called new class of diseases called parasitic diseases
are a class at all, and I demur to the term altogether. If the
term means that diseases are produced by parasites I deny it
im toto. The disease forms the anides, a soil or food for the
parasite, and the parasite comes to feed upon it; the disease is
there before, or the parasite could not be there. But then, if
what is meant by “parasitic diseases” is that they are not
diseases produced by parasites; that they are diseases attended
by parasites, incidentally or accidentally, then I maintain that
there is no distinction, for every disease is accompanied by
parasites. There never was a disease of animal or vegetable
matter that was not attended by parasites, or for which some
parasite has not been prepared to carry away the results of the
disease, and it is only because we shut our eyes to one half of
nature while we are dreaming of the other half that we do not
see these things plainly. It is a law of nature that Providence
sends no evil in the shape of a disease for which it does not send
the remedy ; and, therefore, [ am sorry to have observed that
many clever men both here and abroad have taken upon them-
selves to say that there is a distinct class of skin diseases pro-
duced by parasites. They might as well say that there was a
distinct class of eye diseases, of brain diseases, or nose, or any
other diseases. These diseases, in common with all others, are
attended with parasites, as may be frequently discovered by the
microscope, which is nothing but a peep into nature. He con-
cluded by stating that if any of the members were desirous of

58 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

examining the parasitical products of skin diseases, he should be
happy to afford them two or three hundred cases a week.

Mr. Stack said—In some prolonged examinations of the
vinegar plant made under various circumstances, I have found
nearly all the forms of cells which Mr. Hogg has described as re-
sulting from the spores or cells generated by certain peculiar
forms of disease. I paid some attention to the development of
these fungi, and I was exceedingly pleased to find so distinguished
an authority making havoc among the numerous species of these
minute bodies. 1 think it would not be without interest if the
members would get so easily obtainable a thing as a vinegar
plant, and, by growing it under different conditions, find these
different cells all associated with a great quantity of bactrium
cells as they appeared in one of Mr. Hogg’s experiments. I think
that experiment confirms the opinion I have expressed, that when
a large quantity of bactrium cells are associated with yeast cells,
the acetous fermentation appears to set in.

Dr. Varuey explained the curative effect of carbonic acid gas
in certain diseases, and detailed the method of application as pur-
sued by himself and his late uncle.

The PresrpEnt, after some remarks on the importance of the
microscope in pursuing medical inquiries, proposed a vote of
thanks to Mr. Hogg and Dr. Hunt, which was carried with ap-
plause ; and announced that the former had promised to present
to the Society a number of specimens illustrative of his paper.

The PrestpENT announced the receipt of a paper from Dr.
Greville, on “ New and Rare Diatoms.” (‘ Trans.,’ p. 1.)

Dupriixn MicroscoricaL CLus.

May 18th, 1865.

Mr. Archer exhibited, from a gathering made near Enniskerry,
a number of globular, densely spined bodies, with green contents,
the spines very numerous, very slender throughout, and acute.
These bodies were generally to be found distributed in pairs over
the field, and they might easily at first sight be taken for so
many zygospores of some Desmidian ; but, much as such a struc-
ture resembled a possible zygospore, these bodies were not like
that of any known Desmidian, nor was there any evidence in the
gathering that they might actually be zygospores of any form
not yet known in the conjugated state. Hence, but for an obser-
vation made by Mr. Archer on a previous occasion, the source of
the curious bodies now exhibited would have been not a little
puzzling.

In a gathering made (not, however, from the same locality)
during last year, Mr. Archer had taken a quantity of the rather

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 59

common Desmidian, Peniwm digitus, and a number of these
showed, some individuals one, the majority two, and a few three,
quite identical stellate bodies in the interior of each cell. These
were evidently formed at the expense of the cell-contents of the
individual Penium in which they occurred. Some of these showed
the cell-contents partially absorbed, and the remainder dead and
brown ; whilst others did not exhibit a trace of the original con-
tents, but contained the (generally) two stellate bodies, green and
vigorous, one in each half of the old cell-wall of the Penium
which still enveloped them. But afterwards these bodies might
be found without the encompassing old membrane of the Penium,
and usually distributed in pairs over the field.

Now, although in the present instance Mr. Archer was unable to
trace back these spinous bodies to a Penium, their identity in
appearance in every way, and the fact of their having been found
distributed in pairs (as if left behind, as Mr. Archer had seen on
the previous occasion, by the decayed or dissolved outer wall of
the Penium), seemed to point out that, be their nature what it
might, these bodies were in both instances one and the same
thing, and that in the present instance, like the former, the
spinous bodies exhibited owed their origin to Peniwm digitus.

These bodies were, in fact, the “‘asteridia” of the Penium, to
adopt Thwaites’ term as applied to the stellate bodies occurring
within the cells of other Conjugate, and, like such similar bodies,
must probably be regarded as parasitic growths. These, indeed,
were altogether unlike the smooth, rounded, or irregularly shaped,
opaque, brownish spore-like bodies, often seen in various Desmi-
diacez, whose nature continues equally problematical. In the
present instance, in regard to these bodies, though with green
cell-contents, like other asteridia, the fact of the cell-contents
of the original Penium becoming mostly all absorbed—if not
quite all absorbed, the residue becoming quite effete and brown—
seems to speak for their parasitic nature.

But besides the spinous bodies, Mr. Archer likewise drew at-
tention to anumber of slightly smaller, globular, green and smooth
cells lying over the field, in some of which a directly transverse
well-marked light line could be seen, indicating a commencing self-
division. A few of these bodies might be seen loosely invested
by a colourless coat, externally covered by slender spines ; these
loose external coats stood off from the inner spherical, smoothly
bounded bodies, the whole somewhat like the doubly bounded
spores of Volvox globator before these assume the golden hue—
that is, of course, excepting the fact that in the latter the outer
coat, as is well known, is then destitute of spines. These loose
outer coats permit the escape of the definitely bounded inner
smooth cell by the rupture of the former by a large rent. After
escape this body, in some measure, called to mind, as before men-
tioned, the still green inner spore of Volvox, or a very small
specimen of Eremosphera viridis (De Bary), but any one acquainted
with these forms would at once recognise that it was neither the

60 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

one nor the other that he'had before him. It is possible that
some of these smooth green bodies may have originated from the
Penium, and never had a spinous coat developed. In a small
form of Mesocarpus (which, not being conjugated, could not be
identified) Mr. Archer had lately seen a number of minute stellate

bodies (“asteridia”’) similar to those not infrequently seen in —

Spirogyra, but with fewer and longer spines. But what makes
that circumstance more especially worth noticing is that he had
observed the slipping out of the smooth inner cell from the spinous
outer coat by a rent, and this taking place still within the joint
of the Mesocarpus ; he had not, however, noticed any evidence of
any further growth or of a self-division. Be, then, the nature of
these curious bodies in the Penium, in the Mesocarpus, or the
more common similar growths in Spirogyra, what it may, it is at
least highly probable that they are all analogous structures, and,
in our present want of knowledge as to their true nature, they
must remain “ asteridia.”’

Mr. Archer likewise exhibited a Cylindrocystis (Menegh.) as
yet undescribed, and for the purpose of comparison and contrast
placed side by side therewith, under other microscopes, specimens
of Cylindrocystis Brébissonti (Menegh.) and of Cylindrocystis
erassa (De Bary), when the absolute distinctness of all three spe-
cies was readily apparent; and not only was their distinctness
striking when viewed microscopically,but the difference in their ap-
pearance in the mass to the unassisted eye was abundantly evident.
The present plant Mr. Archer had as yet seen only in one locality,
near Lough Bray, and there in several pools he had noticed it for
three years past, but he regretted that, although he had annually
taken specimens, he had not as yet been fortunate in finding
this species conjugated. This plant formed a red stratum at the
peaty bottom of the shallow pools, of some two or three inches in
depth. It was greatly narrower and greatly longer than O. Bré-
bissoniz, the ends truncate, and a microscopical examination
showed that its red colour was due to the tint of the cell-wall, and
not to that of its contents. In this year’s gathering it was mixed
in some pools with C. Brébissonii, but these two very distinct plants
side by side maintained their own characteristics absolutely. When
Cleve’s name, Pentwm rufescens, for a new species (in ‘ Ofversigt
af Kong]. Vetenskaps-Akademiens Férhandlingar,’ 1863, p. 493)
first caught his eye, Mr. Archer imagined that the red colour
rendered it likely that these two plants were the same, but an
examination of the description and figure sets the point at rest—
they are absolutely distinct, and could never be mistaken the one
for the other ; besides, Cleve admits the genus Cylindrocystis as
distinct from Penium, thus precluding the likelihood of his de-
scribing the plant now exhibited (if, indeed, he had found it) under
the latter genus.

Captain F. W. Hutton then brought under the notice of the

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 61

club a small pair of forceps, manufactured for him by Messrs.
Yeates and Son, 2, Grafton Street, Dublin, to be used in connec-
tion with Messrs. Smith and Beck’s “ opaque-disc-revolver.”’

He had found, when using the dises as supplied with the re-
volver, that great inconvenience resulted from having either to
fasten the object on to the dise with some sort of cement, or else
to place it in a drop of water to prevent its slipping off when the
disc was inclined at an angle with the horizon. For practical
working purposes both of these processes are very objectionable ;
the first on account of the time it takes and the trouble in
changing the object, the second on account of many parts of the
object being covered by a film of water with rounded surfaces,
which completely alters its appearance, and also because when
the object is under examination for some little time the water
dries up and the object suddenly slips out of view, perhaps, in the
middle of an observation.

To remedy this he asked Mr. Yeates last autumn to make a
small pair of forceps to fit into the hole in the “ revolver” like
an ordinary disc, which he succeeded in doing, and which Captain
Hutton had found to answer his purpose perfectly.

In construction it is very simple, and will be readily understood
from the accompanying figure, which represents a section of the
forceps drawn about four times the natural size, in order to make
it clearer; the shaded portion representing that part of the “ disc-
revolver”’ into which the forceps fit, the unshaded part the
forceps themselves.

ED
ty

a b Isa disc of brass of the same size and shape of the discs
upplied by Messrs. Smith and Beck, a round hole of the same
size as the hole in the “revolver” being drilled through the
centre. cd Is an arm of the forceps fixed firmly into a 6, and
has a longitudinal groove cut in the inside, into which the movable

62 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

arm e f fits, and turns on the pivot g. The lower part of the
groove is occupied by a small spring (#) which keeps the points of
the forceps closed.

The pivot should be placed below the disc so as to admit of the
points of the forceps being brought as near as possible to the
upper surface of the disc, and yet allow them to open sufficiently
wide to be practically useful.

He found that if the points of the forceps project about an
eighth of an inch above the dise the whole of an object held in
them (except, of course, that part actually covered by the forceps)
can be viewed with a 2-inch object-glass without any difficulty.

The advantage of this little piece of apparatus will be obvious
to any one who has fumbled for half an hour or more over a com-
mon pair of forceps, a pin, and a piece of cork, without, perhaps,
in the end obtaining a good view of his object in the required
position. But it has more important uses than simplifying ma-
nipulation, for it enables the same specimen to be viewed and
drawn in any number of positions and aspects, while by the old
method several specimens must generally be employed when dif-
ferent views are required, on account of the difficulty attending
the taking of a minute and delicate object out of the forceps and
replacing it in another position without damaging it, thus often,
perhaps, leading to error.

Mr. Woodworth showed a considerable number of excellent
photographs of microscopic objects on various enlarged scales ;
amongst these were tongue of cricket, saw of saw-fly, jaw of
spider, butterfly scales, &c., &c. These all showed the minute
structure beautifully. Mr. Woodworth stated his intention to
continue his experiments in this direction.

Dr. Moore showed illustrations of Dr. Seemann’s characters for
distinguishing the British, Canary, and Asiatic species of ivy, by
the hairs on their calycine segments and petioles of the flowers.
The common ivy, with its varieties, were shown to have the hairs
with eight rays, which is very constantly the case. The hairs on
Hedera Canariensis have as constantly from eleven to fifteen rays ;
whilst the Asiatic ivy, Hedera colchica (Koch) has the hairs on the
calyx and pedicles in two-lobed scales, each lobe having*from seven
totenrays. Dr. Moore, however, stated that he could not reconcile
his views with those expressed by Dr. Seemann, in considering the
large-leaved ivy, cultivated as Hedera Regneriana in gardens,
and the very rare, small-leaved, yellow-fruited one from the
Himalayan Mountains, Hedera chrysocarpa (Wallich), being states
of one species.

Dr. Moore drew attention to the rapid growth in the Victoria
Tank, in the Botanical Garden, of a species of Spirogyra, seem-
ingly S. longata. In eleven days, since the tank was filled, this
plant had covered surfaces of many feet.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 63

Mr. Archer further exhibited some rare minute alge, amongst
which were Cdogoniwm Itzigsohnii (de Bary) in fruit (vide de
Bary, ‘ Ueber die Algengattungen Oedogonium und Bulbochete,’
p. 56, t. iii, f 29-32). This minute species Mr. Archer had
picked up several times, and often showing its peculiarly-lobed
oogonium, but he had never found the male fructification ; he
believed the plant must turn out to be a dicecious species; he had
sometimes noticed a minute notch-like depression on the upper
outer margin of the oogonium, probably indicating the “ micro-
pyle.” He drew attention to the character, not adverted to by
de Bary, that the apical or terminal joint of the filament possessed
ashort acute spine or mucro. This, in old plants, frequently is
not to be seen, as the terminal joint, or, indeed, considerable por-
tions of the filaments, often become detached, and chiefly in a
young condition only are the plants found entire.

Mr. Archer likewise showed specimens of Leptocystinema
Kinahani (ejus). This well-marked plant he had but once found
since he ventured first to describe it (‘ Proceedings of the Dublin
University Zool. and Bot. Association,’ vol. i, pp. 94, 105 ; also

Nat. Hist. Review,’ O.S., vol. v, p. 234.) The present specimens
were gathered by Captain Hutton on a late visit to the County
Donegal, and- kindly given to him by that gentleman. Mr.
Archer had never seen this plant conjugated, but, beyond doubt,
it must so reproduce itself, and it would be interesting to note
any minor peculiarity which it might present during that process.

There was also shown by Mr. Archer the form called Plewro-
coccus superbus by Cienkowski (see ‘ Botanische Zeitung,’ No. 3,
Jan., 1865, p. 21). He likewise exhibited Ophiocytiwm apiculatum
(Nag.) and Polyedrium tetraedricum (Nag.).

June, 15th 1865.

Dr. Moore exhibited a Sirosiphon= Hassallia compacta (Hass.).

Dr. Moore also showed specimens of Chroolepus Arnottii, ob-
tained by Admiral Jones in Scotland. Dr. Moore had himself
taken this plant in Ireland, but he regarded it as very rare.

Mr. Archer mentioned that Admiral Jones had kindly given
him a specimen of the plant shown by Dr. Moore. Mr. Archer
had never met it near Dublin, and could only refer it to Chroo-
lepus, but was afterwards informed by Admiral Jones that it was
OC. Arnottii. In looking over the specimens Mr. Archer thought
he could perceive the torulose filaments formed by this plant to
be accompanied by slender cylindrical filaments, attached to the
former, and apparently of the same nature as those appertaining
to Chroolepus ebeneum. Now, in this latter Mr. Archer was quite
disposed to regard these accompanying filaments as part of the

64 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

organization of the plant, as he had mentioned at the meeting of
the club on the 19th January last; and it seemed to him at least
probable that here, too, they bore a relationship to the torulose
filaments corresponding to that of the similar threads in C. ebe-
neum ; that is, that C. Arnottit may be, in truth, when found in
fruit, proved to be a lichen, the slender accompanying threads
representing the fibrous element in a typical lichen, and the
torulose filaments themselves, here the marked and conspicuous
part of the plant, the gonidial element. This, of course, until one
or both of these plants be found in fruit, is but a conjecture, but
one not without foundation, as Coeenogonium, in its fruit a true
lichen, is quite as aberrant in its thallus, the structure of which
latter seems essentially to agree with that of the plant under
consideration.

Dr. Moore exhibited the seeds of Disa grandiftora by reflected
light. The reticulated outer skin of these formed very pretty
objects.

Mr. Archer showed fine specimens of Sciadiwm arbuscula (Al.
Braun) new to Ireland. This remarkable little alga had been
recorded from several localities on the Continent, but only once
before in Britain. The record in Britain was founded on three
minute imperfect specimens, discovered by Currey in a pool on
“ Paul Cray Common,” in Kent (‘ Quar. Journ. of Mic. Science,’
Vol. VI, p. 212); but although those specimens were not fully
developed, they were quite enough to determine the plant. The
specimens now exhibited showed the most varied stages of growth,
from a simple, nearly cylindrical cell, mounted on a slender
peduncle, by which is was attached (and in this stage it might-be
readily mistaken for a Characium), up to a complete tree-like
structure, with tertiary umbels. Very frequently the cells
were very elongate, and sometimes considerably curved, in this
respect unlike the figures given by Braun in ‘ Algarum unicellu-
larium genera nova et minus cognita,’ t. iv. But in length and
breadth, and in general outline of the cells, in the different speci-
mens great variety occurred; and Mr. Archer thought that there
was no ground for assuming more than one species, although
Braun had described three forms as distinct (loc. cit., pp. 106-7).
There is undoubtedly great affinity between Sciadium and Ophio-
cytium, a.young Sciadium, if detached before forming the first
umbel, being very like some individuals of Ophiocytiwm apicu-
latium (Nag.). But no plant of Sciadium presented itself so much
curved as is the casein Ophiocytium (in which the cells are mostly
spirally contorted, often forming many coils) ; not to speak of the
umbellate mode of growth of the former, by the gonidia remaining
in the form of an umbel at, and becoming developed around, the
opened apex of the parent cell, and in the latter the gonidia
becoming wholly free and developed as separate, isolated indi-
viduals. These specimens were taken in a pool near Bray, and
were attached chiefly to Gdogoniwm tumidulum and to Vaucheria.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 65

Dr. E. Perceval Wright exhibited the dental apparatus in
situ of a tubicolar Annelid, which in all probability is the
Nereis tubicola (O. F. Miiller), as described in ‘ Zoologia
Danica,’ but which does not belong to the genus Onuphis (Milne-
Edwards). The teeth are like those commonly met with in that
section of the family Eunicea distinguished by having teeth, and
they consist of a pair of sickle-shaped and three pairs of serrated
horny teeth, in addition to a pair of well-developed teeth con-
taining carbonate of lime.

Dr. John Barker showed fine examples from a copious gathering
made in the Pheenix Park of the always beautiful Volvox globator.

Mr. Archer wished, while Volvox was before the meeting, to
mention that he had lately made some observations on the ame-
boid condition of the gonidia of this organism, largely confirming
Dr. Hicks’s interesting statements.

Mr. Archer then exhibited fine and beautiful fresh examples of
Mougeotia glyptosperma (de Bary) in every stage of conjugation, from
the first approach of the parent filaments up to the fully formed
and remarkably grooved zygospore. He showed de Bary’s figure
of this plant (‘ Untersuchungen iiber die Familie der Conjugaten,’
t. viii, figs. 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25); also living conjugated examples
of Mesocarpus parvulus and M. scalaris, in order to draw attention
to the distinctions between Mougeotia glyptosperma and the latter
—distinctions surely correctly regarded by de Bary as of generic
value. This plant, as accurately identified, must be called new to
Britain ; but it is not impossible that it may have been before met
with, and recorded under the name of Mesocarpus intricatus ; but
Mr. Archer had never seen authentic specimens of the plant known
by the authorities under the latter name. Professor de Bary does
not himself seem to have seen living examples of his Moug.
glyptosperma, as his descriptions are drawn up from dried speci-
mens from Professor Alex. Braun’s herbarium ; therefore it would
seem asif this plant must be accounted rare. But the present
remarkably pretty plant, as De Bary well points out (loc. cit.), is
not truly a Mesocarpus, but in its mode of conjugation more
nearly approaches certain Zygnemata, Ina systematic point of
view, it presents double affinities, but it is nevertheless per se at
once readily and unmistakably distinct, especially when seen
conjugated. It is, no doubt, related, on the one hand, to Meso-
carpus (Hass.); like it, the endochrome forms a compressed lon-
gitudinal band, and like it, too, the zygospore is formed half-way
between the two conjugating joints. But it is distinguished
strongly by the fact that here the whole cell-contents, “ primordial
utricles” and all, of the two conjugating joints, completely coa-
lesce, leaving the old cell-walls wholly empty, in order to form the
zygospore ; whilst in Mesocarpus the contact of the “ primordial
utricles” of the two conjugating cells is not followed by a complete
coalescence of the two into the zygospore, but, by a concentration
of the principal part of the green and solid contents in the con-

VOL, VI.—-NEW SER. F

66 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

necting canal half-way between the two joints, and the shutting
off thereupon of the residue of the pale granular contents re-
maining in each parent joint, the denser central portion becoming
the spore, and that cut off on each side eventually becoming effete
and lost. Hence, in Mougeotia glyptosperma (de Bary) the spore
is the actual result of the complete fusion of the entire cell-con-
tents of the two conjugating joints—it is the true zygospore;
whilst in Mesocarpus the ultimate spore is a daughter-cell, as it
were, of the zygospore. Therefore, on the other hand, the present
plant shows an affinity to Zygnema; but it is, of course, com-
pletely distinct in the flattened band of endochrome, not doubly
stellate, as in that genus—not to speak of the extremely different
comparative length of the cells, which, within the limits of each,
is constant. The complete emptying out of the conjugating cells
in this plant imparts a peculiar smooth, almost shming appear-
ance to the filaments, which, coupled with the curious elliptic,
grooved, and ridged spores, gives this plant, in this state, a very
pretty appearance. The peculiar keeled form of the spore just
alluded to can hardly be regarded as more than of specific im-
portance. Other forms of the genus may present themselves pos-
sibly without this character, and the genus must rest on the
peculiar plan of conjugation. Mr. Archer thought it was to be
regretted that Professor de Bary had revived the name “ Mou-
eotia” in a new sense, as it may lead to confusion, he having
proved that Mougeotia genuflexa (Ag.) is properly to be regarded
as a Mesocarpus. In fact, when the genus now drawn attention
to is mentioned, in order to avoid ambiguity it must be written
Mougeotia (de Bary, non Ag.)—Mougeotia (Agardh) being
in part equal to Mesocarpus (Hass.), de Bary. The differential
character of the two genera were well exemplified by the speci-
mens exhibited, contrasted with W/esocarpus scalaris, which species,
so far as it goes, agrees with Mougeotia glyptosperma (de Bary)
in having an elliptic spore, and in both the longer diameter thereof
running at right angles to the conjugating joints. But, notwith-
standing these resemblances, no one could examine them eyen for
a moment without at once perceiving that they were quite specifi-
cally distinct, though they might at first sight, perhaps, be thought
to be of the same genus. But in this regard, too, a brief inspec-
tion would show, as above detailed, that the characters appertain-
ing to each were of abundant importance to separate generically
Mesocarpus (Hass.) from Mougeotia (de Bary, non Ag.).

Mr. Archer laid on the table a number of very rare Desmidi-
ace which he had lately been so fortunate as to encounter. The
rarest was Stawrastrwm pungens (Bréb.), new to Ireland. This
pretty little gem has only two localities mentioned by Ralfs, but
it is recorded by de Brébisson at Falaise and by Bailey at New
York. The present specimens were taken from a pool at the
margin of “Callery Bog,” top of the “ Long Hill,” near “ Sugar-
loaf”? mountain. The spines were finer and rather longer and not

PROCEEDINGS OB SOCIETIES, 67

quite so divergent as in the figure in Ralfs, but there could not
be a doubt but that the present plant was the same species.—
Another rare form was Stawrastrum oligacanthwm (Bréb. in herb.) ;
this, however, Mr. Archer had once gathered here before. The
present specimens came from the same pool as St. pungens.
Staurastrum oligacanthum is an unpublished species of M. de
Brebisson’s ; that skilled algologist had sent specimens and draw-
ings thereof to Mr. Archer a couple of years ago. Of the identity
of the present plant with the French specimens there could be no
doubt, nor of the species being in itself exceedingly well marked
and quite distinct. He supposed it would be presently figured
and described.—Another rare species exhibited by Mr. Archer
was one he was inclined to regard as Stawrastrum (Phycastrum)
Griffithsianum (Nig.); of this form he, of course, had never seen
authentic examples, and he had long been disposed to regard Phy-
castrum Griffitheianwnm (Nag.) (‘Gattungen einzelliger Algen,’
p. 128) as identical with Stawrastrum spongiosum (Bréb.). But
Staurastrum spongiosum (Bréb.) occurs, too, as a somewhat great
rarity near Dublin, and, comparing the present plant therewith,
especially in the end view (best seen in an empty frond), it seems
to agree much better with Nageli’s figure (op. cit. t. viii, c. 2).
In St. spongiosum the end view shows the sides convex, the spines
evenly distributed, whilst in S¢. Griffithsianwm there is a some-
what deeply rounded concavity, destitute of spines at the middle,
on each side. These two seem, therefore, distinct. Their rarity,
however, prevents a due examination and comparison.— Mr. Archer
also showed specimens of Closteriwm prelongum (Bréb.), this
being, so far as recorded, the second time it had occurred in this
country. On the first occasion it was met by Mr. Dixon in a
stream running into the Grand Canal near the city, mixed amongst
attached filamentous alge (Bangia atropurpurea and Ulothrix
zonata), but exceedingly sparingly. The present specimens
occurred amongst Spirogyre and other Closteria in a ditch close
beside the Royal Canal, also near the city. The examples now
found were not quite so long as those which presented themselves
on the first occasion, nor as De Brébisson’s figure (‘ Liste des
Desmidiées observées en Basse-Normandie,’ t. ii, 41), but this
notwithstanding they both represented one and the same species,
one exceedingly elegant and well characterised.

Mr. Archer likewise laid on the table fine examples of Coleo-
chete scutata in all stages of growth, from young plants of two
cells up to the largest discs, the latter showing the oogonia fully
developed.

July 20th, 1865.
Mr. Archer showed a large (Edogonium, which he felt inclined

to regard as exceedingly closely related to, if not identical with,
Vaupell’s Gdogonium setigerum, described in his ‘Iagttagelser

68 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

over Befrugtningen hos en Art af Slegten Oedogonium.’ It
seemed, however, so far as Mr. Archer could judge, to become a
question whether this plant might not be identical with Prings-
heim’s Cdogonium apophysatum, described in his ‘ Jahrbiicher fiir
wissenschaftliche Botanik’ (i, p. 71). Pringsheim does not,
indeed, describe his particular plant in all its details, as Vaupell
does, but the characters, so far as given, seem in the main to
coincide. But opposed to this supposition is the consideration
that Vaupell, whea ue wrote, must have had Pringsheim’s memoir
before him. The plant now exhibited had been found for three
successive years in the same pool, in the “ Featherbed Bog,” and
last year Mr. Archer had been disposed to regard it as Gidog. apo-
physatum (Pringsheim), but he had not then seen Vaupell’s
memoir. With the plant described and figured by the latter
writer, so far as Mr. Archer had been able to see the characters,
the present one best accorded; yet it disagreed in other points,
which if, indeed, but comparatively of secondary importance, were
yet sufficiently striking. The plant now brought forward has
ege-shaped oospores ; the oogonium opens about the middle by a
lateral aperture, which is minute, and bounded by a slight but
evident projecting rim ; fructification “ gynandrosporous ;” dwarf
male plants elongate, somewhat curved ; always seating themselves
near the lower end of the cell, immediately beneath the oogonium,
and with “foot” and “outer” antheridium; antheridium one or
several-celled.

Now, all this accords so closely with Pringsheim’s description
that one might be justified in taking it as the same plant. Butso
far as the characters mentioned are concerned, and comparing
them rather with Vaupell’s figures, this plant seemed best to
agree with the latter. However, as Pringsheim is silent upon
some points in connection with his plant upon which, in regard
to his own plant, Vaupell dilates, the question as to the identity
of the two is not rendered more certain. And in regard to the
plant now exhibited, the difficulty is enhanced, as it is precisely the
very points referred to by Vaupell that could not in the present
instance be accurately made out. Vaupell describes the mother-
cells of the androspores as forming nearly square or quadrate
joints of the filament, and in direct succession, mostly four to
eight, but sometimes as many as eighteen, which are separated by
thick-walled septa; thus, as it were, as if an enlarged sporangium
had become many celled. The lateral walls are described as of
various thicknesses, indicating that they are developed both from
“ sheath-cells”’ and ‘‘ cap-cells,”’ the lowest of the series being
always a “ sheath-cell,” the highest a “cap-cell ;’’ whilst some of
the intervening cells may be, he thinks, formed without the (cir-
cumscissile) bursting of the parent cell, characteristic of ordinary
growth. The androspores find their way out of these cells by a
minute parietal aperture, not by a dehiscence. Now, the origin
of the androspores is a point not dwelt upon by Pringsheim, as
especially regards his @dogoniwm apophysatuin.

aT

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 69

In Mr. Archer’s plant instances of such series of quadrate cells
were frequent, but in no instance were they found empty, nor
could he see any indication as to which he would feel at all satis-
fied that in his plant these peculiar cells were the mother-cells of
androspores. Yet it is probable they may have been, for, although
he had not been able to perceive the origin of the androspores, the
dwarf male plants were present in abundance, and the andro-
spores from which they were produced must have originated
somewhere, although this was, unfortunately, failed to be made
out.

Again, Vaupell lays great importance on the terminal hair-like
prolongation to the filaments, and he names his plant setigerwm
accordingly. Now, this character is one met with in other forms,
and Pringsheim attaches little weight to it, and Vaupell himself
mentions (loc. cit., p.20) that even in his plant they were not always,
but only mostly, found. Perhaps, however, like thé terminal mucro,
which in Gidogonium Itzigsohni (de Bary) is certainly a special
character, and seemingly always present in young plants (as
pointed out by Mr. Archer at last meeting of the club), it may
often become detached, and thus many of the filaments seem as if
destitute of this prolongation. But be this as it may, and its pre-
sence or absence worth what it may, in the plant now exhibited
it may be most safely said that it does not exist at any time, which
circumstance, so far as it goes, serves to remove it from Vaupell’s.
And the presence or absence of these hair-like attenuated pro-
longations may, perhaps, be of more value than Pringsheim sup-
poses, inasmuch as Vaupell believes that the vegetative growth ot
this part of the filament follows another plan from that of the
ordinary Cdogonium-plant, m that here, he says, the growth is
like that of ordinary Conferve, and that no “ cap-cells’” exist. If
this be true, these hair-like prolongations exhibit a perhaps note-
worthy differentiation of structure from the rest of the plant.

With the foregoing exceptions, the present plant seemed quite
to agree with Vaupell’s plant, the form, structure, and position of
the dwarf male plants being alike, as well as that of the antheridia,
spermatozoids, and oogonia. ‘Two oogonia sometimes occurred,
indeed, in direct succession.

By a fortunate coincidence, Mr. Archer was able to place on the
able living fruited examples of some other_species of G@idogonium,
as to which he thought no doubt could exist as to their identity
with certain of Pringsheim’s species, though he had unfortunately
been unable to preserve any specimens. These were Gidogoniwm
tumidulum, Cegemelliparum (?), and Gi. Braunit. He was unable to
lay hands on @. echinospermum, though he had met with it lately.
He took the opportunity to mention that he had lately taken an
(Edogonium which he could not but refer to @. Rothii, which
presented the peculiarity of the oogonia being developed in direct
succession to the number of eleven and lesser numbers. Although
the number of eleven was not infrequent, it was perhaps singular
that he had never once seen a greater. This peculiarity gave the

70 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES,

filaments a remarkable and exceedingly pretty moniliform appear-
ance.

Tn continuation, Mr. Archer dilated at some length on the cha-
racters which seemingly hold good as specific marks in this in-
teresting genus, thanks to Pringsheim’s masterly researches; ex-
pressing his regret likewise that authors continue to describe
species on the false characters of length and breadth of cells, and
such like. It would seem far better wholly to omit them from
descriptive works than to insert these spurious species, or at least,
species some of which may be good, though inadequately charac-
terised, owing to the real, though more recondite, specific charac-
ters being ignored. It is to be regretted that Rabenhorst’s
in most respects so exceedingly valuable work, ‘ Kryptogamen-
Flora von Sachsen,’ &c., is, as regards this genus and Bulbochete,
no exception to this fault. But, in expressing this opinion, Mr,
Archer would not wish to be supposed to hold the characters de-
ducible from the comparative dimensions of the joints in this genus
to be quite valueless. Within certain limits, and in a secondary
point of view, they are doubtless of importance, although here, as
is well known, varied comparative dimensions of cells occur in one
and the same filament. For instance, even any isolated jot from
a barren filament of the present plant could never be supposed to
belong to, nor be mistaken for, a joint of Gdogonium Itzigsohnit.
The former is amongst the largest, both in length and width (which,
indeed, vary amongst themselves within their own limits) ; the latter
is amongst the smallest, the joints not varying greatly in width,
which is always very slight.

Mr. Archer would quite coincide with Professor Pringsheim’s
opinion, that the genus Psichohormium (Kiitzing) was likewise
founded on false characters, and that the mineral incrustation of
the filaments on which this genus was founded, is, as a character,
quite untenable. He thought Gdogoniwm twmidulwm very prone
to this condition ; and it does not seem impossible that other forms
not belonging to Gidogonium might acquire this extraneous coat-
ing, and so be by Kiitzing placed under his false genus Psicho-
hormium.

In two places in his beautiful memoir Professor Pringsheim
promises to give a more detailed systematic description of the
species known to him of the two genera (idogonium and Bulbo-
chete, and it is greatly to be wished that he should redeem that
promise ; however, what he has given beautifully shows the plan
which should be followed in studying these forms; and though they
are more recondite than those superficial characters usually had
recourse to, he has shown us the points upon which the true
specific characters seem to depend, albeit one must trust to mostly
a rare good fortune in finding the specimens in the condition in
which those characters are fully displayed.

Mr. Archer exhibited specimens of a Desmidian which, as far
as he was aware, had not been found in Ireland—Cosmarium curtum

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 71

(Ralfs) = Peniwm curtum (Bréb.). Mr. Archer had but once
before seen living specimens, and they were brought by Mr. Crowe
from Wales. The present specimens occurred in considerable quan-
tity by the road-side in a little shallow pool—almost a puddle—
close by the foot-path just before you come to the bridge over the
Dargle-River on the road between Bray and Enniskerry. This
very habitat might indicate that this species may be more common
with us than might at first sight appear; occurring where one
might almost least expect to find it, and far removed from the
situations where other Desmidiacee abound, it may be overlooked.
Alex. Braun, in his ‘Rejuvenescence in Nature’ (p. 203, note),
adverts at some length to this pretty species, and he blames Ralfs
for placing it in the genus Cosmarium, remarking that a regard
to the arrangement of the cell-contents should have saved him
from the error of placing it in that genus, and not in Penium, to
which Braun thinks it properly belongs. But if the endochrome
being arranged in fillets (radiately in end view) should remove
this plant, notwithstanding its possession of a distinct constric-
tion dividing the frond into two segments, from Cosmarium to
Penium, the same reason should hold good as regards Cosmariwm
Ralfsii, 1 very large and very deeply constricted form. That
pretty and, with us, rare form, Cosmarium moniliforme, likewise
shows an arrangement of the endochrome in fillets. However, in
making these remarks, and in drawing attention to the fact that
Braun’s reasoning must apply to other forms than COosmariwn
curtum (Ralfs), Mr. Archer would by no means aver that the dis-
position of the endochrome in these plants may not be of even
greater importance than the outward figure, and there can be no
doubt but that it is at least equally constant and characteristic,
in its way, of certain species. Thus, the genus Pleurotenium may
be very good, containing, as it does, forms referable in outward
figure on the one hand to Cosmarium, and on the other to Doci-
dium. But, again, characters-drawn from the arrangement of the
endochrome are under the disadvantage of not being available
unless the specimens are quite fresh and recent ; in mounted pre-
parations the cell-contents become so altered that such characters
mostly become quite irrecognisable. Moreover, if this course were
fully carried out it would seem almost as if Penium and Closte-
rium should be united, as the endochrome in both genera is in
fillets (radiate in end view), a step which Braun and those who
hold with him do not adopt or sanction.

Mr. Archer likewise presented specimens of Closteriwm linea
(Perty), common here, but the peculiarity consisted in the
numerous examples having become aggregated in greater or less
numbers into bundles or fascicles, the individuals closely approxi-
mating and cohering, sometimes juxtaposed side by side into
long-drawn-out chains, more or less overlapping. ‘The central
pair of each bundle, closely encompassed by numerous othet
fronds, had become conjugated, ‘and the subcruciate zygospdre

72 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES,

(elliptic in side view) was fully formed. The whole mass thus
assumed a most remarkable appearance. It would be hard to
guess why each conjugating pair became so closely embraced by
so many other fronds, seemingly themselves with no intention to
conjugate, or how they were held together, no common mucous
investment or matrix being evident. It was only by pressing
them out and so separating the fascicles of fronds, that the conju-
gated pair with its zygospore could be fully disclosed, although
without doing so the dark central zygospore could be seen through
the mass. These specimens occurred as a thin floating film on the
surface of a pool in “ Feather-bed Bog,’ exposed to the warm
sun, and almost looked to the eye as if dry on the upper surface.
Some of this thin stratum was easily made to flow into a small
bottle, when it was readily seen that it was composed of quantities
of this species, to the naked eye, in this aggregated state, some-
what like the little clusters or fascicles formed by Aphanizomenon
flos-aque, but, of course, of a different hue and on a scale consider-
ably reduced.

Mr. Archer also showed specimens of the minute Palmel-
lacean plant, Nephrocytiwum Agardhianum, var. minus {Nag.).
Be this a form or a species, it must be counted new to Britain,
for, even as may be contended, that it is but a developmental
stage of some higher plant, it is at least one which has not before
been detected in this country. Nigeli, indeed, himself considers
the two forms described by him as varieties of one and the same
plant; and the fact that in the present gathering both forms—
that is, Mephrocytium Agardhianum majus (Nag.) and NV. Agard-
hianum, minus (Nag.)—occurred, seems, so far as it goes, to
strengthen this view, but Mr. Archer had not as yet seen any
forms that could be regarded as intermediate. The former
occurred very sparingly in the gathering, the latter tolerably
abundantly. On the other hand, the former (“majus”) had
occurred to Mr. Archer once before in a pool near Lough Bray
(the present gathering was made in the “ Rocky Valley’’), and
again in a gathering made by Captain Hutton, in spring, in the
County of Donegal, and in neither instance did the latter
(‘‘minus”) make its appearance. The plant now exhibited
agreed very well with Nageli’s figure; there was the same
elongate, elliptic, or somewhat reniform outer envelope—the same
elongate figure of the contained cells—the same spiral arrange-
ment of these, and seemingly the same dimensions. - The greatest
difference seemed to be that in the present plant the cells imme-
mediately after division appeared to be somewhat attenuated
towards the ends turned towards each other where division had
just taken place, lending to such a somewhat cuneate figure.
But this difference may arise from Niigeli’s drawing being taken
some time after division had been accomplished, when the cells
seem to acquire a like figure at both extremities, thus losing the
attenuated ends, and as they grow in length assuming a slight

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 73

curvature, as it were adapting themselves to the form and adjust-
ing themselves to the confinement of the outer, somewhat firm,
cominon investment. Families occurred with two, four, eight,
and sixteen cells; specimens with a greater number did not pre-
sent themselves. Families also presented themselves, to the
number of eight, contained within a very large reniform common
hyaline envelope—that is the individual cells of an old family
had given rise each to a new young family without becoming
freed from the original investing envelope, which thus became
inordinately distended for the accommodation of the new young
families, still however retaining its original reniform figure, a
condition not mentioned by Nigeli.

Specimens of the zygospore of Euastrum elegans and of Stau-
rastrum orbiculare, in a fresh condition, Mr. Archer likewise laid
upon the table.

MancnHester LiteRARY AND PuHtLosornicart Soctrnry.

The following observations on Foraminifera were made at a
meeting of the Microscopical Section, held November, 28th,
1864:

Notes on Natural History Specimens lately received from
Connemara. By Tuomas Atcocx, M.D.

The series of specimens which I have now to lay before you is
so extensive, and I believe so interesting, that parts of it might
properly form the material for several distinct communications ;
but at present I propose to show them as a whole, and, with the
specimens, to hand in as complete lists as I can of the species in
each class.

The richness of the coast of Galway is well known to ever
student of British marine zoology ; for to whatever branch of the
subject he devotes himself he finds alike that here some of his
rarest treasures are to be obtained. It is not with the hope of
making known to you much that is new that I am led to introduce
this subject to your notice, but chiefly because I am convinced
that natural history work amongst ourselves is best promoted by
the formation of exact lists of the species which we actually know
to have been found at some particular localities ; and such lists of
Connemara specimens, imperfect as they must necessarily be at
first, I have now to lay before you. It is, however, no more than
might be expected that, in the course of careful examinations of so
many objects, some points have occurred to me which I think

74 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES,

worthy of notice, and these I shall mention as I come to them in
their natural order.

In the first place I have to show specimens of three species of
Nullipore-—-namely, IV. polymorpha, N. calcarea, and N. fascieu-
lata; also NV. ealcarea, var. depressa.

The list of Foraminifera is an extensive one, especially con-
sidering that all my specimens are from shore-sand and from one
locality. This sand is from Dogs Bay, Roundstone, and consists
of many kinds of small shells of Mollusca, among which Risso
and Lacune are more noticeable at first sight, fragments of
Lepraliz and other Zoophytes, spines of Amphidotus, and sponge-
spicula, while the finer parts are made up entirely of Foraminifera.
Of these I have found fifty-eight species and named varieties, and
also six very distinct forms which are not mentioned in Professor
Williamson’s ‘Monograph on Recent British Foraminifera,’
Specimens of these, and of all the other forms contained in the
list, are mounted for inpseetion.

In the course of my frequent examinations of these objects I
have made a few observations on several of them, which may per-
haps be interesting. ies.

ft find Orbulina wniversa common in the Dogs Bay sand; that
is, [ have picked out some hundreds of specimens. They vary
greatly in size, the largest being four or five times the diameter of
the smallest. They have the surface frosted with larger and
smaller tubercles, arranged with a certain kind of regularity ; but,
though thus rough externally, the texture of the shell does not
appear to be arenaceous, as stated by Professor Williamson—at
least, if by that term is meant that it is formed of agglutinated
grains of sand, as is the case with some other species. When
examined with a high power and transmitted light, the larger and
smaller tubercles show black from their density, and the spaces
between them are partly occupied by objects lke very transparent
thin plates, of a uniform size and an imperfectly squared figure ;
the impression these convey being that they have been produced
by a kind of crystallization of the material of the shell at the time
of its original formation. I conclude that the colourless condition
of my specimens depends on the perfect manner in which all
animal matter has disappeared, and I think for an examination of
the mere structure of the outer case this must be an advantage,
Tt may be interesting to note that among the specimens are a few
with one or more protuberances of parts of their surface, destroy-
ing the regular spherical figure, and indicating an incipient
budding before the shell hardened; there is also one large and
very handsome double specimen.

Besides the Orbulinas, I have an example of another kind of
spherical object, which for convenience I will mention here, though
I do not suppose it to belong to the Foraminifera at all. It looks
like a sphere of the most transparent glass, and is without colour
or markings of any kind.

I have found all the forms of Lagena, excepting ZL. vulgaris

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 75

typiea and L. gracilis. Lagena striata and interrupta are abun-
dant ; and these, with very few exceptions, have the cost passing
forward to the extremity of the neck, in which case it is only one
half of the whole number which do so, each alternate one stopping
short at the base. Specimens where the coste wind spirally
around the neck are equally common: with those in which they
take a straight course. These Lagene have the appearance of old
coarse shells, but they do not seem to have suffered from attrition ;
they are scarcely ever found with the neck broken short, though
it may perhaps be almost equally rare to meet with one absolutely
perfect. The varieties clavata, perlucida, semistriata, and sub-
striata, are comparatively rare, and all of them have forms and
characters very distinct from striata and interrupta, while the two
latter agree perfectly excepting in the matter of the coste, which
are found in different specimens to be interrupted in a great
variety of ways, those with the costs perfectly continuous being
the least common; so that the conclusion I am inclined to come
to is, that they need not be separated even as varieties, and that,
whatever doubts may remain as to some of the other named varie-
ties, the great abundance of these two and the constancy of their
general characters make it certain that together they will form
a good species under the name of Lagena striata. A. few speci-
mens of this species have a mucro at the base, and deformed ones
are not uncommon ; these, besides having the body variously mis-
shapen, often have the neck bent, sometimes even so much as to
give the specimen the form of a retort.

The Dogs Bay sand contains many forms of Entosolenia, some
of them agreeing with those described by Professor Williamson,
but others distinct ; and of these latter ] have ventured to name
two, which may be described as follows:—1. Hntosolenia William-
soni, a very abundant form, might pass at first sight for Lagena
striata with the neck broken away, but a close examination shows
it is a perfect shell, the body like Z. striata, but rather less full in
proportion to its length than is usual in Connemara specimens,
and the texture a little more glassy ; its chief peculiarity, how-
ever, is in the neck, which is short and formed of two distinct
portions, the first directly continuous with the body and having an
outline similar to that of the lower part of the neck of Lagena
abruptly cut short, and the second a cylindrical tube of com-
paratively small diameter continued from the middle of it. The
first portion is ornamented with three circles of hexagonal reticu-
lations, which are continuous below by their inferior angles with
the longitudinal costz of the body, and present an interesting
combination of the superficial characters of #. costata and LF.
squamosa.—2. Entosolenia Montagui is a squamous form, but
differs from the named varieties of H. sqguamosa in having its
surface really covered with a pattern like scales instead of with
raised reticulations. Well-developed specimens are not all
flattened, though many are found as if crushed, and they then
present an appearance resembling a dried fig; the true shape,

76 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

however, is a perfect oval, full and well rounded at the smaller
end, and from the middle of this projects a short, smooth, eylin-
drical tube. Wiih a low power of the microscope the whole
surface of the body appears to be made up of small, aimost square
facets, arranged in distinct longitudinal rows, but when these are
more highly magnified each flattened surface is seen to rise a little
anteriorly, and to have the front border rounded so as to give
exactly the appearance of a covering of scales. }

So far as I have yet seen, the forms of Dentalina and Cristellaria
are very rare in this sand, Nonionina Jeffreysii and elegans are
also scarce, but Patellina corrugata, which is described as a rare
species, is not very uncommon, and some remarkably fine speci-
mens have been met with. All the forms of Rotalina occur
excepting two, and there are several undescribed ones in addition ;
at present I have seen only one specimen of the rare species 2.
inflata. There are two distinct varieties of Globigerina, one with
the chambers globular, the other having them considerably
flattened, which gives quite a different character to the shell.
‘Prunuatulina lobata is by far the most abundant species, and with
Miliolina seminulum, constitutes the chief bulk of the sand. The
two forms of Cassidulina are equally common, and specimens have
not been met with presenting intermediate links. Polymorphina
lactea occurs in profusion, and, though the forms which are dis-
tinguished as typica, oblonga, and commuwis, are well marked, a
considerable proportion of the whole number of specimens collected
seem to indicate an absence of any definite plan in the arrange-
ment of the segments, the chambers being evidently thrown
together without order, and in some cases producing an irregular
- nodulated mass, with two, three, or more distinct and perfectly
formed open mouths on different parts of the surface. I find also
specimens consisting of nothing more than the primordial segment,
and these might be mistaken for a form of Hntosvlenia globosa
but for the peculiar texture of the shell and the radiating grooves
around the mouth; they are worthy, I think, of particular notice,
as possibly capable of furnishing some more reliable marks of
distinction than are found in adult shells, though at present all I
have seen are of one character.

The forms of Textularia are numerous, and among them are
four which can readily be separated, but may still pass for varie-
ties of 7. cuneiformis ; one of them, however, differs considerably
in having the texture of the shell much finer, and the chambers
fullandrounded. Tewxtularia conica is abundant, and its character
in these Connemara specimens, is so distinct from 2. cwneiformis
that it seems impossible to admit it as only a variety of that
species. In many of the specimens the apex of the cone is broken,
exposing always three chambers, which are arranged like a trefoil
and are placed almost on the same plane.

An examination of the specimens before you of the two forms
of Biloculina, named respectively in Professor Williamson’s work
B. ringens typica, and B. ringens, var. carinata, will suggest, I

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. taf i

think, a doubt as to whether it is correct to throw them together
as one species, the texture of the shells as well as the form of their
mouths being very different.

All the named varieties of Miliolina oeceur in abundance, and
among them are great numbers of evidently distorted and mis-
shapen specimens, which appear to me to give no help whatever by
the way of supplying inosculating forms, but may prove useful in
indicating facts bearing on the general development of the animals.
Specimens with the Jast chamber, not broken, but clearly left in-
complete, are by no means uncommon.

A cepgeataag®
tee

ys 4 Key On
eres

~~

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

On the Anatomy of Ascaris (ATRACTIS) DACTYLURIS. By
ALEXANDER MacatisteEr, F.R.G.S.I., L.R.C.S.1L.*

As the attention of the Members of the Natural History
Society of Dublin has been of late directed to the considera-
tion of the group of Entozoa, I think it might not be unin-
teresting to communicate a few anatomical facts with regard
to the structure of a species of intestinal worm which has
lately fallen under my observation. While engaged in ex-
amining the anatomy of Testudo greca, I was surprised to
find that the alimentary canal in all the individuals which I
dissected was filled with worms in large quantities, in fact,
that entozoa constituted more than half their feecal contents ;
of these there were several species, but that which was most
numerous was the small, white, usually straight, and some-
what shuttle-shaped Ascaris dactyluris, first discovered by
Bremser, and named by Rudolphi. The species is described
by the latter naturalist in his ‘Synopsis Entozoorum,’ pp. 40-
272, as “ Ascaris dactyluris capite nudo, corpore utrinque
eequaliter attenuato, caudo femine longa subulata, maris apice
brevis obtuso depresso ante quem spicula passim substantia
passim egressa vasa in vaginam fimbriatam.” In his sub-
sequent description he refers to it as being found in great
abundance; he obtained “ multa millia specimina ut maxima
feecum pars lisdem constaret,” exactly according with my own
experience as stated above; he likewise describes it as being
from two to two and a half lines long, with a three-valved head ;
a straight, narrow cesophagus, which is longer in the male than
in the female, a subglobose stomach, and elliptic oblong ova,
each with a large and obscurely divided nucleus. There are
several points of greater or less importance which he has
omitted in his description, but on the whole these characters
are very distinct. Dujardin, in the appendix to his work on
‘Intestinal Worms,’ refers to this animal, and states his opinion
that it should be separated from the genus Ascaris on account

* Read before the Natural History Society of Dublin, 2nd June, 1865.
VOL. VI.—NEW SER. G

80 MACALISTER, ON ASCARIS DACTYLURIS.

of its obscurely bi- or trilobate mouth and its unequal spicula ;
he does not enter into any further details respecting its struc-
ture, but expresses his regret at not having been able to fulfil
his original intention of thoroughly examining its internal
organization. <A few notices of this species likewise occur in
Siebold’s ‘ Anatomy of Invertebrates,’ but, with these excep-
tions, I am not aware of there being any special anatomical
description of this creature extant.

The specimens which I have been enabled to examine are
whitish in colour, mostly straight, though at times a little
curved at the distal extremity, and measuring as an average
about two lines and three fifths in length, the range being
from one line and a quarter, as a minimum, to five lines as
a maximum ; the breadth in the centre varies from one tenth
to one quarter of a line, and in some of the largest exceeded
that amount. The males, which are very much fewer than
the females (at least among those that I examined not one in
fifty were males), are much smaller, and average in length a
line and seven eighths ; they are more curved than the latter,
and sometimes exhibit a partial dorsal constriction at the
junction of the anterior and middle thirds. The females are
usually about two and a half to three lines in length.

The integument is transparent, wrinkled tranversely or
annulated; but this appearance is not always distinct in
recent specimens, or in those kept in aqueous solutions;
when, however, they are immersed in any dense fluid, which
will cause a rapid exosmosis, the animal becomes slightly
shrivelled, and the annulations are then seen with the utmost
clearness ; when placed in spirits of wine the integument be-
comes firmer and less transparent, and the annulations also
seen with considerable distinctness. A few longitudinal striz
are visible on the outer layer, but they do not seem to be
regular in their position or arrangement. Towards the taila
considerable number of distinct oblique lines are occasionally
seen radiating from the anus to the dorsal aspect, but they do
not seem to be deeper than the superficial tegumentary layer ;
they commence at the ventral line and extend symmetrically
on either side of it towards the dorsal surface, but stop short
about the middle of that aspect. Two lateral lines can be
traced with great facility, commencing narrow at the head,
widening slightly in the centre, and passing backwards to the
posterior extremity or tail, where they also taper a little, and
end near its tip by gradually diminishing ; but whether these
lines be muscular, as Rudolphi thought, in other species of
Ascaris, or vascular, as supposed by Eberth, or nervous, as
imagined by Cuvier, Willis, and Cobbold, I could not even

MACALISTER, ON ASCARIS DACTYLURIS. 81

conjecture in such a minute species. These lines appear to
be made up of longitudinal striz, with dark granules in their
intervals. Anterior and posterior lines are also visible, but
less distinct in general than the lateral. The tail is very
variable in shape; in the female it sometimes is short and
rapidly acuminated; in other specimens it is long, attenuated,
and occasionally even uncinated at its extremity ; near the
tip small papillz or elevations are obvious, and in some indi-
viduals these give an obscure appearance of serration to its
-margin. The tail of the male is much shorter, blunter, and
more rapidly narrowed to its rounded end, which is more be-
velled in its ventral than on its dorsal aspect, to accommodate
the masculine organs of reproduction.

The head presents three tubercles, which are nearly equal
in size, but they are not so distinct as they appear to be in
other allied species; they exhibit several small irregular
granulations on their inner or oral aspect ; on using gentle
compression I was able in several individuals to see a fine,
slightly curved tube projecting between the three tubercles ;
this, I think, is similar to the tube referred to by Bremser in
other species of Ascaris, which he takes to be the true mouth,
but which appearance Wedl considers to be due to the protru-
sion of the everted lining of the cleft proboscis. Through it I
was enabled to evacuate, by gentle pressure, currents of
granules from the cesophagus.

In a few of my specimens two lateral ale exist, one on
either side of the head ; but this appearance seemed rather un-
common, as I could only find it in about eight per cent. of
the examined specimens ; when present these wings commence
immediately outside the tubercles by a raised or prominent
circular collar, behind which the flat, slightly wrinkled ale
start and extend backwards and outwards for a short distance,
when they rather suddenly contract until their margins be-
come continuous with the wrinkled integument. Though this
appears the usual disposition of the wings, it is sometimes
departed from ; as in one individual I saw the wings extending
down the anterior part of the body for a considerable distance,
and gradually diminishing until they were lost about half a
line behind the head ; in one case, also, the naked subglobose
head was united to the trunk by a narrow neck, which was
bordered by aslight ala. These variations show, I think, how |
little these appendages, per se, are to be valued as marks for
the distinction of species. I could not associate their presence
with any conditions of age or sex, for though I only saw them
in females, they were by no means frequent in that sex, and
seemed completely irrespective of youth or maturity.

82 MACALISTER, ON ASCARIS DACTYLURIS.

From the head the esophagus passes backwards, and is
variable in position and length. It is usually curved, with
its concavity directed forwards, and it forms about one third
of the entire diameter of the animal’s body; it is not, how-
ever, uniform in calibre, for in some individuals it exhibits
slight constrictions, while in others it was dilated into shallow
pouches. Its cavity seemed to be like that of other ascarides,
rather triquetrous than cylindrical, and its walls were marked
with longitudinal strie; but whether these were due to
muscularity or no I could not positively pronounce, though,
from the thickness of the coats, it is most probable that it is
a muscular tube. As remarked by Rudolphi, it is much
longer and straighter in males than in females, and varies
from one third to one tenth the length of the entire body,
being shortest in those females which were crowded with
eggs, and longest in the adult males, Its lower end, after a
slight constriction, became suddenly dilated into a globose
stomach, called by Rudolphi the proventriculus, which is very
thick in its coats, and filled with a greenish-coloured mass.
Its cardiac orifice is rather narrow and constricted, while the
pyloric aperture is wider, and when compressed seems some-
what valvular, the granular contents passing more freely from
the stomach to the intestine than in the contrary direction.
In some individuals this cavity was perfectly globular, in
others it was slightly conical and flattened; its usual shape
is that of an oblate spheroid, to the poles of which the cso-
phagus and intestine are attached. A similar globose cavity
in Ascaris infecta is described under the name of gizzard by
Dr. Leidy, in the first part of the ‘Smithsonian Contribu-
tions, page 43. From the inside of the body-wall three or
four apparently solid curved processes pass to the wall of the
stomach, and serve to suspend it in the animal’s body-cavity.
The intestine commences by a clavate dilatation, which gradu-
ally narrows, and passes in almost a straight course back to
the anus, which is a slit-like orifice, situated a little in front
of the tail. Shortly before it reaches this point the gut ex-
hibits a slight enlargement, below which the narrower sub-
cylindrical or pyriform rectum turns off at an obtuse angle,
and terminates the canal. Around the constriction, which
marks the origin of the rectum, are arranged four small pyri-
form sacs, one in front, one on either side, and one posteriorly,
granular in appearance, and having their narrow peduncles
or necks continuous with a duct which opens into the gut
immediately above its termination. In one specimen a spur
was seen distinctly passing backwards to the body-wall from
the anterior extremity of the cceca. Concerning the nature

MACALISTER, ON ASCARIS DACTYLURIS. 83

of these bodies we may hazard several conjectures ; they might
be the representative of such a compound or branched
alimentary canal as is found in other Entozoa and in Annelida,
or they might be special secreting organs. With regard to
the first of these theories, it is known that intestinal cceca do
occur in other species of Entozoa. Mehlis, in ‘ Isis,’ for
1831, p. 91, describes several of these in various species of
Ascaris; and Leidy (loc. cit., p. 49, and Pt. vii, of art. 2)
figures a large coecum in Zhelustomum appendiculatum. In
these, however, the diverticula arise high in the digestive
tract near the point of junction of the stomach and cesophagus,
and often directly below the cesophageal constriction, which
is far from being the case in the subject before us. Their
granular nature, narrow necks, and constant low position, as
well as their number, and the length and distinctness of their
ducts, have led me to think that they might perhaps be
organs of excretion; mayhap the earliest traces of renal
organs in the animal kingdom. It may be remembered, wiih
regard to this, that the presence of distinct secreting glan-
dular organs in Nematoid Entozoa is no new fact, for Professor
Owen has described salivary cceca as existing in Grathostoma
aculeata. Other glands also have likewise been described,
which I will notice more particularly hereafter. From the
side of the intestine, below these ceca, fine lateral threads
pass off, and are lost on the body-wall above the anus; these
seem to suspend the gut and the cceca, and might be named
retinacula.

The nervous system, if any existed (which we may suppose
to be the case from analogy), completely eluded my search.
There are, as I have before stated, dorso-ventral lines, and in
some individuals the ventral was much the larger and more
distinct ; it may be nervous in its nature, but presented no
distinct character by which I could recognise it as such.

On the ventral aspect of both sexes, corresponding to a
concave and well-marked sinuosity or depression of the super-
ficial abdominal line, a very small bilobate aperture was visible
on the body-wall opposite, or a little above the level of the
upper dilated end of the intestine; in one or two, however, it
was much below this point; from this a small tube passed
for a very short distance inwards, and then gave off four
small prolongations, two of which pass forward, and are lost
in the anterior part of the lateral lines, while the other pair
pass back into the posterior portion of the same lines, where
they expand into very small dilatations, beyond which they are
not traceable.

It was with very considerable interest that I detected this

84. MACALISTER, ON ASCARIS DACTYLURIS.

structure, which is similar to that described and figured in
the appendix to Bagge’s ‘ Dissertatio de Evolutione Stron-
gylus auricularis, and which has been traced by Diesing in
other Nematodes. Mehlis, in his paper in ‘Isis, 1831,
p- 81, describes a similar organ as existing in Strongylus
hypostoma, but imagined he saw it passing as far forward as
the mouth, in which he thought that it terminated; but this
error was corrected by Von Siebold; and in many of my
specimens the character of the external foramen is seen with
extreme clearness. This undoubtedly is a glandular organ,
but of what nature it is hard to say. Mehlis (loc. cit.) has put
forward a not improbable hypothesis regarding its use, and
imagines that it pours out an irritating secretion, which
stimulates the wall of the intestine of the host, and so causes
it to pour out an increased amount of pabulum for the animal’s
wants : such may be the case, but we have no evidence on the
subject.

Enveloping in its convolutions the intestinal canal in the
female, a tortuous elongated ovarian tube can be traced,
usually single, though in three of my specimens I found it
to be double; it commences by a narrow but not very sharp-
pointed extremity, which is apparently attached slightly to
the deep surface of the body-wall, near the lower end of the
cesophagus; from this point it courses tortuously, measuring,
when extended, twice or three times the length of the entire
body of the animal. At its commencement it contains a
finely granular, almost homogeneous, mass, which shortly
becomes consolidated into oval vitelline masses, which soon,
at a small and very imperfectly marked dilatation in the tube,
become perfect ova of a narrow elliptic shape, composed of a
dark granular, at first obscurely divided, vitellus, which
occupies one half of the bulk of each ovum, and is surrounded
by a transparent albuminous fluid enclosed in a hard casing
or shell. These ova are arranged in a single row in the lower
or uterine portion of the oviduct, and occasionally from a
rupture of this tube they may be seen floating free in the body-
cavity of the parent.

The perfect ova are not so numerous as they are described
to be in other species of Ascaris. I have found them to range
between twelve and fifty-five in number. The uterine tube
or oviduct terminates at a small and oblique opening on the
ventral aspect of the animal, and usually at a point midway
between the stomach and the anus. In case the oviducts be
double, they coalesce shortly before they arrive at the vulva.
Siebold refers to this opening as being a transverse slit with
swollen margins, but it certainly seemed to me to be roundish

MACALISTER, ON ASCARIS DACTYLURIS, 85

and bordered by a slightly prominent lip or margin. The
coats of the duct thicken, and the cavity contracts imme-
diately before it ends at this aperture. When some of these
females were left immersed in water for a week the ova
commenced to become developed. At first the eggs were
filled with the finely granular, irregularly divided vitellus,
which regularly segmented. Its first stages of segmentation
escaped my observation, and many ova presented six, nine, or
more globules of the parted yolk when first I examined them.
Soon the mass became finely granular, and assumed an ellip-
tical shape, which in some became curved or arcuated. The
two extremities then begin to be differentiated, and from the
posterior end a lateral turn or projection extends, at first
short, but soon considerably elongating, until it becomes re-
markably like the tail of the adult, twisted to one side. The
anterior end becomes blunt and somewhat flattened, and no
granules appear in it. At this stage, in some of the more
perfect, a moniliform thread appears to pass down the centre
of the body from the mouth to the root of the tail SG ese
forming the primitive trace of the alimentary canal.

I was not able to observe the development of the ee
tory apparatus, but it is probable that it does not appear until
the young animal has become liberated from its shell. All
the changes which I have noted took place inside the oviduct
of the mother, but I also observed ova floating in the sur-
rounding fluid in similar conditions of development.

The male sexual organs are made up of, first, a testis,
tubular and elongated, but not as long as the ovary; this
begins small and rapidly thickens, until it rivals the intestine
in size; this is at first filled with an indistinct granular
material, but afterwards contains more perfectly elaborated
spermatic fluid. These tubes are not easily unravelled, and
in some males (probably those which are immature) the whole
glandular mass seems as though it were a lobulated indivisible
structure. _ Near the posterior extremity of the body the
testicular tube ends in a large dark, rough, bilobed, seminal
vesicle, which lies on the ventral surface of the intestine, and
sends off below a narrow duct to the root of the intromittent
organ. In front of the blunt bevelled tail projects the
spiculum, a slightly curved body with a pointed pen-shaped
extremity ; half of it is included in a canal in the animal’s
body, from which it passes by a small opening, whose pro-
jecting margins overlay its sides for a short distance.

A little im front, and to the side of the large spiculum,
a smaller one is seen, much more acute, and communicating
with the spermatic vesicle by a small canal. This second

86 RICHARDSON, ON STOPS FOR OBLIQUE ILLUMINATION.

smaller organ did not escape the attention of Dujardin, and
it was noticed by that naturalist as a character marked
enough to separate this species from Ascaris, and to elevate
it into a genus by itself. To this distinction I think we will
be able to confirm its claim after our careful examination ;
first, on account of its unequal spicula; second, from its
rudimentary ccecal secreting appendages; thirdly, from the
comparative indistinctness of its oral tubercles ; and so, follow-
ing the great French helminthologist, I think we are justified
in naming it Atractis dactyluris.

I cannot close these remarks without taking the opportunity
of recognising my obligation to Dr. John Barker for his in-
valuable assistance in the course of my investigation, in veri-
fying from independent observations almost all the results
which I have tabulated in this paper.

AppITIONAL Stop recommended for oblique illumination with
the Acuromatic ConpEenseR. By B. Witis RicHarp-
son, F.R.C.S8.I., Surgeon to the Adelaide Hospital,
Dublin.

In the January number of this Journal I drew the atten-
tion of microscopists to some advantages which I had derived
from the use of peculiar-shaped stops delineated
in that communication. After my paper had been
printed I further experimented on oblique illumi-
nation with stops, one of which I found so par-
ticularly useful that I have had the accompanying
illustration made of it. :

It might be thought that with this stop and high powers,
such as the 1th and ~,th, the light would be too much inter-
cepted. It is not so, however, for at the present moment I
have before me the markings of P. Fasciola beautifully dis-
played by it, and a 4th of T. Ross’s make. I can, therefore,
also speak as highly of this stop as I did of those recom-
mended in my last communication. In the short paper
just referred to, 1 mentioned that at the time of writing it,
the highest powers I had used with the stops were the 1th
and 1th objectives. Since then, I have tried them with
Nachet’s objective 7, which is equivalent to about the =,th
of English makers, and have found that it performs excel-

—

RICHARDSON, ON STOPS FOR OBLIQUE ILLUMINATION, 87

lently with some of the stops ; best, however, with the second
of the former illustration, the stop with the largest circular
holes. The Nachet’s 7 I use, is without a covering glass
adjustment, so that it is really wonderful the definition it
gives with the aid of the stop I have described.

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE OF MICROSCOPICAL
SCIENCE.

GERMANY.—Kolliker’s und Siebold’s Zeitschrift. No. 1,
1866.—The first part of the sixteenth volume of this most
satisfactory journal appeared in March. It contains the
following papers:

1. “ Researches on Connective Tissue and its Ossification,”
a valuable paper by Dr. Leonard Landois, which may be
compared with Dr. Waldeyer’s essay on ossification in Max
Schultze’s ‘ Archiv.’

2. “Larval Eyes (Ocelli compositi, mihi) ,” by Dr. Hermann
Landois.—Malpighi was the first anatomist who recognised
these eyes, of which he speaks in his essay on the silkworm.
Dr. Landois here goes thoroughly into their structure and
form in various insects, treating of them under the following
heads :—1. The situation of the eyes. 2. The larval eye.
3. The cornea. 4. The lenses. 5. Theiris. 6. The so-called
crystalline body. 7. The envelopes. 8. The muscles of the
larval eye. 9. The two enveloping membranes. 10. The
optic nerve. 11. The trachez of the eye. 12. The innerva-
tion of the eye. 13. Morphological and physiological remarks.
14. Comparison of the larval eye with the facetted eye.

+ 3. “The Metamorphoses of Corethra plumicornis,’ by
Dr. August Weismann.—This is one of those able memoirs
on insect anatomy for which the Professor of Zoology at
Freiburg is so well known. The Corethra-larva has already
furnished anatomists with interesting facts relative to the
natural history of the Diptera, its excessive transparency and
abundance rendering it a ready object for study. Dr. Franz
Leydig some few years since published some observations
made on these larve, in which he demonstrated the relations
of the tegumentary hairs to the nervous system, and gave
other important details of structure. Dr. Weismann’s paper
is a most extensive essay, illustrated by five large and care-
fully executed plates. He commences with a very detailed
description of the various organs of the larva, and then traces

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 89

the changes undergone by each part through the pupa to the
imago stage. The little air-sacs which are so noticeable in
the Corethra-larve are, Professor Weismann considers, to be
regarded as a hydrostatic apparatus rather than respiratory.
The type of metamorphosis presented by Corethra is con-
trasted with that presented by Musca, and is thus briefly
stated :—The segments of the larva are changed directly into
the corresponding segments of the body of the imago; the
appendages of the head are changed into those corresponding
in the head of the imago; those of the thorax commence at
the last larva-moulting as outgrowths of the hypodermis
round a nerve or a trachea, from which cellular integument
the formation of the tissues in the interior of the appendage
proceeds. The larval muscles of the abdominal segments
remain unchanged in the imago; the peculiar thoracic muscles
of the imago, as also some further abdominal muscles, are
developed in the last larval period from indifferent cell-strings
already sketched out in the egg. The genital glands date from
the embryo, and develop steadily ; all other systems of organs
pass without any or with little change to the imago. Not
any or only an insignificant corpus adiposum exists. The
‘pupa state is short, and presents an active life.

4, “ Researches on the Embryology of the Hemiptera,” by
El. Mecznikow.—This is the record of some observations on
the ova of various insects, made in the laboratory of Professor
Leuckart at Giessen. The genera studied were Corisca, Coccus,
Aspidiotus, Chermes, and others; also Phryganea and Simulia.
The author combats Professor Huxley’s view with respect to
the rudimentary abdomen of Aphis.

Max Schultze’s Archiv fur Mikroskopische Anatomie. Fourth
Part, 1865.—The concluding number of the first volume of
this valuable journal has at last made its appearance, and
a very beautiful number it is, with eight plates, excellently
executed, and much interesting matter in the form of original
papers.

1. “On the Spermatozoa and their Development,” by F.
Schweigger-Seidel.—This is a somewhat extensive essay on
the subject, the author reviewing the work of his predecessors
in this field, and remarking on the development of the
spermatozoa in the frog, newt, barn-door fowl, finches, and
various mammalia. He finally states his results as follows :
—1l. The spermatozoon is not a simple nucleus structure
(KG6lliker), but answers to a whole cell. The spermatozoa
are modified flagelliferous cells. 2. In accordance with this,
the spermatozoon is developed, not, as Kolhker makes out, in
the inside of a cell. Cells with spiral rolled-up sperm-threads

90 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

do not occur as normal structures in the contents of the
testicular canals. (Henle, ‘Handb. d. System Anat.,’ ii Bd.,
s. 356, makes the same objection against Kolliker relative to
the rolled-up sperm-threads.)

3. In the testicular canals occur two sorts of cells (Henle),
not only in mammalia, but also in birds and amphibia. Only
the one kind, with smaller clear nuclei, enter upon the change
into spermatozoa. Many peculiarities in the form of the
sperm-elements are, without doubt, dependent on their some-
times quick, sometimes slow, sometimes complete, and some-
times imperfect development.

4. The relations of the parts in their formation appear
in the simplest way in the frog. In semen taken from
the testis long-shaped cells may be observed, in one
end of which the rod-like nucleus has located itself,
while the other grows out to a hair-like cilium. The
peculiar cell-substance disappears more and more in
further development, until there is only a small compact
piece between cilium and nucleus left remaining. It is this
which is the middle-piece in the complete spermatozooid, and
we can therefore draw the parallel—the head, the nucleus;
the middle-piece, the modified cell-substance; and the tail,
the hair-like cilium formed from the material for a cell.
(Ankermann also regards the spermatozooids of the frog
each as consisting in itself of a nucleated cell, but he assigns
to them a somewhat different mode of development. )

5. The main features are the same in the mammalia as in
the frog, only that here the “ middle-piece” undergoes a
more peculiar modification. The nucleus of the sperm-cell
is intimately connected with the head of the spermatozooid.
In quadrupeds the head is characteristic in its form, as in
the mouse one can see lying at the edge of the yet round
sperm-cell the nucleus already transformed, whilst from the
side, more or less directly opposite, the tail sprouts forth.
Thusalso the threesegments iu the spermatozoa of the mammal
find their explanation in the manner of their development.

Herr Schweigger-Seidel’s paper is illustrated by a plate
containing drawings of the spermatozoa of the frog, triton,
house hen, finch, sheep, field mouse, house mouse, hedge-
hog, pig, guinea pig, and rabbit, in various stages of develop-
ment.

2. “ On the Alveolar Gelatinous Tumours,” by Professor
Franz Eilhard Schulze.—This is apparently a valuable paper
on the histology of the disease called Carcinoma alveolare by
J. Miller, Cancer aréolaire gelatiniforme by Cruveilhier,
Gelatiniform cancer by Carswell,and Gelatinoma,Gum cancer,
&c., by others. It is illustrated by a clear and well-drawn plate.

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 9]

3. “ On Darwinella aurea, a Sponge with star-shaped horny
Spicules,” by Fritz Miiller.—This is a detailed description of
the structure of asponge of which Fritz Muller had previously
sent a fragment from Desterro to Max Schultze. Professor
Schultze gave it the name Darwinia, which, however, had
been already applied by Mr. Spence Bate to an amphipod
crustacean. Herr Miller therefore changes the name of the
sponge to Darwinella. Its fibres are dendroid, and not
conjoined into a network, while the spicules are large and
numerous and soluble in caustic soda. The chief interest
attached to this sponge les in its stellate horny spicules,
which Herr Miller considers as presenting an important
piece of evidence in connection with the Darwinian theory,
since they serve to bridge over the gap between sponges with
siliceous and sponges with calcareous spicules.

3. ‘ Onthe Process of Ossification,”’ by Prof. Dr. Waldeyer,
of Breslau.—-In this paper the subject of ossification is treated
at some length, and a plate illustrating Dr. Waldeyer’s views is
attached. The views of H. Miiller, Gegenbaur, Max Schultze,
Sharpey, Beale, Landois, Virchow, and others, are discussed.

5. “The Movement of the Diatomacee,” by Max Schultze.—
The movements of the Diatomacez still continue to puzzle
microscopists, and various explanations of this phenomenon
have been advanced. Professor Schultze has carefully studied
a number of species—Pleurosigma angulatum, Pleurosigma
fasciola, Nitschia sigmoides, Surirella bifrons, and others—
making various experiments and observations upon them.
He is led from these researches to conclude that a glutinous
organic substance, which is concerned in rapid movement, is
spread over the external surface of the Diatomacee. It
is by this protoplasmic sheath that the Bacillarte become
adherent to one another. Professor Schultze does not con-
sider that this view affects the question of the animal or plant
nature of diatoms. He considers that they must be left
with some other unicellular beings, as of ‘ uncertain king-
dom,” until we know more of what constitutes the boundary,
if there be any, between plants and animals. Professor
Schultze’s paper is illustrated by an elaborate coloured plate.

6. “On the Formation of the Spermatozoa,” by V.la Valette
St. George.—This is the first part of an essay on the seminal
corpuscles. The author gives many careful observations, and
states that his researches lead him to confirm Kolliker’s
statements, and with him and Henle to regard the bodies or
heads of the spermatozoa as changed nuclei.

7. “ Experimental Studies on the Fatty Degeneration of Mus-
cular Tissue,” by Alexander Stuart.—According to the auhtor,

92 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

in this disease, the muscular fibres become the seat of a
thorough change, which, pursuing its various stages of develop-
ment, presents, as a final result, the conversion of the
protein substance of the muscular fibre into fat. The changes
are carefully traced, and a plate illustrating the structure of:
the diseased tissue is given.

8. “ Echiniscus Sigismundi, an Arctiscoid of the North
Sea,” by Max Schultze.—In the first number of the ‘ Archiv ”
was a very valuable paper by Dr. Richard Greef on the ner-
vous system of the Tardigrada, and here we have a no less
interesting paper by the editor on a new species of these very
curious little ‘‘ bear-beasts.”” Though Arctiscoids are to be
met with in moss on the roofs of houses, on trees, and in
dykes and ditches—everywhere (so says Professor Schultze)
in great numbers—yet the sea has only as yet furnished one
species to the observations of zoologists. This form, called
Lydella, was discovered by a pupil of Dujardin’s, while crawling
on the side of a glass vessel containing sea water, and was
described and named by the French savant. Professor
Schultze, while at Ostend, searching the weed-grown piles of
the harbour for Anguillula, Ameba, and Infusoria, was for-
tunate enough to discover a new form of Tardigrade living on
the sea-weed, and belonging to the genus Echiniscus. Dr.
Richard Greef at the same time observed this form in
Heligoland, in various positions, but especially among the
weed subjected to tidal action. The greatest length of the
specimen observed was ‘08”’ to ‘09”’, so that the extreme
minuteness of these animals may well explain the paucity of
marine species known to us. Professor Schultze names this
form E. Sigismundi, in honour of his father, who did some
valuable work in connection with the Arctiscoida. The ceso-
phagus and intestinal canal appear to be the only organs
which are conspicuous when the Echiniscus is placed beneath
the microscope, the curious little legs and eye-spots, and a few
dermal hooklets, being also noticeable. Professor Schultze’s
paper also contains some general remarks on the genus
Echiniscus, and is illustrated by a coloured plate.

9. There is also a notice of the compendious little micro-
scope constructed for Dr. G. Harley, of University College,
by Mr. Collins, of Great Tichfield Street, and a few words
from Herr H. Frey “ On Good and Sound Microscopes.”
The microscopes of Oberhausen of Paris, Merz of Munich,
Zeiss of Jena, and the cheap instruments of Pillischer and
Smith and Beck, are noticed. The finer instruments of our
three great London houses are not known to Herr Frey, nor
is he able to give an opinion on Messrs. Powell and Lealand’s
4th, on accouut of its great expense.

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 93

FRANCE.—Comptes Rendus.—In the number for December
18th we observe a paper, by Dr. Lacaze-Duthiers, ‘‘ On the
Circulation of the Inferior Animals’? The author observes
that it is impossible to take up any ordinary mollusc and
examine it without observing that a fluid exudes from its
body in sufficient quantity generally to thoroughly wet the
hands of the observer. The answers to the questions as to
what is this liquid, whence it comes, and how it escapes, are
the object of the present memoir. There is no doubt that a
great number of the lower animals deprive themselves of the
liquids of their economy by voluntary bleeding; but this does
not take place in the same way in all groups. With regard
to the Mollusca, positive facts demonstrate beyond doubt that
there is a communication between the circulatory apparatus
and the external world. It has been shown by MM. Langer
and Gegenbauer in Pteropods and Lamellibranchs, and by
Dr. Duthiers himself in the Gasteropoda. In the Thetys
leporina of the Mediterranean, between each pair of branchiz
(numbering from fourteen to twenty on each side) which it
carries on its back, is an oval fossa, containing a little pro-
jecting body -pierced by an orifice. An injection carefully
introduced at this orifice passes into the veinous system, or,
if merely made to play on it, will be rapidly taken in. There
are thus, then, in the Thetys from twenty-eight to forty ori-
fices by which water can be introduced into the circulatory
system or the blood be expelled. It is not, therefore, sur-
prising that when one handles this animal the hand becomes
inundated with fluid. The orifices are here provided with
two nerves, regulating sphincter muscles. In some cases the
contraction of a mollusc may be so violent as to cause the
blood to rupture the tissues and escape without the use of the
normal exit. In Dentalium and Pleurobranchus M. Duthiers
has described a valve and two muscles which regulate the
passage of the liquid. In the Gephyrians (Sipunculus, &c.)
M. Duthiers compares the “ perivisceral fluid” to the blood of
the Mollusca, since it can be expelled by the generative ori-
fices and by the canals of the renal glands. We may add,
that in the Oligocheta (earthworm, &c.) a constant commu-
nication exists between the.perivisceral fluid and the exterior,
both by the segmental organs and by the dorsal pores disco-
vered by Mr. Busk, and figured in Mr. Lankester’s paper on
the earthworm (‘ Quart. Journ. Micr. Science, Jan., 1865).
In the cclenterate zoophytes the author considers the
mouth itself as representing these orifices of exudation. In
the solitary forms, however (Actinia, &c.), we have the tips
of the tentacles perforated for the egress of the perivisceral

94. QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

fluid. M. Duthiers concludes, from the facts which he
adduces, that the blood of the Mollusca, Gephyrea, and
Zoophyta must be very different from that of Vertebrata,
on account of the direct connection which it has with the
external world.

M. Balbiani, in a later number, records some remarkable
observations on “ Animal Cells.” Some time since, the author
described contractile vesicles which he had noticed in the
unimpregnated ova of various animals, and he now adds
some observations on the existence of canals communicating
with these contractile vesicles. His observations have been
made principally upon the egg of Geophile longicornis ; but
he has also studied the ova of various Vertebrata, of Annelida,
and Turbellaria. The facts which M. Balbiani describes seem
to indicate a sort of circulatory system in these cells similar
to that of the Infusoria; but some confirmation of his opinion
will be required before such a remarkable structure can be
accepted as an undoubted truth.

Annales des Sciences Naturelles—In the number of this
journal for last November is a paper by Dr. Lacaze-Duthiers
on “A new Genus of Ascidians.’? The remarkable little
molluscoid described in this paper presents characters which
will doubtless render it the type of a new group of Ascidia.
While presenting the usual anatomical structure of that class,
it possesses a bivalved shell, not unlike that of some sessile
Brachiopoda, and affords a further confirmation to the views
of Messrs. Huxley and Hancock, who have associated the
Polyzoa, Truncata, and Brachiopoda. Dr. Duthiers proposes
to give this Ascidian the generic name Chevreulius.

The first number for this year is devoted to a part of a
memoir by M. Jules Chéron, entitled “‘ Researches to serve
for the history of the Nervous System of the Dibranchiate
Cephalopods.” This is a very extensive and valuable essay,
and is illustrated by two plates, illustrating the nervous
system of Eledone, and another.

Journal de l’Anatomie et de la Physiologie (Robin’s). 1, 1866.
—Among various other valuable physiological papers in this
journal is a microscopical one by Dr. J. F. B. Polaillon, en-
titled “Studies on the Texture of Peripheral Nervous Ganglia.”
The present paper is the first part of an essay on this subject,
and consists of a very able historical review of the literature
of peripheral ganglia. The author claims for Ch. Robin the
merit of first propounding the view of “ bipolar nerve-cells ”
which is now generally current.

ENGLAND.—Annals and Magazine of Natural History.—
In the March number of this magazine is a translation of

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 95

Professor Leuckart’s paper on ‘‘The Sexual Reproduction of the
Larve of Cecidomyia.”’ In our last Chronicle we referred
to this paper, and noticed Herr Hamin’s essay on the same
subject. Professor Leuckart describes very carefully the
germ-stocks and germ-balls of the larve, and makes some
valuable remarks on the homological aspects of this curious
case of agamic procreation. He points out that the germs
which are developed in the larvee, while possessing many of
the characters of eggs, and occurring in the position which is
usually occupied by the ovaries, are yet but pseud-ova, since
they are not under any circumstance capable of receiving
impregnation. The name pseud-ovum Professor Leuckart
considers would be well applied to such bodies as these, had
it not already been used by Professor Huxley for true eggs
capable of being impregnated, which develop spontaneously
without coitus. The case is regarded as quite parallel with
that occurring in Aphis, the germs in the latter case being
arranged in such a manner as to make them approach more
closely in character to ovaries. These larvee may be sought
for in most decomposing vegetable matters, such as dead
trees, rubbish heaps, &c., with a fair chance of meeting with
them, though they are liable to escape observation on account
of their exceeding minuteness.

“The Histology of Rhynchopora Geinitziana.”—Professor
King returns to the contest on this subject in the last number
of the ‘ Annals.’ He has now made examination of various
specimens with a good compound microscope, and still main-
tains that the valves of this Brachiopod are punctured
through and through, and not merely pitted. He explains
away the evidence brought forward by Dr. Carpenter (noticed
in our last Chronicle) by the supposition that, although the
sections made by Dr. Carpenter were vertical, the perforating
tubes do not run vertically, but take a slightly oblique direc-
tion. If this were the case, as Mr. King maintains, a vertical
section would, of course, truncate the tubes, and produce the
appearances given in Dr. Carpenter’s figures.

“ On the Structure of the Mouthin Pediculus,” by Professor
Schjodte.—This paper is translated from the Danish, and
deals with its subject in a most vigorous and interesting
manner. Dr. Landois, whose ‘‘ Researches on the Pediculi
of Man” have lately been published in ‘ Kolliker’s Zeitschrift,’
maintains with others that the mouth of these animals is
provided with a pair of mandibles. Swammerdam and other
old observers described it simply as a sucking apparatus.
Professor Schjédte now comes forward to support the latter
view. He believes that Landois and others have been misled

VOL. VI.—NEW SER. H

96 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

by their method of examination, which consists in cutting off
the head of the insect and placing it between two pieces of
glass. The pressure destroys the natural arrangement of the
parts, and rupturing the integument brings into view two
small chitinous bodies which are mistaken for mandibles. The
form of the head, narrow and pointed, is not adapted to
supporting the muscles necessary for moving jaws; and,
moreover, when the head is examined without pressure by
reflected light, no jaws or mandibles are to be seen, but
simply a sucking mouth. The author obtained several Pedi-
cult from a workhouse, and kept them shut up in a box until
they were hungry; he then placed one on his hand and care-
fully watched its movements. No bite was inflicted; but a
long delicate tube was protruded and passed into one of the
sweat-pores of the skin, and a rapid rhythmic motion was
observed in a sacular body near the mouth, whilst peristaltic
movements were seen in the intestine. In this way the little
animal was soon gorged with blood, when the author cut off
its head quickly and examined the apparatus by which its
operations had been effected, which he minutely describes.
The mouth is simply a modification of the true Rhyncote type,
and the Pediculi should merely be considered as bugs modi-
fied to suit their circumstances. The instances of “‘lice-blanes,”
&c., brought forward by Dr. Landois to support the view of
the biting-power of Pedicu/us and Phthirius, can, says Pro-
fessor Schjédte, readily be explained by other facts, and
should rather be attributed to disease than any peculiar
powers possessed by the parasites.

“ The Chevreulius Callensis of Dr. Lacaze-Duthiers.”—Mr.
Joshua Alder has written a letter to the ‘Annals’ (March)
relative to the little Ascidian whose description by Dr.
Duthiers we have chronicled above. It appears that the
genus is not new, but has already been named three times
previously—once by Professor Stimpson, whose name Schi-
zascus, has priority, and twice by Mr. Mac Donald, who first
called it Peroides, but afterwards changed this name. Neither
of the earlier descriptions, however, are at all complete, and
do not in any way detract from the value and interest of the
paper by M. Lacaze-Duthiers.

Miscellaneous.—The so-called “ spurious Entozoa’”’ of Dis-
eased Meat.—A large field of inquiry has lately been
opened by some researches on the microscopic character of
the flesh of animals that have died from the cattle plague.
Minute bodies, varying from =},th to 1 of an inch in length,
have been met with among the ultimate muscular fibres of
such meat, and it was at first supposed that they had some

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 97

connection with the cause of the disease. Before proceeding
any further, however, we must at once state that they have
nothing whatever to do with it, as a cause; the interest
attached to them is, nevertheless, very great to the zoologist,
since the study of them promises to add some valuable facts
to the knowledge we at present possess of that most interest-
ing group of Protozoa—the Gregarine. The bodies observed
in the flesh of oxen are described by Dr. Lionel Beale, who
has carefully examined them,as elongated spindle-shaped sacs,
containing granular reniform bodies arranged horizontally,
and apparently capable of multiplying by division. The in-
vesting sac is covered with minute, motionless, hair-like bodies.
No nucleus is present in the sac; but the reniform granular
masses are stated by Dr. Cobbold to possess nucleoli. The
structure thus presented is not far removed from that of
many Gregarine, particularly of the larger individuals occur-
ring in the earthworm, though the hair-like processes some-
times observable on these are considered as extraneous by Dr.
Lieberkiihn.* The compacted reniform masses may be con-
sidered as the results of a process of segmentation, similar to
that by which the pseudo-naviculee are formed. The bodics
thus described are by no means peculiar to diseased cattle;
they are met with in the healthy muscles of the ox, sheep,
pig, deer, rat, mouse, mole, and perhaps other animals. Dr.
Cobbold, in an article in the ‘ Lancet,’ gives an excellent
résumé of the case.

Miescher, in 1843, described such bodies from the muscles
of a mouse, and a very good account of them, obtained from
the muscles of a pig, is given by Mr. Rainey in the ‘ Philo-
sophical Transactions’ for 1857, though he erroneously
regarded them as the young stage of cestode entozoa. They
have been described under a variety of titles, such as worm-
nodules, egg-sacs, eggs of the fluke, young measles, corpuscles
produced by muscular degeneration, &c. When considered in
connection with the minute cysts described by Gubler,
Virchow, and Dressler, from the human liver, they have an
especial interest ; and the observations of Lindemann on the
psorospermial sacs obtained from the hair of a peasant at
Nischney-Novgorod, and in the kidneys of a patient who died
from Bright’s disease, bear very strongly on the nature of
these bodies. The people of Novgorod are believed to get
these parasites from washing in water in which Gregarine
abound. The most interesting inquiry which is placed before
us by these various facts is whether, as Professor Leuckart

* See our last ‘‘ Chronicle.”

98 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

has observed, the psorospermiz (and we may add the
“spurious entozoa” of cattle, and even many so-called
Gregarine) are to be considered as the result of a special
animal development, or whether they are the final products of
pathological metamorphosis.

REVIEWS.

On the Development and Fat-corpuscles of the Marine Polyzoa.
By F. A. Smirr. (Om Hafs-Bryozoernas utveckling och
fettkroppar.) Stockholm, 1865. 6 plates.

Unper the above title we have to welcome the appearance
of an extremely interesting communication on the subject of
the development and several points in the life-history of the
Polyzoa, or as the author terms them the marine Bryozoa.

Unfortunately this essay is written in one of the almost
unknown tongues, and we have consequently found so much
difficulty in its perusal as to be at present prevented giving
such a full abstract of its contents as we could have wished,
and hope to be enabled to afford, with some assistance as to the
language, at a future opportunity. On this occasion we will
content ourselves with giving a summary of the contents of
a former, as it would seem preliminary paper, on the same
subject, which was published as an Inaugural Dissertation at
Upsala in the year 1863, under the title of “ Bidrag till
Kannedomen hafs-Bryozoernas utveckling.”’

For the following summary of the chief points noticed by
M. Smitt in this Dissertation we are indebted to Professor
Leuckart’s Report on the Natural History of the Lower
Animals for the year 1863—just received.

In the Bryozoa the author distinguishes six different forms
of cells, viz.:—animal-cells, ovicells, avicularia, vibracula,
radical fibres, and stem-cells ; but all of these, it should be
stated, are never found existing together. In the Cyclosto-
mata the animal-cells are found either alone or in conjunc-
tion with ovicells (Crisia) ; in the Ctenostomata, these cells
are often met with conjoined with radical fibres (Vesicularia)
into a common stem, whose cells contain the colonial nervous
system, which has repeatedly formed the subject of the
author’s observation; and amongst the Cheilostomata are
found species, as Cellularia, which exhibit a still greater

100 ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF ASCARIS NIGROVENOSA.

diversity of individual forms.* All these parts arise in
exactly the same way, by budding, and when incompletely
developed are indistinguishable from each other. The germ-
capsules arise from animal-cells, whose tentacular apparatus
and alimentary organs are aborted. The embryonic develop-
ment of the Bryozoa, is, speaking generally, very diverse,
since it may be effected not only by fertilized ova and stato-
blasts, but occasionally: also as in Lepralia, by gemmules
springing singly from the inner wall of the animal-cells, or of
the ovicells. The formation of the rest of the contents of the
cell (the digestive and respiratory apparatus, the sexual
organs, and the statoblasts) also takes place, according to
M. Smitt, by gemmation, so that he is disposed to assign to
the Bryozoa (Polyzoa) a double polymorphism, an external
and an internal, the former having reference to the cells and
the latter to the viscera, which also may be more or less in-
dividualised, as has already been pointed out by Allman.”

In the paper of which the above is a summary, the author’
investigations were conducted in Crisia aculeata,.Alcyonidium
gelatinosum, A. parasiticum, Flustrella hispida, Citea truncata,
Eucratea chelata, Scrupocellaria scruposa, Canda reptans,
Flustra truncata, Fl. membranacea, and several species of
Membranipora and Lepralia.

In the memoir whose title heads this notice, M. Smitt
describes a new species of Gitea in the following terms :—

CE. argillacea, u. sp.

(HK. elongata, recta, punctata, basi constricta.

_ Hab. In mari Bahusiensi, nullo alio loco, ut videtur, ad-
hue reperta; per Modiolam oculine, affixam serpens myenta
est. (Mus. Holm. Lovén).

Species Citez ligulate (Busk), maxime affinis, a qua tamen
facilé basi sua constricta dignoscitur. Longitudo teste
erecte circ. 1°55 mm., cujus dimidiam partem superiorem,
tenet apertra testz obliqua.

On the DevELopMENT of ASCARIS NIGROVENOSA.

In our last number we gave a notice of some late researches
on the development of Ascaris nigrovenosa,t+ by Herr E. C.
Mecznikow, who at the same time claimed to be the original

* Tn this class, all the six forms of cells (so termed) are certainly, not
unfrequently, co-existent in the same polyzoary.—G. B.
+ ‘Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci.,’ Jan., 1866, p. 25.

ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF ASCARIS NIGROVENOSA. 10]

discoverer of the curious circumstance that that nematode
is capable of sexual reproduction, both in the parasitic and
its free state, in which latter condition it resembles the genus
Rhabditis.

This claim on the part of Herr Mecznikow has, as might
be expected, called forth a reclamation from Professor
Leuckart, who was thus, as it were, inferentially charged
with having appropriated to himself in his previous communi-
cation some of the results of his pupil’s independent re-
searches. In a recent paper* Professor Leuckart indignantly
repudiates this charge, and, although he allows that the par-
ticular fact with respect to A. nigrovenosa was first noticed
by Herr Mecznikow, this only happened in the course of an
investigation into the life-history of the Nematoda which was
carried on by that observer under his own immediate auspices
and directions, and in his own laboratory and with the aid of
his own materials. A reply to this reclamation of Professor
Leuckart has been published in a separate form+ by Herr
Mecznikow, and, upon consideration of the whole case, it
appears to us that, although Professor Leuckart, might, per-
haps, have been more liberal in his acknowledgment of the
assistance afforded him in his researches on the subject of the
Nematoda by his quondam pupil, still that the latter has
claimed rather more originality than he is entitled to, seeing
that, although he actually observed the fact of the dimorphic
sexuality of A. nigrovenosa, he was led to this observation
during an investigation directed in a course pointed out by his
distinguished teacher. But leaving this very unpleasant and
unprofitable subject, we would draw attention to some of Pro-
fessor Leuckart’s observations upon the other contents of
Herr Mecznikow’s highly interesting communication.

With respect to the “cuticular lip” mentioned by Mec-
znikow in the embryo of A. nigrovenosa, Professor Leuckart
remarks that it is not a continuous structure or border around
the oral orifice, but composed of three distinct papillz, as in
all other nematode embryos hitherto observed by him. The
rudimentary sexual organ, whose considerable size and high
degree of development forms so characteristic a feature of
this Ascaris-embryo, is an elongated body about 0°08 mm.
in length, and 0°012 mm. broad, and containing, not a proto-
plasm filled with nuclei, but distinctly isolated, though mem-
braneless cells, 0°007 mm. to 0°008 mm. in diameter, and

* © Archiv. f. Anat.,’ No. 6, 1865, p. 641.
+ ‘ Entgegung auf die Erwiderung des Herrn.’ Prof. Leuckart, &c.
Gottingen, 1866.

102 ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF ASCARIS NIGROVENOSA.

furnished with a vesicular nucleus 0:0048 mm. in size. In
the immature embryo these cells exactly resemble those of
the intestinal epithelium, their only further change consisting
in their eventually becoming more transparent.

With respect to the sexually mature Rhabditis-form, he
observes that the pharyngeal walls are by no means muscular
throughout their whole extent, as described by Herr Meczni-
kow. Radial muscular fibres can only be noticed indwo situa-
tions in them, viz., in the hinder enlargement, where they serve
for the movement of the three chitinous teeth ; and more in
front, almost in the middle of the more cylindrical cesophageal
tube, at which point the chitinous covering is also developed
into a sort of armature. The caudal papille also in the male
are not hair-like, but tolerably thick and conical in form.

The larger-sized female, which in summer usually exceeds
1 mm. in length, has quite as distinct a nervous ring as the
male, although this organ is by no means so distinctly de-
fined in A. nigrovenosa as in many of the nematodes. The
female organs are imperfectly described by Herr Mecznikow.
They do not consist, as asserted by him, of a membraneless
string of ova, but of two elongated sacculi, which stretch for-
wards and: backwards from the genital opening ; and at the
time of copulation, besides the vagina, two other divisions of
the sexual tube may be recognised, viz., a uterus and an
ovary. The former represents a tolerably thick, short canal,
of narrow calibre, and apparently having cellular walls, whilst
the ovary is formed by a very delicate, but nevertheless dis-
tinctly demonstrable, structureless membrane ; and its interior
is filled with ova.

He further remarks that, although the description given by
Herr Mecznikow of the embryos is in the main quite cor-
rect, that observer has overlooked the interesting fact that
these embryos, whilst they are within the emptied body of
their parent, present the Rhabditis-form of pharynx, possess-
ing not only the two characteristic enlargements, but also
furnished with three chitinous teeth, smaller, it is true, than
they are in the preceding generation, but of the same form,
and, like them, moved by distinct muscular fibres. When
liberated from the maternal body these teeth are lost, the
muscular striz disappear, and the pharynx assumes a more
Ascaridan form; the creature at the same time has become
capable of being developed in the lungs of the frog into the
well-known A. nigrovenosa.

Professor Leuckart then describes experiments with respect
to the introduction of the liberated Ascaridan embryos into
the lungs of the frog. This experiment, it would seem, is

ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF ASCARIS NIGROVENOSA. 103

not always successful, but sufficiently often to show that the
lungs are the true destination of the embryos, which, if
swallowed, invariably perish after a time in the stomach.
Professor Leuckart has carefully traced the development of
the embryos into the perfect A. nigrovenosa in the frog’s lung,
and has found that they are all invariably females, so that
there can be no doubt that the production of young in the
parasitic Ascaris is entirely parthenogenetic. It is beyond
doubt also, he says, that this mode of parthenogenesis is
widely diffused among the nematodes, and cites as a tolerably
certain instance of it the case of Filaria medinensis. With
respect to which species, he remarks, that from Carter’s
observations, it would seem probable that Filaria medinensis,
like A. nigrovenosa, exhibits two kinds of generations —
a parasitic and a free, and that thus it would present an
exact analogy with the parasite of the frog’s lung.

He is of opinion, however, that this notion is erroneous.
And he is led to think so from the circumstance not only of
the slight degree of development of the embryonal rudimental
reproductive system, but further, from the striking similarity
between the embryos of F’. medinensis and those of Cucullanus
elegans. According to all analogy, the embryo of F. medinensis
is equally destined to migrate as is that of Cucullanus,
though whether this migration is confined to the human
subject or not it is impossible to say.

At present, he says, notwithstanding his pretty extensive
experience on the subject of the developmental history of the
Nematoda, that of Ascaris nigrovenosa stands alone.

On this account it is the more interesting to record the
same phenomena in other groups of the lower animals,
amongst which he notices the extraordinary fact discovered
by Hackel, of the production, within the visceral cavity of the
mature Geryonie, by a process of budding, of Medusoids of
quite another organization (Cunine), which also in their turn
reach sexual maturity. He adverts next to the life-history of
Coccus formerly described by himself.* In this case, as in
A. nigrovenosa, two successive generations of different kinds
are thrown off, both of which become sexually developed,
and both of which exist under different conditions. It is true
that the vital conditions in the Aphis-like winged and the
Coccus-like wingless generations are not so strikingly dif-
ferent as in A. nigrovenosa ; but the difference between the
two cases is only one of degree, and as such points distinctly
enough to the analogy which exists between them. It is
remarkable, also, that in Chermes the dimorphism of the suc-

* © Archiv f. Naturgesch,’ 1859, p. 208.

104 ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF ASCARIS NIGROVENOSA.

sessive sexual generations is combined with the phenomena
of parthenogenesis, which in this case is even exhibited in
both generations.

For this mode of development, with the intervention of two
sexual generations, which, on account of the sexual perfection
of the intermediate generation, does not come under the same
category with the usual form of “ Alternation of Generation,”
Professor Leuckart proposes henceforth to employ the term—
HeEtTeERoGOoNY, a word which, it is true, has been otherwise
applied, but which, in its present sense, implies pretty closely
what it was intended to express by its first employer, Johannes
Miller. Whether Hackel’s AtLzoconzsis should be included
under Heterogony is at present doubtful, and can only be
decided when we learn the fate of the offspring derived
from the fertilised ova of the two generations. But, however
this may turn out, we have clearly in this case, as in Chermes
and Ascaris nigrovenosa,at any rate an instance of two different
sexually developed generations which form links in the deve-
lopment of one and the same species.

Hitherto, he concludes by observing, we have been accus-
tomed to regard sexual reproduction, not only as the end and
aim of animal life, but also as the criterion of specific indi-
viduality. But neither of these assumptions is any longer
admissible.

““ Nature follows its course, and what at one time appears
as an exception becomes a law.”

NOTES AND CORRESPONDENCE.

Dr. Beale’s Glass Reflector—I have made several glass
reflectors of various kinds and different thicknesses of glass,
for drawing and measuring objects, after the plan of Dr.
Beale. None of them were made, however, of neutral tint
or coloured glass. There is a peculiarity attending them, to
which I wish to direct attention, as I have not seen it noticed
before. I had made several of glass from +, to + thick, but
I could not at first get quit of the double reflection from the
two surfaces of the glass, which rendered it impossible to
draw or measure objects satisfactorily. I found, however,
after many trials, that with every piece of glass I used there
are two positions in which it may be placed distant 180° from
each other, in which the glass reflects only one image to
the eye, and in this position, therefore, the glass reflector
must be placed. This position may easily be found upon
trial for each piece of glass, as upon looking at the reflected
image of a window, for instance, by turning the glass round
in the position it would be placed were it arranged for
drawing, the two reflected images of the bars of the window
will be found to converge into each other, and at the proper
place disappear into one, and this will take place twice in
one revolution. I understand the difficulty caused by the
two images or double reflection suggested the use of thin
glass for the purpose, but the method I have indicated is
simple, and so perfect as to render it equal to, if not superior,
to a camera lucida. Iam not aware if any of your readers
are cognisant of this peculiarity, but, perhaps, some of them
may inquire into and explain it.—W. Forean, 3, Warriston
Crescent, Edinburgh.

_ Growing Slides—The American growing slide described
in the ‘Annals of Natural History’ for November, and
mentioned in the discussion at the last meeting of the

106 MEMORANDA.

Microscopical Society, is now made by Mr. Baker, of Holborn;
the pattern has also been sent to Messrs. Claudet & Houghton.

For operations where a large quantity of water in reserve
is wanted, and there is no necessity for the object to be nearly
close to the stage, Mr. Beck’s slide answers admirably.

Those who are able to cut glass with a diamond can easily
make the American slide for themselves at the cost of a few
pence ; the best tool for drilling the hole is a small triangular
file with the point ground to the form of a pyramid, used with
turpentine ; the glass being pressed against a piece of cork for
support, the points can be made without heat by using thick
gold size.—W. T. SurroLtx, Claremont Lodge, Park Street,
Camberwell.

Mounting Diatoms.—Can you or any of your readers inform
me how to make microscopic objects (diatoms, for instance)
stick on a slide after they are arranged? I have tried many
ways, but none of them answered to my satisfaction when I
compared my slides with the beautiful ones arranged by the
London mounters. I find no difficulty in picking off and
arranging the diatoms in any patterns, but what I fail in is to
make them adhere to the slide after I have put the balsam on
them. I am now engaged with some beautiful forms from
the Montray and Les Angeloss deposits, and it is exceedingly
annoying, when I have got the diatoms arranged nicely on
the slides, to find them floating away; when the balsam is
put on I have no doubt there is a very simple way of over-
coming this difficulty, and perhaps you or some of your
numerous subscribers can assist me to it.—W. Warp, Hull.

We have recently had an opportunity of examining two
new forms of instruments constructed by Messrs. Murray
and Heath, in one of which the great object of furnishing a
stand at a low price, but which should yet be capable, if
desired, of being adapted to the use of the highest powers,
and fitted for the addition of all accessory apparatus, has, it
seems to us, been very satisfactorily obtained. The stand
itself is remarkably steady, and the objectives—which, we
understand, are furnished with it for £5—are a + inch of 75°
and an inch of 15°, both, as tested by ourselves, of excellent
quality.

The second instrument is one which has been contrived for

MEMORANDA. 107

use in the demonstration of objects to a class of students. It
is but too well known to those who are engaged in teaching
how liable the objects exhibited, and sometimes even the
object-glass itself, are to be injured in the hands of those
unaccustomed to use the microscope. In oder to avoid this
risk, Messrs. Murray and Heath have constructed an instru-
ment intended to combine an ordinary with a demonstrating
class microscope. It consists of a small microscope, the body
of which can be inclined at any angle, with a mirror on a
ball-and-socket joint, and a universal movement to the stage-
plate. When it is to be used as a class microscope the slide
is placed in a shallow box, into which it is locked by means
of akey. The same key locks this box firmly on the stage-
plate. When the object has been found this latter can be
secured firmly on the stage in the same manner. After
focusing, the body is also locked in its place with the same
key, the final adjustment being made with the eye-piece.
The body is then placed in a horizontal position, and fastened
with ascrew. The instrument can now be passed round a
class-room without possibility of injury either to object or
object-glass. The illumination can be obtained either by
holding the instrument against the window or by means of
a small lamp similar to that employed by Dr. Beale, and
which can be so adjusted as to be used either for opaque or
transparent objects. This instrument appears to be very well
adapted for the purposes for which it is intended, and, at the
same time, if without the contrivance for locking, to be a
useful portable form for general or professional purposes.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

MicroscopicaL Society.
December 13th, 1865.
James GuarsHER, Esq., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

Tur PresIpENT read the 7th Rule of the Society, with respect
to the retirement and election of certain members of the Council
and other officers, and announced that the Council recommended
to fill the office of President for the ensuing year, himself; as
Treasurer, C. J. H. Allen, Esq.; and as Secretaries, G. E. Blenkins
and F. C. S. Roper, Esqrs.; and that H. A. Freestone, R. Mes-
tayer, Hsqrs., Dr. Millar, and Samuel Charles Whitbread, Esq.,
should be elected members of the Council, in the place of Dr.
Beale, H. Deane, Esq., R. Hodgson, Esq., and J. Newton Tomkins,
Esq., who retired in accordance with the Bye-laws of the Society;
and that the names of the gentlemen recommended would be
suspended in the usual way.

Mr. Beck read a paper entitled “ A Short Description of a
New Species of Acarus, and its agamic reproduction.” (‘ Trans..,’

. 80.)
E Mr. Stack.—With reference to this interesting subject, I may
mention a report, in the ‘ Archives des Sciences’ for October, of
some remarks made by Dr. Claparéde at a meeting of the Société
Helvétique des Sciences Naturelles. Dr. Claparede said that
several of these acari were bimorphic; that is to say, the male and
female present very different appearances as regards form and size.
He said that the so-called genus Hypopus (I believe, a kind of
acarus without mouth or digestive apparatus) were the males of
a species in which the females were much larger and very different
in aspect. His remarks are somewhat imperfectly given, but I
gather from them that in these cases of dimorphism the male
acari are so different from the female as to justify the apprehen-
sion that they belong to a totally different species. I find the
Hypopus described in the ‘ Microscopical Dictionary’ as without

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 109

mouth or intestines; and if these organs are absent, they would
resemble the male rotifers, the nature of which Mr. Gosse and
others have elucidated. Mr. Beck was kind enough to show me
his specimens, and I thought it would be as well to call attention
to Dr. Claparéde’s remarks, because they show the importance,
when experimenting on the agamic reproduction of acari, of
excluding individuals of different shape that might prove to be
males in disguise.

A vote of thanks was accorded to Mr. Beck.

A paper “On Cells and Cell Mounting” was read by James
' Smith, Esq., F.L.S. (‘ Trans.,’ p. 34.)

Mr. Beck then read a paper “On Improved Growing Cells.”
(‘ Trans.’ p. 36.)

Mr. Logs (referring to Mr. Beck’s paper) stated that he had
received a letter from Professor H. L. Smith, of Gambier, Ohio,
U:S., calling attention to an article on a new growing slide in
‘Silliman’s Journal’ for September; and he had also received a
slide from that gentleman.

Mr. Jasez Hoee.—I do not think Mr. Beck’s cell will replace
that of Mr. Smith, or the one that was shown by Mr. Suffolk.
It seems to me that the great use of that cell would be in viewing
very fine objects, that is, in using very high powers for the pur-
pose of viewing them. If we use Mr. Beck’s cell we have an
interference with the light through the thick glass, but in viewing
objects in Mr. Suffolk’s ingeniously-contrived cell it appeared
that we had obtained the long-desired use of the thin glass for
objects in fluid, and I think there is very little to be gained by
going away from the live-box that has been so long in use to the
old deep, thick glass cells, and that the live-box will even be as
serviceable as the one proposed by Mr. Beck. I do not think we
should get the same good from his proposition that we do from
the other. I rather differ from the view he has taken of the inge-
nious cell shown to us the other night by Mr. Suffolk. I should
like to hear what Mr. Suffolk has to say about this cell, because
he has had the opportunity of using it over and over again.

Mr. Surrotx.—The cell is not my own contrivance; I copied
it from the description in ‘Silliman’s Journal.’ Mr. Hogg, I
think, mistakes the use of the cell, which is to keep a feeding-cell
for the animal. I have seen Mr. Beck’s cell to-night, and I think
it will answer the purpose perfectly ; but I am afraid it has the
disadvantage of not allowing the parabola to work closely enough
to the under glass.

Mr. Becx.—I have not altered in any degree the principle
suggested by Mr. Smith, except that in Mr. Smith’s cell we look
through a considerable thickness of water, which would entirely
prevent the use of the parabola, whereas here we look through a
piece of glass. Mr. Smith has two thicknesses of glass and one of
water, whereas I have only one of glass. It is the same principle,
and I do not claim anything for this invention.

Mr. Hoee.—Mr. Smith’s cells can be easily cleaned by taking

110 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

off the front glass and cementing it down again. It may be done
easily by any one used to cleaning glasses.

Mr. Haut rose for the purpose of making some remarks on
Mr. Smith’s paper cells, and bringing to the notice of the Society
some of Mr. Lee’s cells, made on the principle of pill-boxes. He
said—I thought them very good when I received them, and the
only possible objection to them is that they might be affected by
damp. Mr. Brooke, our then President, thought that if they
were made with cement instead of ordinary gum that difficulty
would be overcome; I think I have overcome the difficulty by
soaking them in Brunswick black. I wish to call special attention
to these cells, which I consider better than Mr. Smith’s, and for
this reason—because, made in the way I have mentioned, they
can be made as cheaply as Is. a gross, or thereabouts. They can
be cut any depth or size, and can be made very accurate. They
have another advantage, and that is, that the edges of the paper
in the pill-box cells are placed upon the glass slide, and the upper
part is covered with the fine glass, which prevents any dam
passing by capillary attraction. Now, if I understand Mr. Smith’s
cell, the reverse is the case, for, being punched out of flat card-
board, the edges of the paper would be upwards, and thus render
them liable to be affected by damp. I wish to call attention to
these cells that I have soaked in cement, as I think the process
will be found better and far less troublesome than to punch them
on Mr. Smith’s plan.

Mr. Henry Ler.—I beg to thank Mr. Hall for introducing to
the notice of the Society the cell 1 mentioned some time ago;
but, though it was very useful in its way, I think Mr. Smith’s has
an advantage which has not been mentioned, inasmuch as he is
able to do a greater number on one sheet, and it is all done in
one operation, by which a great saving of time is effected.

Mr. SHapgBout.—lI object to paper cells of every description ;
I think them thoroughly bad. I never saw an object mounted on
a paper cell that would last any length of time; and I am the
more induced to call attention to that fact just now, because the
gentleman whose paper has been read has alluded to a certain
material for mounting his cells that, in my opinion, is better
adapted for making them; I] mean marine glue. Now, some
fifteen or twenty years ago I was in the habit of mounting a large
number of microscopical objects, some dry, some wet; and the
mode I found most efficacious for the dry cells, and the most
ready of application, was to make the cell itself of marine glue.
I got a common iron spoon, into which I put my marine glue,
and held it over a spirit-lamp until it was softened. I then threw
it on a flat surface while soft, so that it might be squeezed or
pressed to any degree of thinness. When that was done all I
had to do was to place it on a card, and, with two or three gun-
punches, punch out a number of discs of various sizes, and thus
get smaller or larger rings of glue. I then simply take the glass
slide, warm it over a spirit-lamp, pick up one of the rings of

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. pA)

melted glue and drop it on, and it fixed itself. I could prepare
200 or 300 of them in the course of an evening, if necessary. If
the object will bear a little warmth, we have only to heat the thin
glass dise with which I cover it, put it on to the marine glue, and
it cements itself. The whole thing is done without any difficulty.

Mr. Wenuam.—lI beg to confirm what Mr. Shadbolt has said as
to the use of paper being unsafe in damp places, and I also wish
to call attention to a substance for making cells which is not
generally known. In mounting Podura scales and other similar
objects on thin glass, it is generally my practice to put the scales
on the thin glass covers, and fix them with common heel-ball,
drawing a hot iron round the edge of the thin glass, which cements
it perfectly.

Mr. Surrotx.—lI have another material to mention—pure tin,
which is a soft metal, and can be cut with a knife or pair of ©
scissors, or punched. It is acted on by nothing but nitric or
hydrochloric acid, and I have used it both for wet and dry objects.
I have only obtained one thickness, but the metal will roll to any
degree of thinness that may be necessary.

Mr. Broox.—I have to mention one other material for the
mounting of dry objects, for which, as far as I know, we are
indebted to Dr. Golding Bird, who used it extensively for mount-
ing specimens of Bryozoa, viz., small vulcanized India-rubber
bands cemented down to the glass with a solution of India rub-
ber, and then the slide was cemented on with the same material.
They certainly entirely obviate the difficulty of any moisture
getting in, as they are wholly impervious to wet. I have fre-
quently made use of card discs myself, especially for mounting
dry objects. I merely punched out small discs on the card, and
then, with a small punch, punched out the centre so as to leave
an annulus. That has been attached to the glass slide, and the
thin glass laid over that with any kind of adhesive material; but
I have always taken the precaution of varnishing round the whole
of the slide, to prevent the growth of Conferva. With that pre-
caution, I think a cardboard cell safe; but to protect the edge
from the transmission of moisture by a layer of varnish only is
wholly insufficient.

The Rey. J. B. Reapz, F.R.S.—I may mention that Mr. Water-
house, of Halifax, has used sheets of ebonite for the purpose of
making cells; and he approves of it very highly, and speaks of
it in the strongest terms of satisfaction. It is better than paper,
certainly.

Mr. Deane.—I think, where economy is an object, that there is
a great advantage in the paper cell according to Mr. Smith’s plan.
Ebonite cells and glass cells, and many others, are very expensive ;
but if you can multiply paper cells and render them impervious
to water in the way proposed by Mr. Smith, I think a very great
service will be rendered to those who cannot furnish themselves
with the more expensive descriptions of cells. I know Mr.
Matthew Marshall used to mount-a great many objects in paper

VOL. VI.—NEW SER. I

112 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

cells, and he had a machine by which he could punch holes without
leaving a burr; and I have now some dry objects mounted by him,
and in no instance have I ever seen Conferva. With regard to Con-
ferva growing on paper cells, I think it may be obviated by dipping
the card, after its being punched, in a weak solution of corrosive
sublimate and spirits of wine—one grain of sublimate to an
ounce of spirits of wine, would be sufficient to poison the card-
board thoroughly; and instead of tin shells, when cells are made
in sheets, I would have a contrivance something like a photo-
graphic bath full of the varnish (which might be easily made), so
as to prevent evaporation, and dip them once or twice, or more,
as occasion might require; and, if it were thought needful, a very
small quantity of corrosive sublimate in the same proportion might
be put into the varnish, and thus all the difficulty as to the growth
of Conferva might be obviated. I think these economic methods
of preparing cells the most convenient.

Mr. Janez Hoee.—I think the great merit of Mr. Smith’s cell
lies in its cheapness; and I am also of opinion that the marine-
glue method meets the Conferva objection. JI have some dry
objects which have been mounted twenty years, and they are
perfectly good. Indeed, I thought that both in Mr. Smith’s
invention, and in that of Mr. Suffolk’s, the chief merit was that
these cells might be made for 2d. That being so, the objection
as to cleaning the cells was easily disposed of, because if there was
any difficulty of that kind the glass could be thrown away; and
although Mr. Beck’s plan might be an improvement, yet it would
cost a sum of money, and I think with Mr. Deane that the great
merit of these inventions is the cheap way in which they can be
brought into use.

The Rev. J. B. Reapz.—I admit that paper is cheaper than
ebonite; but then “time is money,” and you have to buy corro-
sive sublimate and spirits of wine, and spend time in mixing them
and putting them on, before the paper (the cheap article) is fit
for use, so that I think that time and paper, as against ebonite,
would be the more expensive of the two.

Mr. Dranze.—You may buy a pint of methylated spirit for a
small sum, and twenty grains of corrosive sublimate for a penny.
The preparation would not cost more than a shilling.

Mr. Harzu.—In support of the Rev. Mr. Reade’s remarks, I
beg to call attention to vulcanite. I have placed vulcanite cells
in the hands of Mr. Bailey, of Fenchurch Street, upon condition
that he supplies them at 4d. per dozen.

Major Owzn.—It would be a great desideratum to have some-
thing always procurable in the market, and at the same time very
cheap. There are brass rings which you can purchase for, I think,
3d. per hundred. They are flattened on either side; and if these
brass rings are put on in the form of cells with any cement, I
think they are the cheapest and easiest to procure, and I have
never found any objection to them.

Mr. Smiru.—I have felt some difficulty, as a young micro-

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 113

scopist, in bringing this subject before the Society. As I have
before stated, I do not attach so much importance to the mate-
rials employed as to the method of preparing them. The method
I propose has been found very good in many cases; Mr. Hall’s
proposed method of dipping would be excellent; and I think the
two might be very well worked together. What I wish, however,
particularly to say is, that in every case, after the cell has been
mounted on the thin glass, it should be properly finished with
marine glue or cement or gold size outside; and if that is done,
I do not see how damp can affect it. Ido not put the cell on
and leave it, but always properly cement it, and in that case I
do not think it can be reached by moisture.

The discussion was concluded, and a vote of thanks was pro-
posed to Mr. Smith and Mr. Beck, which was duly carried.

A paper from EH, Ray Lankester, Esq., “ Notes on the Gregari-
nida,” was read. (‘Trans.,’ p. 23.)

The thanks of the Society were voted to Mr. Lankester for his
communication.

The President laid before the Society the subscription list of
the “ Quekett Medal Fund,’ which he recommended to their
support.

The following communication to Mr. Suffolk from the Post-
office authorities, with reference to sending microscopic slides by
post, was read:

“G.P.O., 10th Nov., 1865.

“ §$1r,—In reply to your letter of 28th ultimo, I beg leave to
state that, inasmuch as glass is not allowed to be sent by post, the
microscopical specimens which you have furnished, being mounted
on glass, cannot be forwarded at the pattern rate of postage.

“T am, Sir, yours obediently,
a aw ina ori

The meeting was then adjourned to the 10th January, 1866.

January 10th, 1866.
JAMES GLAISHER, Esq., F.R.S., in the Chair.

Mr. Lozz produced for the inspection of the meeting an
illuminator referred to in a letter of Professor Smith’s, of Kenyon
College, Gambier, Ohio. He also explained, by reference to dif-
ferent parts of the instrument, the improvement which had been
suggested therein by Mr. Beck and Mr. Lealand. He then read
a paper “On Illuminating Objects with High Powers.” (‘See
Trans.,’ p. 39).

Mr. Becx read a paper entitled ‘‘The Object-Glass its own
Condensor, or.a new method for Illumination for Opaque Objects
under High Powers.”

The thanks of the Society were voted to Mr. Lobb and Mr.
Beck.

114 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Mr. WenHam.—Upwards of five years ago Mr. Hewitt suggested
to me, and I believe to others, the principle of making an object-
glass its own illuminator. I immediately gave the mode a trial,
and I have here the reflector by which the experiment was made.
It is a brilliantly polished speculum, with an aperture in the centre
just sufficient to admit the pencil of rays from the object-glass.
This I placed obliquely in the axis of the microscope, through
the side of which was an opening for admitting the light from the
illuminating source, and the rays from the object returned through
the central hole. I got an extraordinary amount of light, but the
internal glare was so great that I found it had obscured the
object, which had a kind of fog thrown over it. Consequently I
abandoned the trials. I informed Mr. Hewitt of the result. Mr.
Beck informed me at the last meeting that the light might be too
brilliant. He said that the partial reflection from the single disc
of glass is of the proper degree of intensity, and that with the
speculum, I did not make use of the most valuable or central
portion of the rays. With a piece of plain glass! it is known that
the more oblique the incidence the greater the light reflected.
On asking the question whether this might be put at a more
oblique angle than 45°, he said that generally that did not answer,
the light being over-abundant. Then, as regards the question of
the application of a thin disc of glass for illuminating an object,
that is an eld idea. I have in my hand a micrometer eye-piece
made by Troughton and Sims for a telescope in which the same
plan is employed for illuminating the cross wires, and it is used
to the present day. Mr. Wenham exhibited the eye-piece, and
explained that the light was thrown in sideways upon a dise of
glass, which, of course, must be perfectly ground and polished; the
light is then thrown downwards on the wires. The first piece of
glass was to prevent the access of dust.

The Presipent.—I know this quite well.

Mr. Weyuam.—lI do not wish to disparage the idea at all, for,
in my opinion, it removes a difficulty against which we have been
labouring for years, in attempting to illuminate an object with
high powers, where it is almost in contact with the front lens.

Mr. Stacx.—I have had the opportunity of trying the ilumi-
nator of Messrs. Powell and Lealand, and also that of Mr. Beck. I
have not had the opportunity of trying (although Mr. Lobb was
kind enough to show it to me) the one devised by Mr. Smith, of
America. On reference to ‘Silliman’s Journal,’ it will be found
that Mr. Smith speaks of using glass to reflect the rays of light
downwards. The meaning of the passage is not very clear; but
he says that the result of using the glass covers was that he did
not get sufficient relief; that the field looked too flat, which was
not the case when he used the small silver mirror. His allusion to
using several thin discs is rather puzzling, because it is not to be
supposed that he placed his one behind the other, and thus
created ‘a confusion of reflections. Mr. Slack then suggested
that Mr. Lobb should state his opinion of the silver reflec-

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 115

tor, and said that he was inclined to suppose that, at all events,
for some purposes, the silver reflector would be best. In
Messrs. Powell and Lealand’s plan a piece of glass of notice-
able thickness, perhaps a sixteenth of an inch, occupies the
place of this thin disc of Mr. Beck’s. With as high a power
as 3th, this sloping piece of glass, not used as an illuminator,
but simply looked through, allows the Podura scale to be seen so
as to exhibit those marks that are so beautifully shown in Mr.
Beck’s drawings. Thus, it does not introduce any noticeable
errors, although it makes a slight difference in the adjustment.
With respect to the comparative advantage of a noticeably thick
glass and a thin one, my opinion is rather in favour of the thin
glass, except that it is so easily broken. Mr. Beck, however, used
a size of disc that is very common amongst covering glasses, and,
when broken, it is easily replaced. With reference to the
diaphragm which Messrs. Powell and Lealand have copied from
the American pattern, it will be found useful in cutting off the glare
from parts of the field not absolutely in focus. Messrs. Powell
and Lealand fix their piece of glass, which acts as a reflector; but
Mr. Beck makesit movable. I believe the movable arrangement
exists in Mr. Smith’s instrument. The power of motion is a
decided advantage, and therefore I cannot say that I am entirely
satisfied with their illuminators, as it 1s exceedingly difficult, with
some objects, to get rid of a kind of milk-and-watery appearance
of the field. This milkiness sometimes accompanies very good
definitions of minute objects; and I suggested to Messrs. Powell
and Lealand that, possibly, introducing a condensor, to get a very
small pencil of light, might obviate it. Mr. Smith, of Bow, showed
me an illuminator he had fitted up with a small condensor, and
whether from this cause or from contracting the aperture, his in-
strument was more free from milkiness. Professor Smith seemed
» to think that by his arrangement he gets a more slanting illumi-
nation; and if so, it would have a decided advantage, for most
purposes. Diamond-beetle scales come out beautifully with Messrs.
Powell and Lealand’s or Mr. Beck’s illuminator. In addition to
a number of vertical lines, some curiously arranged groups of
curved lines will be seen. I tried to trace a relation between the
character of the patterns formed by these lines and the colours
exhibited, but did not succeed. Great importance is to be attached
to a remark of Mr. Beck, “that you want a means of slightly
changing the angle of the object when under view.” It must be
remembered that objects are seen with these illuminators under
nearly verticalillumination. The effects of this mode of illumi-
nation may be advantageously studied with lower powers and Mr.
Beck’s Sorby illuminator. With this instrument a brilliant slanting
illumination may be instantly changed for a vertical one; and it
is most instructive to witness the great alteration that takes place
in the appearance of the object.

Mr. Broox.—I have not yet had the opportunity of using this
instrument, and therefore I cannot speak of it from my own expe-

116 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

rience; but I think it would be an advantage if this reflecting disc
were made of parallel glass, that is, glass the surfaces of which
are accurately parallel to each other. Iam hardly prepared to
say whether the glass should or should not be of the ordinary
thickness, but [ am not aware that it makes much difference. It
is a fact that, if we take any number of ordinary rounds for cover-
ing objects of the usual diameter—} or 3 inch—we find some
of them to be of sensibly different thicknesses in different parts ;
and when high powers are used I cannot help thinking that if
any portion be wedge-like it will to a certain extent interfere
with the perfect definition which can be obtained from the best-
constructed glasses of very high powers. If these glasses are
parallel glasses, of course, im the passage of rays from the object-
glass up to the body of the microscope, the rays will all be
refracted equally. Ifthe two surfaces are accurately parallel to
each other every ray will be refracted parallel to itself, that is, the
direction of the rays will not be in the slightest degree altered ;
but if, on the contrary, this glass be wedge-like, of course a dif-
ferent amount of refraction will take place, and there will be a
certain amount of chromatic dispersion of every ray transmitted
through the wedge to the eye-piece, and that, 1 think, might be
found sensibly to interfere with the definition.

Mr. Becxk.— With reference to Mr. Brooke’s remarks, I would
state that any variation of thickness in the glass of the illumi-
nator would be far more evident with the lower than with the
higher powers. It is well known that in the case of binocular
prisms for the microscope a bad prism will give a greater amount
of error with low powers than with high ones. In connection
with this illumination, I found, when examining some of the
Diatomacez, that the definition was much improved by cutting off
half of the aperture in the side of the illuminator; and it then

struck me that a piece of semicircular glass with its diameter .

across the field of view would answer best of all, but I found the
loss of definition to be very great. Definition is also lost by
cutting off any considerable portion of the aperture of the object-
glass; and if I rightly understand the American plan, an opaque
substance comes over a portion of the aperture of the object-glass.

Mr. Loss.—Very little indeed—scarcely perceptible.

Mr. Becx.—Then I cannot understand how sufficient illumina-
tion is obtained.

Mr. Rorrr.—I have tried Mr. Beck’s and Messrs. Powell and
Lealand’s new illuminators, and I quite concur with the observa-
tions already made, that the plan will be a useful one, especially
for the examination of the Diatomacez, the minute structure of
which is in many cases difficult to make out, by ordinary methods
of illumination. With respect to the difference between the plan
proposed by our English opticians and the American method,
I have been told, that half the field was cut off by the opaque
mirror which is interposed between the object-glass and the eye-
piece in the American plan, which I consider to be a great objec-

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. Li?

tion, and it was this defect that induced Mr. Lealand to introduce
glass as a reflecting medium. My own impression is that the
glass being movable, as in Mr. Beck’s arrangement, is an advan-
tage, but I am unable at present to give any positive opinion.
Both plans will, I think, be useful; and we are greatly indebted
for the improvement made on the American plan, and to Mr. Beck
for having brought the subject before the Society.

Mr. Bocxerr.—I have worked with both these instruments.
LT applied myself to Messrs.. Powell and Lealand’s, but my first
trial was anything but successful. There appeared to be too
much glare; indeed, so much that I took back the instrument
and asked that the cause of this might be explained. I was
informed then that the glass was really parallel glass, and that, in
all probability, my manipulation would be found to be at fault.
I studied the matter very closely, until I found that my great
fault lay in using too much light. When too much light is used
a glare is produced, and the very best way to get rid of that
glare is to use just sufficient light for the purpose of illuminating
the object. I found, by using the Sorby instrument, and getting
the light just to fill the aperture of the diaphragm at the side of
the illuminator, and no more, and then stopping it down with the
next-sized stop, I nearly got rid of the glare, and that often the
second aperture got rid of it altogether. I cannot say that with
Mr. Beck’s illuminator I could entirely control the light in the
same way that I could with Messrs. Powell and Lealand’s. I
mention this because I think the glare of light is often the cause
of fault being found with the instrument, when it really lies with
the parties using too much light. I also observed another import-
ant tact—that by introducing a small piece of light thin glass
between the orifice, if there was any milkiness, it was so absorbed
by the altered nature of the light that really the object was
pleasant to look upon.

Mr. Becx.—I should like to say a few words in reply. I have
found the best mode of proceeding to be as follows :—Place the
light on the left-hand side, and obtain a distinct image of the
flame across a portion of the field of view; it is then evident that,
if you have the illuminating rays in focus at the same time as the
object, you must also secure the best possible definition. The
effect of a diaphragm at the side is merely to limit the area of the
illuminated part, a result which may readily be obtained by
interposing a condensing lens between the light and the illumi-
nator. By slightly altering the position of this lens the whole
of the field of view or any part of it may be illuminated. Mr.
Beck then sketched the appearance of the fine “tenent hairs”
on the foot of a fly as seen under this new mode of illumination,
clearly indicating the same structure as those on some of the
beetles which have been so admirably illustrated in Mr. Tuffen
West’s paper on the feet of insects, published by the Linnean
Society ; and he mentioned, what might not be known to all, that
the true action of these hairs is still a point of discussion between

Mr. West and Mr. Backwall.

118 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Mr. Lapp suggested that much of the milkiness might be owing
to the refraction of the light, because nearly one half of the light
was reflected on the object, and the other half was reflected
through and would strike the side of the object. It was difficult
to destroy the whole of the light from the surface, and a great
deal of the milkiness was, he thought, due to this cause.

Mr. Hatt said that, in using Messrs. Powell and Lealand’s
reflector, he had got rid of part of the milkiness by covering up
the back portion with a piece of black paper as a temporary expe-
dient, with a hole in the middle of it as a diaphragm.

A Member thought a better plan would be to use a piece of
black velvet, with a hole through the opposite side; and if the
milkiness proceeded from the cause supposed, the light would
then die away.

Mr. Logs expressed the pleasure he felt at being made the
medium by which Professor Smith introduced his plan to the
notice of English microscopists, and felt confident that, in the
end, good results would be obtained from it, though it was yet in
its infancy. He did not wish to object to any method, nor was
he prejudiced in favour of the American plan, but certainly it
had the advantage of possessing a motion for turning the silver
reflector at any angle, and putting it at any distance that might
be necessary, when using different powers. Mr. Lobb then referred
to the objection that the reflector covered too much of the field,
and explained Professor Smith’s diagrams with a view to show
that it really covered very little of it. As regarded parallel glass,
he thought with Mr. Brooke that this was a very important point,
and that Mr. Lealand’s idea of placing a piece of perfectly parallel
glass at the proper angle might be carried out with the best pos-
sible results. Mr. Lobb proceeded to explain an object-glass for
the polariscope he had some time since invented in order to look
at erystals above the eye-piece, and explained, by a reference to
the various parts of the illuminator, the way in which it had been
applied to that instrument.* The field was beautifully illuminated,
and the object came out without cloud or milkiness, and by using
a 1 object-glass the whole field might be easily illuminated with--
out any fog. There was a fog which partly arose, as Mr. Slack
had explained, from using high powers, but then with high powers
a small portion only was in focus. That portion, however, was
perfect, and no more than this was wanted. Mr. Smith, of Bow,
had called upon him (Mr. Lobb), and communicated to him a
very ingenious idea. Mr. Smith used a binocular instrument, the
prism being the illuminator; there was a reflector placed at a
certain angle above the left-hand tube of the binocular body, and
the eye-piece being removed, and the light sent down from this
reflector and by the prism, the object was illuminated ; and this,
it was stated, answered admirably. The objects must all be unco-
vered, and some study was necessary to determine the best ground
to put the object on. At present the best ground was perfectly

* To give this in detail diagrams would be necessary.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 119

parallel glass, though different modes might be necessary for
different objects. Another matter he should mention was, that
Professor Smith had informed him that Messrs. Powell and Lea-
land’s object-glasses worked the best. This was because they
were all black inside, and there was no double reflection. His
own +'; object-glass did not work well; Mr. Powell suggested that
this might be caused by the brass inside, and blacked it, after
which it worked excellently.

A Memeer thought it would be necessary to have a horizontal
stop, so as to cut off, when necessary, different proportions of
large-angled glasses. He could not find any object that worked
well with extravagantly angled glass.

Mr. Gray spoke in favour of Mr. Smith’s arrangement, which,
he thought, left nothing to be desired. It provided a means of
modifying the light to any extent, and thus preventing the milki-
ness complained of.

Mr. Beck objected to that arrangement—first, because it cut
off part of the aperture of the object-glass, and, secondly, because
the microscope could not be used with the binocular. He (Mr.
Beck) had worked with ;,th with the illuminator, which showed
the scales, &c., with the binocular.

Mr. Weyuam said that the binocular was suggested more than
five years ago by Mr. Hewitt, and he ignored it then because
in the high powers it cut off half the aperture of the object-glass.
This was a defect, inasmuch as it cut off half the field.

Mr. Gray suggested that this disturbance might be remedied
by a piece of glass placed between the object-glass and the eye-
piece. They would then have one half the object-glass entirely
unobstructed, and the illumination thrown upon the other half
was what was required.

The PresrpEent thanked the gentlemen who had spoken, in the
name of the Society, for having given the results of their experi-
ence, and announced that at the next ordinary meeting papers
“On a Brass Slide” would be read by Dr. Maddox, and “Ona
Small Holder for a Clip” by Mr. Smith, and a further paper by
Mr. Tuffen West.

- Adjourned to 14th February, 1866.

QueEKerr MicroscoricaL Civs.

The Monthly Meeting of this Society was held by permission
of the Council at University College, Gower Street, on the 23rd
ultimo, (March) ; a removal to more commodious rooms having
become necessary from the rapidly increasing number of its
members.

Mr. M. C. Cooke, V.P., who occupied the chair, read an interest-
ing paper on “Universal Microscopic Admeasurement,” the
object of which was the advocacy of the universal adoption of the
French measurement with the “millimetre” as the standard for

120 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

microscopical objects. A discussion ensued, after which the pro-
ceedings terminated with a conversazione. Hight members were
elected and seven candidates proposed.

[The Offices of the Club remain at 192, Piccadilly, where
letters addressed to Mr. Bywater, Hon. Sec., will have prompt
attention. |

Dousiin Microscorican CLUB.
August 19th, 1865.

Read the minutes of the preceding monthly meeting, which
were confirmed.

Dr. John Barker exhibited specimens of Cdogonium Itzigsohnit
(de Bary), which showed the remarkably lobed oogonia of this
species fully formed.

Mr. Crowe showed specimens of Carchesiwm polypinum, in
active vigour, forming a fine object.

Mr. Archer showed specimens of Spondylosium pulchellum (ejus).
This was the first time he had had an opportunity to exhibit this
well-marked little plant to the club, as hitherto he had not found
it except in pools close to Lough Bray, where it seemed to be very
rare. Indeed, he had himself seen it but once or twice since he
first ventured to describe it in the ‘ Proceedings of the Dublin
University Zoological and Botanical Association’ (vol. i, pp. 116-7),
and he was glad again to find it maintaining all its characters.
This little Desmidian, so far as is known, is the only British repre-
sentation of its genus, one founded by de Brébisson to receive
forms which, but for the absence of any “ glandular processes,”
would fall under Sphzrozosma. Indeed, when Mr. Archer
first found this well-marked little plant he was unaware of
the genus Spondylosium (Bréb.), and, while drawing attention
to the discrepancy as regards the point referred to, unavoidable
without constituting a new genus, had described it under
Spherozosma (Corda). Dr. Wallich also, in his paper on “ Desmi-
diacez collected in Bengal” (‘Annals of Natural History,’ 3 Ser.,
vol. v, p. 184), two only of which have been as yet published,
likewise unaware of de Brébisson’s genus, instituted an identical
genus for the reception of certain Bengal forms, which -he called
Leuronema. De Brébisson’s Spondylosium, however, has the
priority ; therefore several forms which had been referred to
Sphzrozosma and Wallich’s species and varieties of Leuronema
must be called by de Brébisson’s name.

Mr. Crowe exhibited specimens of Atropos pulsatorius, or Death.
watch, taken by him from behind a picture which had been un-
disturbed on the wall for some time. A discussion followed as to
whether this little insect or Anobium striatum should enjoy the

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 121

title par excellence of the Death-watch, both insects possessing
the power of producing the ticking sound so well known and so
like that of a watch. It was generally admitted that the latter
was the creature to which that sobriquet was originally given.

Mr. Archer exhibited the, with us, rare Cosmarium moniliforme.
This species, well marked and very pretty, he had not seen for
several seasons. He mainly drew attention to it now for the pur-
pose of pointing out the arrangements of the cell-contents in
“fillets,” as bearing on his remarks on Cosmariwm curtum (Ralfs),
at last meeting, especially, as on that occasion he had not a speci-
men of C. moniliforme to exhibit side by side therewith. This
plant seems to have a quite similar arrangement of the cell-con-
tents to C. curtwm, and therefore equally to fall under A. Braun’s
remarks as to its properly holding a place in the genus Cosmarium
at all. If, indeed, the very faint constriction of C. curtum would
nearly shut it out of the genus Cosmarium, what of C. moniliforme,
in which the constriction is so deep as that the species may be
best called to mind by conceiving two absolute spheres in contact
and held together by an isthmus so narrow as to appear reduced
toaminimum? It may be replied that Plewroteniwm Cosmarioides
(de Bary) is deeply constricted, and externally a Cosmarium, yet by
that author it is placed, owing to its parietal chlorophyll-contents
arranged in bands, side by side with certain Docidia ; therefore
why not C. curtuwm (Bréb.), Ralfs, (and C. moniliforme (Turp.)
Ralfs, and C. Ralfsii (Bréb.) too) be separated from Cosmarium ?
Mr. Archer would not be prepared to argue that they should not,
nor that the mode of arrangement of the contents, being equally
constant, may not be equally of value as the outward characters,
but only to urge that, so long as the genus Penium is characterised
as it is, without constriction, plants with a constriction should
not be forced into it. Hence, if it be held that the species here
adverted to must go out of Cosmarium, there should be a new
genus, Cosmarium-like as to outward form, and Penium-like as to
the internal arrangement of the contents. Will observers (de
Brébisson, Ralfs, Nageli, de Bary, Wallich, Cleve, Grunow, and
others) agree to this? Mr. Archer would venture to urge
here, in reply to possible objections, that a question like this, as to
the generic location of the species alluded to, nor any difference
of opinion thereon, in no way speaks for the want of permanence
or individuality of the forms themselves; and the difficulty is not
that of recognising and identifying forms which constantly present
the same idiosyncrasies whenever met with, but that of making
their individual specialities tally with the genera as laid down in
our books, whose limits may be, perhaps, either too wide or too
narrow, and whose diagnosis cannot be expected to meet every
possible contingency.

Mr. Archer drew attention to a Bulbochete which he could not
but regard as new, inasmuch as it is not described by Pringsheim

122 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

in his memoir “‘ Morphologie der Gdogonien,” published in his
‘ Jahrbiicher fiir wissenschaftliche Botanik,’ Band i, p. 1, for, with
the exceptions of the species described by Profs. Pringsheim and
de Bary, Mr. Archer, so far as he could judge, felt necessitated to
regard almost all the forms both of Gidogonium and Bulbocheete to
be found in books of any other authors as of less value than if
they never had been described, and that it would be greatly the
more advisable course quite to ignore them ; but inasmuch as the
distinctions put forward in Cidogonie are founded, not in the
essential characters presented by the fructification, but simply on
comparative dimensions, it would be quite impossible to be certain,
therefore the proper course seems to be to follow Pringsheim and
name the present plant, for previous naming and previous descrip-
tion, not being available, must of necessity, as it appeared to Mr.
Archer, be wholly discarded. The fact is that it is quite probable
that the true species in Gidogoniex are by no means so numerous
as are the pseudo-species recorded on unessential characters in
books. The following may, perhaps, serve as a description of the
plant now brought forward.

Genus ButBocHmTE (Agardh).

Bulbochete Pringsheimiana, Sp. nov.

Oogonium elliptic; dwarf male-plants (“ Zwergmannchen,”
Pringsheim) straight, multilocular, in length nearly equal to the
length of the oogonium, nearly always seated on the oogonium
about the middle, rarely close under it, with “ foot”’ and “ outer”
antheridium ; mother-cells of androspores immediately above the
oogonium ; septum of the cell immediately below the oogonium
(the supporting cell, “ Stiitzzelle,’ Pringsheim) very high up (or
absent ?); micropyle of oogonium very close to its upper end;
oospore elliptic, orange-brown when mature, seemingly not filling
the oogonium, but leaving a hyaline border; whole plant rather
slender, cells averaging about twice as long as broad, growth
unilateral.

It will thus be seen that this species falls under the subdivision
of the genus with elliptic oospores, all which are characterised by
Pringsheim as having the dwarf male plants, which are always
here of the structure called by him “ outer” and with a “ foot,”
seated always near to, but never on, the oogonium. Now, the
present plant is well characterised by having mostly a single
dwarf male plant seated on the oogonium, upon which it stands
vertically ; sometimes there are two upon one oogonium. Thus,
this plant presents a striking exception in this respect to the
characters laid down by Pringsheim, and this circumstance alone
would seem to mark it out as distinct. It agrees, indeed, with
the other elliptic-spored species in the dwarf male plants having
a “ foot-cell” and “outer” antheridium ; but it differs from them
by the circumstance of the oogonia being immediately surmounted
by the mother-cells of the androspores, all the other elliptic-
spored species described bearing above the oogonia either ordinary

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES: 123

vegetative cells or simply a bristle. Further, no species seems to
possess the septum dividing the cell supporting the oogonium so
high up therein as is the case in the present plant. Indeed, when
seemingly absent, Mr. Archer was inclined to think that this was
due to its being so close up under the oogonium as to be obscured
by it, and to be made appear as if absent.

It is, indeed, much to be desired that the promised descriptions
of all the species known to him in this genus and in GQidogonium
should be published by their able exponent, Professor Pringsheim ;
at least such a desirable additional contribution to the knowledge
of these interesting algw had not met Mr. Archer’s observation.
Should this description of a form, probably, indeed, already well
known to Professor Pringsheim, though seemingly not described
by that distinguished observer (and should he approve of the
same), ever meet his eye, Mr. Archer trusted that, i token of
the great gratification he had enjoyed from several of his (Pro-
fessor Pringsheim’s) beautiful researches and masterly writings,
he might not quite disdain the compliment intended to be con-
veyed by so humble an individual in this far-off western island, in
calling this plant Bulbochete Pringsheimiana.

Mr. Archer drew attention to a peculiar condition of Dinobryon
sertularia (Ehr.), and he mentioned that he had just happened to
meet with a notice of what seemed to him to be asimilar condition
of this organism. This was by Dr. Hermann, who, in a paper
“Ueber die bei Neudamm aufgefundenen Arten des Genus
Characium” (in Rabenhorst’s ‘ Beitrage zur niheren Kenntniss
und Verbreitung der Algen,’ Heft i), incidentally mentions a
state of Dinobryon doubtless quite identical with that observed by
Mr. Archer. Although neither, indeed, threw much light on the
question as to the development of this organism, yet the present
observation would be a confirmation, so far as it went, of that of
Dr. Hermann, and both went to indicate that Dinobryon passes
through a phase not apparently generally known. The change in
the present specimens consisted in the living part of the indi-
viduals comprising the colony becoming encysted, not, indeed,
within the “lorica,” but at its mouth, into a globular green body,
smoothly bounded, and contained within a hyaline globular infla-
tion, whose bounding wall passed off into, and seemed a continu-
tion of, the somewhat expanded mouth of the well-known
campanulate colourless “lorica.” This encysted portion, the
original lorica being left out of view, had somewhat the appear-
ance of a minute form of Chlamydomonas, though, of course,
quiescent, and contained some pale green granules. Many speci-
mens were to be seen empty, the hyaline, original, campanulate
lorica and its globular inflated addition having become vacated by
the globular green spore-like body ; but Mr. Archer had never
been able to perceive the moment when these were set free. In
the water in which these specimens pretty plentifully occurred
there abounded a number of minute Chlamydomonas-like active

124 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES:

bodies, in vigorous movement, quite globular, of the same size
and exceedingly like the green bodies near them, still held within
the round inflated expansions of the Dinobryon, and, although
with denser and greener contents, their great similarity seemed to
suggest the possibility of their being further stages in the develop-
ment. Here this very scanty observation, guantum valeat, ceases ;
nor does that of Dr. Hermann, of what 1s, doubtless, the same
phenomenon, throw any additional light on the matter. This
author describes also a very similar encysting and formation of a
“resting spore” in a Characium, called by him Characiwm epipyzis,
which he compares withthe phenomenon in Dinobryon; andhe then
goes on to say— The supposition of some affinity between Chara-
ciumepipyxis and Dinobryon pressed itself upon me at each observa-
tion more forcibly, although I could gain nothing certain upon the
point. Dinobryon resembles a colony of Characiwm epipyzis, or as
budding-off; Dinobryon occurs, besides, very frequently in company
with our Characium.’’ Mr. Archer, however, remarked that
Dinobryon occurs frequently where no Characium at least pre-
sents itself; although it cannot be omitted to be mentioned that, in
the very gathering in which the present specimens of Dinobryon
were noticed, a Characium was present in considerable numbers ;
but he could not make himself satisfied that it was the form called
C. epipyxis by Dr. Hermann.

September 21st, 1865.

Read the minutes of the preceding meeting, which were
confirmed.

Mr. Archer exhibited specimens of a Staurastrum (Kiitz.) Nag.,
new to Britain, which he now referred to Staurastrum spinulosum
(Nag.), though, before he had been able to see a specimen with the
constituent cells well spread out, so as to display accurately their
form, he had been in some doubt as to the actual identity with
Nageli’s plant, though there could be none as to the genus to
which it belonged. Although no mode of reproduction is known
for this genus, it can hardly be doubted but that it, as well as
Celastrum, belongs to Pediastree. Inasmuch as the well-
marked form in question had been ignored by the authors of the
‘ Micrographic Dictionary,’ it may be well here briefly to describe
the plant. It consists of a definite number of cuneate compressed
cells, united by their smaller ends in a radiate manner into a solid
family ; the outer margins with rounded angles, and concave at
the middle, in the present plant, or in Kiitzing’s species, Soras-
trum echinatum, bifurcate. In the present plant, 8. spinulosum,
the cells bear, at each of the outer rounded angles, two minute,
rather acute, short spines ; thus, each cell bears four spines, but
as these are placed in pairs opposite one another, not im a single
line, when a cell presents fts broad or cuneate side to the observer

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 125

it often happens that only two spines seem to exist, as one is
behind and hidden by its companion spine. Whenan oblique view
of a cell is towards the observer, then the four spines can be at
once seen. This plant is exceedingly minute, even the largest
families ; and, unless when few-celled, the form of the individual
cells, and their mode of combination, is not readily, at first sight,
made out. This appears to be a rare little alga; Mr. Archer had,
indeed, met with it but on two or three occasions. The present
gathering was made in the “ Rocky Valley,” near Bray.

Dr. John Barker showed a fine specimen of Amaba villosa
(Wallich). Some months previously, in company with Mr. Archer,
he had seen examples of this rhizopod; but as the character of the
specimens did not then appear to him (Dr. Barker) as sufficiently
well marked, and as only a comparatively few had been found in
the gathering, he had thought it better to wait until some more
numerous specimens should present themselves, to become quite
satisfied as to the identity of this form. The present were taken
from a pool in the Rocky Valley, near Bray, and in the usual rep-
tant state he had found them to average 4,” in length, and about
giz! in breadth. The anterior extremity is broadly rounded, the
motion reptant, continuous, and rapid. The posterior villous en-
largement appeared to Dr. Barker to be, as 1t were, made up of
tubes radiating from a space clear of motile granules, and contain-
ing one or more small vesicles. This villous patch was of a gray
colour, and small foreign objects appeared to adhere markedly to
it, and were carried along during the progression of the Amceba
through the surrounding débris. The contractile vesicle appeared
generally in the neighbourhood of the villous patch, and the nu-
cleus was also well seen. The villous appendage sometimes ap-
peared to be trilobed ; that is, the villous portion seemed to radiate
from three centres. When meeting with an obstacle in front, the
organism often put forth pseudopods from the neighbourhood of
the villous appendage. There were specimens of Ame@ba diffiuens,
as well as other reptant Amcebex, without pseudopods or any villous
appendage in the same gathering. The specimens kept for upwards
of a month, and gradually disappeared. Dr. Barker regarded these
as all but varieties of one and the same ordinary Ameeba, influenced
by peculiar conditions of growth, &c.

Mr. Archer believed there could not be any doubt at all but
that the Ameba alluded to by Dr. Barker as having been seen by
both in company some time ago was truly none other than A. vil-
losa (Wallich) ; just as little, indeed, as that the form now shown
by Dr. Barker was actually the same.

Mr. Archer, sufficiently opportunely along with Dr. Barker’s
exhibition of A. villosa, was able to show one of those remarkable
polymorphous conditions of the gonidia of Volvox globator first
drawn attention to by Dr. Hicks in the ‘ Microscopical Journal.’
The present specimen was, indeed, languid and sluggish, as com-

126 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

pared with those he had seen at an earlier period of the year, and
which he had mentioned at a previous meeting; but he was not
on that occasion able to exhibit to the Club any actual specimens,
yet the polymorphous condition, and slight locomotive power of
the gonidia now exhibited were sufficiently evident.

Dr. J. Barker could confirm the truth of these observations; he
had himself, on a previous occasion, seen the transformed gonidia
of some specimens of Volvox move reptantly about, seemingly to
all intents and purposes as veritable Amcebe.

Dr. Frazer exhibited two specimens of diseased hairs; the first
example of hair growing on a patch of baldness caused by Tinea
tonsurans, the upper part white, the shaft gradually acquiring a
dark colour towards the base; the second being a diseased hair,
with atrophy of the bulb, taken from a bald patch resulting from
Alopecia areata, and intended to show the state of extremely im-
paired nutrition of the hair.

Mr. Archer showed fruited examples, with oogonia and the dwarf
male plants, of Gdogoniwm Brauni ; also the seemingly rare, mi-
nute little plant, Polyedrium tetraedricum (Nag.). (See ‘Gattungen
einzelliger Algen,’ p. 83, t. iv, B. 3.)

Captain Hutton exhibited fruited specimens of Metzgeria fur-
cata, rarely met with in a fertile condition, although the plant is
common. He showed the fruit nicely under the binocular.

Dr. Richardson showed various Desmids in good condition,
mounted five years ago in glycerine and a trace of liquor potasse.

Mr. Yeates exhibited Smith and Beck’s new metallic reflector
for opaque objects, which seemed to be very satisfactory.

October 19th, 1865.

Read the minutes of last meeting, which were signed.

Captain F. W. Hutton presented a list of Diatomaceze found
by him in the washings of a small portion of seaweed from China.
The material had not been boiled, but steeped in weak acid.
The specimens shown were very clean, and many very pretty.
The following is the list :— Aimantidium ’; Amphicampa
mirabilis; Licmophora, sp.; Grammatophora serpentina; Gram-
matophora marina; Grammatophora hamulifera; Melosira, sp. ;
Coscinodiscus limbatus ; Arachnoidiscus Ehrenbergu ; Biddulphia
pulchella; Cocconeis pseudomarginatus; Cocconeis scutellum; Coc-
coneis pretexta; Achnanthes? sp.; Navicula didyma; Navicula,
sp.; Pinnularia, sp. This seaweed had been obtained by Captain
Hutton in February, 1864, but he felt satisfied that it could not

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 127

be assumed to be the source of the Arachnoidiscus Ehrenberghu
noticed by him as occurring in a gathering made at Malahide,
Co. Dublin, in December, 1864, and recorded in the Minutes of
the Club for that month, and this for the conclusive reasons then
advanced. (See ‘Quart. Journ. Mic. Science,’ vol. xii, p. 1382
and p. 167.)

Mr. Archer showed a minute alga which formed a new species
of the genus Dictyospherium, Nig.; and, for the sake of com-
parison, he showed along with it the tolerably common but
remarkable little plant, Dictyospherium Ehrenbergianum, Nag.
Before, however, describing the present form, inasmuch as the
genus Dictyospherium, as well as many others of the “ unicel-
lular” alge (quantum valeant) have been ignored by some—for
instance, the authors of the ‘ Micrographic Dictionary’—it might
be well here as briefly as possible to give the generic characters,
following as closely as possible Nageli’s own words (‘ Gattungen
einzelliger Algen,’ p. 72) :—* Cells elliptic, with thick confluent
mucous investment, combined in numbers into free-swimming,
one-layered, hollow-globular (microscopic) families, one always at
the ends of delicate threads which proceed from the central point
of the family and which become repeatedly branched towards the
periphery ; division at the commencement of a series of generations
in all directions of space; afterwards, as regards the middle point
of the aggregate family, as arule, alternating only in the two
tangental directions.” As will be presently seen, the three forms
otherwise referable to this genus, possessing cells which in each
are respectively elliptic, reniform, and constricted, renders it
necessary that the foregoing characters be modified so far as
relates to this particular. In this palmellacean genus the cells
form little definite families or colonies primarily originating from
a single cell by constant division, each new cell being supported
on the summit of a slender thread or fibre-like stipes of extreme
delicacy, which thus during the increase in number of the consti-
tuent cells of the family becomes usually dichotomously divided,
the whole family being imbedded in a definitely bounded mucous
or gelatinous investment. The form on which the genus was
founded by Nageli (Dictyospherium Ehrenbergianum, Nag.) is
very minute, and, in suitable places, common, the families in the
ageregate forming a globular or broadly elliptic, or sometimes
subcubical figure; the rate of growth of the delicate thread being
equal all round, the cells at the ends of each of its dichotomous
ramifications stand at nearly equal distance from the original
centre—hence the regular figure of the aggregate family. In this
species the individual cells are elliptic, as in Nageli’s original
diagnosis of the genus founded on this as the then only known
type, and are very minute. Another species in this genus has
been described by Rabenhorst (in ‘ Kryptogamen-Flora von
Sachsen,’ &c., p. 132) under the name of Dictyospherium rent-
‘orme (Bulnheim in Hedwigia, 1859). This plant possesses larger

VOL. VII.—NEW SER. K

128 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

irregularly shaped families, seemingly owing to the development
of the delicate supporting fibre not going on in the same regular
manner as in D. Hhrenbergianwm ; and the cells themselves are
much larger, and are reniform. In the form now exhibited by
Mr. Archer the aggregate family is larger than in either of the
foregoing, and the branching of the fibre less regular than in
D. Ehrenbergianum, and seemingly more so (to judge from the
figure) than in D. reniforme. The total family sometimes acquires
a divergent or lobed character, owing to the fibre or thread, on
the subdivision of the original cell of the family, becoming drawn
out to a greater extent than during subsequent growth, thus the
cells of the second generation becoming further pushed away from
one another than is the case in the subsequent generations. Thus,
the aggregate family may appear like twin families, or, as it were,
as if certain portions or branches of it had started from two or
sometimes more fresh centres. The cells themselves, moreover,
were neither elliptic, as in D. Hhrenbergianum, nor reniform, as in
D. reniforme; but they are somewhat irregularly figure-of-8-
shaped, that is, constricted at both sides, the ends tapering in
a somewhat triangular manner to the bluntly rounded extre-
mities; they are, besides, larger than either of the preceding,
much larger than those of the first. This plant is, indeed,
wholly different from, yet congeneric with, both. It might, indeed,
suggest itself, from the fact of the cells being seated at the
summits of the branches of a delicate thread-like stipes, and
their being constricted, that this plant might belong to De Bré-
bisson’s genus Cosmocladium ; but in that plant the stipes is
thick and broad, and the aggregate colony forms a dendroid struc-
ture seated epiphytically on Confervoids, not freely swimming,
and the growth radiating from a common original centre. Still,
there must, perhaps, be a certain amount of affinity; yet there
can be no doubt but that Mr. Archer’s plant far more properly
belongs to Dictyospherium (Nag.) than to Cosmocladium (Bréb.).
Be, then, this growth a species or a form, be it swe generis or but
a transitional state of some other species—a question which it
would be at present impossible to decide—the present plant is
quite as well marked as either of the two previously described,
and therefore quite as worthy of arecord. As to the nature of
the curious dichotomous, extremely delicate, fibre-like stipes in
this genus on which the cells are borne, Mr. Archer found it
impossible to throw any light. So delicate is it that it often
requires a peculiar illumination to perceive it properly; but so
constant and so peculiar a character must have some signification,
and seems to give the minute alge possessing it a special generic
type, and, pending more knowledge as to their origin and nature,
a claim to be accorded a special generic rank.

Dr. John Barker exhibited a minute Cosmarium gathered by
him on the occasion of the Club excursion to Lugnaquilla, which,
with the information at disposal, he was inclined to regard as
Cosmarium quadratum, or a small variety of that species. It is

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 129

minute, oblong; constriction deep and linear; segments rather
longer than broad, quadrate; all the angles rounded; sides and
ends rather deeply concave ; frond compressed ; side and end view
elliptic; empty frond minutely punctate.
Mr. Archer was quite disposed to regard this plant exhibited
by Dr. Barker as not Cosmariwn quadratum. It is a good deal
smaller, and wants any notable inflation at each side at the base
of the segments; besides, the ends are concave, and not convex,
as in C. quadratum. It might, perhaps, by those who had not
seen Cosmarium sublobatum (Euastrum sublobatum, Bréb.), be mis-
taken for that species, which it most decidedly is not. The pre-
sent form is often seemingly quite or nearly as much expanded at
the ends as it is at the base, whereas in Cosmariwm sublobatum
the segments very considerably taper towards the ends, and that
species is also larger than the present, and wider in proportion to
its length. Ewastrum pusillum, Bréb., appears to have some affinity
with Dr. Barker’s plant, but Mr. Archer had not seen specimens
of that form; it appears, however, to be smaller, the upper angles
to be acute, not rounded, and the concavity at the ends with a
well-defined obtuse angle at the centre, not gradually curved. On
the whole, Mr. Archer was himself quite disposed to regard the
present plant as undescribed ; the somewhat punctate empty frond
would form a further distinction.

Mr. Woodworth exhibited a great variety of photographs of
microscopic objects, some of them high-power objects, and all very
excellent.

Mr. Archer showed in fructification specimens of a diccious
(Edogonium, which, pending, indeed, information on one point as
regards it, he would refer to Cdogoniwm gemelliparum, Prings-
heim. The present plant showed the oogonia, its lateral aperture
(micropyle) high up, the oospore nearly filling the oogonium, the
separate male plants with their antheridia forming series of very
short cells, more or less numerous. But the point requiring
elucidation as to the identification of this plant with Pringsheim’s
species, just mentioned, was whether there were two spermatozoids
evolved from each antheridial cell by a division taking place in
the direction of the length of the parent filament, or whether only
one spermatozoid was produced from each daughter antheridial
cell, the division taking place, as ordinarily, transversely ; and it
was just this point he had been unable to make out. He had
found this plant for some weeks in a pool hard by the “ Rocky
Valley” near Bray, and had on several occasions taken specimens
always showing oogonia, but not until now had he found the male
plants, which, indeed, had been first detected in these specimens
and pointed out by Dr. J. Barker.

Dr. E. Perceval Wright exhibited some specimens of a beautiful
pink Podura. Various species of Nullipora grow in great quantity
in Bantry Bay, and they are dredged up for the purpose of being

1380 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

used as manure. The Nullipore remains are collected in large
heaps, and, by exposure to the air and sun, soon become quite
bleached, presenting the appearance of coral sand. Running over

.and jumping upon these mounds, Dr. Wright discovered those
pretty apterous insects. So far as he could determine, they belong
to an undescribed species of the genus Heterotoma.

Mr. Tichborne exhibited some crystals of creatine found in
Liebig’s extract of beef. They were recognised by their form
and by their reaction with chloride of zinc.

MancHestER LITERARY AND PHILosopHicaL Society.
MICROSCOPICAL SECTION.
October 16th, 1865.
A. G. LatHam, Esq., President of the Section, in the Chair.

This being the first meeting of the session, the President
delivered an address reviewing the past proceeding of the Section,
and referring with satisfaction to the proposal to extend its objects
to subjects of natural history generally.

Mr. Sidebotham read “ Notes on Atlantic Soundings.”

He said that in the unsuccessful attempt made to raise the
Atlantic Cable after it had unfortunately parted, the ropes and
grapnels brought up from the bottom small portions of ooze or mud,
some of which was scraped off and preserved, as stated at the time
in the newspapers. Believing that a careful examination of this
deposit might prove of considerable interest, he wrote on the sub-
ject to Dr. Fairbairn, who, after considerable trouble, obtained
for him a fine sample, mounted specimens of which he now pre-
sented for the cabinet and to each member of the Section. In
appearance the deposit resembles dirty chalk, and under the micro-
scope reminds one much of the chalk from Dover ; indeed, it has all
the appearance of being a bed of chalk in process of formation. It is
composed entirely of organisms, chiefly in fragments. In the short
examination he had made he observed several forms which give
promise of interesting results, and he thought it would be desir-
able to frame a complete list of the species found, which would be
best accomplished by two or three members taking temporary
possession of all the slides, and preparing a report on their united
observations. The sample now distributed was obtained at Dr.
Fairbairn’s request by Mr. Saward from Mr. Temple, one of the
Engineering Staff, who states that it was got in grappling for the
Cable, August 11th, 1865, Lat. 51° 25’ 15” N., Long. 38° 59’ W.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 131

November 20th, 1865,
A. G. LatuaM, Esq., President of the Section, in the Chair,

Mr. Parry read a paper on ‘‘ Collecting Foraminifera on the
West Coast of Ireland.” He said that in June last he visited the
coast of Connemara, for the purpose of collecting Foraminifera,
more especially at Dogs Bay; he was accompanied by Mr. Burns,
of Doohulla Lodge, who gave him much assistance. After he had
procured a considerable quantity of the shell-sand in the usual
way, he noticed some white floating material on the surface of the
advancing tide ; he collected a quantity of it by means of a muslin
net, and on examination found it nearly all composed of perfect
dead shells of Foraminifera. On the second visit to the bay Mr.
Burns discovered a pool near high-water mark, covered with the
floating shells, and of these Mr. Parry collected a large quantity,
portions of which he had since distributed to members of the
Section. He cbserved that the underside of the rocks forming
the pool were covered with Foraminifera, and he therefore con-
cluded that these minute creatures live there, and from what he
saw he was led to believe that Dogs Bay is a breeding-ground for
them, and that they may also be found living in “ Burns’ Pool.”

Mr. Dancer, F.R.A.S., read a paper “On the [lumination of
Opaque Objects under the High Powers of the Microscope.”

The author’s attention was drawn to a paper on this subject
which appeared in the ‘ Scientific American,’ and was copied into
the ‘ Mechanics’ Magazine’ of October 20th, 1865.

Mr. H. L. Smith, of Kenyon College, had contrived a plan for
the illumination of opaque objects, by placing a small mirror in a
rectangular box, which could be attached to any ordinary micro-
scope; this mirror was made adjustable immediately over the
opening of the back of the objective ; a light was placed at the side
of the box and reflected down through the objective on to the
object. In this manner the object could be illuminated when the
high powers were used.

Mr. Hurst sugested that a discussion on this subject would be
of interest to the members of the Microscopical Section. The
author, not having time to make one of Mr. Smith’s apparatus,
thought it possible to arrive at similar results by the employ-
ment of the binocular microscope, an instrument which is now
more common than a monocular instrument. The trial quite
answered hisexpectations. Thesimplest method,andonewhich gave
good results, is to remove the eye-piece from the oblique body and
fix a reflector on the top of the body in such amanner as to throw
the rays of light down to the Wenham’s prism, and thence
through the object-glass on to the object.

If a plane mirror is employed a lens of suitable focal length
should be placed in the body, in order to get the field of view
entirely illuminated.

182 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

A concave mirror or lenticular prism can also be used for the
same purpose, provided the focal length is adapted to the length
of the body and object-glasses.

Various modifications can be adapted so as to vary the character
of the illumination to suit the particular object to be viewed. In
some cases the Wenham’s prism may be withdrawn a little, to
produce the proper effect.

Uncovered objects only can be seen to advantage, owing to the
light reflected from the surface of the covering glass. The surface
on which the objects are mounted should reflect as little as pos-
sible, and be a marked contrast in colour to the object.

Ordinary Meeting, November 28th, 1865.
R. Anaus Surru, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c., President, in the Chair.

Mr. Francis Hampson, solicitor, was elected an Ordinary
Member of the Society.

Mr. Dancer, F.R.-A.S., said that in a paper “ On the Illumina-
of Opaque Objects under the High Powers of the Microscope,”
read before the Microscopical Section of this Society, November
20th, he had described a method of employing the oblique body of
the binocular microscope with Wenham’s prism, for illumination
of opaque objects, and he had also exhibited an instrument fitted
up for this purpose, giving the members present a practical
demonstration of the advantages which this mode of illumination
afforded under certain circumstances. He wished now to describe
another method of illuminating opaque objects, and, as it is equally
applicable to monocular and binocular microscopes, it appears
worthy of some consideration.

In the method of Mr. H. L. Smith, of Kenyon College (which
was briefly described in the paper beforé mentioned), and also in
the use of the Wenham’s prism, there is a considerable loss of
angular aperture (which is a very important consideration). It
occurred to the author that by modifymg Mr. Smith’s contrivance
this loss might be diminished in some degree; this has been
attempted in the following manner.

Instead of placing the mirror immediately over the opening
at the back of the object-glass, a small speculum }th of an inch in
diameter is introduced into the front of the body of the micro-
scope, 24 inches above the top of the objective. A lateral opening
is made in the body at right angles to the speculum, for the admis-
sion of light to be reflected down through the objective to the
object below.

The interposition of the small speculum does not produce any
disagreeable effect in the field of view, and in the examination of
objects it is easy to use that portion of the field which is between
the centre and the edge. With proper manipulation very good

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 133

La

definition can be obtained by this method when the speculum is
of the proper curvature. This contrivance can always remain
attached to the microscope without interfering with the general
appearance of the instrument, and when the use of the speculum
is not required it can be withdrawn or turned aside out of the
field of view, and the aperture at the side of the body may be
closed by a small shutter. It is obvious that the use of the
binocular body is not interfered with by this arrangement.

A binocular and a monocular microscope with this arrange-
ment were exhibited to the members at the close of the meeting.

December 18th, 1865.
J. B. Dancnr, F.R.A.S., in the Chair.

Mr. Parry exhibited some sections of fossil wood and Echinus
spines, most beautifully cut by Mr. John Butterworth, of Oldham,
and presented some of the slides to the Section.

Mr. Parry also presented to the meeting, for distribution among
the members, mounted slides of the contents of a shark’s stomach,
from the Madras coast, consisting almost entirely of Diatomacez.

Mr. Hurst then made a few remarks on late improvements in
illuminating opaque objects under the higher powers of the micro-
scope. He said they consisted of three different methods. Firstly
that of H. E. Smith, of Kenyon College, America, described in
the English ‘ Mechanics’ Magazine’ of the 20th October, 1865,
in an extract from the ‘American Journal of Science and Arts.’
This gentleman employed a box, or adaptor, between the object-
glass and the Wenham’s prism of the binocular, with a side
perforation, opposite to which was a small silver reflector or a
common thin glass cover, acting as a mirror and capable of adjust-
ment to any angle, thus enabling it to throw the rays of light
admitted by the side aperture through the object-glass down on
to the object itself.

The disadvantage of this method is that all adaptors cause
unsteadiness, and, however skilfully constructed, injure the accu-
rate centering of the object-glass ; and while, on the one hand, the
thin glass cover appears to produce some distortion of the image,
the reflector so near the object necessarily casts off a number of
the rays proceeding from it. This plan also seems to require
lamp-light and the use of a condenser. Messrs. Smith and Beck
appear to have patented the use of the thin glass cover.

Secondly, a modification of the foregoing by Mr. Dancer, of
this Section, who places the thin glass or reflector between the
eye-piece and the Wenbam prism, cutting an aperture in the
body of the microscope to admit the light. This dispenses with
the objection inherent to adapters, and theoretically seems the
most perfect of these new methods; but Mr. Hurst’s experience

134 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

in its use was as yet too limited to form an opinion. He hoped,
however, to report on the subject at the next meeting.

Thirdly, that invented by Mr. Dancer, who places a circular
mirror over the oblique tube of the microscope, previously remoy-
ing the eye-piece; the light is thrown down to the Wenham’s
prism, and thence through the objective on to the object. The
only disadvantage of this method was that of not admitting of
binocular vision; otherwise its simplicity, cheapness, and great
facility of adjustment, render it far preferable to the others, while
its effects are fully equal to theirs. It answers, moreover, equally
well by day- or lamp-light, and does not require a condenser to be
used. Mr. Hurst thought every binocular microscope would be
fitted with it when their owners had seen its working.

‘Mr. Hurst wished meanwhile to draw the particular attention
of the members to the extraordinary beauty and clearness with
which opaque objects—hitherto the despair of microscopists—
were displayed by these methods of illumination, some being
shown as clearly as if enlarged into a relatively gigantic model
and viewed by the naked eye. Another peculiarity connected
with them is that, as the object-glass itself acts as a condenser,
the amount of light is increased with the magnifying power of
the object-glass, contrary to the effect of other modes of illu-
mination.

Mr. Hurst thought the subject was in its infancy and that
great improvements would yet be made, but that the idea of
Mr. H. E. Smith, of making the object-glass its own illuminator,
would prove to be one of the greatest steps in modern micro-
scopic science ; and, as improved upon by Mr. Dancer, it was one
so costless in price and rapid in its adjustment, that every micro-
scopist, however economical either of time or money, could readily
avail himself of its assistance.

Mr. Coward then exhibited some interesting plants from India,
illustrating abnormal forms of different natural families, especially
of Leguminosez.

January 17th, 1866.
A. G. Latuam, Esq., President of the Section, in the Chair.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and confirmed.

The following donations were announced:—Roper’s ‘ Catalogue
of Microscopie Works,’ by the Author; Kélliker, ‘Manual of
Human Microscopic Anatomy ;’ ‘ Beck on the Microscope,’ by
the Secretary ; six slides of Seeds and Fungi, by the Secretary;
several slides of sections of a Cidaris from the Indian Ocean, by
Mr. Parry. The following purchases by the Section were ex-
hibited :—A mahogany cabinet; Pritchard’s ‘Infusoria.’

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 135

The Secretary reported that he had made a catalogue of the
collection of microscopical objects belonging to the Section.

Mr. Sidebotham exhibited a design for a ticket and covering-
paper, to be used for the Section’s collection of slides, which, with
a trifling alteration, met the approval of the members, and the
Secretary was ordered to take the necessary steps to have it
encraved.

Mr. Sidebotham remarked on the best cement to use in
forming cells for fluid preparations, and stated that gold size
appeared to prevent the entrance of air-bubbles better than
Japan varnish or Brunswick black, which latter in time became
porous, and also, from the evaporation of its turpentine, brittle.
He said he and Mr. Thwaites were, perhaps, the first to use this
method of mounting objects, and that he possessed slides of
gold-size cells, which were still quite perfect, while those he
and mounted with Japan black ink were most of them spoiled,
that he had again reverted to the use of gold size for the
formation of the cell, using Japan varnish for its final closing
only.

The Secretary said gold size remained viscid for a long time,
and that if the cells formed of it were not well dried for a
considerable time, or even baked in an oven, the size was very
liable to “run in” and spoil the preparation. He had re-
varnished the Section’s collection with a mixture of Japan
varnish and gold size, and thought the gold size would prevent
the Japan varnish from becoming brittle or porous, while the
Japan varnish would prevent the gold size from running in; but
he strongly recommended that all collections should be re-
varnished every five years, and deprecated the use of covering
papers on slides of fluid preparations, as it prevented this.

Mr. Latham recommended the addition of a solution of India
rubber, and Mr. Parry of wax, to Japan varnish, to obviate its
tendency to become porous and brittle.

The Secretary exhibited Messrs. Smith, Beck and Beck’s side
Lieberkuhn for illuminating opaque objects under the medium
powers of the microscope, such as 3 to 1 inch.

Mr. Heys showed a well-mounted specimen of the exuvium
of the larva of a dragon fly, and stated he found these insects
were easily brought to cast off their skins by changing the water
in which they were kept; if soft, to hard, and vice versd; or if
muddy, to fresh.

Mr. Parry exhibited mounted sections of an Ammonite.

Dr. Alcock said that among Foraminifera from Dogs Bay which
he had lately mounted he thought there were some slides likely
to interest the members. Many of the deformed specimens of
Lagena striata (Williamson) were very curious, and a double one,
having the neck as well as the body double, deserved particular
notice. He said that he was quite convinced the striated Lagena
with a mucro at the base is not a mere sub-variety of Lagena
striata, but is very distinct from it ; there were many specimens

136 : PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

of it, all agreeing in their peculiar characters, and he proposed for
it the varietal name of L. mucronata. The Lagena with a collar
at the base of the neck, described by him in a previous paper, was
undoubtedly distinct from any of the named forms, and he pro-
posed to call it Lagena antigua. In his examinations of the Dogs
Bay sand one specimen only of Lagena vulgaris typica (William-
son) had occurred, though Z. clavata was comparatively common.
Perhaps the most interesting kind was a perfect and characteristic
specimen of Lagena crenata, a form lately described and figured
by Parker and Jones, from Australia, but he believed not hitherto
observed as British in the recent state. The very magnificent
specimens of ntosolenia mels also deserved notice; and the
curious specimens of Truncatulina lobata, with the later chambers
“yun wide,” and various monstrous forms of Miliolina, would be
examined with interest.

Royat Socrrty or Tasmanta, Hopart Town.
Microscopical Soirée, June 18th, 1865.

AGREEABLY to a resolution passed at the last monthly evening
meeting, the Museum and Library of the Society were this even-
ing thrown open for a Microscopical Exhibition; and as each
Fellow had the privilege of introducing two ladies, the rooms
were soon thronged with visitors.

Seventeen microscopes were arranged on tables, and to each
instrument a card was attached, containing the name of the exhi-
bitor, with a list of the objects for examination. The instruments
were by Ross, Pritchard, Smith and Beck, G. Oberhausen, Varley,
Eden, &e. &e.

Of the Fellows of the Society, Mr. F. Abbott, Mr. F. Abbott,
jun., Dr. Agnew, Mr. M. Allport, Dr. Butler, Colonel Chesney,
Mr. W. Johnston, Mr. F. Giblin, Mr. Napier, Mr. Roblin
(Curator), and Dr. Turnley exhibited instruments; and Dr.
Bright, Mr. Stone, and Mr. Legrand kindly acted as volunteers
for the occasion. The microscope (by Smith and Beck) belonging
to Mr. Stone attracted attention, as being the only one present
of the binocular construction.

With so many good instruments, and with powers ranging
from 50 up to 1000 diameters, a great variety of objects were
submitted for examination. Amongst others might be noticed
the circulation of the blood in animals (tail of tadpole) ; circula-
tion of sap in plants (Nitella) ; animal tissue; vegetable tissue ;
method of measuring accurately microscopic objects; diatoms in
great variety from this colony, England, and elsewhere; infu-

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 137

soria; crystals; photographs; and a variety of other objects of
a miscellaneous character.

The evening was far advanced before the various objects were
exhausted ; and, on retiring, the visitors expressed so much satis-
faction with the exhibition that it is probable a similar meeting
will be held at the close of the session, at which period of the
year (summer) many natural objects which cannot now be pro-
cured will be obtainable.

J.W. Acnew, M.D., Hon. See.

Oxrorp Mtcroscopicat Sociery.

On the CRYSTALLIZATION, af VARIOUS TemMPppRATURES, of the
Dovste Sant, SutpHate oF Maewnesia aad SULPHATE OF
Zinc. By Mr. THomas.

ArtER making experiments according to Mr. Davies’s method,
as explained in the ‘ Microscopical Journal’ for July last, I left
one of the slides, with which I had been working, on my table for
about half an hour. The sun was shining on the table at the
time. On looking at the slide I found that crystallization had
taken place; and, on examination under the microscope with a
2-inch object-glass, I discovered what seemed to be a remarkable
change in the form of the black cross, viz., that instead of running
straight across the axis, as is generally the case in crystals with
one axis, the two arms appeared to approach the centre, and then
suddenly curve back, much in the same way as in a crystal of
nitre. Also I noticed that, in other crystals on the same slide,
each arm of the cross on approaching the centre made a slight
curve, then passed through and formed a similar curve on the
other side. It was from seeing accidentally this arrangement
that I was induced to make a series of experiments at various
temperatures with a Bunsen’s gas-burner and a stand on which
I could arrange the slides at various distances, a thermometer
being placed as close as possible to the slide under observation.

At about 75° Fahr. I find that the arms of the cross are curved
in the singular form here represented (see diagram 1). It seems
also that the two salts combine at this temperature in two pro-
portions, to form two distinct crystals, one having a distinct axis
with a considerable amount of double refraction, which may be
called crystal a (see diagram a) ; the other being in the form of
rounded masses with small foliations and a less amount of double
refraction, which may be called crystal B (see B). The latter,
whose details come out more slowly, and, as a rule, from the
circumference to the centre, constitutes a limit or boundary, as
it were, to the former, which radiates invariably from the centre
to the circumference. This, it seems, shows clearly that the two

138 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

salts combine in two proportions, and that it is by the loss of
some of the atoms of their water of crystallization that these
varied effects are produced. Water it is which gives the crystals
their naturally free and beautifully leafy structure; and I find
that by allowing them to form at higher temperatures in a drier
atmosphere, where crystallization can take place with fewer atoms
of water, they assume a more rigid appearance. At about 80°
the cross becomes more angular or pointed (see diagram 2), while
the crystals become smaller and more numerous.

At 85°, 90°, and 100°, the waves become smaller, and resemble

fine wires, flowing into each other, and forming apparently a
system of delicate rings round the centre (see diagrams 3 and 4).
At these temperatures the foliated structure is nearly lost in a,
and B has almost entirely vanished from the slide. It is some-
times possible to allow B to form a level granular structure on
the slide, and then, by suddenly reducing the temperature, to
make a form upon it, by which a most beautiful effect is produced
(see diagram 5). By raising the temperature to about 117°, the
highest point at which these crystals will form, the system of
rings becomes obliterated, and the crystal arranges itself in planes
radiating from the centre, with a black cross similar to that in a
crystal with one axis (see diagram 6). The higher the tempera-
ture, the longer is the time required for crystallization. Thus, at
117° about three hours are necessary for the perfecting of the

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 139

erystals. Some little allowance must also be made for the dif-
ferent hygrometric states of the atmosphere. Thus, from two
salts a series of objects may be produced which, when viewed by
polarized light, can scarcely be surpassed for beauty.

The crystals of sulphate of copper and sulphate of magnesia
will give even more beautiful results than those of the double salt
in question, and, as far as my observations have gone. at much
lower temperatures. It is possible that a knowledge of the variety
of forms which can be thus artificially produced by heat may,
when applied by scientific men, lead to a more intimate acquaint-

ance with the ultimate arrangement of atoms in natwral forma-
tions.

Mr. Robertson exhibited some Acari obtained from the abdomen
and chest of the common fowl. The fowl, he stated, appeared
perfectly healthy, and was killed for dissection. The Acari were
seen, after the abdomen had been opened, in the form of numerous
small white specks scattered all over the surface of the viscera,
and were easily removed with the point of a needle from the
surface of the peritoneum. They were also present in the chest
around the bifurcation of the trachea, and dotted over the surface
of the lung. None were observed under the skin, in the muscular
tissue, or in the trachea. Examined microscopically, all the Acari
had four pairs of legs, each composed of six joints. In some the

140 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

last joints had a rounded, club-like extremity; in others they
were singularly short and stout. The palpi and parts about the
mouth were not well defined with a high power. In some a faint
line extended across the body between the third and fourth pair
of legs.

Professor Westwood exhibited a species of Acarus that had
been found in the unopened buds of the black-currant tree, and
sent him for examination. He stated that, inasmuch as the animal
only possessed four instead of eight legs, the number proper to
the Acari, he was in doubt whether it was merely an undeveloped
form (which would account for the absence of some of the legs),
or really a fully grown four-legged species.

He also showed some small pieces of wood from a dog-kennel
which were riddled with holes. In these holes were contained, in
great number, the ova and six-legged young of the dog-tick.

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

Microscoricat ResearcHes on the CattLte PLAGUE.
By Dr. Lionex Bratz, F.R.S., &c.

In the third report of the Cattle Plague Commissioners
Dr. Beale’s observations bear particularly upon the facts of
diseased conditions in general, and open out in a very special
manner what may be called tissue actions as contradistin-
guished from blood alterations. Dr. Beale’s researches, if true
in their inferential aspect, must very materially modify pre-
sent pathological notions as to the nature of fevers and in-
flammatory conditions. Dr. Beale takes as his starting-
point the congested state of the capillary vessels so constantly
seen in rinderpest, and proceeds to show that as this is
*“by no means uniform in all different textures, or of equal
degree in every part of the same tissue, while the capillaries
of some organs (those between the uriniferous tubules of
the kidney, those of the lobules of the liver, those of the
mammary, and probably some other glands) are not as
much congested as they are often found in healthy animals
killed suddenly, it cannot be referred to any general impedi-
ment in the circulation ;’ but, on the other hand, the con-
gestion would seem to have a local origin, for there are patches
of various sizes, but distinctly separated from one another by
uncongested, or only slightly congested, portions of tissue

.. the patches are of an intensely dark red colour, of cir-
cular form, as though the congestion had commenced at and
radiated from a central spot. The result of the congestion is

VOL. VII.—NEW SER. L

14.2 DR. BEALE, ON THE CATTLE PLAGUE.

an increased pouring out of nutrient matter and a growth of
the germinal matter (usually termed nuclei) of the vessels
and tissues. Dr. Beale thinks that whatever causes the local
congestion is the cause of rinderpest.

1. Changes in the vessels and in the blood—The small
vessels, arteries, and veins, of congested spots are distended
with blood-corpuscles ; the arteries are at first relaxed, but
become subsequently more or less contracted, so that their
outline is more or less uneven, the diameter varying very
much in the smallest distance; the coats are granular; often-
times, indeed, there is considerable atrophy. These changes

Fre. 1.—Surface of mucous membrane of fourth stomach, corresponding to a
thin depressed circular spot like an ulcer; superficial capillary vessels,
varying very much in calibre, filled with granular matter and minute par-
ticles of germinal matter. The orifices of several gastric glands are seen,
and the deeper vessels also obstructed are on a lower plane. X 350.

are seen in the annexed illustration (Fig. 1), showing the
capillaries encircling the mucous glands from the mucous
membrane of the fourth stomach.

In addition to these changes, there is another alteration of
most striking character present in every case—viz., a large
increase in the size of the masses of germinal matter in the
walls of the vessels. This is well seen in Fig. 2, which repre-
sents a capillary from the connective tissue of the alimentary
mucous membrane.

The vessels are sometimes distended with red corpuscles
(more or less altered), sometimes filled with a colourless or
slightly yellowish fluid; the white corpuscles are always
increased in the small veins and capillaries; and in additio

DR. BEALE, ON THE CATTLE PLAGUE. 143

myelin masses are seen, with minute particles of germinal
matter in large number.

Fic. 2.—The masses of germinal matter of the capillary are very much en-
larged, and are dividing and subdividing to form new masses. x 700.

Fig. 3 represents some of the contents
found in a vein in one of the congested spots.
The germinal matter also of the epithelial ee
lining of the vein is augmented so much that ‘S :
oftentimes it forms projections into the in- ~
terior which interfere with the circulation Fie. 3.—Very small
through the vessels. This germinal matter ™2ss¢s of germinal

: 5 matter, interior of
may actually plug up a capillary, as is re- small vein. x 4.

presented at 4 im Fig. 4.

Fic. 4.—Small artery from connective tissue beneath depression of mucous
membrane of fourth stomach. Cattle plague. a, Small cells with nume-
rous oil-globules ; 4, a large mass of germinal matter obstructing capil-
lary. x 700.

144 DR. BEALE, ON THE CATTLE PLAGUE.

Dr. Beale discusses the origin of these masses of germinal
or living matter, and thinks they may be enlarged white cor-
puscles; or caused by the adhesion together and subsequent
growth of other particles, perhaps from the growth of germs
derived from without; or, lastly, an outgrowth from the
lining membrane. The congestion is probably due to the
impediment offered by the increase of material just noticed.
Dr. Beale notices that inflammatory lymph is not frequently
met with, and thinks this is due to the fact that the capilla-
ries become completely obstructed before time has elapsed
for the outpouring of liquor sanguinis. In inflammation,
however, the stage of dilatation is more prolonged, and the
arrest less sudden ; as a consequence of this, the thin walls
allow the passage of fluid more readily. It would appear, then,
that the local congestions produced by the increase of germinal
matter lead in turn to an alteration in the composition of the
blood and the tissues around.

2. Changes in the tissues.—A like increase of germinal
matter is observed in the tissues generally, as well as upon
the free mucous surfaces, as a consequence of the congestions.

The papules which project above the level of the skin, in

Fic. 5.—Fibrous tissue of the corium or true skin from the softened part of
the papule. The intervals between the fibres are occupied with germinal
matter, ‘‘ contagium,” growing and multiplying rapidly. ~x 215.

the seat of the “ eruption,” are due to the increased growth
of the germinal elements of the derma and the cuticular
cells, as well as of germinal matter derived from without.
These minute masses of germinal matter multiply with
great rapidity, and extend amongst the bundles of the fibrous
tissue, making their way, in part, to the surface, in fact,
separating the bundles of the areolar structure, and even
causing thin atrophy. The fibres soon become replaced by

DR. BEALE, ON THE CATTLE PLAGUE. 145

“an amorphous mass of minute masses of germinal matter,
varying much in form and products resulting from the decay
of some of these particles.”

The connective-tissue-corpuscles increase in size. These
changes are well seen in Fig. 6, contrasted with the healthy
state shown in Fig. 7.

Fic. 6.— Enlarged connective-tissue- Fic. 7.—Connective-tissue-corpuscles.
corpuscles. Surface of mucous mem- Surface of healthy mucous mem-
brane over epiglottis—cattle plague brane over epiglottis, just beneath
just beneath the epithelium. 700. the epithelium. x 700.

The same increase is found in the cuticle, especially about
the middle layers, the true epithelial cells being invaded and
often replaced by the nuclear bodies, which invade from the
exterior, as seen in fig. 8, so that there are two processes taking
place at the same time, both, however, consisting of the
growth of germinal matter; but the germinal matter is of
two kinds—1, that belonging to the normal tissues, which

ows in consequence of being supplied with an increased
amount of pabulum; and_ 2, particles of germinal matter
which have invaded the tissues from the blood. The last
are alone considered to be contagious. These are seen in
fig. 8, in the outer part of the cuticular cells.

Fic. 8.—Cuticular cells under scab. Eruption on mamma, showing
how the cells are invaded by the growth and multiplication of the
minute particles of germinal matter (contagium?). x 700.

146 DR. BEALE, ON THE CATTLE PLAGUE.

Dr. Beale gives full details of the special changes of a
similar kind in the various secretions and in the alimentary
tract, but we have not space to give them here. After some
remarks upon the general increase of germinal matter found
throughout the tissues of the body, Dr. Beale notices the
bearing of this matter upon the question of the rise of tem-
perature so constantly noticed in this and other fevers:
—“It will have been remarked that the changes which
I have demonstrated in connection with the germinal matter
of the tissues generally in fevers precisely resemble those ob-
served locally in inflammations. In fact, the local phenomena
of inflammation precisely correspond, up to a certain stage,
with the general phenomena of fever. The former reach a
degree to which the latter cannot attain, because, as it is
scarcely necessary to observe, the death of the man or animal
must occur long before general suppuration could be brought
about.

“ It is remarkable that, while this increase in the germinal
matter is taking place, the temperature rises some degrees
above the normal standard, and I think that the elevation of
temperature in this disease, as well as in fevers and inflam-
mations generally, can scarcely be due to increased oxidation,
for both respiration and circulation are often seriously im-
peded, but attribute it rather to the phenomena occurring
during the increase of the germinal matter and connected
with this increase. If this is so, it is probable that an in-
crease of germinal matter is invariably associated with the
development of heat.”

After discussing many other interesting poimts, Dr. Beale
sums up thus :—‘ Without, therefore, pretending to be able
to identify the actual materies morbi of the cattle plague, or
to distinguish it positively from other forms of germinal
matter present in the fluids on the different free surfaces and
in the tissues in such vast numbers, I think the facts and
arguments adduced tend to prove, first, that it is germinal
matter ; secondly, that the particles are not directly descended
from any form of germinal matter of the organism of the in-
fected animal, but that they have resulted from the multipli-
cation of particles introduced from without; thirdly, that it
is capable of growing and multiplying in the blood; fourthly,
that the particles are so minute that they readily pass through
the walls of the capillaries, and multiply freely in the inter-
stices between the tissue elements or epithelial cells; and,
lastly, that these particles are capable of living under many
different conditions—that they live and grow at the expense
of the various tissue elements, and retain their vitality al-

DR. BEALE, ON THE CATTLE PLAGUE. 147

though the germinal matter of the normal textures, after
growing and multiplying to a great extent, has ceased to
exist.” But more than this, if we would still wish for some
more definite answer, it is clear that we should be most likely
to find the contagious material in the secretions of the vagina,
the eyes, the nose, or intestines, which are admitted by all to
hold the poison of cattle plague. Dr. Beale believes that such
particles as he has represented in figs. 9 and 10, the one from
the fibrous tissue of the skin, the other from the vaginal
mucus, and also those observed amongst the bundles of fibrous
tissue already shown in fig. 5 and those in the cuticle, fig. 8,
constitute the active living contagious material.

Fic. 9.—Contagious particles from the
vaginal mucus of acow. Cattle plague.
a, Bacterium amongst these. 4, A mass of ‘ :
germinal matter containing minute parti- ee ae Be ercker NSS
cles like fungi. These are seen in the white (Bie 8 nai 1800 ep
blood- and pus-corpuscle, &c. x 2800. ig. 8.) ;

Fig. 10.—Minute particles of
germinal matter (contagium ?)

We take it that these particles are
the nuclear corpuscles noticed by Dr.
Bristowe and Dr. Sanderson, especially On
in the skin eruption. Such particles 5. 1) 4 small porti
P é ape portion
have been found in the breath and sur- © of one of the smallest
rounding air of diseased beasts. Hence, _ vessels represented in fig.
though the normal nuclear elements |) showing particles of

F 2 : J germinal matter coloured
are increased in quantity, there is @ eep red by carmine,
large addition of new living matter re- amongst a quantity of
sulting from the growth of particles ‘debris. x 2800.
derived from without the organism. Dr. Beale, therefore,
considers that the “ poison,” “virus,” “contagium,” “materies
morbi,”’ consists of the germinal or living matter constituting
the cell-like or nuclear bodies found in such number, not
only in all contagious fevers, but in specific inflammation
and other affections, syphilis, gonorrhea, &c. He has de-
scribed the movements and mode of multiplication of mucus
and pus-corpuscles, which may be demonstrated with the aid
of the highest powers now in use. Dr. Beale says that the
poison “ consists of very minute particles of matter in a living

148 DR. BEALE, ON THE CATTLE PLAGUE.

state, each capable of growing and multiplying rapidly when
placed under favorable circumstances. The rate of growth
and multiplication far exceeds that at which the normal ger-
minal matter of the blood and tissue multiplies, and that
they appropriate the pabulum of the tissues, and even grow
at their expense,” leading to all the many general symptoms
of rinderpest.

Dr. Beale’s report contains many more most interesting
questions, but we have attempted to draw attention to the
bare outline of the more important points which have an im-
mediate interest to the practitioner in reference to the causa-
tion of contagious diseases.

Dr. Beale’s hypothesis puts into very definite shape the
ideas which have long been loosely held as to the influence
of organic life in the production of disease. No doubt a large
number of chemical actions are at work, and play most im-
portant parts in disease, but it is not unlikely that these in
their turn are dependent upon the action of living material.
It has lately been shown that fermentative changes are de-
pendant upon the nutritive act of the torula cells, and in a
similar sense it is admissible to entertain the idea that the
phenomena of contagious diseases are intimately connected
and probably depend upon the development and increase of
germinal growing living matter.

It is interesting to notice that the views of Dr. Beale upon
the nature of the contagious material have been remarkably
confirmed by Mr. Crookes, who, from purely chemical in-
vestigation, has proved that the active contagious substance
is in a living state. The results detailed in Mr. Crookes’
report are extremely important, and we beg to direct atten-
tion to it.

[This Report, from the ‘ Medical Times and Gazette,’ has
been carefully revised for this Journal. ]

TRANSLATION.

IAKTTAGELSER dfver den HvVILANDE CiDOGONIUM-SPORENS
UTVECKLING. (OBSERVATIONS on the DevELopMENT of the
Restine-spores of GipoconiuM.)

gE Ofversigt af Kongl. Vetenskaps-Akademiens Forhandlingar,’ Stockholm,
1863, p. 247, Tab. II.)

TuroucH Pringsheim’s distinguished researches on the
mode of propagation in the lower Algse, it is now known that,
besides the still longer-known propagation by means of motile
gonidia or zoospores, there exists a mode of reproduction by
means of spores, which are formed by the co-operation of a
male and female organ. The development of these spores,
which in their mode of origin correspond to the seeds of the
higher plants, has been observed in many cases ; but the mode
whereby new plants proceed from these has not yet been fol-
lowed out in several groups of Algze. The genus Gidogonium,
rich in species, belong to these latter Algze. It has been long
known that certain cells of the Gidogonium-filaments were
distinguished from the remaining cells by their egg-shaped
figure, and by their densely crowded contents, surrounded by
a cell-membrane ; but Pringsheim was the first who succeeded
in giving a satisfactory explanation of their significancy.
Pringsheim found, namely, that the round bodies enclosed in
the inflated cells are spores, which are formed through the
fertilising influence of a male organ. With the greatest ac-
curacy Pringsheim has observed and described the mode of
formation of these spores, but not how they become developed
into new plants. Im order, then, to become perfectly ac-
quainted with the mode of reproduction of the Cidogonia,
knowledge as to the further development of these spores is
wanting; and I hope, therefore, that the following descrip-
tion of the germination of the spores of a species of Cido-

150 ON THE RESTING-SPORES OF @DOGONIUM.

gonium will present a contribution to the natural history of
these lowly but interesting plants.

Last summer I encountered, in a little collection of water
in the neighbourhood of Upsala, some sterile Gidogonia, en-
tirely covered over by Closteria. Chiefly with the view that
these latter might develop themselves, I placed the mass of
Algze in a little water, and, at the expiration of some weeks, I
had the pleasure to find several hundreds of the Closteria in
conjugation. I wished now to follow the further development
of the newly formed spores ; but the rapacity of a little species
of Cypris rendered this wish of no avail. During the time, the
(Xdogonia also had begun to fructify; but as I had already
had opportunity to observe the fructification in several species
of Gidogonium, I paid no attention to it. This is the cause
why I cannot give any description as to the species of the
present Cidogonium, the development of which I observed.
The water, wherein the Algze were kept, evaporated, so that
towards the close of the month of September of last summer
there remained behind but a green dry mass. This was laid
aside till the middle of the month of January of the present
year, when it was covered over with water. In the course of
a month this green slime, which covered the bottom of the
vessel, was examined, and in it, besides a quantity of minute
green Algee of the genus Scenedesmus, were found also some
minute @dogonium-plants, much resembling those which ori-
ginate from the germination of the zoospores. This prompted
me to try to discover the mode whereby they proceed from
the spores ; but it was only in the month of March that I was
able to find a sufficient number of germinating spores in order
to follow out consecutively the remarkable mode in which
they are developed.

Previous to germination, the spore (PI. III, fig. 1) has an
egg-shaped figure ; the cell-contents are densely crowded, and
composed of minute brownish-green granules, closely sur-
rounded by a distinct cell-membrane. Outside this membrane
there is found, besides, a quite distinct cell-membrane. Upon
germination there are formed in both membranes slit-like
openings, whereupon the cell-contents emerge, surrounded
by an extremely delicate hyaline covering (figs. 2 and 3). The
cell-contents are composed, not of one, but usually of four
green masses, each surrounded by its cell-membrane. Some-
times also, as it appears, abnormally, the masses are two or
three in number (figs. 6, 7). The four cells which proceed
from germination possess an oval form, and their cell-mem-
brane is hyaline. After the contents of the spore have
emerged, there remains behind the outer membrane, enclosing

ON THE RESTING-SPORES OF HDOGONIUM. 151

the inner one, as shown in figs. 8,9. After the four cells
have remained some time enclosed in the hyaline covering,
this becomes resorbed subsequently, and the four cells lie still
and motionless; but after the course of a short time there
sets in a remarkable change—the cells burst, namely, at one
end, by means of an annular slit, and the apex, separated
thereby from the remainder of the cell-membrane, becomes
raised up like a lid. Through the circular opening the cell-
contents now emerge, which, at the part turned towards the
opening, is colourless (fig. 11). This apex moves with vigorous
motion backwards and forwards, and, after the brief space
of an hour, the cell-contents, in the form of a zoospore, leave
their place of detention, which we now find to be a doubly
contoured cell-membrane (figs. 1O—13). The little zoospore
wheels in a lively manner about with a circling movement,
whereby the colourless point becomes directed downwards
towards the mirror of the microscope. Its appearance is
puzzlingly like that of an ordinary zoospore, and, like it, it
possesses an oval form and a lighter apex, furnished with a
crown of cilia, which during the motion is always directed
forwards. After the course of some time the movements
become faint, and finally cease altogether. The cilia disap-
pear, and the light end becomes elongated into a root, which
sometimes becomes formed into an organ of attachment,
quite like that which is produced in the germination of the
ordinary zoospores (figs. 14—19). The rounded end of the
germinating zoospore acquires a little point-like apex (figs.
15—18), indeed, herein much resembling the ordinary zoo-
spores. This young unicellular growth becomes divided by
a transverse septum, and a little two-celled Gidogonium has
now originated.

From each spore produced by fructification there are thus
formed, in general, four Cidogonium-plants.

Through Pringsheim’s researches we already know the
development of the resting spores of an algal species, Bulbo-
chete intermedia, which much approaches CEdogonium ; but
though, indeed, its development agrees with Cdogonium,
there are likewise found considerable dissimilarities. Ac-
cording to Pringsheim,* the mature Bulbochete-spore ger-
minates in the following manner :—The spore, after its exit
from the sporangium, assumes an oval form, whereupon its
contents become divided into four masses. The cell-mem-
brane increases in size, but simultaneously diminishes in
thickness, whereupon the four masses become surrounded

* * Jahrbiicher fiir wissensch. Botanik,’ p. 55 (1858).

152 ON THE RESTING-SPORES OF HDOGONIUM.

each with its crown of cilia, and emerge from the extremely
thin membrane. ‘Thus, the sac which surrounds the four
Bulbocheete-zoospores is the original spore-membrane. Ac-
cording to what I believe to have found, the covering which
in C&dogonium surrounds the four cells is not the original
spore-membrane. In Bulbochete the four masses originating
from the division of the cell-contents directly form the zoo-
spores; in Gidogonium, on the other hand, they are surrounded
by a distinct cell-membrane, within which the formation of
the zoospores takes place. The metamorphoses in the ger-
mination of the spores in Gidogonium are thus greater than
in the spores of Bulbochete.

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE OF MICROSCOPICAL
SCIENCE.

GERMANY.—Kolliker’s und Siebold’s Zeitschrift.—The
microscopical papers in this number of the ‘ Zeitschrift’
(issued in May) are as follows:

“ On the Auditory Organ of Locusta,’ by V. Hensen.—The
nerve, trachea, and modified cuticula of the leg forming the
auditory organ in Locusta viridissima, are minutely described.
The termination of the nerve presents a very peculiar struc-
ture, which is figured with other parts of the organ in a beau-
tifully executed plate.

“A Contribution to the Knowledge of the Gall-ducts in the
Liver of Mammalta,” by G. Irminger and H. Frey.—The au-
thors have made researches on the distribution and arrange-
ment of these canals by means of injections in the liver of the
dog, guinea-pig, cat, and pig. The views of MacGillavry and
Beale are briefly discussed.

“On the Lymph-follicles of the Conjunctiva,’ by C. Hu-
guenin and H. Frey.

“On the Histology of the Muscular Stomach of Birds,” by

Heinrich Curschmann.

“On the Development of Myzostomum,”’ by Elias Mecznikow.
Semper, Schultze, and Schmidt have already studied the very
curious genus Myzostomum ; but the conclusions they have
arrived at with regard to its position in the animal kingdom
are so far unsatisfactory that one considers them as belong-
ing to the Trematoda, and others place them among the
Arthropods. Herr Mecznikow, after carefully describing the
development of M. cirriferum, compares it with various An-
nelida in incomplete stages of development, and is inclined to
consider it as the representative of a new group of Chetopoda,
to be called Chetopoda ectoparasita.

“On the Natural History of Caprella,’ by Dr. Anton
Dohrn.—A complete account of this interesting little crusta-

154 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

cean, illustrated by a very clear drawing of the whole animal,
is contained in this paper.

Archiv fur Mikroskopische Anatomie. April, 1866.—Ano-
ther number of Professor Schultze’s excellent journal has
appeared during the quarter, and contains some valuable
papers. It is much to be hoped that the present crisis in
Germany may not in any way retard or prevent the appear-
ance of another in due course. The papers are as follows:

1. “ The Intimate Structure of the Spinning Organs of
Epeira,’ by Hermann Oeffinger.—The author distinguishes
and figures five sorts of glands in these spiders, as follows :—
1. Glandule pyriformes; 2. Glandule cylindrice; 3. Glan-
dule ampullaceze ; 4. Glandule aggregate; 5. Glandule tu-
berosee. Particular attention is devoted by the author to the
histological characters of these glandules, and their deport-
ment with different reagents, such as caustic potash, acetic
acid, and hyperosmic acid.

2. “ Researches on the Sympathetic Cord,” by L. G. Cour-
voisier.—This is an extensive essay, illustrated by two plates.
The author gives the following statement of results at the end
of his paper:

(1) The sympathetic cells of the Vertebrata are connected
either merely at one pole (‘“‘ Holopol’’), as in the frog, or at
more—two, for instance—as in other Vertebrata; always
with two fibres, of which one (‘the straight”), after loss or
diminution of its fatty sheath, penetrates straight through
the cell-substance, and ends in the nucleus, whilst the other
(‘the spiral”) places itself in connection with the nucleolus,
by means of a network of fibres (Fadennetz). In other cases
(Hemipolen) fibres (commissural filaments) arise from the
network which connect these cells with other sympathetic
cells.

(2) Each commissural ramus extends from cerebro-spinal
bundles, which hasten to the sympathetic nerve and to the
sympathetic fibres of different ganglia which pass from
above to below, diminished in number in the spinal nerves,
and occupying a central position, but with increased numbers
peripherally.

(3) The “straight fibres” of the sympathetic cells are
cerebro-spinal, that is to say, they give origin to the cells of
the spinal-cord of the spimal and brain nerve-ganglia, and
enter into sympathetic cells. The “spiral fibres” are as good
as the genuine sympathetic “ commissural filaments ” con-
nected with them by their origin, and proceed from the cells
of the sympathetic, either to the visceral portions of the

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 155
latter, or to strengthen the spinal-nerves, or, lastly, to pass
into the brain or spinal cord.

(4) The sympathetic-cells are—although they receive
“ cerebro-spinal fibres’”-—not to be viewed as possessing a
positive function in connection with the sympathetic-fibres,
but either only as “ nutrition centres” (Schiff), or as “ centres
of negative function,” in opposition to the positively active
cerebro-spinal cells, as checks on the function appropriated to
these.

(5) The sympathetic has also, no doubt, a most imtimate
relation to the so-called ‘‘ animal” nervous system; yet a
weak individuality cannot be denied to it, which shows itself,
for example, in the circumstance that from always a single
“straight fibre *”?—here and there two, three—may be only
one—“ spiral fibres,” can arise.

3. “ On an Instrument for Microscopical Preparation.” By
V. Hensen.—This an instrument for making sections on the
stage of the microscope. The author calls it the “ Quer-
schnitter,”’ which may be translated “ cross-cutter.”’ Its princi-
pal use is in making sections of very minute objects. The author
first used it in examining the auditory organs of Crustacea.

4. “Onthe Germinal Spot, and the Explanation of the Parts
of the Egg. By la Valette St. George.—This a short
paper, illustrated by a few good drawings of various ova. Its
object is to point out that the egg at its origin by no means
bears the indication of its future destiny ; that it originates
and developes just as every other cell, until it arrives at a
certain point. This had only been’ clearly shown in a few
cases until the paper of M. St. George.

5. The Leptothrix-swarms, and their relation to the Vibri-
ones. By Ernst Hallier.—The author of this paper, which
appears to be one of great value, and the result of careful
research, arranges these fungoid bodies in the following
developmental series:—(1) Mould series; a, Brush-mould
(Penicillium) ; 6, Head-mould (Mucor); ¢c, Jointed-plants
(Oidium) ; a, upon moderately damp firm substances, and on
the upper layer of liquids ; 4, on firm, somewhat moist sub-
stances; c, on pap-like and fluid substances, which are
thoroughly putrescent,

(2) Achorion series. Syn., Achorion Schoenlenit. Within
fluid or very juicy substances of various chemical composition,
throwing off spore-chains in irregular branches (Ozdium) ;
it arises from germinating brush-mould.

(3) Leptothrix series. Syn., Leptothrix ‘buccalis: Bacte-
rium of many authors. a, Thin Leptothrix-chains, arising
from the swarming plasma-granules of Penicillium, of the

156 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

jointed Conidium, of Macroconidium, and, perhaps, of
most or all the thread-cells upon fluid fermenting substances.
Under spirituous fermentation they appear as pure chains ;
under acid fermentation as Leptothrix-felt ; under ammonia-
alkaline fermentation as swarming cellules. 6, Thick Lepto-
thrix-chains, arising from mucor-thecaspores upon putrescent
substances. :

(4) Leptothrix-yeast. Syn., Cryptococcus. In fermenting
substances, built up from the broken chains that have fallen
in, and generally from the “ swarms.” a, Penicillium-yeast.
Rounded, weakly refracting, with large nucleus. 6, Mucor-
yeast. Globular, highly refracting, fine-grained. Here, too,
belongs the light yeast which arises in oil from Mucor.

(5) Torula-yeast. Syn., Hormiscium. Arising through
germination of Penicillium-spores in fermenting (alcoholic)
liquids. .

(6) Jointed-yeasts. Arising from the off-thrown conidia
of the jointed-plant of Penicillium or Mucor by acid, and also
ammonia-alkaline fermentation. The cells originate singly
the process by which they developed from the mother-plant,
and can place hydrocarbons in acid fermentation.

(7) Acrospore-yeasts. Syn., Trichophyton tonsurans.
Developing itself by chain-like growths of the Penicillium-
spores upon oil. Within the oil the jointed chains mostly
separate themselves quickly. (Oil-fermentation.)

6. “ Experiments on the Solution of Berlin Blue as an
Injection-colour,’ by Ernst Bruncke.—The ferrocyanide of
iron forms, as is well known, in this country an excellent
injection-colour. The receipt given by Dr. Lionel Beale is
as useful and cheap an injection as can be desired.

7. “On the Behaviour of the Blood-corpuscles and some
Colouring Matters in Monochromatic Light,’ by W. Preyer.

8. “ Researches on the Structure and Natural History of
the Bear-beasts (Arctiscoida),” by Dr. Richard Greeff.—This
paper, which is very lengthy and exhaustive, is devoted to
the genus Macrobiotus, the species of which are described,
while the details of their anatomy are also fully discussed
and beautifully figured in two large plates. The Tardigrada
have been sadly neglected by English observers; in Dr.
Greeff’s bibliographical survey not a single English paper is
quoted. We are not able here to give an abstract of the
paper, on account of its length, but would remind those who
wish to enter upon the subject that the latest observations on
these animals are to be found in the pages of Prof. Schultze’s
‘Archiv,’ where there have already appeared two other
memoirs on species of this group of very remarkable animals.

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. t57Z

9. “The Trichina in relation to the Microscope,” by V.
Hensen.

10. “On the Generation of Red Blood-corpuscles,” by
Professor von Recklinghausen.

11. The journal concludes with a number of short essays
by Professor Max Schultze, which are each of considerable in-
terest ; that on “‘ Reichert and the Gromia,”’ and “ Researches
on Noctiluca,”’ in which hyperosmic acid has been made use
of, appear to be well worth attention. The last is on the
* Anatomy and Physiology of the Retina.”

Muller’s Archiv. May, 1866.—There are the following
microscopical papers in this journal :

“ On Redia and Sporo-cysts of Filippi,’ by G. R. Wagener.

“ On the Extension of Nerve-fibres into‘the Epithelium of
the Horn-skin,” by Professor H. Hoyer.

“ Remarks on Max Schultze’s Article, ‘Reichert and the
Gromia, ” by C. B. Reichert.

“ Remarks on Dr. H. Landois’ Essay ‘ On the Development
af the Cluster-formed Spermatozoa in the Lepidoptera,” by
H. Meyer.

FRANCE.—Comptes Rendus.—“‘ On the Perforating Bryozoa
of the Family Terebriporide,’ by P. Fischer.—This is a
paper of considerable interest. The existence of perforating
animals has been ascertained in nearly all the classes of
Invertebrata, Mollusca, Annelida, Hchinodermata, Spongi-
aria, &ec. The vegetable kingdom likewise presents us with
examples of Protophyta hollowing out their residence in shells
and stones. Perforation, and consequently the destruction
of the perforated bodies, are, therefore, the effects of a great
law of nature. By the side of the creatures which accumu-
late masses of calcareous polyparies, and of those of which
the shells strew our shores and cover the bottom of the sea,
nature has placed other organisms, smaller, but not less
powerful in their effects, which restore to the ocean the
elements which have been drawn from it.

Among the Bryozoa the existence of terebrant cells is
almost a new fact. It was known that some Lepralie and
Cellepore slightly alter the surface of the shells to which
they attach themselves; but before the discovery of Alcide
d’Orbigny no one had ever seen them lodged in the very
interior of the shells. The agents by which the perforation
is effected are still unknown to us. We have been unable to
detect siliceous corpuscles in the excavations of the Terebri-
pore, a circumstance which of itself would suffice to distin-
guish them from the terebrant sponges (Cliona, Thoosa), even
if their organization were not infinitely superior. Until we

VOL, VII.--NEW SER. M .

158 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

acquire fuller information, therefore, we shall assume that
the perforation is due to chemical action. The genus Tere-
bripora was established by A. d’Orbigny for two Bryozoans
collected during his voyage to South America, one on the
coast of Peru, the other at the Falkland Islands. D’Orbigny
indicates that this genus differs from all others in its class by
its cells hollowed out in the very substance of shells, their
arrangement being identical with and their mode of produc-
tion similar to those of Hippothoa. Since the publication
just referred to no author has made mention of the Terebri-
pore. The investigations undertaken by M. Fischer, upon
the terebrant sponges in a fossil state, led him incidentally to
ascertain how widely the Terebripore are diffused in the
secondary and tertiary beds. He has detected four or five
species in the former, and as many in the latter. Their pre-
sence in the middle tertiary beds of Touraine and the Astésan
led him to expect that this genus was, perhaps, not yet extinct
in the European seas, when, in September, 1865, he collected
in the harbour of Arcachon (Gironde) an oyster perforated by
a colony of Terebriporee. The same species occurs in the Me-
diterranean. From the examination of this specimen it is easy
to rectify some incorrect statements made by d’Orbigny, who
represented the apertures of the cells as round, whereas they
are furnished with a notch of greater or less extent, a character
of great importance in the classification of the Bryozoa.

Besides Terebriporz, M. Fischer has found on the coasts of
the Gironde a Bryozoan belonging to the same family and
having the same habits, but differing in having its cells borne
upon alternate axes. It leaves upon the shells elegant im-
pressions resembling the ramifications of the Sertudarie.
He proposes to name it Spathipora. The living Spathiporz
are not numerous. There are only two living species known,
one from the coasts of France and the Mediterranean, the
other from the Pacific.

The Terebripore and Spathipore constitute a very natural
group, of which the species are probably very numerous.
The interest which it presents is increased by the evidence of
its existence during the whole series of secondary and ter-
tiary deposits. M. Fischer arranges the family Terebriporide
in the order of Cheilostomatous Bryozoa, side by side with
the Hippothoide. The latter family is composed of the true
Hippothoide (H. divaricata, Patagonica, &c.), and the new
genus Cercaripora Fischer established for the reception of
(tea truncata, ligulata, argillacea, &e.

Annales des Sciences Naturelles, March, April.—‘“‘ Re-
searches on the Vitality of the Tissues’’ is the title of an ela-

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 159

borate memoir by M. P. Bert, part of which appears in this
number of the ‘ Annales.’ A number of experiments—over
one hundred in all-—are detailed, in which the tissues of one
animal were transplanted to another, two plates accompany-
ing the paper giving microscopical sections of the united parts.
The experiments were made chiefly by means of rats, the tails
being removed and transplanted. The object was to observe
the nature of the tissue produced, and the effect on the trans-
planted tissue. In many cases absorption of the bone took
place, and great vascularity was induced. The conditions of
relative age and health seem to have a modifying influence
on the result of the transplantation. A curious experiment
is suggested by the author, which, however, he has not tried—
it is, to cut off the tail of a fully mature rat, and to trans-
plant it beneath the skin of a rat much younger. When this
one begins to get old the grafted tail is to be extracted, and
introduced beneath the skin of an animal in full vigour of
development; and so on. It is obvious that, if this process
is carried on, the tail will live much longer than the animal
from which it was detached, and perhaps for an indefinite
time. Some interesting conclusions may be drawn from such
an experiment as this.

“ Some Crustacea from the Coast of Brittany’ is the title
of a paper by M. Hesse in the same journal, in which he de-
scribes species of the genera Slobberina, Cirolane, and a new
genus, Eucolombar.

Journal de l’Anatomie, &c. (Robins). May and June.—This
number contains a very interesting paper by Dr. Marey, the
inventor of the sphygmograph, “ On the Nature of Muscular
Contraction,’ which is, however, unfortunately, not a micro-
scopical one. It also contains the continuation of M. Polail-
lon’s paper on “ Peripheral Nervous Ganglia.”

MM. Ranoier and Cornil contribute a paper “ On the His-
tological Development of Epithelial Tumours (Cancroid),”
which will be found very valuable by those interested in pa-
thological microscopy.

“<< Researches on the Structure of the Brain of Fishes, and
on the homological signification of their different parts,” by
M. Hollard, is a good paper, illustrated by three plates. He
describes a typical form of encephalon in each of the large
groups of fishes, and in all these carefully points out the ho-
mologies with the parts of the human brain.

ENGL AND.—Annals of Natural History. June.—* On the
Anatomy and Physiology of the Vorticellidan Parasite (Tri-
chodina pediculus, Ehy.) of Hydra,’ by Prof. H. James
Clark.—This paper was read before the Boston Society of

169 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

Natural History, and contains a very minute account of the
infusorian which forms its subject. Trichodina pediculus is
found in great abundance, creeping over the body, and even
to the tips of the tentacles, of our common brown and green
fresh-water Hydras. Oftentimes it may be seen with the
middle of its base applied directly over the centre of a group
of nettling organs, the former fitting the latter like a cap,
and without seeming to disturb the Hydra in the least. It
appears that this animal has been much abused in European
works on Infusoria, its portrait having been taken from speci-
mens when under pressure, thus causing its true doubly
conical, dice-box form to assume the appearance of a broad
cylinder or a turban. In describing the cesophageal cilia of
this animal, Professor Clark says that the so-called “ bristle
of the vestibule” of Vorticellide, which was first described
as such by Lachman, is an optical illusion. He has satisfied
himself that it is an effect produced by the right and left
rows of cilia, and has confirmed his opinion by observations
on Epistylis, Carchesium, Vorticella, and others. One great
test of the genuine character of the filament would have been
its disappearance when the focus was slightly altered; but
Professor Clark found that it did not disappear, as would be
the case in observing the outline of a transparent cylinder.
After dealing very carefully with the prehensile cilia, the
author passes on to those devoted to locomotion and the
other prolongations of the body adapted to that function.
The adherent organ is one of these, and is a complex appa-
ratus, which altogether forms a thin circular disc, whose
border reaches to the margin of the base, or, in other words,
to the inner edge or line of attachment of the velum. About
one third of the radius of the adherent organ, at the peripheral
margin, is occupied by a striated annular membrane, which
is separable from the rest of the apparatus. It lies in front
of the centrifugally projecting hooks with which the organ
is provided, but is closely pressed against them, and extends
centripetally as far as their bases. This membrane is pos-
sessed of two sets of striz, which radiate from its inner to its
outer margin. One set of striz occupy the anterior face,
and are comparatively quite coarse, and in number about
ninety-six, 7. e. about four times the number of the hooks of
this organ. They lie wide apart, and are arranged so uni-
formly that two traverse the interval between every two
hooks, and two overlap every hook, where they run to the
proximal margin of the membrane. ‘The other, or posterior
set of striz, is much more readily detected than the anterior
one, and the striz are about three times as numerous. The

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 161

membrane is very flexible, and is frequently made to undu-
late, apparently by the successive impacts of the vibrating
cilia. ‘The apparently most important members of the
adherent organs are the hooks. ‘They vary in number from
twenty-two to twenty-four, and curve in a direction which
is diametrically opposite to the upward coil of the vibratory
organ; 2. é. they are leotropic. They are separate pieces, of
an L-formed shape, the upright part of the Z being the hook
proper, and the horizontal limb the base of it. These hooks
are arranged in a circle, with their horizontal limbs all
pointing one way, and nearly or quite touch each other,
according to circumstances. Immediately within the row of
hooks a series of nail-shaped pieces extends in a circle, and
they are arranged in such order that each one lies opposite
the horizontal part of a hook. The tip of the nail-head pro-
jects between the point of the succeeding nail and the base
of a hook, the two latter constituting a sort of socket in
which the former appears to slide. This would seem con-
clusively to show that this complicated ring may be enlarged
or diminished at the will of the animal. Faint radiating
ridges, occupying the central two thirds of the adherent
apparatus, are attached one by one to the point of the nail-
shaped bodies just mentioned, and at right angles to them.
In dying specimens the adherent organ readily separates
from the body en masse ; but shortly after the striated mem-
brane loosens from the circle ‘of hooks, and they become dis-
jointed. It is worth noting that, after a cursory examination
of this radiate apparatus, Professor Agassiz was rash enough
at once to pronounce Trichodina as the medusoid of Hydra,
while at the same time he asserts that Vorticellide are simple
forms of Bryozoa. Assuredly, Professor Clark remarks, if
the one is a medusoid the others are, and if these are Bryozoa
so is the asserted medusoid. Hence we should have Acalephan
Bryozoa or Molluscan Acalephe. ‘'The rest of the paper de-
scribes the digestive, circulatory, and reproductive organs in
an equally careful manner. The contractile vesicle is a
simple cavity, which performs its systole once in fifteen
seconds. The paper is illustrated by two clearly drawn
plates, and is a valuable contribution to microzoology.

Quarterly Journal of Science.—A curious and interesting
paper “‘ On Cells,” by Prof. Fick, of Zurich, appears in the last
number of this journal, from which we quote the following
passage : ‘

“1f it be once admitted that animation extends downwards
into the lowest forms of the animal kingdom, then it is also
admitted that there exist single cells, which are to be reckoned

162 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

individually as animated beings; for there are numberless
animals belonging to the order infusoria which consist of a
single cell. Such an animal, for instance, is an Amoeba, a
minute, microscopic, protoplasmic mass, with nucleus and
nucleolus. If its actions are observed under the microscope,
one can see how it alters the form of its body at will ; how it
sends forward prolongations here and there, draws out the
mass of its body, and so changes its place. On outward
irritation it generally rolls itself up into a bullet-shaped
lump, and rapidly draws in again all the prolongations lately
stretched forward. Often one may observe it engulf smaller
bodies in its substance, where they are changed—one may
say, digested—and half disappear, the undigested leavings
being again ejected. The little animal grows, and goes on
propagating itself by division.

« A cell which belongs to the tissues of one of the higher
animals behaves exactly in the same manner asa single-celled
infusorium. For example, in the blood we have cells; the
so-called white blood-corpuscles, which are exactly like certain
infusoria. Thus, they stretch out prolongattons of their sub-
stance subject to their will, and upon irritation and the like
they show the well-known reactions. The cells in connective
tissue deport themselves similarly, They crawl regularly
about in certain chasms in the substance of the tissue
formed beforehand, which they elaborate for themselves,
which, in fact, they have constructed as their dwelling.
What is particularly worthy of attention is that these
cells, when they have left the tissue, can move themselves
for some time in a fluid, and show all the phenomena
described. These facts are truly among the most beautiful
acquisitions to our knowledge lately derived from micro-
scopic research. They had for a long time escaped the
attention of microscopic observers, because animal tissues
were not examined under the same condition in which they
exist in the living organism. It has already been mentioned
that cells in the tissues of highly organized animals are exactly
the same in their growth and reproduction as single-celled
organisms. And, in the last place, to complete the identity,
all the cells of a whole animal are actually the brood of one
single cell—namely, the ovum. We have here before us
exactly the phenomena which we regard as the characteristics
of an animated being—movement at will, and reaction on
outward irritation. Thus, then, we can by a well-connected
chain of strict analogies arrive at the proposition which was
placed before us. Each cell, whether it be an independent

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE, 163

animal or part of the tissues of a higher organization, is in
itself, subjectively, an animated being. The want of self-
dependence in the cell, which forms a part of the tissues of a
higher animal, is really not greater than in the single-celled
infusorium, which lives freely by itself. In fact, each organism
has its own conditions of life ; and as the tissue-cells can only
live, for any length of time, in a certain fluid, or in their
appointed self-wrought habitation, where they dwell as a
compound organism, so can certain single-celled infusoria
live persistently only in certain fluids ; they also die if placed
under conditions to which their organization is not adapted.
I am not, moreover, at all certain, as before said, of the im-
possibility of a cell, if once removed from the blood or con-
nective tissue of a higher animal, and placed in another soil
(as it were) under favorable auspices, proceeding with its
life as an independent animal, and becoming the mother of a
brood of infusoria.

“From the standing-point which we have now gained, we
cannot call an organism which consists of more than one cell
an individual. Such an object is much more like an associa-
tion of individuals, which live together in a habitation
wrought by them. ‘The cells have themselves secreted the
materials for building from their bodies. Association makes
a division of labour possible. It is no longer necessary for
each cell to execute for itself every organic function—diges-
tion, assimilation, &c., in their different stages. One group
is able much more satisfactorily to execute this, and another
that office for the whole household ; and thus the particular
functions are brought to greater perfection, and the per-
formances of the entire organism become more varied and
numerous.

“ The best type of such an association of organic individuals
is a plant. Here we see different groups of cells execute
different offices which benefit the whole plant. One set
extracts material from the ground, another elaborates it in
various ways ; others again draw material from the air ; others
are especially fruitful in producing new generations. But we
do not attain to the higher efforts of physical activity in the
plant. The reason of this is easily seen.

“In plants each single cell surrounds itself directly with a
membrane of the so-called cellulose, the substance which we
have before us in wood, in cotton, and in paper. The cells
are by means of this individually shut up; they can, it is
true, influence one another to a certain degree, in that they
can transmit material to one another; but they cannot influ-
ence one another to an unlimited extent; they cannot share

164 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

their conditions, their sensations, we may even say their
experiences, with one another. Each therefore is confined to
the bare circle of its own sensations (which we are as little
able to dispute in plant-cells as in animal-cells), and there-
fore it can reach to no higher grade of physical life.

“The cells of a plant are, in a word, like a number of men
shut up from childhood together in a cellular prison, who
perhaps might have exercised much important influence on
one another, but between whom all spiritual intercouse has
been prevented. ‘These men would never display the deeper
characteristics of spiritual development.

“Tn the higher animals there are numerous groups of cells
which are disposed in a manner analogous to that observed
in the plant cells; that is to say, they lie isolated, yet near
each other, though not enclosed in the same hard dwellings:
as in plants. Such aggregates of cells, for example, are the
blood and the epithelium. The epithelium is the name given
to the layers of cells which he arranged like strata wherever
an organic structure is bounded towards external space, as in
the outer skin (epidermis), and the slime-skin, or mucous
membrane, which lines the surface of internal cavities open to
external space. Many other tissues also form the same kind
of cell-masses, upon the principle of the plant’s organization.
Their action has been long designated as ‘ vegetative,’
correctly referring to the analogies which they present to
plant-life.

“ In the higher animals a new system of cells is added to this
vegetative group, which are disposed on a totally different
plan. It defines what is truly animal, and its actions are
rightly designated ‘ animal.’

“Tn fact, the difference between plants and animals does
not really lie in their elementary components. The distinction
can only be clearly shown where one has to deal with complex
organisms formed of many cells. The true characteristics of
the two kingdoms are to be found in the manner in which the
colony is built up by its imdividuals, and thus especially in
that system of cells just mentioned which gives its peculiarity
to the animal kingdom. This system is a series of cells
widely spread through the whole body, in which the proto-
plasmic matter is maintained in unbroken continuity through-
out, by fine, long threads. It is the ‘nervous system.’ ”

NOTES AND CORRESPONDENCE.

On Microphotography with High Powers—In the ‘ Quart.
Journal of Microscopical Science’ for July, 1865, Vol. XIII,
p. 249, I notice an interesting letter on a new method of
illumination, by Count Francesco Castracane, who proposes
the use of monochromatic light, by “the employment of one
of the component rays of the solar spectrum, which was made
to fall on the mirror of the microscope.” It appears, also,
from this paper and the accompanying editorial remarks,
that Count Castracane has succeeded in obtaining a good
photograph of Pleurosigma angulatum, in which the minute
markings on the frustule appear as hexagons.

I take pleasure in confirming the statement thus made as
to monochromatic light, and especially would mention the
advantages of violet light for microphotographic purposes.

For some months before I read the paper above referred to
photographs had been successfully made by Dr. Edward
Curtis, Brevet-Captain U.S.A., in the Army Medical Museum,
with all powers up to 1000 diameters, the illumination being
the direct rays of the sun reflected on the microscope mirror
by a heliostat, and the pencil thus obtained being thrown
through a cell containing a solution of the ammonio-sulphate
of copper before falling on the achromatic condenser.

To obtain the full effect of the violet light, however, the
objective should be photographically corrected, that is, in
determining its curves the index of refraction of the violet
ray should be considered, and not that of white light. With
such a lens the actinic and visual foci coincide if violet light
is employed. Several such lenses, of excellent quality, have
been constructed for the museum by W. Wales, of Fort Lee,
New Jersey. A brief note on this subject was published in
my report to the Surgeon-General, October 20th, 1865, “On
the Extent and Nature of the Materials available for the
Preparation of a Medical History of the Rebellion’ (see p. 148,
circular No. 6, Surgeon-General’s Office.

166 MEMORANDA.

At the date of that publication both Dr. Curtis and myself
believed the markings on Pleurosigma angulatum to be hexa-
gonal, the photographs on which this opimion was based being
magnified, originally about 1000 diameters, and afterwards
enlarged to 7300 in a copying camera. Subsequent observa-
tions with higher powers, however, have satisfied us that this
opinion is erroneous, and that, as, in fact, Mr. Wenham had
previously suggested, the real conformation of the markings
is circular.

The photographs on which this opinion was based were
some of them made with an objective of one fiftieth of an inch
focal length, constructed by Powell and Lealand, some of them
with a Wales’ objective of an eighth of an inch focal length,
corrected for photography as above indicated, and the neces-
sary amplification being given by the introduction into the
draw-tube of an achromatic concave also corrected for photo-
eraphy. No eye-pieces were employed. With either of these
arrangements Dr. Curtis obtained direct photographs of
‘ excellent definition and powers, varying with the distance up
to 2500 diameters, with about three feet distance, beyond
which, in either case, the pictures began to diminish in
clearness. To obtain any given power, it was found the
one-fiftieth required a few inches’ greater distance than the
one-eighth and amplifier. The use of an eye-piece, or of a
concave amplifier similar to that used with the one-eighth, but
of much lower power, was carefully tried with the one-fiftieth,
but it was found that the results were not well defined, so
that 2500 diameters must be regarded as the maximum power
to be obtained photographically with the one-fiftieth. With
the one-eighth and amplifier the same power was attained
with perfect ease. The negatives taken in this way were
readily enlarged in the copying camera to 19000 diameters.
I enclose albumen prints of the pictures with both powers,
and by both glasses, for comparison. The enlarged prints are
almost fac-similes of those of about 2500 diameters ; that by
the one-fiftieth is perhaps a trifle sharper, but it was acciden-
tally taken with 200 diameters less than were allowed the
one-cighth. The flatness of field is, of course, greatest im the
one-eighth picture.

It might be suggested that the eighth being photographi-
cally corrected, had the advantage over the fiftieth in this
comparison; but the photographic correction for an eighth is
already small, and that for a fiftieth may be regarded as too
trifling to modify the results very greatly. .

In both the small pictures and the large you will notice
the markings are perfectly circular spaces, which in the small

MEMORANDA. 167

picture (with 2500 diameters) appear hexagonal, but reveal
their true structure under a lens; in the large are quite
distinctly circular, but will assume an hexagonal appearance
if reduced by a concave lens of sufficient power, or even by
mere distance.

If these pictures appear good enough to give interest to the
above statements, I beg you to give a place to this communi-
cation in the pages of your valuable Journal.—J. J. Woop-
warp, M.D., Assistant-Surgeon and Brevet-Major U.S.A.,
in charge of the Record and Pension Division, Surgeon-
General’s Office, and of the Medical Section, Army Medical
Museum.

Light Reflected from Transparent Surfaces.—At present this
subject, being one of interest in relation to recent binocular
arrangements, I beg to record some notes. Selecting a few
examples of the amount of light reflected from the surface of
crown-glass, having a refractive index of 1°525, they range as
follows :

Quantity of light
Angle of incidence. reflected from
1000 of incident rays.
GP vk eed eg, ete
Re ee al a tok vee oe OO
Dee Pitta he a ew GO
| (eigenen iiss beaded | aed Ye:

These examples are taken within the limits of useful applica-
tion, and show the small quantity of light really obtainable
from crown glass such as is used for prisms. It consequently
became a consideration to ascertain what increase would re-
sult from the use of dense flint glass of a high refractive
power. Certain formule have been given for this which
claimed a very promising result, but which is scarcely con-
firmed by experiment. Mr. Huggins kindly undertook to
try this, being possessed of very perfect photometric appa-
ratus, and as I had suggested that the dense glass prisms of
a spectroscope might have their numerous surfaces coated
with a thin film of albumen, with the view of lessening the
quantity of reflected, and consequently increasing the amount
of transmitted, light (which theoretically it should do, as the
refractive index of albumen is nearly as low as that of water).

The following is his letter to me, dated April 16th:

“ Dear Sir,—On Friday evening last I tried the reflection
from different transparent surfaces, and found the difference

168 MEMORANDA.

too small to be measured with the photometer. I then placed
two different surfaces together in a straight line, so that half
a small beam of light (from a candle enclosed in a magic
lantern, from which the lenses had been removed) was re-
flected from one surface, and the other half reflected at the same
angle from the next surface. The light reflected was received
on a sheet of paper some fect distant. Jn this way, the light
being feeble and the room dark, the difference of illumination
could be easily detected by the eye. When one surface was
dense flint, and the other optical crown glass, the difference,
at an angle of 45°, was only just appreciable. The quartz
surface reflected more light than either. I then coated one
surface of a dense flint prism with diluted albumen, and this
was compared with the surface of a second prism made of the
same glass. There was less light reflected from the albumen,
but the difference was surprisingly small. These experiments
led me to the conclusion that the working of the surface is
more important than the quality of the glass; also that coat-
ing with albumen would not make sufficient difference to
compensate for any inconveniences that might be caused by
air-bubbles or irregularities of the film.—W. Hueains.’—
F. H. Wennam.

How to make Diatoms Stick.—In your last Journal (April)
Mr. Ward asks how to make diatoms stick on a slide after
being arranged. I have done a little in setting diatoms, and
never had any trouble with their moving when covering. My
plan is to centre the slide with a spot of ink on the reverse
side before putting it on the stage, then with a dipping-tube
to take a drop of the water the diatoms are in, put it on the
slide, but not on the centre; now with a bristle and the aid
of an object-glass pick out the diatoms wanted, and push them
to their position with a little water adhering to them. When
the number are arranged, dry the slide over a gas flame, and
mount in the usual way with thin balsam. I find, when the
diatoms are perfectly dry, that it takes some force to move
them, and some of them will even break before they can be
moved.—R. Lricu, Aberdeen.

Price of Vuleanite Cells, &e.—You will oblige by correcting
an error in your report of my remarks on vulcanite cells pub-
lished in the last number of the Journal, p. 112. ‘The price

MEMORANDA. 169

at which I stated these cells are sold was 6d., not 4d., per
dozen. Mr. Bailey informs me he has been put to some in-
convenience in consequence of the misprint.

I may also note that, as the seconder of the resolution pro-
posed by Mr. Tyler (p. 64), you have called me Hill, instead
of Hall. Again, at p. 65, in the vote of thanks, the word
“Treasurer” should be inserted between “ President” and
“ Secretaries.”-—W. H. Harz, Hackney.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Microscoricat Socrery.
March 14th, 1866.
JAMES Guasuter, Esq., F.R.S., in the Chair.

THE minutes of the previous meeting having been read and
confirmed,

A MEMBER inquired, in reference to the proposed incorporation
of the Society, if it could take the ordinary style of the “‘ Royal’
Microscopical Society.”

The PrestpEnt explained that, to entitle the Society to use the
style “ Royal,” it was necessary that some royal personage should
be connected with it. The primary object would be to obtain the
Charter in the form in which they could then take it, and, if
necessary, it could be subsequently renewed under the altered
name.

A paper “On a Brass Slide Clip,” by Dr. Maddox, was read.
(‘Trans.,’ p. 65.)

A vote of thanks to Dr. Maddox was passed.

Two papers by Mr. Tuffen West were then read. (‘Trans.,’
pp. 67, 69.)

The thanks of the Society were tendered to Mr. West.

A paper by Dr. Greville was also read. (‘Trans.,’ p. 77.)

The usual vote of thanks was awarded.

A paper by Captain Mitchell, Superintendent of the Madras
Government Museum, “On the True Reading of Measurements
with the Cobweb Micrometer,” was read, and the thanks of the
Society awarded for the same. (‘Trans.,’ p. 71.)

A paper by H. Charlton Bastian, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., commu-
nicated by Mr. W. H. Ince, F.L.8., was read. (‘Trans.,’ p. 86.)

After some remarks by Mr. Brooks and the President, and the
thanks of the Society having been given to Mr. Bastian and Mr.
Ince. A paper “On a New and Adjustable Diaphragm,” by
Sydney D. Kincaid, Esq., was read. (‘‘Trans.,’ p. 75.)

After a few remarks from M. Wenham, the thanks of the So-
ciety were voted to Mr. Kincaid.

Dr. Hatirax produced some specimens of Insects, chiefly Bees,

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. ek

Wasps, &c.,prepared by him, and explained his method of preparing
them. The objects were operated upon by the ordinary cutting
instrument, with a cylinder in the middle of the brass plate, and the
object is raised by means of a screw rod working a small circular
plate that rises up in the cylinder, or the well, as he should call it.
The only alteration he made was to enlarge the instrument, so as
to adapt it to the size of the object, it being usually furnishet
with but a small aperture which is not sufficient to receive a
large bee or a beetle, or even a wasp. This he endeavoured to
accomplish by means of an additional plate, placed over the ordi-
nary brass plate, having a larger aperture, being an adaptation of
the well of the smaller instrument, so that the same screw may
operate upon the plug, and raise the object, the same as in the
smaller instrument. He might add, that he found a glass surface
answer better with regard to the razor or cutting instrument than
the ordinary plate. ‘The razor works very easily over the surface,
and is less liable to injury from scratches. The object must, of
course, be fixed, in order to be available for the cutting of the
razor ; and this he effected by placing the object ina paper cell, and
imbedding it in wax. (Dr. Halifax produced a specimen prepared
in this way.) Then the plug or block, which is to be received by
the well of the cutting instrument, will consist of a little cylinder,
made up partly by a small cylinder of wood, and partly by a small
cylinder of wax, and wax contents. In some cases the objects
become almost useless, from the difficulty of removing the wax
afterwards ; and, to avoid that, he previously immersed the object
in stiff gum, and allowed it a very short time to harden betore
inserting it im the wax capsule. Dr. Halifax concluded by show-
ing several specimens, and explained fully the details of the plan
adopted by him.

The Prestprnt announced that the Soirée of the Society would
be held on the 4th of April; also that the meeting to be held on
the 9th of May would be made special, to take into consideration
the changes in the constitution of the Society suggested by the
Council, and, if approved, to adopt them. He also read a com-
munication received by the Committee from the Committee of the
Hackney Working Men’s Institute. (See p. 194.)

ANNUAL SOIREE.
April 4th, 1866.

Tur Annual Soirée of the Microscopical Society was held in
the Society’s Rooms, King’s College, London, on April 4th, and
was attended by nearly a thousand members and visitors. The walls
of the rooms were hung with beautiful drawings and diagrams,
illustrating various microscopic objects and minute tissues of the
animal and vegetable kingdom. On the tables were arranged two
hundred microscopes, a large portion of which were first-class

172 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

instruments. The whole of the arrangements and preparations
for the Soirée were under the superintendence of Mr. Blenkins,
one of the Honorary Secretaries, and the company were received,
on entering, by the President, James Glaisher, Esq., F.R.S.—Mr.
Williams had charge of the ancient microscopes,’ including the
large Martin microscope, the property of the Society. This
collection excited much interest, as showing the gradual improve-
ment and development of the instrument.—Mr. Wenham exhibited
an improved form of binocular microscope for the highest powers,
starting from the recent idea brought out by Messrs. Powell and
Lealand of obtaining the whole aperture of the object-glass in
each eye by means of the direct transmission and partial reflection
from an inclined plate of glass placed behind the object-glass. It
seems most desirable to increase, if possible, the quantity of hght
in the reflected image, as when the disc of plate glass is inclined
at an angle of 45° the quantity of light is less than jth part of
the incident rays. Mr. Wenham has succeeded in effecting this
by reducing the number of transmitting surfaces and obtaining
the light in the inclined tube by means of two reflectors. A
small prism is used, in form and size resembling the common
binocular prism, but with the two reflecting surfaces more inclined,
so as to be beyond the angle of total reflection. In contact with
the first reflecting surface is another small triangular prism,
whose upper plane is parallel with the base of the main prism ; the
rays from the object-glass will then pass direct through without
refraction, and the same rays are reflected from the two contact
surfaces in the inclined body in the usual way. The arrangement
nearly equalises the amount of light in each eye—Mr. Browning
exhibited some of his now celebrated micro-spectroscopes, such
as has been so successfully applied by Dr. Bird Herapath to the
detection of blood-stains in the Ash murder case. Mr. Browning
also exhibited some very beautiful, curious, and interesting
spectra, among which we noticed Cochineal, Brazilwood, and, most
curious of all, Sumach.—Mr. Conrad W. Cooke exhibited an in-
strument designed by him, and to which he has given the name
of “ Micrographic Camera;” one of the purposes for which it is
intended, being to facilitate the figuring of microscopic objects to
any desired scale. By this instrument an image (with perfect
definition) can be thrown on a sheet of paper placed in a hori-
zontal or slanting position, so that an uneducated eye can appre-
ciate the form, and any one may trace the outlines and detail,
with a fair amount of accuracy, on the paper. It is useful also
for purposes of demonstration, for two or more persons may at
the same time conveniently examine the image formed on the
paper: this, for the explanation of minute organic structure to
students and others, may be found of value. This instrument
may be worked as well in an illuminated room as in a dark one,
because the head of the observer is isolated from external light by
means of a curtain which falls over the back of his chair.
Measurement of the objects shown in this camera may very easily

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 173

be made, for it is furnished with boxwood scales corresponding to
the magnifying powers of the different objectives employed. Thus,
the image may be treated as a drawing, and measured and
delineated with rules and compasses in the usual way. All the
necessary adjustments can be effected from the inside, in order to
avoid the inconvenience to the observer of continually altering
bis position. The use of this microscope is not entirely confined
to the examination of transparent objects, for an image of many
of the opaque bodies may be shown with it on the paper. The
effects of dark field illumination (with the paraboloid and Lieber-
kuhn) and those of the polariscope may be shown on the paper
without loss of definition, and all these accessories, as well as the
objectives used, are the same as those of a microscope of the
ordinary construction. The whole apparatus is made to fold up so
as to occupy as little space as possible for the sake of portability.
Mr. Cooke also exhibited a simple form of heliostat, which is
useful when the camera is worked for a long time with sun-light.
Mr. Ross, relying on his well-earned fame rather than on question-
able novelties, exhibited, in a collection of his highly-finished first-
class instruments, a variety of specimens of marine Polyzoa, &c.,
remarkable for their beauty and the perfection with which they
were shown.—Messrs. Powell and Lealand showed their new
binocular with some first-class instruments. Under one of their
instruments was exhibited a beautiful illustration of the marvellous
power of the eye of a beetle. A likeness of the Princess of Wales
was reflected through the 100 facets of taat compound structure,
and in each part was distinctly seen a perfect image of the
Princess. Mr. Lealand also showed the objects for which he is so
celebrated, the circulation in the Vallisneria and the Volvox
globator.— Messrs. Smith and Beck exhibited a variety of beautiful
objects under many of their best instruments.—Mr. James How
had some beautiful examples of Zoophytes with expanded tentacles,
Halodactylus, Sertularia, &c.; the larve of the shore crab, circu-
lation of the blood in the frog, specimens of Trichina spiralis in
human muscle, &e. Mr. How also exhibited, in one of the rooms
upstairs, by means of the oxyhydrogen light, a selection of photo-
micrographs by Dr. Maddox, consisting of vegetable structures,
diatoms, parasites, parts of insects (some of these exibited for the
first time), such as preparations of the head and wings of the male
and female gnat,and larve and pupa state of the same, and a fine
photograph of the tongue of the house-cricket.—Mr. Baker
showed binocular microscopes, under which were many striking
illustrations of pond and marine life—such as Tabularia and
Campanularia, minute crabs, and other crustaceans, fresh from
their native element, a novel feature in objects usually shown at
these meetings.—Mr. Charles Tyler exhibited silicious sponges
from Barbadoes, opaque and in section; new Grantias from
Australia ; keratose sponges, with a new variety from Australia ;
a unique sponge with inhalent orifices. Dr. Miller showed
Conochilus Volvox in his usual beautiful manner, and recent
VOL. VII.—NEW SER. . N

174 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Desmidie.—Mr. Henry Lee exhibited living young salmon,
living larve of gnats, and preparations of Asteride. There
were numerous other exhibitors with most interesting objects,
which were highly appreciated and most attentively examined
by the large numbers assembled on the occasion.

May 9th, 1866.
JaMES GLAISHER, Esq., F.R.S., President, in the Chair.

Two papers by James Smith, Hsq., F.L.S., “On a Leaf-holder
for the Microscope,” and “On a revolving Slide-holder with
Selenite Stage,’’ were read. (‘Trans.,’ p. 100.)

The thanks of the Society were tendered to Mr. Smith.

A paper, by F. H. Wenham, Esgq., “ On a Binocular Microscope
‘ with High Powers,” was read. (‘Trans.,’ 103.)

Mr. Beck thought a distinction should now be drawn between
the binocular microscope and the microscope with stereoscopic
vision. Hitherto the binocular microscope had been looked on
as giving stereoscopic vision; but in the present case there was
rather a tendency to give the objects a flatter appearance. He
was of opinion that Mr. Wenham’s invention would render little
aid in matters of research, and remarked that Mr. Wenham had
not in his paper given any instance in which his own arrangement
or Messrs. Powell and Leyland’s prisms would be of any real
advantage. |

Mr. Brownine supported Mr. Beck’s views with regard to
stereoscopic vision. He had been unable to get stereoscopic
effect from any arrangement of the kind under discussion, and
when he attempted to do so a part of the field of view was cut off.
It was too far from the object-glass necessarily used with high
powers. There was, no doubt, a certain comfort in being able to
use both eyes, and in this lay the real merit of the invention.
The same advantage attended the use of the binocular telescope,
as it enabled the observer to continue his observations with less
fatigue ; but he had never been able by it to produce the slightest
stereoscopic relief.

A Memeperr thought it would be difficult to overrate the value
of being able to use both eyes. He had attempted to improve
the binocular telescope with a view to bringing it to a moderate
price; but though he had not succeeded in that object, he had
produced some good binocular telescopes which answered very
well, and but for their being less portable he thought no one who
could obtain a binocular telescope would use a monocular one.

Mr. Srack said that his two eyes differed in focus to such an
extent that he did not care for the ordinary binocular arrange-
ment, but thought that persons whose eyes were ordinarily nearly
alike in focus would be sayed fatigue in making quick compa-

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 175

risons, as by using both eyes alternately one eye could be kept
comparatively fresh, and this alternation would be favorable to
the prolonged examination of exceedingly delicate objects. He
thought, too, that Mr. Wenham’s invention would be exceedingly
valuable for objects which required the stereoscopic effect of com-
bining two dissimilar images. He presumed it would not be
doubted that this result would be obtdined. No one could look
at the moon through an ordinary stereoscope and say it appeared
flat; and he (Mr. Slack) had never met with any person who
could see even an approximation to flatness, and though in his
own case he could not say that the invention produced the stereo-
scopic effect of the combination of two dissimilar objects, it
certainly did not give the idea of flatness. Mr. Slack concluded
by asking Mr. Wenham whether in his arrangement each eye got
exactly the same proportion of marginal and peripheral ray, as a
difference in this respect might produce a difference in result.

Mr. Wenuam said that with the eight and twelve and higher
powers the images would be identical. On drawing out the
prism it would simply cut off a portion of the field of view, and
this would be done simultaneously with both eye-pieces.

Mr. Gray thought Mr. Slack had combined two things which
were essentially different—the stereoscopic effect produced by
single vision, such as looking through a telescope, and the effect
of viewing the same object binocularly. There were two ways of
arriving at a conclusion whether an object was flat or not. In the
case of the moon they would see the shadows of that body.

Mr. Wrenuam.—I spoke of the full moon.

Mr. Gray continued—If any one doubted that there was a
difference between real stereoscopical vision and inferential stereo-
scopical vision, let him examine stereoscopic slides of the moon
where a corresponding image was taken of two extremities. He
could not say that the moon would appear flat through a telescope ;
it would appear as if reduced into a small globe; but in the
stereoscopic slides they saw more than a hemisphere, say three
quarters of the diameter, and bearing this difference in mind would
simplify the distinction between real stereoscopical and inferen-
tially stereoscopical vision. Mr. Slack had mentioned that one
of his eyes differed from the other in focus, and he therefore pro-
bably did not fully appreciate the effect that most persons received
from a stereoscopic picture, and was therefore the less able to
distinguish between the inferentially stereoscopic and real stereo-
scopic vision.

Mr. Becx said that Mr. Slack’s remarks confirmed his opinion
that the moon could not be seen as flat through an ordinary tele-
scope, but he thought it would be seen flat through a binocular
telescope. The effect of the binocular telescope, with its two
telescopes placed any farther apart than the ordinary distance of
the eyes, would be rather to diminish stereoscopic vision. For
instance, a tolerably near object, such as a flower-pot standing
outside a window, would, with an ordinary-vision telescope, appear

176 PROCEEDINGS OF SOUIETIES.

to be outside the window; but with a binocular telescope it would
appear in the same plane with the window. The telescope drew
the object nearer the eyes, but did not increase the distance of
the eyes apart. So an artist, directing the attention of a spectator
to a picture, would ask him to look at it with one eye, because
looking at it with both at once would show that it was a flat sur-
face; and a similar effect would follow from the use of the bino-
cular telescope.

Mr. WENHAM could not agree with Mr. Beck in not being able
to procure stereoscopic vision from the binocular telescope. He
had used it in his travels on the Nile, in a country where it was
difficult to measure distances, and there he bad certainly got the
effect of distance. He (Mr. Wenham) had a telescope, made
many years ago, in which, viewing the objects with both eyes,
they did appear to be stereoscopic. It might be imaginary—in-
deed, it ought to be—but the object certainly did appear to stand
out.

The PresipEnt, in concluding the discussion, proposed a vote
of thanks to Mr. Wenham for his paper, which was duly carried.
He could, from his own experience, speak of the fatigue caused by
the continuous use of one eye only—not, however, to the eye at
work, but to the closed one. Anything that could relieve that
fatigue, and enable the observer to use the high powers of the
microscope with more comfort, would be a great benefit.

A paper by Mr. Beck was then read.

The meeting was then made special.

The SecRETARY, in moving a resolution approving of certain
alterations in the laws of the Society, stated that certain modifi-
cations would be necessary in anticipation of the Royal Charter
of Incorporation, endeavours to obtain which were being made on
behalf of the Society. This would also afford an opportunity for
making a better arrangement of the clauses. In 1840 a law was
passed, providing that past Presidents should be permanent
members of the Council; but at the suggestion of the present
President it was proposed that, while that rule should be acted on
up to the year 1866, henceforward there should be four Vice-
Presidents. He therefore moved—“ That in the clause relating
to the constitution and government of the Society the words
‘four Vice-Presidents’ be inserted immediately after the word
‘ President.’ ”’

Mr. Cuartes Trier seconded the motion.

The PrusmeEnT, in putting the motion to the meeting, explained
that retiring Presidents would be eligible to serve as Vice-Presi-
dents.

The motion was unanimously carried.

It was moved by the SzcrErary, seconded by Mr. Henry Lez,
F.L.S., and carried unanimously—* That the laws, as revised by
the Council, be the laws of the Society from the 9th May, 1866.”

The PrestpENT announced that the draft of the Charter had
been prepared, and that a Committee, consisting of himself, the

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

177

Treasurer, and Secretaries, had been appointed to act in the

matter with Mr.

SUBSCRIBERS TO THE CHARTER FUND OF THE
MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

f aee a. ES Siw the
Allen, C. J. Hyde, F.LS., Lankester, EH. Ray ...... 38
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Glaisher, James, F.R.S., Tyler, C., ¥.G.S. &...... 5, ba
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Gray, Peter, F.R.AS ... 1 1 0 aS a eee Perens 4 ee ee
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Lankester,E.,M.D.,F.R.S.

Burr, and that a sum of £135 had been
subscribed towards the expenses.

Oxrorp Mtcroscopicat Society.

FurtHER REMARKS on CRYSTALLIZATION,
By R. Tuomas.

Tue following diagrams illustrate a series of singular crystalline
forms, which I have been enabled to obtaim from solutions of
sulphate of copper, by carefully crystallizing that salt at various

178 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

temperatures. I have ventured to apply the term “ spiral erystal-
lization” to this peculiar and very beautiful series of phenomena.
The first and most difficult stage of the process consists in eva-
porating a solution of sulphate of copper in such a way that the
evaporation be not conducted too slowly, and that the heat em-

ployed be not excessive. By steering warily between these two
extremes, we avoid on the one hand crystallization of the solution,
on the other the formation of small granular masses, which cover
the slide and spoil it for future operations ; and we are enabled to

Fig. 2.

obtain an uncrystallized film, out of which the different crystal-
line forms under consideration may presently develop themselves.
If, now, such a film be subjected (after the manner indicated in
my paper contained in the April number of this Journal) to a

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 179

temperature of about 60° Fahr., numerous foliated crystals radi-
ating from centres will soon be seen to form, and, if the slide be
examined minutely, other small round forms will be noticed, which

have no connection with the foliated crystals, but which consti-
tute the first stage of the spiral. (Fig. 1.)

At 65° the foliated structures are lost, and the round erystals
only are seen in great numbers, clearly showing a further advance

in the direction of the spiral, and presenting a well-marked but
curved black cross. (Fig. 2.)

At 70° the spiral is still more marked. (Fig. 3.)

At 80° to 90° the lines are smaller and more numerous, while
the spiral is evidently more pronounced. (Fig. 4.)

180 PROCEEDINGS OF SUCIETIES.

At 90° to 100°, if the slide be kept free from dust, numbers of
the most perfect spiral crystals, some right- some left-handed, will
be seen to cover the slide. (Fig. 5.)

I have no doubt that some of these crystals are, in reality, cones
standing out in relief from the slide. Of this I have satisfied myself
by allowing them to form in a partial vacuum in the receiver of
an air-pump, and then suddenly letting in the air upon them, when
I have seen the apex of the cone broken or forced in by the atmo-
spheric pressure. I may also add that, under all circumstances,
the erystals thus formed in a vacuum are more perfect than when
exposed to the air, owing to the exclusion of foreign matters, such

as small particles of dust, which are apt to interfere with the
formation of the curves.

Very beautiful effects may likewise be produced by allowing
the film to crystallize gradually in Canada balsam. The balsam
should be gently warmed, but not sufficiently heated to drive off
the few atoms of water contained in it. The salt gradually ab-
sorbs this water, and crystallization is slowly effected.

Dustin MicroscoricaLn Civus.

November 16th, 1865.

Dr. E. Perceval Wright exhibited some spirally twisted cases
of a phryganidous insect, collected by Professor Harvey some
years ago in Australia. They had been taken, with a large

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 181

number of minute Helices and Bithinie, from under stones on
the borders of a pond, and had been overlooked as small shells
allied to Valvata. A microscopical examination, however, not
only at once showed that they belonged to the genus Helico-
psyche, of Bremi, but likewise made apparent the dried-up thorax
and limbs of the insect. At present, Dr. Wright knew of but
two species of this genus, H. Shuttleworthii, Bremi, from Corsica
and Como, and H. minima, Bremi, from Porto Rico, which they
resembled ; and, looking at the differences in the localities of these
two species and of the one he now exhibited, he believed it would
be found that these helicine cases belonged to a different phry-
ganidous insect, to which he would venture to give the provisional
name of H. Sieboldiz, after the distinguished Professor of Zoology
at Munich. Dr. Wright had not, however, been enabled to con-
sult Dr. Hagen’s paper in the Stettin’s Entomological Society’s
Proceedings.

Mr. Archer exhibited specimens, obtained from Yorkshire (near
Market-Weighton), through the kindness of Professor Gagliardi,
at present resident there, of Closteriwm aciculare, West. This
elegant form seems to be rare; he (Mr. Archer) had only once
met with it in Ireland, in a collection made by Mr.’ Porte in the
King’s County. These specimens, however, were not so very
long, in proportion to their extreme slenderness, as the original
specimens described by Mr. Tuffen West; hence Mr. Archer
sent some on that occasion to that gentleman, who kindly informed
him that the Irish specimens were truly his ©. aciculare. The
specimens now exhibited seemed to Mr. Archer quite to agree
with those he had previously seen.

In the same Yorkshire gathering Mr. Archer drew attention
likewise to some specimens of Gonatozygon Ralfsti, De Bary
(= Docidium asperum, Ralfs), in which the characteristic _super-
ficial roughnesses were the least evident he had ever seen. Indeed,
at first glance one would have thought them absent; but a closer
examination revealed their existence, and the comparatively smooth
appearance of the surface seemed to be due to the pellucid cha-
racter of the minute granules, but they were probably also less
elevated than usual. There could not, however, be a doubt as to
the identity of the plant.

Mr. Porte exhibited a gold-fish having a large patch of Sapro-
legnia growing upon its side, and which stood out, perhaps, three-
quarters of an inch. This proved to be in the state of developing
the zoospores, some of which were discharged, others just dis-
charging, and some with the secondary or tertiary sporangia
formed one within the other, thus identifying the genus. This
growth had manifested itself upon the side of the fish where it
had met with an accidental injury, thus indicating that its pre-
sence was a consequence, not the cause, of disease.

Mr. Archer showed specimens of Cosmarium quadratum, in allu-

182 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

sion to the Cosmarium shown by Dr. J. Barker at last meeting of
the Club, in order to draw attention to the great differences
between them, both in size and figure.

Dr. John Barker exhibited blood of the Napu Deer (Tragulus
Javanicus), composed mostly of red corpuscles which are amongst
the smallest in mammalia, measuring, according to Gulliver,
s+zizs" in diameter. As far as Dr. Barker could see, they are

not perfectly round.

December 21st, 1865.

Dr. John Barker showed specimens of an Acineta, which had
become produced in considerable quantity in a gathering made so
long ago as the occasion of the Lugnaquilla excursion. It was
very interesting to watch the disappearance and gradual return
of the well-marked circular contractile vacuole. He had noticed
a curious kind of swarming movement of the granular contents,
not like the jerking or dancing movement of the granules (as, for
instance, in the Desmidiacex, &c.), but aslower and more decided
change of place of the particles in a curious writhing manner.

Mr. Archer drew attention to the seemingly not uncommon
but remarkable organism <Anthophysa Miilleri, lately taken by
Dr. J. Barker near Finglas. Mr. Archer read a lengthened
extract from Professor Cohn’s remarks on this curious production
in his ‘Untersuchungen tiber die Entwickelungsgeschichte der
mikroskopischen Algen und Pilze,’ pp. 109 et seg. The specimens
now exhibited, probably being too long kept, did not show any of
the Uvella-like bodies at the summits of the so-called “Stereonema”
filaments, which Dr. Barker and he had seen in company. How-
ever, at the apices of some of the younger, pale greenish, or
colourless filaments of the same, and not a distinct organism, a
single globose body was here and there seated, with pale granular
contents, seemingly the forerunner, by subsequent division, of a
future Uvella-like family. On the present occasion a specimen
turned up in which the body at the apex of one of the filaments,
here of an elliptic shape, had its contents divided into a number
of portions, still confined within their common boundary. It
became a question as to this being a more advanced state, tending
towards the Uvella-like family. In any case this may, perhaps, be
of some interest, as Cohn had not seen these bodies otherwise
than as fully developed Uvella-like clusters. Mr. Archer was
disposed to think that the filaments themselves grew and branched,
and that the indications seemed to point to the conclusion that
the Uvella-like bodies were a subsequent development at the
summit of certain seemingly soft, and younger, and nearly colour-
less branches, not that the Uvella-like bodies developed the stipes
analogous to that of Gomphonema, &c., amongst diatoms. Thus,

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 183

the guondam Stereonema filaments and their accompanying Uvella-
like terminal clusters together form Anthophysa Miilleri, that is,
both these portions of this curious growth are part and parcel of
the same organism, though it is not easy to perceive, regarding
the Uvella-like group as germs, how these would again develop a
new “Stereonema” thread, giving the stipes that name as a
convenient one, though, of course, as Cohn most justly states,
“Stereonema,” as either an algal or fungal genus, quite falls to
the ground ; but, on the other hand, it might, perhaps, be too hasty
an assumption that all Uvelle were but detached groups or clusters
of Anthophysa.

In connection with the foregoing, and as in a measure supple-
mentary thereto, Mr. Archer took occasion to exhibit a production
seemingly not uncommon in certain localities, and which he has
several times brought down to the meetings, but had never
presented, as on those occasions so many other objects had
pressed themselves on attention. Of this production he had not
been able to find any record, though doubtless such may exist ;
he thought the present a good opportunity to show it to the Club
on account of a possible affinity—at least, a certain amount of
resemblance—to Anthophysa. This formed a much-compressed,
plane, broad, more or less and indefinitely branched production,
the branches plane, broad, more or less curved, divergent, gradually
widening from below upwards; the ends abruptly rounded off;
their surface furnished with interrupted coarse ridges, giving the
whole the appearance of being formed of elongate cells ; the whole’
structure free ; colour yellowish, reddish, or brown. This produc-
tion Mr. Archer had met with several times, but without being
able to make anything more of it, until on one occasion, in company
with Dr. Barker, who,indeed, drew attention to it,aview of a further
characteristic was obtained. At the broad and tolerably sharply
rounded-off extremities of the compressed branches was seen, in
several instances, a subconical projection of colourless granular
substance, from which was distinctly seen to emanate usually two
long flagelliform cilia, which waved about in the water with much
vigour. That this remarkable addition to the usual organization
of this production was really part and parcel of it, and not an
accidentally located foreign organism, was evidenced by the
regularity with which it was seen in just the same way and in
just the same situation, as well as by a kind of movement,
comparable to a kind of circulation, of the contained granules of
the terminal conical protuberance mentioned as bearing the cilia,
somewhat downwards below the broad and expanded extremities
of the branch bearing the same, as if the terminal body were not,
indeed, seated on the extreme margin, but may have originated
within it. But of this terminal body no definite structure could
be made out; its outline externally was not very sharp; and in
this state the observation rests. Perhaps further experience may
throw a light upon the true nature of this curious organism.
Perhaps ad interim a certain amount of analogy with Anthophysa

184 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

may be worth keeping in mind. In the one the (quondam)
Stereonema threads are elongate, round, and tapering; in the
other the stems (so to call them) are short, compressed, broad,
and expanded towards the summits ; both, however, are of a brown
or yellowish colour, and both bear at their summits monad-like
bodies bearing flagella, in the one, however, eventually combined
into groups or families—Uvella-like—in the other seemingly
solitary and with one or two more drawn out flagella. Pending
knowledge, however, of these two productions, more especially of
the latter, no more can be said than that there exists this certain
amount of analogy, an analogy which may, indeed, by no means
indicate a true affinity.

Dr. J. Barker likewise exhibited the organism Anthophysa
Miilleri under his microscope. The gathering had been made in
an overflow of the river Tolka, the submerged plants presenting a
reddish-brown colour from the quantity of this growth. In Dr.
Barker’s opinion there are two different organisms nearly allied —
one the ordinary reddish-brown, nearly opaque, branching stems,
which bear on their summits groups of Uvella-form buds; each of
these buds has one or two flagelliform cilia; each group is very
slightly attached by a considerably long, soft, gelatinous, and
granulated termination of the stem. These groups become free,
and are found very abundantly rolling about. These have been
described by Cohn. Dr. Barker had observed also another kind,
more rarely met with. It has a transparent, straight, or slightly
curved stem; this stem is frequently seen in gatherings of the
ordinary Anthophysa. He had noticed, also, a very active single
bud, like one of the Anthophysa groups, but about three times
larger; this organism seemed to possess more than one or two
cilia, and to be very active; on more than one occasion he had
seen this organism attached singly to the clear stem, just like the
Anthophysa groups, and struggle, as it were, to get free; it was
likewise attached to its stem by an interval of granular mucus, as
in Anthophysa. Dr. Barker expressed his view that, as a general
rule, many organisms found moving about in gatherings are the
free buds of attached plants, just as certain diatoms are first
attached by stems and afterwards become free.

Dr. Moore showed spiral vessels from the leaf of Nepenthes
Rafflesiana, forming very pretty objects under the polariscope.

Dr. J. Barker showed Staurastrwm scabrum, new to Ireland;
also S. Griffithsianum (at least, the form which Mr. Archer was
so disposed to name, and not S. spongiosum, as mentioned by him
at a previous meeting).

January 18th, 1866.

Dr. Moore exhibited the prothallia of some Ferns, showing the
antheridia and spermatozoids.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 185

The Rey. E. O’Meara, A.M., showed a new Gephyria, which he
proposed to name, after Professor Harvey, G. Harveyi, and which
he characterised as follows :—Frustules much smaller than those of
G. incurvata and G. media. In front view the costate margins
are rounded, and elevated above the surface of the connecting
zone, which is narrow, not costate; the side view is elliptical, the
terminal spaces on ventral surface small, the median line indis-
tinct ; the median line absent on dorsal surface, the coste running
across the valve. Found on Haloplegma Preissii, from Port
Fairy, Victoria.

Mr. Archer exhibited several forms of fresh-water Rhizopods,
all which occurred in the same pool, indeed on one slide. These,
so far as Mr. Archer could identify them, and taken in the order
of the comparative frequency of their occurrence in the gathering,
were Difflugia pyriformis, D. corona, D. spiralis, Arcella vulgaris,
A. aculeata, Euglypha alveolata, Gromia fluviatilis, Actinophrys
sol, A. Hichornii, anda Plagyophrys (?). As so varied an assemblage
of these forms in a fresh and vigorous condition, though indi-
vidually, as regards some of them, not rare, does not seem very
frequently to present itself, Mr. Archer thought the present would
not be without interest. It is to be regretted, indeed, that Rhizo-
podous creatures do not bear a transit from one house to another,
spread out upon a slide, without more or less shrinking in, with-
drawing their pseudopods, and ceasing to present their character-
istic conditions; and this was more especially the case with the
beautiful Gromia. <A fresh dip from the supply of the material
brought down fortunately, however, amply presented a group in
good condition of the Difflugize and Arcelle. Mr. Archer said it
would, indeed, not well become him too hastily to put forward an
opinion of his own opposed to tkose who had bestowed large
attention upon these interesting organisms, such as Dr. Wallich
or Dr. Carpenter, yet he would venture to suggest that, so far as
the fresh-water forms of this group are concerned, they seem
in themselves sufficiently constant to make it probable that the
former writer at least was somewhat premature in the views set
forth by him in the ‘Annals of Natural History,’ 3rd ser., vol. xiii,
pp. 215 et seqq. The Difflugie and Arcelle seem to turn up again
and again, and apparently so far duplicates of one another that
one can at least say that such a given recurring form is at least
the same thing one has seen before; though it may be possible,
indeed, that some assumed as distinct may be younger states of
other forms, and thus that Dr. Wallich may be right in part and
wrong in his too comprehensive ultimate conclusions. Between
the different forms now exhibited there did not seem any puzzling
nondescripts. It may be said the next adjacent pond might pro-
duce them: a gathering from another pond on the same heath
was on the table, and though by no means so rich in Rhizopods,
there unmistakeably were those frequent forms, Difflugia pyri-
formis, and Arcella vulgaris, and A. aculeata. But, again, it might

186 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES:

be said a gathering from a few hundred miles away might produce
them. There was on the table a gathering from Yorkshire (due
to Mr. Archer’s obliging correspondent, Professor Gagliardi), and
in it was Arcella vulgaris,and A. aculeata,and Euglypha alveolata.

But the gathering now brought forward seemed to present a
certain amount of interest in another point of view, and that was
the number of these organisms which presented themselves “ con-
jugated ’’—or, if this term, as it has been elsewhere applied, be
considered a begging of the question, and as presupposing a pro-
cess analogous to the phenomenon which takes place in the Con-
jugatz amongst Algee—these Rhizopods were at least coupled in
pairs, and the tests in contact by their frontal openings. Now,
be Carter right or wrong in the views he has published on this
phenomenon, and difficult, on account of the opacity of the tests,
as it is to discern what goes on during the continuance of this
coupling, it cannot be a meaningless process, and, as it has been seen
by so many observers, it cannot be a merely occasional, or simply
casual, or accidental one. It must, indeed, point to a process
important in the life-history of these creatures, and it seems most
reasonable to conclude that that process is connected with repro-
duction, even not to speak of Carter’s observations. Now, a point
which deserved attention as regards the specimens at present ex-
hibited, and which quite accorded with all observations made on
the subject, was that, although the individuals were numerous,
always like form was “ conjugated”’ or in contact with like form ;
and this was true as regarded Difflugie, Arcelle, or Euglyphe
respectively. Whilst, then, with his own comparatively very
slender acquaintance with these organisms, Mr. Archer hoped it
might not be thought undue temerity in calling in question Dr.
Wallich’s views as to the convertibility of these organisms, he
could not but for the present dissent therefrom, and this for the
two reasons set forth—first, that the same forms seem continu-
ally to present themselves; and, secondly, be the precise physio-
logical significance of the phenomenon what it may, that like form
always chooses out like form when about to “ conjugate.”

As regards the identification of the forms on the slide, whatever
difficulty there might be in reconciling them with species as
described, the same forms seemed, at least when met with, always
to be like one another; yet it seemed that D. pyriformis could
hardly be mistaken. Doubtless it sometimes appeared more
globose and inflated, sometimes more elongate, sometimes with a
more or less elongate neck; but still pyriform seems to be its
characteristic. Again, as to the form, Mr. Archer would refer
somewhat doubtfully to D. corona; it may appear paradoxical to
say that no two specimens were absolutely alike, and yet, so far
as the individuals from this heath, they could all at a glance be
pronounced to be one and the same thing. If, indeed, this be
D. corona, Dr. Wallich’s figure is too regular and symmetrical,
too diagrammatic, the adherent foreign particles too accurately
adapted, and too much of one size, and the horns (so to call them).

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 187

too short. But in the existent state of knowledge it would be
eure to give this form a name. That these animals seem to
ave a power of selection of the materials wherewith to bwi/d their
habitations is evident. D. pyriformis seems to use very small,
tolerably regular-sized, particles; the horned’ form huge crags and
boulders (microscopically speaking) in comparison, as well as
large Pinnularia frustules, &c.,and these laid on in any and ever
way, and projecting irregularly in every direction. Whilst the
surface of the first seems somewhat evenly paved, the latter carries
about a complete little rockery, and this, added to the different
form of each, gave them a character that stamped them at once.

Again, as bearing on external distinctions, Mr. Archer’s atten-
tion was first attracted to the solitary Gromia on the slide, not by
its pseudopods, for they were not then visible, but, even under a
low power, by its contour, for its opaque test had much the same
colour ‘as the Difflugie. Here was an egg-shaped form, its surface
less rough than that of the Difflugiz around; this was enough to
attract observation. Upon the slide being laid aside for a little,
however, and this egg-shaped form again examined, there were the
beautiful pseudopods of this curious creature expanded to the
full, to three, four, or even five times the length of the test, rami-
fying in every direction, and inosculated here and there, and
occasionally expanded. The majority of the pseudopods projected
in front, but, as in Carpenter’s well-known figure, not a few
radiating laterally and posteriorly, and a beautiful “ circulation”
going on like that of the protoplasm of the cells of the hairs of the
stamens of Tradescantia. Now, here external form and external
character were enough to indicate that this was, at all events, not
the same thing as the Difflugie around; actually how very
different has been seen. It could not be contended that Kuglypha
is not a different thing from Difflugia, per se, nor can any genetic
affinity be founded on possibilities. Another curious Rhizopod in
the present gathering was the Plagiophrys. Mr. Archer’s only
acquaintance with the genus was that afforded in Dr. Carpenter’s
work, for he had not Claparéde’s work. But at all events here
was a type quite distinct, be it referred correctly or not to that

nus. It did not appear to agree quite with the figure given by

arpenter; the body was elliptic, minute, and the pseudopods
emanating from one spot in a kind of tuft, not distributed, and so
it approached more to a Lagynis, as it were, without a test. Of
the Actinophrys it is, of course, unnecessary to speak.

Now, if Dr. Wallich be right in assuming that, the animals
being alike in Difflugie, the different forms are but the result of,
and in obedience to, local conditions—how could these several
distinct. and varied forms, not to speak of different types of
Rhizopods, be the products of identically the same circumstances
and exactly the same local conditions—that is, how could one and
the same cause produce several distinct results? It is argued
that the tests only are different—that the animals are alike—but
not more alike than the cell-contents, the analogous portion, in

188 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

the different forms of Diatomacere (for instance), are to one
another.

Again, as regards the so-called conjugation, how is it that, “ the
animals being the same,” not only does Difflugia unite with
Difflugia, and Arcella with Arcella, and Euglypha with Euglypha,
but these seemingly only specifically with each other? It is true
that Dr. Wallich alludes to an instance of this phenomenon taking
place between Difflugia and another smaller one regarded as a
distinct species. Now, in this present gathering, besides the very
many instances of forms alike in size as well as outer characters
conjugating with each other, several examples presented them-
selves quite like that so well figured by Wallich (* Ann. Nat.
Hist.,’ 3 ser., vol. xiu, pl. xvi, fig. 39); and it would seemingly
never otherwise suggest itself than to look upon the smaller
individual as simply but a smaller and younger individual of one
and the same species. It has been said, indeed, that this process
iS not a conjugation or union in any sense of the word at all, but
merely a budding-off—that is, that a portion of the original
animal becomes simply extended through the frontal aperture, then
clothing itself with a test, and afterwards separating from the first,
as a distinct individual. But how is it that no intermediate stages
present themselves? All the specimens in contact are of full size and
figure in ninety-nine cases of a hundred, and never an unclothed
or partially clothed one seems to be found united with a fully
clothed one. It might, perhaps, be @ priori thought that so lowly
organized a creature could have no power of electing amongst its
neighbours only another individual of its own species with which
to unite. That such an idea would be too hasty, indeed, is seen
when we find them able to a great extent to select the materials
of their habitations. But when about to conjugate we cannot
deny to them that they may be impelled by some kind of inherent
attraction, species for species, when we see vegetables—Meso-
carpee, Zygnemer, and Desmidiex, finding out and conjugating
with those only of their own identical species, admitting the pro-
cesses in each to be analogous.—In one instance two of the
Arcelle, upon being separated, seemed to have extended between
them what appeared to be a tubular plicated membrane, proceed-
ing from the mouth of each test. The great opacity of the tests
prevents an insight being gained into the internal conditions.

On the whole, therefore, while Mr. Archer would deprecate
being supposed as dogmatically setting up his own views against
those of a Wallich ora Carpenter, yet he thought he might venture
so far as to say that their arguments, as regards the fresh-water
Rhizopods only, had not yet convinced him of the total want of
stability in these forms, and he thought that the considerations he
here ventured to bring forward could not be regarded as devoid of
significance or importance.

Mr. Yeates showed Smith and Beck’s new illumination for
opaque objects, in which the object-glass is made its own illumi-

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 189

nator by reflecting the light from a lateral opening down through
the object-glass.

Mr. Porte exhibited a series of slides of vegetable sections
showing a variety of spiral vessels.

Dr. Moore showed a Scytonema, the same as the one sent by
him to Dr, Hassall, and named by the latter S. hibernicum.
Dr. Moore had taken this on the occasion of the Lugnaquilla
excursion.

February 15th, 1866.

Dr. E. Perceval Wright brought forward a number of diatoms
from Mauritius, collected by Captain Crozier, R.E. These Mr.
O’Meara undertook to examine and report upon.

Mr. Archer exhibited side by side on the same slide two rare
species of Staurastrum. These were Stawrastrum oligacanthum
(Bréb. in litt.) and Stawrastrum (Phycastrum, Pachyactiniwn)
cristatum (Nag.)=Staurastrum nitidum (Arch.). He brought
them forward, however, chiefly for the purpose of drawing atten-
tion to their marked distinctions, and yet to the possibility of
their being mistaken the one for the other. The first species he
had seen only a very few times (see Minutes of Club of June
15th, 1865), the second only from the pool in which these speci-
mens were found ; but in this he had taken it for three or four
successive years. It is not easy to bring the distinctive characters
of these two forms before other observers without the specimens,
but yet Mr. Archer thought no two could be more distinct. In
fact, with an inch object-glass one could distinguish them, once
their characteristics have been seized upon. In front view S¢.
cristatum has its ends convex, the lateral extremities sub-mammil-
late, and the end view has the sides convex. In St. oligacanthum
in front view the ends are flat, the lateral extremities subacute;
in end view the sides concave at the middle, the angles inflated,
then acute.

The Rev. E. O'Meara, A.M., showed a new Striatella found by
him on a frond of Haloplegma Preissii from Australia. As only
two other species of this genus are already known, this acces-
sion would possess an additional interest. The characters of the
genus are stipitate, septate, the septa alternate, and not extending
across the valve. By such peculiarities, the form under considera-
tion would be at once recognised as a Striatella, of which genus
Mr. O’Meara felt himself quite warranted in regarding it as a new
species. In Striatella unipunctata the stipes are remarkably long ;
the septa rectilinear, with bead-like expansions at the distance of
about ird the length of the frustule from the margin. In the
form under consideration the stipes are not remarkably long; -
the septa are curvilinear, and curved in opposite directions in the

VOL. VII.—NEW SER. )

190 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

two attached frustules; the bead-like expansions are marginal.
In the front view in the centre of the upper margin there is a
remarkable depression ; corresponding with this on the side view
there is a region with curvilinear boundaries. Besides this pecu-
liarity, there is in the side view a remarkable difference between
the present form and S. wnipunctata, the latter being elliptico-
lanceolate, the former linear-oblong. Mr. O’Meara proposed for
this form the name Striatella curviseptata.

Mr. Vickers exhibited a fine diatom, Eupodiscus Rodgevi, for-
warded by Mr. Stokes.

Dr. John Barker exhibited a new plan, constructed from his
design, for placing a number of slides under the microscope and
bringing them one by one in succession quickly under view. This
consists of a large disc of wood, with a number of round openings
, near the circumference, of about an inch in diameter, over each of
which a slide is placed and retained in its position, with the object
over the aperture, by an elastic ribbon passed through some small
holes in the disc. The disc itself is fastened to the stage by a
piece of projecting brass-work made to fit and hold in the central
opening of the stage, and projecting out beyond the stage in
front, and bearing the pivot or axis adapted to the centre of the
disc, and on which it revolves. This apparatus could therefore be
made to follow the stage movements, and would be suitable, of
course, for opaque or transparent objects. It would be very ad-
vantageous for a class, for the purpose, during a demonstration, of
bringing a series of slides quickly under view.

Mr. Archer exhibited fine examples of Ameba villosa (Wallich),
but he now drew attention to this seemingly not uncommon
form, in order to show a remarkable addition to the usual charac-
teristics of this organism. ‘This was the presence of a large and
numerous tuft of very long prolongations, commonly issuing from
just beside the villous patch. These prolongations, which formed
a compact bundle, were slender, linear, often as long as the -
ordinary length of the animal, about the middle often with a slight
groove-like constriction or narrowing, their ends terminating
abruptly. Seemingly nine out of ten of the specimens in this
gathering possessed these appendages, giving them a yery re-
markable and curious appearance. Under alow power and ata
hasty glance these Amcebe appeared as if each carrying posteriorly
a whole bundle of straight bacillar objects, seemingly immersed in
their substance ; under so low an amplification and hastily viewed,
it might be thought almost like a bundle of Nitzschie or rigid
oscillatoriaceous filaments stuck into the posterior end of the
Ameeba (pincushion-like) by some external foreign force, and as
if as many as possible had been made to go into one spot. But
upon examining these curious fasciculi under a higher power
more closely, he thought it could readily be seen that they were
not composed of foreign bodies either issuing from or penetrating

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES, 191

into the Amceba, but were really linear prolongations of the sar-
code itself. It was only under a higher power, say a quarter-inch,
that the slight central constriction of these linear appendages
could be seen. At this point one seemed prone to bend, and the
animal seemed to have the power again to erect it somewhat
quickly. Sometimes these prolongations were somewhat more
scattered, but were always very close, mostly, indeed, as has been
said, issuing ina tuft. This tuft, as has been also said, in by far
the greatest number of cases occurred close beside the villous
patch, but sometimes a few of these linear appendages seemed. to
take origin from the villous patch. Dr. Wallich, in his papers on
this form (‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ 3rd ser., vol. xi, plate viii, fig. 2),
draws attention to the villous patch displaying a number of short,
narrow extensions, seemingly emarginate at the ends; these seem
to be enlarged and prolonged villi, as it were, and do not appear
the same thing as the very long appendages here drawn attention
to, as the latter are very greatly longer, more rigid, and mostly
coexist alongside the villous region, the latter exhibiting its
ordinary appearance and condition. This observation, quantum
valeat, seems possibly to point to a still greater differentiation of
parts than has yet been observed in this remarkable form ; and be
the significance of these unusual appendages what it may, Mr.
Archer thought the observation would not, perhaps, be without a
certain amount of interest.

Mr. Archer presented, on the part of the author, Mr. C. P.
Roper, his ‘ Catalogue of Works on the Microscope,’ for which
gift the thanks of the Club were voted.

Captain Crozier, R.E., at present residing at Gosport, was
elected a corresponding member of the Club.

March 15th, 1866.

The Rey. E. O’Meara, A.M., exhibited Zerpsinoe musica and
Pleurodesmium Brébisonii, both from slides supplied by Captain
Crozier, corresponding member of the Club.

Mr. Archer showed two cells of Zygnema presenting examples
of the organism named Monas parasitica, by Cienkowski, and exhi-
bited the figure given by that observer in Pringsheim’s ‘ Jahrbiicher
fiir wissensch. Botanik,’ Band i, t. xxiv, figs. i, ii, ili, iv, m,
with which the present specimens seemed quite to agree. It
seems, however, that the organisms referred to may, indeed, more
likely be some stage of a plant allied to Chytridium near Sapro-
legniez, let opinions differ as they may as to the algal or fungal
nature of that singular group.

Mr, Archer exhibited specimens of Spirotenia parvula (ejus)
(described by him, ‘ Proc. Nat. Hist. Soc. Dub.,’ vol. iii, p, 84, pl.
ii. figs. 832—43, and ‘ Quart. Journ. Mic. Soc.,’ n. s., Vol. I, p. 258,
pl. xii, figs. 32—48), presenting the peculiarity of being suspended

192 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

together into indefinitely long chains by a cylindrical mucous
. investment, comparable to that of Hormospora mutabilis (Bréb.),
fresh specimens of which latter he was also fortunately able to
lay on the table. He had never seen this Spirotenia, nor, indeed,
any of the other species of that genus presenting this condition.
When he first took this very well-marked and very minute species
there were never more than two cells, as is usual in the genus,
held together by a mucous coating, which two cells usually be-
come disassociated before the next ensuing self-division of either
cell takes place. Though thus held together, the so-connected
chain could not, strictly speaking, be called a filament, as the
cells themselves did not remain united, but were, indeed, often
separated by a perceptible interval, thus unlike such forms as
Hyalotheca, Sphzrozosma, &c. With some, indeed, a question
might arise as to the advisability of holding filamentous genera
in Desmidieew as distinct per se from free genera. Thus, as
regards Diatomacee, Heiberg has already propounded the view
that distinctions founded on the external conditions, or on
the mode in which the cells are held more or less definitely
together, in filaments or otherwise, should not be regarded as of
generic value. And, as regards Desmidia, in this point of view,
Dr. Wallich finds a filamentous Docidium and a filamentous
Micrasterias in Bengal; but, on the other hand, while Des-
midium might, perhaps, be regarded as representing a fila-
mentous Staurastrum, Spherozosma a filamentous Cosmarium,
Hyalotheca also a filamentous Cosmarium or Euastrum, yet cer-
tain of these seem formed to exist as filamentous types (such as
Spherozosma, Aptogonum, and some Bengal forms), by reason of
the connecting processes between the links forming fulcra of
attachment. But, of course, in the Spirotenia now shown there
were no uniting processes ; as already said, the only bond of union
being the tubular mucous investment. As the cells themselves
showed no distinction whatever from the form already described,
there could be no doubt but that this was S. parvula, and a beauti-
fully distinct and constant form. Like most, it must be examined
fresh to see its characters, with the parietal band of endochrome
of one or two turns.

Mr. Crowe showed Cosmarium curtum (Ralfs) = Penium curtum
(Bréb.) taken from a shallow rut in the avenue before his own
door at Bray. The first occasion he had taken it was on a visit.
to North Wales. He had watched it for some time in its present
locality, but had not found it conjugating.

Mr. Archer remarked that probably this well-marked form
might turn out to be more common than we had supposed, as
this situation agreed so much in character with that in which he
had himself found it close to the “ Dargle” gate, and which is
unlike that in which Desmidiew are usually found. Unfortu-
nately for a protracted observation of this species as to its conju-
gating state, it seems to have occurred only in pools which are

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 193

so shallow and so little fed with water as to be sure to become
dried up with the first continuance of dry weather.

Mr. Draper showed recent specimens of Trichina from pork.

Mr. W. H. Baily exhibited a number of slides of fossil
Foraminifera, collected by Mr. Joseph O'Kelly, of the Geological
Survey of Ireland, at the Tajares Tile Pits, near Malaga. ‘The
following species have been determined by Professor 'T. Rupert
Jones:

1. Nodosaria Raphanistrum, Linneus.
2. £ longiscata, D’ Orbigny.
3. Nodosarina Raphanus, Linn.
4. Cristellaria arcuata, D’Orb.
5. 4 Ariminensis, D’Orb.
6. a calecar, Linn.
7. 5 cassis, Fichtell & Moll.
8. 45 cultrata, Montfort.
3h 3 echinata, D’Orb.

10. 33 Italica, Defrance.

iy " ornata, D’Orb.

12. rotulata, Lamarck,

”
13. Hrondicularia complanata, Defy.
14. Dentalina acicula, Lam.

15. - communis, D’ Orb. ,comprising sub-varieties
D. pauperata, D, elegans, D. inornata.
16. be soluta, Reuss.

es 17. Biloculina ringens, Lamarck.
Miliole ee a: Brie ahi
"18. Quinguiloculina semilunum, Lam.
: ' >) Known to be one and
19. Orbulina universa, D’ Orb. ) the same species. Orb.

Globigerina bulloides, D’ Orb. j Sah ala ee
ones.

20. Planorbulina Hardingerii, D’ Orb.

21. Polymorphina lactea, var. problema, W. & J.

22. Polystomella crispa, Linn., var. macella, F. & M.
23. Pulvinulina Schreibersii, D’Orb.

Professor Rupert Jones remarks that “the Malaga forms of
Foraminifera are almost the exact counterpart of those from the
clays of the Vienna Tertiary basin, In the Mediterranean, from
the shore to a depth of 100 fathoms, we have a similar group of
Rhizopods, though the Wodosarie and Cristellarie do not approach
the size of those of Malaga.” (‘Journal of the Geol. Soc. of
London,’ vol. xv, 1859, p. 600.)

Mr. Archer showed a fresh Characium, very slender, ensi-
form, both extremities very acute, which seemed to come nearest
to Characium tenue (Hermann), in Rabenhorst’s ‘ Beitriige zur
niheren Kenntniss und Verbreitung der Algen,’ Heft i, 1863,
in a paper by Dr. Hermann, entitled ‘‘Ueber die bei Neudamm
aufgefundenen Arten des genus Characium,”’ p. 29, t. vii, fig. 1¢.

194 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Mr. Archer showed some fine living examples of Volvow globator,
and stated he had taken some of this beautiful organismin
summer vigour and condition every month in 1865 since April
last, and in January and March, 1866. He had not visited the
pond in February, 1866, but he entertained no doubt, from
getting a copious gathering in December and January, and
another in March, but that he should have met it had he looked
for it. He thought it seemed almost as if the history of Volvox
was, so to say, inverted last year. In May, 1865, he took it in the
“autumnal” state, that is, as the guondam “ Volvox aureus,” and
then, also, specimens showing the remarkable polymorphous con-
dition of the gonidia ; and in winter he took it as vigorous and as
normal, but not so abundantly, indeed, as it usually presents itself
in spring or summer. As it seems to be generally held that the
active motile “summer” characteristic condition of this plant
does not present itself in the winter months, Mr. Archer thought
that this notice of a fact, seemingly new in itself, might, perhaps,
possess some interest.

Hackney Microscopican SorRkeE.

A Microscopic Scientific and Artistic Conversazione was held at
Pembroke Hall, Lamb Lane, Mare Street, Hackney, (Dr. Christie
haying lent the hall for that purpose) in aid of the funds of the
Hackney Working Men’s Institute.

An appeal was made by the committee of the said institute,
through Mr. W. L. Freestone and Dr. Millar, to the Council of
the Microscopical Society, for their assistance and co-operation,
which appeal was announced by the President to the meeting
held in March last, which was most cordially responded to, and a
high-class entertainment was the result, which was patronised by
a considerable attendance of the first families of Hackney and
Clapton, and ably supported by many distinguished members of
the microscopic and other scientific societies of London; and on
the first evening James Glaisher, Esq., F.R.S., was present. All
the principal microscope makers were represented, viz., Messrs.
Ross, Smith & Beck, Baker, Crouch, Steward, Browning, Salmon,
Bailey, &c. There were shown altogether about sixty micro-
scopes, and many works of art and articles of vertt were exhibited,
several cabinet stereoscopes, a fine selection of glass slides, and
also a variety of beautiful objects, living and prepared, amongst
which may be mentioned—

Dr. Millar exhibited the eggs of an insect of elaborate form.

Charles Tyler, Esq., F.L.S., many interesting specimens of
sponge-spicule, &e. :

Henry Lee, Esq., F.L.S., marine zoophytes, Echinide, and a
fine specimen of the Tsetse.

Dr. Christie, a slide of Trichina spiralis in human muscle, pre-
pared by W. L. Freestone. ‘

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 195

James Smith, Esq., F.L.S., diseased wheat, showing the presence
of Anguillula Tritict.

W. H. Hall, Esq., a jar of the Cheirocephalus, or fairy shrimp,
and many fine objects.

Mr. Crouch showed a fine preparation of Polycystina, opaque,
by W. L. Freestone.

H. N. White, Esq., of Dalston, procured various electrical and
galvanic batteries of Mr. Wood, Cheapside, and afforded a series
of experiments.

Mr. Browning showed several spectroscopes for manifesting the
presence of blood in fluid.

Dr. Millar also showed the magnesian light, tables showing
waves of sound, and a fine polariscope.

John Murray, Esq., added to the interest of the evening by a
piping bullfinch, and some fine bronzes to decorate the hall.

S. Helm, Esq., and four other gentlemen, all members of the
Old Change Microscopie Club, showed many good objects, amongst
which a micro-photographic portrait of W. L. Freestone, by Henry
Davis, Esq., Cornhill; also Volvox globator, skin of human thumb,
and the eel-like insects in vinegar.

Mr. How, of Foster Lane, lent six frames of beautiful micro-
photographic objects by Dr. Maddox.

Mr. Bridgeman, of Hackney, lent some highly creditable oil
paintings, copied by himself from several of the first masters.

Some good models, by a working man, were shown.

Many excellent diagrams by Drs. Carpenter and Lionel Beale
were kindly lent for the occasion.

Specimens of the Eozoon Canadense were lent by Dr. Carpenter
during each evening. The Gentlemen Amateur Band of Hackney,
and some professional singers, served to cause agreeable diversion.

The funds of the institute, to benefit which this entertainment
was originated, is but slightly augmented, but no doubt is enter-
tained that considerable attention will be drawn to the institute,
and that the addition of many patrons and subscribers to its
funds will be the result.

Tne BiruineHam Narvrat History ann Mtcroscorrcar
Socrery.

MIDLAND INSTITUTE.

President—Mr. Hughes.
Vice-Presidents—Mr. Thos. Fiddian and Mr. L. Percival.

April, 1865, to June, 1866.

At the Microscopical Meetings of this Society held during the
past and present year the following papers have been read:
1865, April 11th.—Dr. T. Bartleet read an instructiye and

196 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES,

interesting paper “On the Minute Anatomy of Bone.” The
paper entered fully into the uses, chemical constituents, physical
properties, structure, and development and growth of bone, and
was illustrated by numerous well-executed diagrams, and by
microscopical preparations.

May 9th.—Mr. Parkes read a paper “On the Respiratory
System of Insects, and its direct relation to their Nervous, Nutri-
tive, and Muscular Functions.”” The structure of the air-channels
was explained, and especial attention bestowed on the spiracles or
breathing pores. The distribution of the air-tubes was elabo-
rately shown. The paper was illustrated by a great number of
microscopical preparations, many of them of extreme interest, by
the incomparable Bourgogne.

June 13th.—Dr. Norris read a paper “On the Physiology and
Minute Anatomy of Nervous Tissue.” The paper was illustrated
by diagrams and microscopical preparations.

Sept. 5th._—Dr. C. J. Bracey read a very elaborate and interest-
ing paper “On the Comparative Anatomy of the Organ of
Hearing.” The paper was profusely illustrated by diagrams and
specimens.

Oct. 10th—Mr. F. Davis read a paper “On the Earth-
worm.” ‘The paper dealt chiefly with the alimentary and circu-
culating systems, the reproductive system being reserved for a
second paper. The paper was illustrated by diagrams.

Dec. 12th—Mr. Thomas Fiddian read a paper “ On Starch,
Raphides, Chlorophylle, and Silica.” In introducing the subject
Mr. Fiddian observed that his object in choosing it was not be-
cause he thought he could say much that was new, but in the
hope of inducing those members who are botanists, but not micro-
scopists, to study microscopy, a most useful handmaid to botany,
as it often happens that without her aid botany is powerless in her
endeavours to make herself intelligible to the student. The paper
was illustrated by a lithographed diagram, a copy of which was
kindly presented to each member present. ,

1866, Jan. 16th.— Mr. H. Webb read a highly practical and
interesting paper “On Blights.” It was most profusely illus-
trated by diagrams, specimens, and microscopical preparations,
and was followed by a most animated discussion on the potato
blight,in which Messrs. Fiddian, Scott, Pumphrey, and Dr. W.
Hinds, took part.

Feb, 13th.—Mr. F. Fowke read a short but able and interesting
paper on the “ Microscope in connection with the Natural
Sciences.” It was most profusely illustrated with diagrams and
microscopical objects and preparations.

March 13th.—Dr. James Hinds read an able paper, illustrated
by diagrams and many beautiful injected microscopic sections,
“On the Comparative Anatomy of the Kidney.” Some discus-
sion followed.

May 8th.—Mr. F. Davis read a paper “ On the Common Earth-
worm.’ It was the second of a series on the same subject, was

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 197

devoted to the description of the reproductive organs of the
animal, and was illustrated by several finely-executed diagrams.

June 5th.—Mr. Thomas Fiddian read a paper “ On the Appli-
eation of Micro-photography to the illustration of Papers on
Microscopy.” He exhibited, on large discs, by means of the
oxyhydrogen lantern, the following series of beautiful micro-
photographs, from negatives, by Dr. Maddox :—Human blood,
blood of newt, tracheal system of the silk-worn, spiracle of cock-
chafer, eye of beetle, foot of the fly, foot of the spider, tongue of
the cricket, gizzard of the cricket, tongue of the bee, tongue of
the wasp, tongue of the common blow-fly, proboscis of the but-
terfly, and many other objects of singular interest and beauty. At
the close of the paper the thanks of the meeting were unanimously
given to Mr. Fiddian for his most interesting paper.

On the motion of Dr. Norris, seconded by Mr. Alcock, the
thanks of the Society were unanimously given to Mr. How, of
London, for his kindness in sending such a variety of beautiful
micro-photographs for exhibition to the Society.

During the past and present year the following papers have
also been read:

1865.

April 4th—Rev. E. Myers, “ On Trilobites.” :

» 18th.—Mr. Adcock, “ On the Metropolis of the Moorlands.”

,, 25th.—Mr. Bird, ** On the Caster Oil Plant.”

May 2nd.—Rev. E. Myers, “On the Strata examined by the
Members in the Excursion, April 17th, 1865.”

», 28rd.—Mr. L. Percival, “On the Coal-fields of South Stafford-

shire,” 2nd paper.

,, 80th.—Dr. Foster, “ On the Study of Anthropology.”

June 6th.—Mr. Thos. Fiddian, ‘“‘ On the Dodo.”
» 18¢h.—Dr. Norris, ‘On Nervous Tissue.’
,, 20th.— Mr. E. Simpson, “ On a Prolific Pond on Wandsworth
Common.”
» 27th.—Mr. C. Allen and Mr. G. Percival, “On the Mollusca
in the neighbourhood of Birmingham.”
July 4th.—Mr. Adcock, “ On the Freshwater Aquarium.”
,, 11th.— Mr. H. Webb, “ On Desmidiz and Confervoid Alga.”
., 25th—Dr. James Hinds, “On the Anatomy of Bivalve
Molluscs.”
Aug. 1st.—Mr. G. Price, “ On Noxious Insects.” —
,, L5th.— Rev. E. Myers, ‘‘ On the Moon.”
», 22nd.—Mr. W. H. Prosser, “ On Suggestions for the better
Preservation of Birds’ Eggs.”
» 29th.—Dr. Foster, “On the Varieties of Mankind, dealing
principally with the Anatomical Classification.”
Oct. 3rd.— Mr. Gansby, “ What is an Insect ?”

» L7th.—Mr. D. Smith, ‘‘ On Terrestrial Radiation.”

» 24th —Mr. Thos. Fiddian, “ On a Six Weeks’ Tour in Anda

lusia in July and August last.”

», 8lst.—Mr, Simpson, “On Special Organs of Insects.””

198 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Nov. 14¢h.—Mr. Buckley, “ On the Avocet.”
» 21st—Mr. Jephcott, “ Notes on a Ramble in West Somerset-
shire during August last.”
», 28th.—Mr. H. 8. Scallick, “On the Capture, Setting-up, and
Preservation of Insects.”
Dec. 5th.—Mr. W. Prosser, “ On the Egg of the Dinornis ingens,
lately offered for sale in London.”
,, 19th.—Mr. Hughes, “ On Pipe Fishes.”
1866.
Jan. 23rd.—Mr. Scott,“ On Birds’ Nests, and their Construction.”
,, 30¢th.—Mr. Bird, “ On the Application of Animal Substances
- to Industrial Life.”
Feb. 6th.—Mr. H. 8. Scallick, “On the Various Habits of Lepi-
dopterous Insects,” 1st series.
,, 20th.—Mr. 8S. Allport, “ On Encrinites.”’
, 27th.—Mr. F. Enoch, “ Upon the Breeding of Insects.”
March 6th—Mr. Thos. Fiddian, “On the Solitaire of Frangois
Leguet.”’
y 27th.—Mr. E. Simpson, “ On British Birds.”
April 10th—Mr. J. Morley and Mr. J. Pumphrey, “On a Tour
in North Wales in Search of Zrichomanes radicans.”
,, 238rd.—Mr. Cotton, “ On Moss Agates.”
May 22nd.—Mr. H. Scallick, “ On the Various Habits of Lepi-
dopterous Insects,” 2nd series.

OBITUARY.

DR. ROBERT KAYE GREVILLE, F.R.S.E.

WE depart from our ordinary rule of not noticing the death of
distinguished men, as those who contribute to our pages usually
find a place in the annual address of the President of the Micro-
scopical Society. In Dr. R. K. Greville, however, the world has
not only lost a distinguished botanist, and a good and a great
man, but we have lost a contributor whose place we cannot hope
to supply, and whose contributions have been more numerous
and more constant, and, we believe we may add without offend-’
ing any one, more valuable, than any other papers in our pages.
These papers have been entirely devoted to the Diatomacesx, and
present a series of minute and careful observations in these
minute organisms such as has scarcely been presented during the
same time in any other department of natural history. The
illustrations of Dr. Greyille’s observations were all made under
his own superintendence, from the beautiful and accurate draw-
ings of his own pencil.

He was born at Bishop Auckland, in Durham, on the 13th of
December, 1794. He was much interested in plants at an early
age; before he was nineteen he had prepared carefully coloured
drawings of upwards of 250 of the native plants. He was in-
tended for the medical profession, and studied in Edinburgh and
London ; but circumstances having rendered him independent of
this profession as a means of livelihood, he did not submit to an
examination, and determined to devote himself to the study of
botany. In 1824 the University of Glasgow conferred on him the
degree of LL.D. He delivered several courses of popular lec-
tures on zoology and botany, and formed large collections of
plants and insects, which were eventually purchased by the
University of Edinburgh. A change having taken place in his
circumstances, he took up landscape-painting as a profession, and
several of his pictures are to be seen in well-known collections.
Dr. Greville took a very warm interest in many social reforms
and in various schemes of Christian philanthropy ; and, as in
natural history, whatever subject he undertook he devoted to it all
his energies and talents. He took a prominent part in the agita-
tion against slavery in the Colonies ; he was one of the four Vice-

200 OBITUARY.

Presidents of the great Anti-Slavery Association of all countries
held in London in 1840. His published works are very nume-
rous: amongst the most valued are the ‘Flora Edinensis,’
‘Scottish Cryptogamic Flora,’ ‘Alge Britannice,’ and, in con-
junction with Sir W. J. Hooker, ‘Icones Filicum,’ besides numerous
papers in various scientific journals. He was Honorary Secretary
of the Botanical Society and a Fellow of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh ; an Honorary Member of the Royal Irish Academy, of
the Imperial Academy Nature Curiosorum, and of the Natural
History Society of Leipzig; Corresponding Member of the Natural
History Societies of Paris, Cherbourg, Brussels, Philadelphia, &e.

He died at his house in Edinburgh on the 4th of June. Seldom
has a naturalist retained such peculiar powers of observation to so
great an age. We heard from him only a few weeks ago, promising
further contributions to his latterly favorite group of organisms,
the Diatomacee. Our present number contains a paper read at
a recent meeting of the Microscopical Society of London, and
another has since been received, which will be published in our
next number.

ORIGINAL COMMUNICATIONS.

Nete on an Unpiscrisep Species of Acarus, found in
the Picron, Columba livia. By Cuartres Rosertson,
Demonstrator of Anatomy, Oxford.

(Communicated to the Oxford Microscopical Society, Feb. 15, 1866.)

Tue parasites which I shall briefly describe are small, oval,
white, maggot-like animals, distinctly visible to the naked
eye, and are found chiefly amongst the connective-tissue of
the skin, the large veins near the heart, and on the surface of
the pericardium. When few are found they generally adhere
closely to the surface of the pericardium, and to the large veins
near the heart. If the veins have been previously injected
with size and vermilion, the white transparent acari are
seen very distinctly on their red delicate walls. All the
examples which I have examined were very transparent
without any trace of well-defined digestive or generative
organs, even when examined with the highest powers.
The body does not generally present any trace of constric-
tions, but in a few examples I have observed one or two faint
lines, giving the body a segmented appearance, but this may
be caused by a mere folding of the soft cuticle. On the ante-
rior and inferior surface of the body a ridge extends inwards
and downwards from the base of the anterior pair of legs, and
unites with a median single backward ridge. A similar ridge
runs in the same direction from the base of the second pair
of legs; but instead of meeting, as in the first pair in the
median line, are united by a transverse ridge, and a similar
ridge is continued backwards from the points where this line
joins those from the limbs. This arrangement reminds one
of the head of the larva of a hexapod insect. No trace of
palpi, mandibles, or suckers could be found. Four pairs of
short, jointed legs were found in all the specimens examined ;
the two anterior pairs are placed close together, on the ante-
rior and outer extremity of the body ; the two posterior pairs
have a considerable interval between them and the anterior

VOL, VII.—NEW SER. P

202 ROBERTSON, ON A SPECIES OF ACARUS.

pairs, and are attached to a hard sternum-like mass, situated
about the middle of the body, in the median line. Each leg
consists of five short joints, the terminal of which is straight,
pointed, and slightly hooked. A few hairs project from the
sides of the body and the outer surface of the legs. The last

Fig. 2. Fig. 1.

ow!
¢

°,

°
°

°
O.% 9

pore
i)
; ake}
SQor0% fos
oO re O°

Ons

Fig.
1.—Portion of jugular vein of a pigeon, Columba livia, with a large num-
ber of Acari attached to its walls. Natural size.
2.—Ventral surface of Acarus. About 100 diameters.
3.—Ventral surface of the head of the same. About 400 diameters.
4,—The two posterior pairs of legs, and the sternum-like mass into which
they are inserted. About 400 diameters.

joints of the legs have a considerable number of longer hairs,
which come out all round the insertion of the hooked
extremity.

From the above description it will be seen that this
acarus agrees with sarcoptes in having a considerable
interval between the second and third pairs of legs, and the
absence of a furrow between them.

I have seen during last vear, in the dissecting-room of the
Museum, three pigeons affected with the’securious parasites,
one in February and two in June.* It is rather remarkable
that all the examples which I have examined should have
eight legs, and the other parts presenting appearances com-
mon to all. I hope shortly to meet with them in an earlier
stage of development.

* T have since examined a considerable number of both the wood and the
tame pigeon, and have seldom found them free from Acari.

ARCHER ON CYLINDROCYSTIS, ETC. 203

Montagu* has described a species of acarus very similar
to this, which he says is constantly found, together with the
ova, in the cellular membrane of the Gannet Pelicanus
Bassanus. It is named by Montagu Cellularia Bassani.

OssERVATIONS on the GRNERA CyLinpRocystis (Meneghini),
Mesoranium (Nag.), ard Spirorania (Bréb.) (= Pat-
MOGL@A, Kiutz., pro maxima parte), mainly induced by a
paper by Dr. J. Braxton Hicks, F.RS., F.0.S., on the
Lower Forms of Alge.t+ By Wiitiam Arcuer.t

In a paper which I had the honour to read before this
Society, in the session preceding last, on the genus
Palmoglea (Kiitz.),§ I took the opportunity to bring before
your notice the Irish forms. of that genus, or rather those
forms by which Kiitzing would have been referred to it, but
which, as I then stated, and as I still apprehend, belong
more naturally to several individually distinct but closely
related genera. I gave at the same time what may be
called, in some measure, an analysis of the genus Palmogloea
(Kiitz.), with regard to at least the majority of the forms
therein included by that algologist.

Dr. Hicks does that communication the honour of a special
paper, in which he expatiates at some length on the validity
of the characters which may seem available for the classifica-
tion of the “ unicellular” Algze, and in doing so he touches
upon some of the points alluded to by me.|| This able
observer has had large experience amongst those humble
forms; and I have always perused his communications with
all the attention to which they are so eminently entitled,
and with all the interest they are always so well calculated
to excite, as well as with all the gratification their richness
in noyel information is sure to impart.

The paper in which Dr. Hicks does my previous one the
honour of a notice abounds with observations full of im-

aa aig of the Wernerian Natural History Society,’ vol. i, 1808,
. + Remarks on Mr. Archer’s Paper on Alge, in ‘Quarterly Journal of
Microscopical Science,’ N. 8., Vol. XII, p. 253.

~ Read before the Natural History Society of Dublin, May 5, 1865.

§ * Proceedings of the Natural History Society of Dublin,’ vol. v, p. 12;
also ‘Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Scieuce,’ N.8., Vol. IV, p. 109

1864).
I sistant Journal of Microscopical Science, N. S., Vol. XIT, p. 253

204: ARCHER, ON CYLINDROCYSTIS,

portance, and in it he propounds many pertinent queries.
As he, however, differs with me in some of the opinions put
forward in my paper, which, indeed, I do not yet see reason
to change, and as I am, on the other hand, quite disposed to
agree In a great measure with him on certain other points
put forward by him, though not referred to by me in my
previous paper, I may, perhaps, be allowed again to offer a”
few observations on the subject.

Bat I must in limine contend, inasmuch as my paper was
not on Palmellaceze in general, but on the genus Palmogloea
(Kiitz.) in particular, that much of the reasoning and many
of the questions propounded by Dr. Hicks do not therefore
apply to, nor do they, I think, at all controvert, my therein-
expressed views. And it is for this reason that I say I
venture in some points to disagree from, and in others to
agree with, Dr. Hicks ; forif we conceive Palmoglcea (Kitz.),
or, more properly speaking, the three genera Cylindrocystis
(Meneghini), Mesotzenium (Nag.), and Spirotenia (Bréb.),
which, indeed, were the actual subjects of my paper, to be
eliminated from the question, | thnk I must in a measure
acquiesce in his views, though without at all consenting as
yet to accept them in the aggregate.

Dr. Hicks puts forward the title of my paper—“< An
Endeavour to identify Palmoglea macrococca (Kiitz.)”—as,
in itself, some argument for the want of stability in the
Palmoglcean species. Considering this uncertainty as regards
these forms as unquestionable, he would from them, as a
starting-point, argue as regards Palmellaceze generally. It
is true that he attacks the independence of many of that
family elsewhere on far better grounds; and it seems to me
that arguments against the independence of the species of
Cylindrocystis, Mesotzenium, and Spirotenia, would at least
be more forcible if made through the Palmellacez than are
arguments made against the Palmellaceze in general based
upon the forms included im the three genera mentioned.
For, irrespective of the question of the Palmellacez in
general, I believe, at least as far as present knowledge goes,
that these three genera seem to hold themselves quite dis-
tinct, and their species to reproduce themselves by what I
must regard as a true generative act. And that I entitled
my paper “ An Endeavour to identify Palmoglea macrococca
(Kiitz.)” seems to me not to conflict with this view, nor at
all to indicate that I thought it did. If Ktitzing’s descrip-
tions of these forms are so scanty, and his figures so defec-
tive (1 say it with all deference, and with much reverence for
so indefatigable and experienced an observer)—if the diagnoses

MESOTANIUM, AND SPLROTANIA. 205

for the species given by him are but superficial, and the in-
trinsic and peculiar characteristics of the forms neglected—
what else could it be but an endeavour to identify recent
living examples with his? Is not, indeed, like difficulty
often experienced in identifying species from descriptions,
and especially if accompanied by insufficient figures, in other
‘departments of nature, where many and more readily avail-
able characters and more tangible holdpoimts present them-
selves, but which difficulty would probably be removed by the
inspection of fresh authentic specimens? The difficulty of
identifying these particular forms ranking themsclves under
the three genera in question with those from which Kiitzing
wrote his descriptions does not, I apprehend, in itself speak
against their individuality and distinctness; and the species
themselves included in these genera are indeed, after all, but
few. It is true that Kiitzing himself, even in regard to alee
far higher, and as to some of which an claborate reproductive
organization is now known, considered them not a species (I
mean in the commonly understood old sense, and as Kiitzing
himself would doubtless apply the word to the higher plants),
but as merely forms. Yet, even in “ Palmoglea” Kiitzing
recoguises the differences from his specimens, though I think
he fails to seize upon those of importance, or successfully to
portray them either with his pen or pencil.

Again, Dr. Hicks seems to say, because the plant (distinct
in itself, at least) which I would refer to Palmoglea macro-
cocca (Kiitz.) truly belongs to Mesotwnium (Nag.), one of
several genera into which the genus Palmogleea (Kiitz.) should
be divided, that such a circumstance in itself would seem to
argue for the complete uncertainty of any of the forms in-
cluded by Kiitzing in his genus. If we have now a more
accurate knowledge of the individual forms of Kiitzing’s
genus and their intrinsic characteristics, than that distin-
guished algologist appears to have had when he wrote, per-
haps from his not having always examined living specimens,
it is surely not very wonderful that it should be necessary,
or at least that it should be advisable, to redistribute certain
minor groups of them, agreeing in certain common charac-
ters, into other genera. In order to illustrate this, indeed,
1 need but refer to the old multifarious genera, Conferva and
Lichen. Because the incongruous species formerly included
in these old and, as we now know, unnaturally comprehensive
genera have had to be parcelled out here and there according
to the special characteristics and affinities of each, notwith-
standing blanks in our knowledge as regards even many of
the smaller groups, it has not happened that this task has

206 ARCHER, ON CYLINDROCYSTIS,

been in many respects, or on the whole, quite a hopeless one.
Nor do I think, so far as I can see, that the breaking up of
the species of the genus Palmogloea which fall under’ Cylin-
drocystis, Mesotzenium, and Spirotzenia, has been quite un-
successful ; nor can I see how the advisability of the step
can in itself be adduced as an argument as to the uncertainty
of those forms, but should rather regard it as a natural conse-
quence of their characters being happily better established ; the
others formerly included in Palmoglcea have to be carried else-
where—one, I think, at least, to Chroceoccacez ; and their true
nature, I quite admit, does not seem at all so well established.

Further, Dr. Hicks goes on to remark—‘‘If by one ob-
server the envelope of mucoid matter be taken as a specific
or even generic sign—if the mode of segmentation be taken
by another as of specific or generic value—if the size of the
cell, or the position of the nucleus, or the mode of diffusion
of the endochrome within the cell, be sufficient in the eyes
of another to separate genera—if, as Mr. Archer contends,
the oval shape is another important distinction—it seems to
me no wonder that the difficulty acknowledged by all has
arisen.” These remarks are intended to be applied to the
genus Palmogloea; and I quite acquiesce with their author,
that no wonder the difficulty adverted to should have arisen,
when each single observer pays attention to one only of such
characteristics, disregarding all the rest. The genera Cylin-
drocystis, Mesotzenium, and Spirotznia (which are those in
question), each, it is true, possesses an envelope of mucoid
matter, but it indeed exists also in many Palmellacez, as well
as Chroococcacez, likewise in Desmidiacee, &c. The trans-
verse mode of segmentation—that is, through the shorter
diameter—occurring in these genera, takes place also in Des-
midiaceze, in the elongate forms of Palmellacez, as well as
of Chroococcacee. The oval shape, too, is shared by the
forms in question with several other forms in both those
families. The size of the cell likewise varies in these plants,
within certain limits, in the same species. The nucleus is
very hard to be made out—indeed, I doubt if it is always to
be perceived or existent even in Palmellacez. Nevertheless,
I hold that the forms in question are abundantly distinct ;
and that, when the eye becomes familiarised with them, they
can beat once recognised. It is, of course, here as elsewhere,
on the special characters possessed in common by certain
groups of the species, combined with certain of the foregoing
general characters, and not upon any one or more of the
general chaaacters, as suggested by Dr. Hicks, that we must
rely as of generic value, and on the ultimate individual proper

MESOTHNIUM, AND SPIROTANIA. 207

characteristics of the forms themselves as of specific import-
ance. The special characters, which, as I think, here deter-
mine the genera, exist in the peculiar arrangement of the
contents, combined with certain of the general characters
previously alluded to; whilst I believe the specific characters
reside in the peculiar form of the cell, and in minor differ-
ences in the arrangement of the contents, and in difference of
colour, &c., perceptible to the unassisted eye in the general
mass or stratum.

Again, Dr. Hicks seems to convey, because of the difficulty
(for the reasons before stated) of assigning some of these
forms to the particular ones described under Palmogleea by
Kiitzing, and from there having been actually (as I conceive)
included under that common gencric denomination five
diverse types, that therefore “ no one algologist can tell dis-
tinctly what is a Palmogloea, so as to be understood by any
other algologist.”” I venture deferentially to deprecate this,
as it appears to me much too hasty a conclusion. T[ must, in
reply, urge that if many of the now well-established species
formerly comprehended under the old incongruous genus
Conferva were still referred to under the original designa-
tions, and recent researches upon the forms alluded to mo-
mentarily forgotten or ignored, that it is still more probable
no one algologist could, under such circumstances, tell what
was meant by another algologist. But if our plants be
closely examined from their living examples, and de Bary’s
descriptions and figures thereof carefully studied by any two
algologists, I hardly think there will be any difficulty between
them in understanding what the other means when; he refers
to a Cylindrosystis, a Mesotzenium, or a Spiroteenia.

Dr. Hicks does not see how I can find sufficient ground to
state that the condition of a developing lichen figured by him
is not a “ macrococca ””?—that is, as 1 am disposed to think
more correctly designated, an ex ample of Mesotenium chlamy-
dosporum (de Bary). I judge from the figure ; and I think,
as I stated, because it seems to me, so far as I may venture
to judge, to represent something at once sufficiently unlike
both the form with which I am acquainted, as well as
Kiitzing’s description and figures of his P. macrococca, as to
justify me in that assumption.

Again, as if it were to a certain extent evidence of the
total instability of these forms, Dr. Hicks alludes to my
being by no means certain what he means by Palmoglea
Brébissonii, because I questioned whether the plant he has in
view as Palmog glwa macrococca is the same as Palmella
cylindrospora (Bréb.), considered by Mr. Ralfs as equivalent

208 ARCHER, ON CYLINDROCYSTIS,

to his Penium Brebissonii, and of which Dr. Hicks writes :—
“So far as can be ascertained, Mr. Thwaites calls Cocco-
chloris Brebissonii, although Mr. Archer thinks he means
Trichodictyon rupestre (Kiitz.) ; the exact characters of this
form, it will thus be seen, are by no means settled by any
one of these observers.””’ Dr. Hicks writes, indeed, “ this
form ;” but the supposed confusion is partly accounted for by
the fact, that there are two distinct forms referred to under
the foregoing names, and two forms which, as I hold, when
once seen cannot readily again be confounded; for, even
though the characters assigned to each should not be found
presenting themselyes in every specimen with absolutely un-
mistakeable clearness, that is, if unhealthy or deteriorated
specimens should again come under consideration—yet I
believe a certain tout ensemble will, even under such circum-
stances, readily satisfy the eye familiarized with their
appearance in their ordinary and healthy condition of their
distinctness inter se. The plants adverted to under the
names quoted by Dr. Hicks, but adopting here the names
which I regard as the correct ones, are Cylindrocystis Bre-
bissonii, Meneghini, and Cylindrocystis crassa, de Bary. Dr.
Hicks, indeed, says, as I have quoted, that ‘‘the exact cha-
racters are by no means settled by any one of these observers.”
I may venture to refer to my own previous efforts to describe
their generic characters, and I can only appeal therefrom
directly to the fresh specimens themselves.

Dr. Hicks writes that—“ The question, first of all, arises,
how is a single cell to be distinguished from another single
cell? What reliable characters are to be fixed upon which
can be considered as of generic value?” If he propounds
these questions as regards the old genus Palmogleea, or rather
as regards the three genera already quoted, I should have
ventured to think that my previous paper was an answer in
anticipation. Though in a diffuse way indeed, I think the
descriptions there given may be found to contain the characters
enabling an observer to decide to which, ¢#f to any, of the
three genera, Cylindrocystis, Mesotzenium, and Spirotznia, a
single cell belongs. Dr. Hicks asks—‘‘ How can we tell
whether it be a fixed form, a separate entity, or merely a
transitional form of some other growth?” Again I venture
to reply, if this question be put as regards the forms imme-
diately under consideration, that I should be disposed to say
(so far, I think, as our present knowledge goes), that a suffi-
cient answer is, that they each reproduce their like by a
conjugative act, thus renewing the species. For, inasmuch
as conjugation must be looked upon as a true generative act,

MESOTZNIUM, AND SPIROTANIA. 209

as I regard it, we must suppose that this takes place when
the plant has reached the end of its existence, and has arrived
at the ultimate stage in its history—that is when it is at
maturity—each of the conjugating pair of cells surrendering
individual existence in giving origin, by the union of their
contents, to the spore from which is to be evolved the
primordial individuals of the next generation.

And this leads to an important point in the argument,
bearing on the difference of opinion between Dr. Hicks and
myself on the matter immediately in question—I mean, the
value or import to be attributed to the conjugative act, as to
which point I feel bound altogether to agree with Professor
de Bary.*

Dr. Hicks considers it “merely an act of fusion ”— that is
certaily a brief but true definition of the simple act in itself;
but it is not the modus operandi of the mere act that is in
dispute, but the physiological significance or import of that
act. From his saying that is “merely an act of fusion, not
of impregnation,”+ I infer that he conceives that it has no
special significancy. But can a phenomenon which has been
going on for years and years uncountable, since Conjugate
were—restricted, with a few exceptions, as it is, to the group
so denominated, and the Diatomaceze—be simply accidental,
and quite devoid of all significancy? I cannot believe it
reasonable to suppose that it should be so.

I believe that the phenomenon of conjugation can be re-
garded as nothing less than an indication of a distinction
between germ-cell and sperm-cell, the humblest manifestation
(it may be) of a difference of sex, which becomes by degrees
more and more forcibly pronounced in the higher organisms,
yet in none more firmly established, nor more conclusively
settled, and that by direct observation, than in some of the
lower Algze, which, by reason of their simple structure, range
themselves (along with the Conjugatz) in the group of Con-
fervoidee. It may be urged, indeed, that the conjugating
cells show no so great differentiation either in organization,
dimensions, or appearance, as do the spermatozoids of those
Algze in which they have been discovered, from the germ-
cells which it is their function to fertilize. This to a large
extent is granted; but, nevertheless, a certain amount of
specialization of certain conjugating cells in some forms does
occur, pointing to something more than a mere fusion, with-
out any significance. Indeed, the conditions which accompany

She

* Untersuchungen tiber die Familie der Conjugaten.’
+ ‘Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,’ N. S., Vol. I, p. 18.

210 ARCHER, ON CYLINDROCYSTIS,

conjugation in the different forms present a series, in their
way, almost as varied as do the germ-cells and spermatozoids
of other Algze—not so pronounced, it is true, but still point-
ing, I think, to an analogy.

It will be proper, in pursuance of the argument, to advert
to some of the varied examples ; but, in the first place, it will
be advisable briefly to draw attention to certain cases where
a true fertilisation has been proved in other families, and then
to compare that act and its results with some of the Conju-
gate.

In Vaucheria there exists a large globose germ-cell, and
exceedingly minute, very numerous elongate spermatozoids,
both elements of the fructification originating in neighbour-
ing specially formed branches of the tubular filament, these
not distinguishable at their first commencement from one
another, or, indeed, from ordinary branches, though afterwards
so highly differentiated. Here the difference m form and
size between the germ- and sperm-cell is very great, and the
resultant spore developes directly into a new plant. The
difference of opinion between observers (Karsten,* Prings-
heim,+ Dippel{) as to the modus operandi of the fertilisation
in this genus does not seem to bear on the immediate ques-
tion; for, whether the “ hornlets” (antheridia) actually inos-
culate with the openings of the oogonia or not, the essential
circumstance seems to be the union of the contents of the
two organs. I certainly never have encountered any Vau-
cheria in which any such inosculation of the two organs
seemed to exist, and Pringsheim’s account appears to be the
most trustworthy.

Again, in Spheroplea the cell-contents of the very long
ordinary joint of a particular filament become broken up into
a number of rounded germ-cells ; and the contents of another
ordinary joint become broken up into an innumerable number
of little biciliated subfusiform spermatozoids, which latter
find their way out of their parent-cell, and into the cavity of
the joimt which contains the germ-cells, through lateral open-
ings in each. ‘The fertilised oospore eventually developes
two coats, the outer beset with spme-like extensions. Here
the difference in size and appearance between the germ- and
sperm-cells is less than in Vaucheria, whilst the resemblance
of the parent-cells in which they originate is still greater,

* Karsten, in ‘ Botanische Zeitung,’ x, p. 85 (1852).

+ Pringsheim, in ‘ Berichte der Berl. Akademie.’

{ Dippel, “Ueber der Fortpflanzung der Vaucheria sessilis,” in ‘ Flora,’
1856, pp. 481, 497. q

MESOTANIUM, AND SPIROTHNIA. 211

being, im fact, but two ordinary, in no way previously special-
ised, joints of the filament.*

In CGidogonium, varied as are the conditions between mo-
neecious, gynandrosporous, and dicecious, under which the
essential elements concerned in the reproduction present
themselves, there seems to be still less difference, on the
whole, in form and size of the spermatozoid and the oogonium
themselves, than in the other cases adverted to.

In dogonium curvum but one spermatozoid is formed in
each antheridium-cell, and, like the oospore, it is globular ;
and although there is a considerable difference in size between
the two, in this respect they much more nearly approach than
in the previously cited cases; that is, though, of course, equally
physiologically distinct, they are more nearly morphologically
equivalent. In Gdogonium Cleve has shown that the oospore
in germination produces, by segmentation of its contents, four
daughter-cells, which become ciliated, and swim away as
zoospores to reproduce the species;+ while for Bulbochete,
whose fructification is gynandrosporous, Pringsheim had pre-
viously shown that here also four daughter-cells are developed
from the oospores, which become zoospores, and reproduce
the plant.

These, then, are unquestioned and unquestionable instances
of a true generative act. It would be useless, as regards the
subject under consideration, to travel out of Confervoidze for
further illustrative cases where a true reproduction is effected
by spermatozoids and oospores, because we should be unne-
cessarily receding in the system from Conjugate.

Now, in the cases which I have just so briefly alluded to,
more or less varied as may be the accompanying conditions,
simple or complex, or more or less specialised as may be the
accessory organization, the one pervading essential circum-
stance in the phenomenon beyond doubt seems to be the ma-
terial union, the flowing into one, the simple fusion, of at
least two primordial cells.

Now, what /ess than this is the act of conjugation in our
Cylindrocystis and Mesoteenium ?

It may be, perhaps, answered that neither of the two con-
jugating cells is ciliated, and that they are apparently mor-

* Cohn, ‘ Berichte der Berl. Akad.,’? 1855; also ‘Ann. des Sciences Na-
turelles,’ 4 ser., vi. p. 187 ; and ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ 2 ser., vii. p. 81.

+ Cleve, “Iakttagelser 6fver den hvilande Gidogoniums-sporens utveck-
ling,” in ‘Ofversigt af Kongl. Vetenskabs Akademiens Forhandlingar,’
Stockholm, 1863, p. 247.

+ Pringsheim, ‘ Beitrige zur Morphologie und Systematik der Algen,”’
in ‘ Jahrbicher fiir wissenschaftliche Botanik,’ Band i, p. 55.

212 ARCHER, ON CYLINDROCYSTIS,

phologically equivalent —that two cells only co-operate, whilst
many spermatozoids may take a share in the fertilisation of
a single oospore. I can only say that these objections refer
to conditions which seem to be in a measure accidental, and
unessential in a physiological point of view. The mechanism
of conjugation, if I may so express myself, does not require
the special organization on the part of the primordial cells
engaged in the act, which are found in Vaucheria, Sphzro-
plea, some Cidogonia, &c. In these greater or less numbers
of ciliated spermatozoids are produced—ciliated, probably,
because they have a distance to travel—often in multitudes,
to insure that some may ultimately find their way to the
oospore ; whereas in the Conjugatze two cells about to con-
jugate lie side by side, and are mostly joined by an inter-
vening canal, formed by the walls of the parent cells, through
which the protoplasmic contents are guided, and pass over by
means of their own innate contractility, when acted upon by
the marvellous impulse to coalesce the one with the other.
Again, as to but two primordial cells co operating in the act
of conjugation, whilst many (the spermatozoids) may unite
with one (the oospore) in the other cases cited, the mechanism
of conjugation, if no other reason, places a bar to this. I
have, indeed, in such free forms of Conjugate as Closterium
and Staurastrum, seen three individuals conjugated, forming
a single zygospore—nay, it sometimes happens in Zygnema
that the lateral processes of two joints mosculate with a
single joit of a neighbouring filament, three cells thus co-
operating in the conjugation. These, however, are quite ex-
ceptional, perhaps even abnormal, cases. But this argument,
even if adduced, I should regard as quite groundless, as it is,
I presume, quite physiologically possible that one spermato-
zoid might fertilise one germ-cell. Nay, even supposing that
it always required the united co-operation of several sperma-
tozoids to fertilise one germ-cell of so much greater volume
than one of themselves, might it not be supposed that, by
reason of the more nearly or altogether equivalent volume of
the two conjugating cells, the force or potency would be
sufficient without the co-operation of a greater number, not
to speak of the mechanical impossibility in most cases, or of
the unnatural dimensions which a zygospore must assume, if
formed by the union of a number of so comparatively large
ordinary cells?

But, even though it be reiteration of already known facts,
in pursuance of our argument, it will be well momentarily to
carry on our examination of the phenomenon of conjugation
from Cylindrocystis and Mesotenium into other genera of

MESOTENIUM, AND SPIROTENIA. 213

the family, and briefly to trace some of the modifications
displayed, and to consider how far they bear upon the ques-
tion. In these we find a certain greater or less amount of
complexity in the conditions contemporaneous with, and
subsequent to, the act, which are so constant in their recur-
rence as, I think, strongly to evidence, when we consider it,

that the phenomenon is by no means casual or insignificant.

In the first place, in our genus Mesotzenium the process
of conjugation takes place by a protrusion and simple fusion
of the primordial utricles and contents of each pair of cells,
the parent-cell-wall slipping off in the act, and becoming
discarded, and finally dissolved. The conjugating cells lie
in a great variety of positions, and the different zygospores
are, of course, at first of very varying outlines ; but eventually
they assume externally a subquadrate or elliptic figure, and
a proper cell-wall. Again, in Cylindrocystis mutual lateral
processes of the two conjugating cells are put forth, which
inosculate, permitting the fusion of the cell-contents of each.
The isthmus between the two gradually grows wider, until
the zygospore, from a form somewhat like an H or an X,
by-and-by assumes a subquadrate outline; eventually, the
walls of the parent-cells giving way at their suture, and
becoming by degrees thrown off, the zygospores *having
acquired a proper cell-wall. In neither genus does the
zygospore bear spines. In the germination of the zygospore,
in both genera, there are developed four daughter-cells, each
of which becomes the primordial individual of a new cycle,
thus reproducing the species.

Now, these cases—those of the plants in question, which I
have thus so briefly alluded to—seem to present the simplest
conditions in which the phenomenon of conjugation occurs.
Here the contents of two cells, seemingly morphologically
equivalent, and apparently of similar value, become fused
‘ into one, outside either parent cell; and it is at least note-
worthy that the first result of the fusion of the two distinct
primordial cells, as, indeed, in all cases of conjugation, is the
formation of a new cellulose wall round each zygospore pro-
duced by the act; and this is precisely what takes place
when the oospore in Vaucheria, Gidogonium, Spheroplea,
&c., becomes fertilised by the spermatozoids. Likewise, the
circumstance of the zygospore of Cylindrocystis and Meso-
tenium producing in germination four daughter-cells has its
analogy in the same behaviour in the germination of the
oospore of (dogonium and Bulbochxte—which fact thus, so
far as it goes, seems to point to the conclusion that in each
they are the result of a similar act. The daughter-cells, or

214 ARCHER, ON CYLINDROCYSTIS,

primary cells of the following generation, however, in each
differ in what I should but regard as a secondary and un-
essential circumstance, in that in Gidogonium and Bulbo-
chete they are for a time motile, whilst in the parallel
degree of development of the spore of Cylindrocystis and
Mesotzenium they are, as always, still.

Examples of conditions nearly as simple are presented by
many Desmidiacee, but also conditions more complex are
met with in various species, to enter into detail here as to
which would, however, be superfluous. Many of the zygo-
spores become, as is well known, furnished with variously
fashioned spine and processes, which circumstance seems to
me probably to find a parallel in the less developed ones of
(Edogonium echinospermum. As is well known, very varied
conditions are to be met with appertaining to, and charac-
teristic of, various species. Thus, the spinous or non-spinous
zygospores—the simple or variously branched spimes—the
orbicular, or quadrate, or characteristically lobed figure of
the zygospore—the relative positions of the conjugating pairs
of individuals—the, so to say, double spore of -Closterium
lineatum—the conjugation following immediately on self-
division in Closterium Ehrenbergiu, C. Pritchardianum—the
complete and persistent fusion of the parent-membrane in
Hyalotheca dissilens, Closterium parvulum—the remote outer
coat of the spore of Tetmemorus levis, &c., besides minor
specialities of detail proper to the various forms—all these.
can hardly be considered as the accompaniments of an acci-
dental phenomenon, in itself meaning nothing, and destitute
of significancy.

But, in pursuing onward our examination of the conjuga-
tive process and its results, the behaviour in Didymoprium
Grevillii, in which species, of two conjugating filaments, the
cells of one are always the receiving, those of the other the
giving, cells in the conjugative act, leads us to Spirogyra, in
which these conditions are constant. In this latter genus the
receiving cell frequently assumes an enlarged and different
figure, often preparatory to, and in anticipation of, the acces-
sion of the contents of the giving cell, thus, I think, exhibit-
ing a certain significant amount of differentiation.

In Spirogyra and Zygnema, as is well known, the act of
germination consists in the inner coat of the zygospore ex-
panding and bursting off the outer, and, while extending in
length, becoming transversely divided by a septum, the lower
cell remaining always undivided as a “ root-cell,” the upper
becoming the first ordinary joint of the new plant, thus dif-
fering from Cylindrocystis and Mesotenium. But in this

MESOTANIUM, AND SPIROTANIA. 215

characteristic we have to some extent an analogy in Vaucheria,
whose fertilised oospore does not develop daughter-cells, each
to give origin to so many new individuals, but grows at once
into a single new plant, unicellular, of course, like its parent.

But, notwithstanding all these so varied, more or less com-
plex conditions, it may, perhaps, be still urged that, after all,
such conjugation is but the union of the contents of two
morphologically equivalent cells.

To this objection the conditions in the genus Sirogonium
seem to afford a valid answer.

Two ordinary joints of a filament in Sirogonium mutually
send out short processes, as in Spirogyra, which become
united ; thereupon there ensues the formation of a septum
(similarly to that of the vegetative cell) in each of these
united cells. In one this septum, however, unlike the septum
of a simply vegetating cell, divides the mother-cell into two
very unequal daughter-cells, the larger of which becomes ex-
ternally expanded. This larger expanded daughter-cell is that
one which bears the extension joining it to the other opposite
conjugating cell, and is constantly the receiving cell—that is,
the one ultimately to contain the zygospore. Its sister-cell
—the smaller one—remains sterile, being shut off from par-
cipating in the conjugation. The other opposite conjigating
cell also becomes divided by a septum into two daughter-cells,
a short and a long one; but in this instance it is the shorter
daughter-cell to which the extension joiming it to the other
conjugating cell belongs, and this cell is in conjugation con-
stantly the giving cell; its sister-cell—the larger one—
remains sterile, being shut off from participating in the
conjugation. The shorter or giving cell is itself sometimes
again divided into two, one of which daughter-cells is shut off
from participating in the conjugation. Speedily the contents
of the two connected cells become increased in quantity and
density, so as more nearly to fill the cells, quite unlike the
sparse, pale (yellowish-green), and narrow irregular bands
formed by the endochrome of the simply vegetative cells.
The contents of the two conjugated cells now become
contracted from the cell-wall; the intervening septum
of the tubular imosculated connecting processes becomes
resorbed ; the contents of the smaller of the two passes
over, as in Spirogyra, and becomes formed, within that of
the other, incorporating with its contents, into a zygospore.

Here, then, is a conjugation between two cells of not mor-
phologically equivalent, but which are evidently specialised
structures. Here the giving and receiving cells seem to be
as morphologically distinct as in Gdogonium curvum, in

216 ARCHER, ON CYLINDROCYSTIS,

which the antheridial cell gives birth to a single spermatozoid
not much smaller than the oospore, the main distinctive cir-
cumstance being, that in the latter the fertilising cell is
ciliated, making its exit from one, and its entrance into the
other, parent-cell by, an opening in each, whilst in the
former neither is ciliated ; and, besides, the parent-cells being
apart in the one, and joined together by firm inosculation in
the other.

It being admitted, then, that this case is one of a true
generative process, the reproductive elements being seemingly
well differentiated as germ-cell and sperm-cell, the transition
downwards through the various forms of Conjugate is easy
and natural to our Mesotznium and Cylindrocystis ; and it
seems to compel the admission that the process im all is a
manifestation of one and the same phenomenon, with one
and the same import.

But it may be further objected, that in many of the Con-
jugatz spores or spore-like bodies very similar to the true
zygospores, and from which young plants may be developed,
are formed without any conjugation at all. However, it
seems to me that these bodies may bear a relationship to the
ordinary zygospores, the same as that of the ordinary zoospore
of (dogonium and Bulbocheete to the four zoospores evolved
from the fertilised oospore; and both bear to the plants
which produce them an analogy similar to that of the buds,
bulbils, &c., of higher plants to their seeds. As to the so-
called “ Asteridia” (Thwaites), ‘‘ Asterophzria,” “‘ Sperma-
tospheria ” (Itzigsohn), &c., they are most probably parasitic
growths, and their true nature is as yet not at all under-
stood.

But Dr. Hicks intends his queries, first applied to Palmo-
gloea, to be extended to certain true Palmellacean forms; _
and, if applied to some of the lower forms of which, I am
free to own that they cannot be so easily answered, nor can
his objections be so readily met.

There is a point, however, which seems to be overlooked by
Dr. Hicks, and a consequent confounding of two apparently
essentially distinct groups fallen into. Dr. Hicks seems to
ignore the Family Chroococeacee as distinguished. from
Palmellacez ; thus, forms appertaining to Chroococcacez are
sometimes, as it appears to me, indiscriminately spoken of as
originating from some higher plant, whose endochrome is
chlorophll, and vice versd as regards Palmellacezee. Now, in
so far as we know, it seems a matter not at all to be
expected that such a transformation should take place ; that
is, I should be disposed to hold it exceedingly unlike that a

MESOTENIUM, AND SPIROTANIA. 217

chlorophyll-bearing lichen or moss should produce a phyco-
chrome-bearing Glcocapsa, and that, too, along with a
chlorophyll-bearing Palmoglea. Thus, Gleocapsa polyder-
matica surely belongs to Choococcacez, and could not be
regarded as proceeding from a chlorophyll-bearing lichen. A
Glceocapsa-form may possibly originate from a phycochrome-
bearing lichen—for instance, a collema; and I venture to
think that in many cases where Dr. Hicks speaks of Pal-
mellacez he means to refer to Chroococcacer. Many of the
forms included amongst the latter, I am myself disposed to
think, show a considerable amount of instability, and may
probably be but transitory or developmental stages of higher
plants. But then they must, I think, at least owe their
origin to phycochrome-containing plants—some, for instance
may be early stages of Scytonemez. On the other hand,
many of the forms seem to be very recognisable, and are fre-
quently met with, season after season, precisely like their
predecessors, and under the same circumstances ; and one
can often at a glance tell that a certain form under observa-
tion is exactly the same thing that one has seen before. But
this would not in itself be an argument that they may not be,
so to, speak, if the phrase be at all admissible, “ alternations of
generation ” of certain Lichens or of Scytonemez. In regard
to Palmellacez, such genera as Pleurococcus, Glceocystis, and
Palmella, if they are all actually but developmental stages of
higher forms, could at least originate only from chlorophyll-
bearing plants.

But, further, on the other hand, many of the Palmellacean
genera produce a very definite structure, even what may be
called a frond, and sometimes very definite forms of the indi-
vidual cells themselves. So readily do these specialities strike
the eye when once they have been seen, that on their recur-
rence they are at once recognisable. The generic names
Apiocystis, Schizochlamys, Palmodactylon, Tetraspora, Mo-
nostroma (Ulva in part), Dictyospherium, Oocardium,
Hormospora, Nephrocytium, Mischococcus, Ankistrodesmus
(Rhaphidium), Polyedrium, Cystococcus, Dactylococcus,
Characium, Ophiocytium, Scenedesmus, Pediastrum, Ccelas-
trum, Sorastrum, Eremosphera, and many more, all call to
mind, in a moment, forms which, some rarely, some frequently,
present themselves to notice, and maintaining their charac-
teristics, while at the same time no true generative process
has been discovered, reproducing themselves by diverse modes
of cell-division, by zoospores, by “brood-families,” &c. They
are also found maintaining their characters in various places ;
and I think it is not readily conceivable what yaried accidental

VOL, VII.—NEW SER. Q

218 ARCHER, ON CYLINDROCYSTIS,

concatenation of circumstances could, in so diverse localities,
force a certain supposed gonidium of a lichen or spore of a
moss now to develop into this well-defined form, now imto
that. Therefore, if,,on the one hand, such genera, perhaps, as
Chroococcus, Gleeocapsa, Synechococcus, Gloeothece (in
Chroococcaceze) and Pleurococcus, Gloeocystis and Palmella
(in Palmellaceze), seem, from Dr. Hicks’s researches, to be in
jeopardy, it surely appears to me as yet, not to speak of our
Sylindrocystis, Mesotzenium, and Spirotznia, that it would be
an incautious and too hasty conclusion to sweep away all
“ Palmellacez.’? Mere resemblance is not necessarily iden-
tity.

Dr. Hicks puts some queries as to the value of certain
characters of cells, as affording clues to their affinities—that
is, as to their use in a classification. Certainly no one character
can in any case be regarded as decisive, nor is such to be
expected. A combination of all, however, makes up a certain
tout ensemble, which often tells us that it is, at least, the same
form or phase of development one has seen before.

Size of the cells? It, no dowbt, varies within certain, often
characteristic, limits.

Position of nucleus? or of a starch-granule or a “vesicle”?
The former is seldem discernible, and it can, on that account,
rarely be of use; the latter, how constant and characteristic
in certain Desmidians, and many other Confervoids.

Disposition of chlorophyll? This is in certain stages of
very many forms a most useful character, e.g. Hormospora,
Ophiocytium, Conjugatie at large, &c. &c. Dr. Hicks, indeed,
supposes the case of “ Zygnema”’ (properly Spirogyra), in
which the contents in conjugating lose their spiral arrange-
ment, and become “ homogeneous ;” and then he says—
“ Supposing subdivision to take place, the contents of the
resulting cells would become more or less homogeneous, and
thus the spiral character lost.” But this is not what takes
place. The spore casts off its outer coat, and the inner one
elongates, of which, upon ‘dividing the upper cell, becomes
the first ordinary joint of a new filament, and the spiral
arrangement of the chlorophyll is resumed, the lower remain-
ing undivided as a “root-cell.”” There is, indeed, more of
a characteristic uniformity in the disposition of the phyco-
chrome in the Chroococcacee.

Form of the cell? This is surely in many instances of the
greatest value. Dr. Hicks points to the plate illustrating my
own former paper as an example of the instability of this
character. But I hardly think it is a conclusive argument
against the valuc of this character to regard a plant in the

MESOTENIUM, AND SPIROTANIA. 219

varying phases of its development, and say that, because
such differ, that form is of no value. The phases of growth
should be taken, and the comparison made, at the same point
in development ; for very varied phases may certainly inter-
vene, nor does this latter fact seem to me to conflict with my
view. ‘The zygospore of Peniuwm Mooreanum figured on the
plate referred to, or indeed that of any other Desmid or
Conjugate, or that exceptional phase of Mesotznium, or the
oospore of an Cidogonium, or even the zoospore of a Clado-
phora or of a Drapernaldia, &c., are not more unlike, after
all, to their parent or mature forms than an acorn is unlike
an oak.

Dr. Hicks further writes—“ The varying forms of their
divisions show that their form changes very strangely. This
is observable in almost every Conferva, and the Desmidieze
are good examples.” Ido not quite comprehend this. Ifa
cell of a Conferva or a Desmid during division is not actually
of the same figure as one fully grown, surely it attains it when
the process is completed. If he means that a Conferva or a
Desmid during the act of division is able to change directly
from one form to another, I hold that this is wrong, and that
there is no foundation for such an assumption. Nay, “the
varying forms of their divisions” seem rather in themselves
to afford more or less useful characters.

To pass on briefly to consider the communication from
Dr. Wallich which I have just had the honour to read to the
Society (vide infra), he, while contending for the greater or
less instability of the Protophyta, the Desmidiez included,
does not, however, make such a demand as that just adverted
to. I shall, as the opportunity here occurs, venture to add
a word or two in allusion to Dr. Wallich’s communication,
referring mainly, as it does, to certain Desmidian forms. I
have, indeed, ere now endeavoured to express my own views
as fully as I could on this point; therefore I shall not here
attempt to dilate at any length on the subject, as it would be
but repetition.

In the first place, then, Dr. Wallich alludes to my urging
the persistence of type in the Desmidiacez, because they are
more or less constant in a given locality. On the other
hand, he urges that, unless these characters are found to
occur under every variety of conditions, he cannot accept
them as evidence of the persistence of type for which I have
contended. Now, it seems, at first sight, that it is asking
somewhat too much to demand that every variety of con-
ditions should produce no effect, when it is only under
certain conditions that some forms are found at all. But he

220 ARCHER, ON CYLINDROCYSTIS,

explains that by “every variety of conditions” he means
“in widely remote localities.” It will be admitted, I think,
that the West, Centre, and North of Europe are widely
remote localities; yet from these far-apart sources the same
Desmidian forms have been collected, maintaining their
special characters. In his lately published list of Des-
midiacez collected in Sweden, Cleve,* while he truly enough
says the specific distinctions are often founded on minute
differences, states that he never found any difficulty im
identifying the forms he met with with those of other
countries by aid of dried specimens and figures, and he
enumerates a goodly catalogue. I myself have seen some
examples from other parts of Europe. Nay, I may appeal
to Dr. Wallich’s paper on Desmidiaceze collected in Bengal,+
where he recognises, and is able to name from their own
special inherent intrinsic characters, several of the species
belonging to Britain; thus, not only from still more widely
remote localities, but under circumstances of climate greatly
varying from that in which the same species occur here. It
is true that, in regard to several of the forms which I should
be disposed to regard as abundantly distinct, Dr. Wallich
would often combine several of such into a single species,
under a common specific designation; but yet this does not
militate against this part of my argument, for he was still
able to identify the forms by their intrinsic characters there
as here, although he holds a different view from that which
I have hitherto found myself compelled to adopt, as to the
value of those characters.

Dr. Wallich thinks, “that in these forms such differences
as the number of indentations, the acuteness or obtuseness
of the teeth, the number of spinous processes, and so forth,
indicate mere accidental variations.” But these very cha-
racters, thus succinctly recapitulated, according to the degree
and mode in which they are presented, are amongst the most
available holdpoints for the discrimination, not of species
alone, but also of genera. In what does a Micrasterias
differ from a Euastrum, a Staurastrum from a Cosmarium,
&c. &c., but in the mode and way, the degree and extent, in
which these characters, and characters such as these, are
presented—not to speak of the various forms within those
genera which Dr. Wallich goes so far as to allow are really
good species. Dr. Wallich, for instance, calls such forms as

* Cleve, “ Bidrag till Kannedomen om Sveriges séttvattensalger af familjen
Desmidiee,” in ‘Ofversigt af Kongl. Ventenskaps-Akademiens Forhand-
lingar;’ Stockholm, 1865, p. 481.

+ ‘Annals of Nat. Hist.,’ 3rd ser., vol. v, pp. 184, 273.

MESOTENIUM, AND SPIROTANIA. 221

Micrasterias rotata and M. denticulata—Euastrum didelta
and E£. ansatum—as in each case but varieties of a single
species, &. Why admit certain denticulations, and incisions,
and processes, and lobes, in these forms to be good specific
marks, and then arbitrarily stop short, and disallow other
characters of the same nature possessed by one of the dis-
puted forms, and not by the other, and which each refuses to
lend to the other, and say they are of no value—although, so
far as we know, the species depending on them can be recog-
nised wherever the two forms are found in various countries
of Europe and in Bengal ?

Dr. Wallich believes that “such differences indicate mere
accidental varieties, handed down, no doubt, from parents to
progeny in the same locality, so long as physical conditions
remain the same.” If certain external physical conditions
be the cause of such minor individual characters, and if dis-
similar conditions will cause their obliteration or transference,
how is it that, under all conditions in which Micrasterias
rotata and M. denticulata (for instance) present themselves,
they maintain, at least so far as we know, their own ultimate
characters? With us here they are both about equally
common in their own localities. It is clear that the greater
number of subdivisions of the former, its larger middle lobe,
its more acute teeth, its greater size, &c., give it no advantage
over the latter in the “ struggle for life,” although both have
the preponderance in numbers (in whatever the advantage
may consist) over certain other well-marked allied forms. I
think it seems to follow, from Dr. Wallich’s statement of his
views, that “natural selection” must in his opinion fall into
the background so far as these organisms are concerned ; for,
according to him, characters derived from parents, however
seemingly inherent here, must at once succumb to varying
surrounding physical conditions.

Dr. Wallich says that the onus probandi, as regards that
side of the question against which I contend, does not lie
with those who think with him; but “ that it is sufficient to
show a fair number of cases (as, for instance, in the genus
Micrasterias) in which unquestionable interchange of those
characters is to be met with, which by Ralfs and others have
been seized upon as indicative of a distinct origin.” Dr.
Wallich will, I hope, excuse me if I still hold that such cases
have not yet been shown in the established species of
Micrasterias ; and that those “interchanges of characters”
are founded upon assumption of what it is presumed might
be, rather than what is. I venture to hold still.that the
interchange of characters between the various species of

222 ARCHER, ON CYLINDROCYSTIS,

Micrasterias (I do not, I need hardly say, restrict myself to
that genus, but rather mention it as an example) has yet to
be demonstrated. I venture likewise as yet to hold that the
admission of some forms as species, and others not less well
marked as varieties, in this family (I do not now, of course,
refer to Protophyta in general), is, on the whole, altogether
arbitrary; and I for one cannot refuse to go the length that
Nature seems to me here to go, and admit as species all
those ultimate forms which seem to be constantly distinct,
keeping their ultimate characters to themselves; and each of
which, by its own idiosyncrasies, one can at a glance perceive
is the very same identical plant which, described or unde-
scribed, one encounters more or less rarely or frequently in
its own suitable localities.

It will thus be seen, while I venture very deferentially,
and with the highest respect, to differ on points in relation
to some Protophyta from Dr. Hicks and Dr. Wallich, that
there are others on which I cannot but agree as yet with
both observers. Nor does it seem to me that the views here
put forward conflict with those I ventured to express in my
paper read to the Society last session, on an ameeboid state
of Stephanosphera, as regards the, perhaps in individual
opinion, debateable but, as I still hold, by no means actually
convertible, lower forms of animal and vegetable life.
Because some organisms are not always what they seem to
be, inasmuch as, in the course of their development, they
may submit themselves to several apparently more or less
diversified phases, whilst others (as our Mesotzenium and
Cylindrocystis) seem to be in this respect more restricted, is
not, I think, in either case an argument that Protophyta, or
even some Palmellaceze, may not be subject to specific limits,
not to speak of a change from one kingdom to another.
With Dr. Hicks I must, indeed, wholly coincide, that in the
study of the Protophyta it is especially desirable that the
history of each be, as far as possible, made out, in order to
discover the mature forms, and to trace out the seeming
changes through which they may pass; but is not this, after
all, in other words, to endeavour to find out what are the
species and their limits, and to learn to discriminate between
them? But assuredly, were all this known, many spurious
“ species ” would have to be erased, at least among certain
types. But, whatever phases they may run through, they at
least must revert eventually to the parent or type-form ; for
the same forms turn up and vanish again and again, and
season after season, each in its own kind of situation or
habitat; and it seems more reasonable that we should sup-

MESOTANIUM, AND SPIROTANIA. 223

pose—be the intermediate phases what they may—that these
would naturally begin and end their cycles in themselves,
than that all the many well-defined types and well-marked
forms, some more and some less frequently recurring, in-
cluded under ‘“‘ Palmellaceze,” should need constant recruiting
by the transmutation of lichen-gonidia and moss-spores.
Perhaps the truth on some of the questions lies in the mean ;
but, be it as it may, I trust I am not too firmly attached to
the views I have tried to express not to relinquish them on
good evidence. Meantime, in the words of Dr. Wallich, I
at least hold with him, that—“ In science, as in governments,
truth can never be arrived at on a large scale unless under
the pressure of an opposition.”

Mr. W. Archer prefaced the foregoing paper by reading an
extract from a letter addressed to him by Dr. G. C. Wallich,
F.L.S., on the subject of the value of characters in Proto-
phyta, more especially in Desmidiacee. Mr. Archer ex-
plained that Dr. Wallich’s remarks therein were in reply to
observations of his own in a paper read before the Natural
History Society of Dublin on the 4th of December, 1863,
entitled ‘Observations on Micrasterias Mahabuleshwarensis
(Hobson), and on Docidium pristide (Hobson) ;’* and that
Dr. Wallich, having done him the honour to write him a
letter containing a summary of his own views on the subject
debated in the paper referred to, had requested him to read
the same to the Natural History Society. The following is
the extract, reference to which is made in the preceding
paper :

“Pray do not for a moment think me inclined to take
amiss any differences of opinion on scientific matters. Every
one has a right to judge for himself; and in science, as in
governments, truth can never be arrived at on a large scale
unless under the pressure of an opposition. Besides, the
question of specific limits is still in its infancy; and those
who cling to permanent specific types are most fully justified
in crying out for the amplest proofs before relinquishing
their ground. You know of old that I am for no such per-
manence, but believe that I can trace at every step more and
more conclusive evidences that there exists a constant
tendency to modification by external influence.

“The point at which you and I diverge is that at which
we form our estimates of the value of characters. You
maintain that certain characters, hecause they are more or

* ©Proceedings of the Natural History Society of Dublin, vol. iv, Part 2,
p. 79.

224 ARCHER, ON CYLINDROCYSTIS, ETC.

less constant under the same conditions—that is, in a given
locality—afford evidence of persistence of type. On the
other hand, I hold they cannot be accepted as evidence of
this persistence unless they can be proved to occur under
every variety of conditions—that is, in widely remote locali-
ties. I speak from experience, when I say that many—very
many—of the assumed species of Protophyta and Protozoa
are identical—the distinction on which their separation has
heretofore been based being entirely the result of the acci-
dental conditions under which they have been reared.

“In the Desmidiacez, to which you direct attention more
particularly, it appears to me that such differences as the
number of indentations, the acuteness or obtuseness of the
teeth, the number of spinous processes, and so forth, indicate
mere accidental variations, handed down, no doubt, from
parent to progeny in the same locality so long as the physical
conditions remain the same; but nevertheless not to be
regarded as constant, or as impressed on the organisms
ab initio as an integral feature in their physiological con-
stitution.

“It should be borne in mind that the onus probandi does
not rest in every example on those who think with me, but
that it is quite sufficient that we show a fair number of cases
(as, for instance, in the genus Micrasterias), in which un-
questionable interchange of those characters is to be met
with, which by Ralfs and others have been seized upon as
indicative of distinct origin. For such cases prove that the
law which it is assumed governs the limits of species is no
law, but only a conditional direction, holding good only so
long as the surrounding conditions continue the same.

“Tf, however, the object in view in defining varieties
under specific designations is merely to render the identifica-
tion of similar forms more easy, I have nothing to say against
it beyond this, that I should be loth to have to make up the
lists even as they stand now, and firmly believe it will be an
impossibility for the coming generation of naturalists to do
so at all.”

OssERVATIONS and Experiments with the Microscorn on the
Errects of Prusstc Acip on the Animat Economy. By
Tomas SHEARMAN Ratpu, M.R.C.S. Eng., &c.*

Every year as it passes away leaves behind it additional
testimony to the fact that the microscope is advancing to
occupy a position of importance in medical practice equal to
that which the stethoscope has attained; and I feel satisfied
that ere many more years have passed the regular employ-
ment of the microscope, as a means of diagnosis, will be
maintained and duly acknowledged. The slow but steady
progress which the use of this instrument has made in the
hands of the medical profession should tend to point rather
to the important nature of the results to which it is destined
to lead us, than to accepting the doubts of some who
occasionally assail its employment, and are unable or un-
willing to avail themselves of its powers.

2. Several difficulties still remain in the way of its free
reception into the circle of daily use by the profession at
large, and among others, which time and increased confidence
in its powers will banish, there are these, viz., that with the
increased powers conferred on the microscope, a decrease in
the expense, and also a diminution of the actual size of the
instrument as a portable one, are great desiderata. The more
readily it can be brought to the bedside, the more facilities
which peculiarities of construction shall enable the observer
to use it without performing the operation of a preliminary
preparation and setting of it in order, the more favorable
reception will it find at the hands of the medical student and
practitioner ; and all these requirements will be rapidly met,
if only the demand for them be made to those whose occupation
it is to perfect the instrument.

The object I have in view is not merely to urge on the
study of disease by the use of this instrument, but also to
show how much practical work yet remains to be done, and
that by one class especially, the regular daily practitioner of
medicine, whether attached to a hospital or moving in the
circle of private practice.

3. It has been my custom to examine the blood in all
marked cases of disease, with the view of ascertaining if any-
thing could be learned by such a process, and the following
communication will show that my labour has not been lost,

* Read before the Medical Society of Victoria, December 6, 1865.

226 RALPH, ON THE EFFECTS OF

and, I may add, has proved rather a stimulus to further
efforts in the same direction.

A healthy young child fell ill with hooping-cough, and
after the lapse of a few days was brought to me labouring
under an early state of pneumonia; extensive puerile re-
spiration had set in, and there was considerable congestion of
the cutaneous capillaries of the extremities. A few drops of
blood were carefully taken from the back of the hand im the
way I have recommended, 7. e. cleansing the skin first by
rubbing it with a wet towel, and then puncturmg it and
taking the blood on a glass slide, without touching the skin.
The blood presented no unusual appearances, save the presence
of some dark-coloured bodies larger than blood-dises, to
which, however, I did not attach any definite importance.
On the following day more blood was taken, and I noticed in
two shdes that some bright blue particles were present,
resembling in colour starch when first acted on by iodine, and
also some dark purple particles. The following day three
shdes were charged; these attracted my attention more
forcibly, and occasioned me considerable perplexity, as more
blue and purple coloured particles were present, and the blood
had been carefully taken in every instance; the child, also,
had been healthy hitherto, and had had no exhibition of iodine
I knew of, and had not been in other hands than mine.

4. Prior to the second supply of blood taken, and after the
first examined, I had ordered Scheele’s prussic acid, and it
was directed to be continued up to the third time of taking
the blood. The decided character of these blue particles,
their persistence for hours on the slide, their increased amount
in the subsequent examination, all tended to cause consider-
able perplexity as to their possible origin. After some re-
flection and one or two chemical examimations, I instituted
the following experiments, which tend to show that these blue
particles in the blood are most lhkely composed of Prussian
blue, and are due to the reaction of prussic acid on the iron in
the blood.

5. Ist Exp., Aug. 22nd.—Seven or eight drops of Scheele’s
prussic acid were given in divided doses to a rabbit; after a
lapse of five hours, some blood taken from the ear exhibited a
number of bright blue particles. ‘lwo more drops were given,
and at the end of twelve hours, two slides of blood showed
some blue particles; subsequently three drops were given at
one time (the doses were all more or less diluted with water) ;
the animal struggled under the influence of the poison, and
most likely would have succumbed but for the administration

PRUSSIC ACID ON THE ANIMAL ECONOMY. 227

of ammonia vapour. One hour after, the blood exhibited blue
particles satisfactorily.

2nd Exp., Sept. 12th.—A kitten was killed by inhalation
of prussic-acid vapour. Blood found to contain many large
irregularly rounded dark-coloured bodies, too dark to ascertain
if of a blue color. One or two light blue flaky masses were
found; also, in and about the sheath of the sympathetic
nerve, one indigo-blue film of some size. This was decolorized
by action of potassa; colour restored by application of acetic
acid. The decided bright blue particles do not appear to
yield to potassa; medulla oblongata examined; some blue
points and several dark ones seen.

drd Exp., Sept. 14th.—Tincture of iron diluted was in-
jected into the stomach of a frog, and vapour of prussic acid
was soon after administered. Died after some hours. Some
decided bright blue particles were seen in the blood; also,
dark partreles of irregular form (peroxidized iron?) in
abundance.

4th Exp., Sept. 19th.—Dog killed by prussic acid dropped
on the nose and mouth; death in a minute and half. Blood
from heart presented some dark-coloured bodies, and one
large decidedly indigo-blue mass.

5th Exp., Oct. 4th.—Frog killed by concussion; blood
gave no evidence of blue particles.

6th Exp., Oct. 6th—A frog slowly poisoned by prussic
acid administered ; the animal did not die from the effects of
the poison, but was killed and examined. Obtained some
blue reaction in the blood, and about the larger nerves going
to the extremities.

7th Exp., Oct. 7th.—A full-grown cat had three drops of
Scheele’s prussic acid given her, undiluted, by means of a
glass tube introduced in the pharynx. In the space of a
minute she lay down and gasped, and died,.with the usual
symptoms, in two minutes more at the furthest. Seven
hours after, body quite rigid; heart removed for examination;
two or three specimens of blood from it showed either dark
blue coloured particles, or black ones; one large flake of
indigo blue was seen. Muscular fibre from the interior of
the heart gave as satisfactory evidence.

8th Exp.—A frog killed by concussion (second experiment
of the kind) ; the blood examined showed no blue-coloured
particles ; a leg of the animal cut off immediately after death
had prussic acid applied to the cut surface ; one side of blood
examined exhibited a solid amorphous body with a blue
coloration at one end, while the other was colourless,

9th Exp.—A strong, recently caught frog, poisoned by 4

228 RALPH, ON THE EFFECTS OF

gr. of cyanide of potassium, injected into the stomach. Three
specimens of blood examined only showed a slaty-blue colour
in one or two large flakes or patches. The blood-discs
appeared to be dotted over with small oily looking dots.

10th Exp.—A_ blow-fly was killed by exposure to the
vapour of prussic acid. The muscles lining the thorax, in the
vicinity of the principal nerve-centres, were examined. Several
dark blue points were seen, and one large particle of a
decidedly bright blue, equal to any seen in the experiments
already quoted.

llth Exp.—The same repeated, and with a bee, with
similar results.

Norr.—tThe bright blue particles are, I believe, really due
to the action of the prussic acid, but I have also noticed in
some flies not killed by prussic acid that there were present
some indigo-blue coloured particles. These I refer to the
natural pigment of the insect, serving, perhaps, to tinge the
deep steel-blue coloured hairs; fragments of which will be
met with in such examinations; hence this insect is not a fit
subject for yielding positive results. With this in view I in-
stituted the

12th Exp.—The maggot of the blow-fly, which is very
difficult to kill by prussic-acid vapour, was subjected to its
influence in the fluid state. Two so treated exhibited the
characteristic blue masses and particles. This experiment I
consider to be very satisfactory, as all the organs appear to be
free from pigmentary matters.

13th Exp.—A rabbit six weeks old had four slides of blood
taken from the ear; these exhibited no blue particles. It
was then killed by inhalation of prussic-acid vapour, admi-
nistered on two separate occasions ; it was intended to exa-
mine the blood without killing the animal, but the second
application of the vapour killed it very suddenly. The blood
in one specimen exhibited a very large, brilliant, Prussian-
blue concretion; some blue particles in the blood from the
axillary vein, and also from several other sources.

6. I will now, before proceeding, give a résumé of the ex-
periments, and some observations on them. Eleven experi-
ments in all gave evidence of the action of prussic acid, by
the presence of blue-coloured particles, masses, or films,
When I have used the term mass, J mean a solid substance
occupying a space which twenty or thirty blood-dises would
cover.

The inhalation of the vapour of prussic acid goes to show
that, in some of the experiments at any rate, but a very small
quantity sufficed to kill, and its traces were detectable.

PRUSSIC ACID ON THE ANIMAL ECONOMY. 229

The object of giving the tincture of iron to a frog, and then
killmg it by vapour of prussic acid, was to prove that the
change was due to the presence of iron in the blood, and, if
so, a superabundance of iron might yield a proportionate in-
crease in the amount of the blue particles. This did not
seem to be the case, but will be noticed further on.

7. The impression left on my mind by these experiments
was, that the bright blue particles were due to the action of
prussic acid on the iron in the blood or tissue in some state
of organic combination, and that Prussian blue had been
formed.

The dark-coloured or indigo-blue masses appear to me to
be a mixture of Prussian blue and perhaps some oxidized
state of iron unacted on by the prussic acid. The adminis-
tration of prussic acid in a concentrated state, 7. e. without
further dilution of the Scheele’s strength (=4 per cent. of
real acid) appeared to me to be followed by a greater forma-
tion of the dark blue particles than when given in diluted
and distant doses.

The two experiments not subjected to the action of prussic
acid, Nos. 5 and 8, gave negative evidence in favour of the
same view.

The instances quoted of blue-coloured particles occurring
in the blow-fly without previous action of prussic acid, may
depend on the cause I have noticed, or on another. This
roving insect may derive sufficient cyanogen materials from
the putrescent substances it is in the habit of visiting, or may
possibly derive them from the flowers it seeks to, which I
believe it is in the habit of doing, as I have seen pollen-grains
in abundance about its body while making these observations.

I would here remark that the frog’s tissues contain pig-
mentary matters in abundance, and these might be mistaken
for the dark blue particles I have instanced ; but when these
bright and dark blue objects have once been seen elsewhere,
no mistake of the kind need occur, or be charged against the
experiments. I here specially refer to examinations of the
nerves of the frog.

8. For the purpose of further testing the action of prussic
acid on the blood, I obtained some from a patient in the
Melbourne Hospital, who was and had been taking this me-
dicine lately for some days. I felt some objection to this
case, as the tincture of iron hadebeen freely administered
prior to the prussic acid, and I thought its action might in-
terfere with the character of the experiment.

Four slides were charged; in each of these the peculiar
blue particles were distinctly seen, but it required much care

230 RALPH, ON THE EFFECTS OF

and the use of a magnifying power of 500 diameters. The
films of blood examined were remarkable for the great amount
of black-looking particles which were present. These I am
inclined to regard either as iron in a peroxidized state, or
they are dark particles of Prussian blue, and due to the iron
lately taken by the patient. These dark particles recall the
appearances seen in the 3rd experiment. The blood on each
slide was not greater in bulk than the head of a large pin.

9. In a patient of mine, a child to which I had occasion to
administer prussic acid (one minim and a half in twelve
hours), I took blood on four slides, and in three I found
blue particles. The acid was continued to the same ex-
tent, and six more slides charged; each showed the blue
particles in greater abundance, and also some dark blue
or indigo-coloured films. The bright blue particles which
I always look for as the most characteristic colour indi-
cating the action of prussic acid was in this case so de-
cidedly associated with concretionary masses peculiar to the
blood, that there could be no possible doubt as to their in-
ternal origin, and not from any extraneous source. Liquor
ammoniz and potasse and nitric acid, separately, do not ap-
pear to act on the blue particles, but the last two do so when
following each other.

10. From these observations, I feel satisfied in advancing
the opinion that prussic acid causes a change in some of the
constituents of the blood, that it attacks the iron when in
some particular condition, and, with perhaps the aid of some
alkaline base, the Prussian blue is formed; that the deep or
indigo-blue particles may be some mixture of iron and Prus-
sian blue, or a state of Prussian blue not definitely known to
us; for this chemical compound is not yet fully understood
as to its exact composition, and is found to vary both in
colour and composition in the laboratory of the chemist, and
may do so also in that of the animal economy. On the other
hand, I find there is a cyanide of iron known which turns
blue on exposure to oxygen, and perhaps ultimately these
blue particles in the blood may be found to belong to this
cyanogen compound.*

11. Continuing my observations on the blood as oppor-
tunity presented, I detected the presence of these blue par-
ticles in one or two cases in which no prussic acid had been
given, and I could in no way satisfactorily account for their
presence. This led me to examine the blood in three indi-

* ‘Watt's Chemical Dictionary,’ vol. ii, p. 221, “Some of the compounds
called Prussian blue have the composition of cyanides of iron; they appear
to be double cyanides.”

PRUSSIC ACID ON THE ANIMAL ECONOMY. 2a

viduals who were in full health, and in all these I found the
same kind of particles. The majority of these particles, as
well as several obtained from the experiments narrated, were
tested with oxalic acid, which readily decolourised and dis-
solved them away.

The evidence at this pomt of my observations assumed a
very contradictory character; and if I had not been at the
time in possession of other facts which supported me in my
views, I should have been brought to an unsatisfactory stand-
still.

12. In the course of my experiments I took occasion to
examine the prussic acid itself as to its purity, and the fol-
lowing observations will tend to clear up the evidence.
Prussic acid, like some other powerful and effective agents in
the hands of the medical man, possesses the property of ra-
pidly undergoing a chemical change and of losing its powers
as a medicine; this lability to change has been referred to
the action of light, and also been noticed to occur more fre-
quently the greater the degree of its concentration. Hence,
it is now usually kept covered up from the action of light,
and preserved in a certain state of dilution, and also appears
to be more permanent when prepared after a certain manner.

13. If the ordinary prussic acid of Scheele be examined
under the microscope under a power of 200 diameters, the
acid, if pure, will present nothing worthy of remark; but
occasionally specimens will be met with which contain bright
blue particles, consisting, as I suppose, of Prussian blue, and
also a number of starchy looking bodies, which actually turn
purple with iodine. Or, sepposing the acid to have been pure,
these changes will be found to take place in it, if the bottle
is repeatedly opened and portions taken out ever so carefully,
by dipping a glass rod into the fluid; at least such is my
experience.

14, These remarkable changes appear to me to be due to
the renewed access of air, and minute particles of dust get-
ting in, and to the possible electric state of the glass rod with
which I have been in the habit of dipping out the acid, having
always previously carefully wiped it.

If, after the occurrence of these accidents, extended over a
period of many days, the bottle be shaken, and a drop placed
on a slide and examined with a microscope, bright blue par-
ticles will be seen associated with a number of starchy looking
bodies, which polarize feebly and turn purple with iodine,
like vegetable starch.

15. On taking a drop of prussic acid, free from such con-
tamination, as, for example, by using some which has not

232 RALPH, ON THE EFFECTS OF

been opened and has been kept undisturbed, and some organic
matter be added, as blood or albuminous fluid, these starchy
bodies will make their appearance. First of all a minute dot,
resembling an oil-globule, will be seen, which, if steadily
watched for a time, will be observed to increase in size, some-
times attaining to that of an ordinary starch-grain, oval or
rounded in form, and then it will assume a thicker consis-
tence and solidify into a starch-grain, occasionally presenting
a laminated structure, or a grooved line in the long axis of
the oval form.

Whenever these phenomena occur I have also noticed the
appearance of the Prussian blue particles, and it appears to
me that when prussic acid comes into contact with organic
substances containing iron then a decomposition takes place,
part of the iron combining with the cyanogen to form ferro-
cyanic acid, and the remainder uniting with this ferrocyanic
acid to constitute Prussian blue—that is, according to the
accepted chemical views on this subject; the hydrogen
liberated uniting with the carbow and oxygen of the organic
substance, which has brought about this decomposition, to
form the starch-grains.

16. So, in lke manner, when the blood of an animal
which has been killed or partially poisoned by means of
prussic acid is examined by the aid of the microscope for
the presence of Prussian blue particles, there may be seen,
in very many instances, bodies which resemble these starch-
grains, varying in size from below those of a blood-dise to
four or five times one in extent. These, when acted on by
iodine, may be seen to turn purple, and they also polarize.
So, again, in those instances which I have noticed the
presence of blue particles in the blood of patients, whether
they have been taking prussic acid or not, I have frequently
observed similar-looking bodies, and these tested with iodine
have also reacted purple. .

17. From all these observations I conclude that prussic
acid is more or less neutralized in the blood by the iron
present in it, and in proportion to the iron thus withdrawn
there is so much starchy matter set free; whether the starch
in this condition is prejudicial or harmless, owing to its
semi-fluid condition, yet remains to be determined.

18. The interest which attaches to the facts I have
brought forward is not limited to chemical theories, or to
our use of prussic acid as a remedial agent, but the facts
observed may also serve to explain important points in
physiology and pathology. I here briefly allude to some
discoveries in pathological science, which relate to amyloid

‘PRUSSIC ACID ON THE ANIMAL ECONOMY. 233

substances discovered in the animal tissue, and about which
so much has been written during late years. That the so-
called corpora amylacea, or starch-grains, found in different
organs of the human subject, and referable to some morbid
condition of the blood, may take their origin from some
similar chemical changes as those to which I have drawn
attention, and that perhaps in many instances these have
only been formed at the time of death, and are referable to
post-mortem change, except in such cases as resemble the one
of epilepsy recorded in the ‘ Mic, Journ.’ of 1855, by Mr.
Stratford, of Toronto.

19. If we refer to the history of these corpora amylacea,
we find that they have been gradually associated with
amyloid degeneration of the tissues, a condition which is
regarded by Virchow as essentially different,* as the tissue
becomes directly filled with a substance of an amyloid
nature, possessing, however, the peculiarity of never be-
coming blue under the action of iodine alone, and only by a
subsequent application of sulphuric acid, and, therefore, ap-
pearing to be more allied to cellulose; and this deposit, he
supposes, is conveyed to the part from without, as he has
been unable to discover any change in the blood from which
the inference might be drawn that this was really the source
of the deposits. But what he states further on goes to show
that the disease in the lymphatic glands consists in a thicken-
ing and narrowing of the arteries, and in the conversion of
the small cells of the follicles into corpora amylacea, thus
linking together these bodies and amyloid deposits, and
tending rather to lead us to regard their origin as traceable
to the blood.

20. I think the facts which I have brought forward, show-
ing the formation of corpora amylacea in organic fluids, both
while in and out of the body, due to the action of prussic
acid, tend rather to the view that the blood directly supplies
the material from whence these starchy bodies are formed,
and points out to us that a chemical change has been brought
about in it. I am, therefore, inclined to the opinion that
some change in the blood, analogous to that produced by
prussic acid, is the most likely explanation of the mode by
which these bodies are formed in the animal economy, and
that we shall probably find other substances beside cyanogen
possess the property of eliminating starch-grains in the blood
of animals, and that amyloid deposits are only a further step
of the same process.

21. From whatever point of view we look at these facts, it

* Virchow’s ‘Cellular Pathology,’ p. 371, &c.

VOL. VIIL—NEW SER. R

234 RALPH, ON PRUSSIC ACID.

appears to me that a large and important field of inquiry has
been opened to the investigations of the chemist, and among
the speculations to which these facts may lead there is this
to consider—that perhaps Prussian blue should rather be
regarded as a cyanide of iron than a sesquiferro-cyanide ;
and that iron, perhaps, performs other functions in the blood
than that connected with oxygen—that of being a vehicle or
medium for holding carbon and hydrogen together, for their
more ready distribution to the building up of tissues, and to
the preserving them in a condition which may be more easy
of change by reason of their union with the iron.

22. The fact of the formation of Prussian blue in the
animal economy from the action of prussic acid should
suggest the possibility of detecting this poison in cases of
poisoning, remembering that, while the volatile and easily
decomposable nature of this agent enables its traces soon to
fade away from our chemical grasp, those portions of the
poison which have gone to form Prussian blue in the blood
may remain for an indefinite périod as evidences of its
presence. On the other hand, if it be true that in some
cases prussic acid or some cyanogen compound may be
formed spontaneously in the body, as has already been
suggested by others besides myself, so we may have an
increased difficulty presented to us in a judicial point of view
in arriving at the conclusion on microscopical evidence alone,
that anyone has been poisoned by this agent.

23. Again, with respect to the spontaneous formation of
Prussian blue in the blood, the suggestion presents itself—
may not the iron in the blood be the normal antidote to the
cyanogen so formed; and supposing that iron was not pre-
sent in a suitable condition or sufficient amount to neutralize
the cyanogen, then spontaneous poisoning would be the
result; and may we not, with this view of the process, be
warranted in endeavouring to ascertain if the occurrence of
some diseases of the nervous system, as chorea, convulsions,
&c., may not be due to some deficiency in the blood at the
time of a suitable condition or amount of iron? And,
further, the pathologist will have to ascertain more par-
ticularly what organs are more especially liable to injury
under the action of prussic acid.

24. Before concluding this communication it may be
desirable to direct attention to the fact that some years ago
the formation of indigo was pointed out as taking place both
in the tissues of the body and also in the urine. The papers
on this subject are by Dr. Hassall, and may be consulted in
the ‘ Transactions of the Royal Society of Great Britain’ for
1855.

DR. MOXON, ON A MOTOR NERVE. 235

The experiments I have recorded show that the blue
particles in the blood answer to tests which indicate either
Prussian blue or a cyanide of iron, and that no reasons exist
for supposing them to be composed of indigo.

25. If, a year ago, I had been asked if it were possible to
detect the effects of prussic acid on the animal economy by
the aid of the microscope, I should have unhesitatingly
answered for myself, I could not, and if any one else could
I should be only too glad to learn how, for it seemed to me
to be out of the reach of the instrument to investigate and
reveal its effects. But the direction and extent the present
investigations have taken encourage me to expect that ere
long many more important facts will be brought to the con-
sideration and study of the medical man armed with the
assistance of the microscope, even while endeavouring to
fulfil his daily duties in medical practice, and that more and
more additional inducements will be held out to him to work
with it, with a fair promise of receiving the due reward for
his labours.

Description of the PertpHerat TERMINATION of a@ Moror
Nerve. By W. Moxon, M.D., F.L.S.

In the spring of the year 1862 it chanced to me, in the
course of observations upon the anatomy of insect larve, to
light upon an example of a muscle on which the ending of a
nerve can with certainty and exactness be seen.

So much light has since that time been thrown by Con-
tinental observers upon the manner of termination of nerve
upon muscle, that in my observation there is now not much
that is new. But I am induced to publish it because the
weight of authority in this country at the present time
determines to the total denial of such manner of termination,
and because the insect on which the observation was made is
plentifully distributed, and any competent microscopist can
easily find the particular muscle and assure himself of the
mode of motor nerve ending.

So long ago as 1836 Doyere first saw the ending of a motor
nerve upon a muscle in Tardigrada. He described the nerve
as ending in a conical expansion, the base of the cone resting
on the side of the muscle, whilst its apex was continuous
with the nerve, which approached the muscle at right angles.

236 DR. MOXON, ON MOTOR NERVE.

His account is fully verified by Dr. Richard Greef, in Max
Schulze’s new journal (Bd. i).

In 1840 Quatrefages saw Doyere’s cone in Holidina para-
doxa, and other observers in other animals, especially nema-
toid worms; all agree in describing the conical ending of the
one fibre on the other, but the muscle was in all cases of
the unstriped kind, and the nervous nature of the fibre which
joined it could not be proved. The muscles of Tardigrada, in
which the observation is most satisfactory, are unstriped and
without sarcolemma.

In 1846 Wagner made a doubtful statement as to the
ending of a nerve by piercing a muscle.

In 1858 Munk spoke of nerve-fibres in frogs disappearing
like stumps broken off.

In 1860 Kihne, and Margo six months after him, described
the ending of nerves by piercing the sarcolemma of trans-
versely striated muscle, and since that time several other
observers, especially Rouget, Krause, and Cohnheim, have
given similar descriptions, differing in points of minute
detail.

In 1860 Dr. Beale gave a description of an essentially
different mode of nerve termination, in which he was sup-
ported by Kolliker, Rouget, and Krause; but the latter two
observers have since described the nerves as ending directly
upon the muscle-fibres. Dr. Beale has since, so lately as
1864, reaffirmed the same view, describing the nerves as con-
tinuous, with a nucleated meshwork outside the sarcolemma.

Although it is now late to appear with such a claim, yet it
is quite true that the accompanying observation was made in
the spring of 1862,* and was entirely independent of any
other observations. Indeed, it was only recently, in reading
the subject for the purpose of this paper, that I became aware
of the existence of descriptions of direct union of nerve with
muscle. The books used by English students do not allude
to such a mode of termination.

When investigation is made upon groups of muscle-fibres
there are many obvious sources of fallacy which are avoided
by using an instance such as that I now offer, wherein the
muscle-fibre is single, and is supplied by a single nerve-fibre.

Again, in scrutinising with the high powers necessary for
these observations the muscles of vertebrata we are apt to
be misled by the corpuscles of connective tissue found in the
course of nerves and vessels in all animals of that sub-kingdom.
On the other hand, I believe I may say that no true connec-

* The drawing was shown to Dr. Braxton Hicks in 1863.

DR. MOXON, ON MOTOR NERVE. 237

tive tissue exists in invertebrata—certainly not in the insect
larva in question—and so this source of error is absent.

Then, again, the small size and transparency of these larvze
enable an observer to examine the muscles during the life of
the creature, and the muscle in moving moves the nerve
attached to it, so as to render abundantly evident the fact of
its attachment, and to enable the observer to be certain of
the attachment or otherwise of structures lying in its imme-
diate neighbourhood.

The muscle to which I would direct attention is the re-
tractor antennz of the larva of a gnat common in ponds in
the spring of the year. This is a fibre about +,),, of an inch
wide, provided with sarcolemma, which itself has nuclei upon
it. The transverse striation of the fibre is complete and
regular. That the nuclei are upon the sarcolemma I have
not known from this muscle; but in larve which have been
made dropsical by forty-eight hours’ confinement in airless
water (after Doyere’s method) I have seen in muscles of the
trunk the appearance shown in fig. 4 (Pl. IV), the sarcous
substance torn across, and the sarcolemma bearing nuclei,
extending between the broken ends of it.

From the antennal lobe of the insect’s cephalic ganglion
comes the antennal nerve, a nerve of some size, which has
a neurilemma-sheath provided with nuclei (hk); at some
distance from the base of the chitinous antenne the nerve
expands to form a long spindle-shaped ganglion fullof ganglion-
cells (a), and then in this ganglionic condition enters the
antenne, the cells still discernible through the chitin. About
two thirds of the distance from the encephalon to the ganglion
the nerve gives at right angles to its own course a branch (8)
smaller than itself; this proceeds at once to the outer edge
of the antennal muscle and joins the outer edge; the motor
nerve is just so long as to allow the play of the muscle in
its frequent contractions.

At the point where the motor antenne nerve leaves the
sensory antennal nerve there is a corpuscle (f), whether
neurilemmar or no I cannot say, also there are two small
nuclear corpuscles (h’) close to the end of the nerve on the
muscle. The union of the neurilemma and sarcolemma is a
direct continuity.

I have very carefully examined the point of union in order
to ascertain what is the relation of the proper fibre (axis
cylinder) of the nerve with the sarcous substance of the
muscle-fibre. The muscle in contracting preserves a straight
border, beautifully distinct from the sinuous folds (gg) into
which the sarcolemma is thrown. During extreme contrac-
tion the sarcolemma is gathered up into wrinkle-like folds,

238 DR. MOXON, ON MOTOR NERVE.

and this to a very different extent on the side to which the
nerve is attached (gg). On the opposite side to this attach-
ment the sarcolemma fits at all times closely to the sarcous
tissue, and it requires careful observation to see the wrinkles
ef the membrane during contraction; but on the side to
which the nerve is attached this membrane is then raised in
the most obvious way into bulging folds. The inequality of
the folding of the membrane on the two sides produces a
puckered appearance of the oat acres, very striking during
extreme contraction.

What it is that occupies the space which is thus shown to
exist between the sarcous tissue and the sarcolemma on the
side whereto the nerve is attached I could not be certain.
Nuclei appeared to exist at the spots where the folds became
most prominent, and these nuclei (or this appearance of
nuclei) are visible at the same spots in the uncontracted or
but slightly contracted state. It should be said that these
nuclei (gg) are very distinct from the nuclei of the sarcolemma
(ee), both in disposition and in appearance.

But it is not doubtful that the sarcolemma and neurilemma
are simply continuous with each other, and that their respec-
tive contents become continuous at the point where their
union takes place.

The nervous contents of the neurilemma are, then, continu-
ous with a pellucid material disposed along the same side of
the fibre between the sarcous substance and the sarcolemma.

The question of the exact mode of termination of the nerve-
cylinder after entering the muscle-fibre is hotly enough con-
tested by Messrs. Rouget and Kiihne, and the points at issue
have become extremely refined. In the larger fibres of verte-
brata, on which their observations were made, the expanded end
of the nerve-cylinder axis, which they agree to describe, may pro-
bably be rendered necessary through the larger mass of sarcous
tissue to be influenced by the nerve-fibre. In the instance
I am describing the muscle-fibre is so small in proportion to
the nerve-fibre that such an expanded nucleated plate could
not find room, and it may be that the long, clear, uneven layer
seen between the sarcolemma and sarcous tissue in continuity
with the nerve may represent an equivalent structure in
another shape. The large proportionate size of the nerve is
worthy of remark, as it is in striking contrast with the much
smaller relative size of the nerves of the muscles of the trunk
in the same insects. The antenne are being constantly pro-
truded and withdrawn, and in serving their purpose of sensory
organs must be held under very complete and direct control
by their muscles, It has been remarked, I think, first by

DR. MOXON, ON MOTOR NERVE. 239

Mr. Hilton, that the nerves of muscles are large in propor-
tion as the muscles are required to be in frequent or con-
stant operation, and, I may add, as their action is delicate.
For the first proposition the large nerves of the sphincter ani
and of the deltoid, with the other muscles whose constant
operation is needed to maintain the apposition of the bones
at the shoulder-joint, will serve as illustrations; for the second,
the size of the nerves of the muscles of the eyeball and
larynx. Another general law of the relation of muscle to
nerve is also prettily illustrated in this instance, the same
nerve supplies the sensory organ and the muscle which
moves it, just as in human anatomy the nerve which supplies
a muscle supplies also the part moved.

The muscle-fibre is so far separated from others, the space
about it is so clear, and its direction so different from that
of any other fibre in its remote vicinity, that no doubt could
exist about any further continuation of the nerve-fibre, such
as is described by Dr. Beale, if such continuation existed, and
this assurance is further verified during the contraction of the
muscle, for then the nerve-fibre is drawn up and down, so that |
whilst its connection with the muscle is put beyond doubt,
its freedom from any other connection is made certain; any
other connection, if present, must at once strike the eye
during movements of the muscle and nerve among quiescent
parts.

Whether the nervous elements are throughout distinct
from the muscular, or whether they join and unite with them,
is a question of prime importance to any apprehension of the
manner of action of nerve upon muscle. It was long ago
surmised, and the supposition still lingers, that the loops of
nerve believed to cross the muscle-fibres might induce in
them contraction, as cross currents of electricity cause _
magnetic phenomena. If the view put forth by Dr. Beale
were correct this theory might still find place, but the direct
ending of nerve-fibres iz muscle-fibres does away entirely
with the analogy, an analogy which, though attractive, was
never satisfactory, because it could not be shown how the
current supposed to course in the nerve-fibres could be imsu-
lated.

In conclusion, I would remark the proof of a direct ending
of nerve upon striated muscle-fibre in a single case must hold
good for all cases alike, for I submit that no one can suppose
that sometimes the nerve does go into the muscle and some-
times it does not.

Nothing in all the history of Nature is so astonishing as
the identity of the constructive elements of the most different

240 DR. MOXON, ON MOTOR NERVE.

animal forms, so that the muscle-fibre of a most insignificant
insect grub should be in all points identical with the muscle-
fibre which moves the human eye in following its motions.
But such is the fact. The sarcolemma, the transversely
striated contents—even the distance of the strize-—the nuclei,
are all exactly such as they are in the highest vertebrata.
The nerves in insects have nucleated neurilemma and axis
eylinder, but want the white narrow sheath, which is not con-
stant in vertebrata.

No one can doubt that muscle and nerve universally iden-
tical in their construction have an equally universal identity
in their manner of connection.

TRANSLATION.

CoNCERNING SOME LiTTLE-KNOWN Forms or ANIMAL.
By Exias Mecznixow.*

I pusxisH the following remarks because, however deficient
and incomplete they may be, yet they touch upon a number
of interesting and almost forgotten animals whose natural
history is so little known, that every fact that relates to them
deserves attention.

I. Comtonotus anv its AtLies.—Ehrenberg has described
under the name of Chetonotus and Ichthydium two genera,
which, together with Ptygura and Glenophora, he considered
as Rotatoria, forming a separate family of themselves.
Dujardin considers these two genera, together with Coleps
and Planariola, as representatives of a particular division of
Infusoria, “ Infusoires symmetriques.” Other naturalists,
such as Vogt and Perty, have classed the Ichthydina with
the Vermes. This idea was taken up with great zeal by
Max Schultze, who added to the two former known genera
a new one, Turbanella. This able naturalist considering
the Ichthydina to be animals most nearly related to the Tur-
bellaria, places them near the Microstoma and Dinophilus,
as Arhynchia monoiea. Schmarda considers the Ichthydina
to be Annelids, and places them under the Naids. Leydig
and many other naturalists hold the opinion of Schultze.

In recent times one has almost forgotten the Ichthydina,
because neither Carus nor Troschel mentions them in their
handbooks.

Ehlers alone mentions them, but without saying anything
certain about them ; he says, ‘The Ichthydina are wrongly
connected with the Rotatoria. I do not know if a muscular
system lies under their chitinous integument, but I should
guess from the bristles on Turbanella, and from the organisa-
tion of the digestive tube in all, that they form a small particular
division of worms which is best placed under the Nematodes.”

* Translated from Kolliker and Sicbold’s ‘ Zeitschrift,’ 4th part, 1865.

242 MECZNIKOW, ON ICHTHYDIUM, ETC.

From the foregoing it will be seen that the Ichthydina
form an interesting, but, as yet, little known group of animals.

Ehrenberg has described three species belonging to the
genus Chetonotus, to which Dujardin adds a fourth, Cheto-
notus tesselatus. The diagnoses and descriptions of these
naturalists are too incomplete to determine certainly the
differences of species; hence later naturalists, as Perty and
Schultze, have merely guessed the identity of the above-
mentioned species. As for the forms described by Ehren-
berg, I think I am right in uniting them in a single
species under the name of Chetonotus larus, whose chief
character consists in the form of the dorsal bristles, which
are not, as those described by Schultze, formed of two diffe-
rent parts, but consist of one single, simple, crooked bristle.
That form which is described by M. Schultze, and most
likely also by Perty, as Chetonotus maximus, must be con-
sidered as a new kind, and therefore may well be named
Chetonotus Schultz. If now it is considered that the dorsal
bristles are the criterion of species among the forms belong-
ing to the genus Chetonotus, one must consider that de-
scribed by Dujardin as Chetonotus tesselatus, as a distinct
species; and, in fact, this kind (of which I have found not a
few in Charkow and in Giessen) differs remarkably from all
others, in the peculiarly scaly form of its dorsal bristles.
Besides these, I know another form of Chetonofus which I
consider new, because of the peculiar form of the back
bristles, one of which I have figured in fig. 6a. This form,
which was found in the marshes of Giessen, I name
Chetonotus hystrix ; it is 0°12 mm. long.

Of the genus Ichthydium I know a new one which was ex-
amined by me in the province of Charkow, and which from
the peculiarities it presented I name Ichthydium ocellatum.
This bottle-formed species as represented in fig. 4 is pro-
vided on the forepart with some pretty long hairs, and, besides
this, with a ciliated covering on the ventral surface.

Besides the two forms just mentioned, I have noticed two
which I consider to be representatives of two peculiar genera.
One of these is stretched longitudinally, and not bottle-
shaped, as Chetonotus, Ichthydium, and my other new genera ;
the head is in fact somewhat broader than the rest of the
body ; the back is provided with elevations which are placed
one after the other. The ventral surface is covered with a
tunic of cilia; on the back of the tail-end there is a row of
strongly bent bristles. On the hind part of the body there
are two dichotomous furcal appendages which are very cha-
racteristic of the animal.

MECZNIKOW, ON ICHTHYDIUM, ETC. 243

In the summer of 1863, during my stay in my fatherland
(Charkow), I noticed a single example of this, which was
equal in size to Chetonotus larus, and which I name Chetura
(nov. gen.), capricornia (nov. spec.). It was found in a
marsh. (Pl. V, figs. 2 and 3.)

Another form of the family Ichthydina is also known to
me from a single example which I noticed in Giessen in the
autumn of the following year. This is a small species, 0°08
mm. long, which I name Cephalidium (nov. gen.) longisetosum
(noy. spec.). It is also bottle-formed, and has a blunted
broad head, whose foremost end has a distinct mouth-appa-
ratus, and is provided all over its surface with long vibratile
hairs. To the head follows a thin neck, which joins itself to
the body; this is provided on the dorsal surface with very
long and strong bristles, and on the ventral surface with
small vibrating hairs; at the posterior end there are no furcal
appendages, but on the side of it right and left there is a
bristle placed on a little knob, which represents without doubt
a sensory organ (fig. 4).

As regards the anatomical properties of the forms described,
I must remark that there is generally no complexity or in-
tricacy. The cuticula of the Ichthydina protects them from
reagents, as in Rotatoria and many Infusors. It is easily
dissolved in sulphuric acid, whilst in other acids, and even in
alcohol, this is not the case. At least, I may so say from
experiments which I have performed in a different way to
other naturalists. I have placed animals which were being
treated with a solution of ammonia into this fluid, together
with sand granules, and was still able to distinguish the very
fine and comparatively generally opaque cuticula, because
through the contact with the sand granules the outline of the
cuticula became plain.

The cuticula in most of the bristleless kinds is provided
with fine diagonal stripes. Under the cuticula lies a granular
layer which passes directly into the parenchyma, formed of
simple grains. In this I could find as little trace of muscles
and nerves as my predecessors ; although these observations
do not in any way shut out the possibility of there being
such formations, yet their non-presence seems to be nothing
unnatural ; it is satisfactorily known that very young embryos
perform the same motions by means of different tissues
which are performed by the muscles in the adults. I need
only call to mind the Nematodes, among which there are
forms which even when in an adult state permit no signs of
muscles to be seen.

One could say the same in regard to the nervous system ;

244 MECZNIKOW, ON ICHTHYDIUM, ETC.

if in our case its absence should seem to stand in contradic-
tion to the important development of the sensory apparatus.
Besides the presence already mentioned of complicated eyes
and light-breaking bodies in Ichthydium ocellatum, the
sense organs of these animals are represented by various
sensitive hairs, such as the dorsal bristles of all kinds of
Chetonotus (those bristle-formed elevations mentioned by
Schultze in Turbanella, must also be reckoned among them),
as well as the long bristles of Cephalidium, and those stiff
erect hairs on the foremost part of the body (see in Ichthy-
dium ocellatum, Plate V, fig. 1). To these belong also the
above-mentioned fine bristles on the tail-end of Cepha-
lidium. Besides this, the cuticula carries vibrating hairs,
which in all sorts of Ichthydina are disposed on the ventral
surface, and are present in Cephalidium, only on the head, in
the form of long cilia. The vibrating hairs are either of that
kind described by M. Schultze in his Chetonotus maximus
(Schultzii), or are disposed as a simple covering of equal-
sized hairs. Through the movement of these ventral cilia a
current of the surrounding fluid is made, even when the
animals themselves are at rest.

The digestive apparatus is the same in all Ichthydina. The
mouth opening at the fore end, on the ventral surface of the
body, is surrounded with a chitinous ring which appears in
some kinds of Chetonotus as a body provided with vertical
thickenings. In Cephalidium the oral aperture is placed on
an expanded plate, not being provided with a mouth-ring.
The mouth leads into a narrow pharynx or cesophagus, which
is provided with strong chitinous walls, and which is sur-
rounded by a thick layer, in which in some species distinct
square markings are seen, whilst in others it is perfectly
homogenous. The true chylus intestine follows the esophagus.
This runs straight to the anus placed on the back, and is
provided with numerous oil-globules.

With regard to their generative powers I must own that
my knowledge is far from perfect. But this much is certain,
that all those which I have examined are of different sexes,
and not hermaphrodites, as those described by M. Schultze,
which, perhaps, may be only impregnated females. The
female generative organs of those individuals examined by
me, which were old enough to enable me to distinguish the
sex, have all the same simple structure which Schultze has
described in his species. As I have discovered in Chetonotus
larus, they produce two kinds of eggs, which are clearly the
so-called winter and summer eggs, phenomena which have
long been known in the Rotatoria.

MECZNIKOW, ON ICHTHYDIUM, ETC. . 245

In the same example of Chetonotus larus I found in
the cavity of the body a number of eggs from 0°19 mm. to
0:026 mm. long, which were without the egg covering, and
were observed in the process of segmentation. We may
consider these hitherto unknown forms as summer eggs.
The winter eggs which have already been examined by other
naturalists have, as is known, other characters; they are in
the same species of which I examined the summer eggs, 0°06
mm. long, and have a thick shell.

As to the male generative organs of our animals I still
remain in the dark ; but still I retain the hope of finding out
their relation through other experiments. I can only put forth
the supposition that certain cellular bodies which I found in
some individuals of Chetonotus represent the male genitals.
This supposition cannot be proved, but still it is possible that
our animals, as the Rotatoria, show a sexual dimorphism,
and that the rare male has till now entirely escaped me.

Amongst different alge, Infusors and Rotatoria, I once
found a few eggs which were 0:02 mm. to 0:033 mm. long,
and which were provided with a pretty thick shell, whose in-
side contained a perfectly formed, lively embryo in a bent-up
position. These embryos, which belonged to Ichthydium
podura, were perfectly like their parents, and were only to be
distinguished from them by wanting the generative organs.
This remark is at least interesting, because it shows the
absence of any metamorphosis in the Ichthydina.

Having made these incomplete remarks on the interesting
family of Ichthydina, I shall allow myself to make some
observations on the systematic position, that is, the relation-
ship of these animals.

Ehrenberg has already made known that the Ichthydina
differ from the Rotatoria in many respects, an idea which
Dujardin takes up much more strongly, separating our
animals entirely from the Systolids. The difference between
these two groups is in the absence of the jaws and a resistent
body-covering in Ichthydina, and in the want ‘de cette con-
tractilité, qui est tout-a-fait caractéristique chez les Systo-
lides.” Although the first point, namely, that of the absence
of jaws in Ichthydina, on the whole is quite right, yet I do
not think that we can consider this character as an impor-
tant one, because we know for certain that the Rotatoria show
a great variety in their digestive organs. I need scarcely re-
mind you of the male, who is completely without these organs,
or of the presence or absence of the anus in different forms
of Rotatoria. We know, too, that the jaws which are con-
stantly present in the female show often a striking variation,

246 MECZNIKOW, ON ICHTHYDIUM, ETC,

as, for example, in Aldertia crystallina ; but most probably
the absence of jaws in the Ichthydina is a property which will
always serve as a certain distinction between them and the
Rotatoria.

But it is otherwise as regards the other. points put forth
by Dujardin, since the absence of a stout integument and a
peculiar kind of contractility cannot in any way be used as a
systematic character. Strictly speaking, this statement of
Dujardin is net at all true, because there is no difference
between the movements of some kinds of Notommata and
those of Ichthydina.

I leave the idea of Schmarda, namely, that the Ichthydina
belong to the Naids, without further notice, because even
Schmarda himself does not try to prove his view. I am
quite certain that this view is as worthy of acceptance as the
supposition that the Rotatoria are stationary annelid larvee.*

Max Schultze finds other grounds for the separation of the
Ichthydina from the Rotatoria. He says, ‘ A uniting of the
Ichthydina with the Rotatoria is impossible, because of the
want in the former of the vibrating organs on the mouth and
the back, and of the perfection of the muscles, nerves, and
water vessels, which are so characteristic of the Rotatoria.”

Against the truth of the first position of Schultze I may
advance the presence of cephalic cilia on Cephalidium, and the
form of the vibrating apparatus in some wheel animals (for
example, Furcularia, Diglena forcipata, and Notommata),
where it is represented by a simple vibrating patch which
lies on the surface of the belly. The other suppositions of
Schultze are also wrong, because different muscles and
nerves are wanting just as much in many lower Rotatoria as
they are in Ichthydina. The nervous system is found in a
very few Rotatoria. Moreover the water vessels in many
Rotatoria consist only of contractile bubbles, and are wanting
altogether in Albertia crystallina, as Schultze himself says.

We cannot agree with Schultze, that the Ichthydina are
more nearly allied to the Turbellaria than to any other group,
and we even believe that our animals bear only a very distant
likeness to the Turbellaria, that is, to the Annelids.

Let us try to prove the relationship of Ichthydina with the
Turbellaria by nearer comparison. As to the properties of the
body, we cannot fail to remark that the typical flattening of
the more or less oval body of Turbellaria does not exhibit
itself in any of the animals belonging to the group of

* It is Prof. Huxley’s explanation of the morphology of Rotatoria which
the author rejects.

MECZNIKOW, ON ICHTHYDIUM, ETC. 247

Ichthydina, whilst the peculiar bottle- or retort-like shape
of the latter is entirely strange to the Turbellaria. The
furcal appendages on the tail of Ichthydina present also a
striking difference between them and the Turbellaria. In
the same way the characteristic integuments show very con-
stant and important differences. The outside covering of
the Turbellaria consists of a soft epithelial tunic, whose cells
are all or nearly all provided with vibrating hairs, amongst
which there are comparatively seldom stiff feeling-hairs. A
cuticula is wanting in all Turbellaria in Arhynchia, as well
as-in Rhynchocela. I may state this the more safely in
contradiction to Keferstein, who describes the Nemertina as
having a cuticula, because I have searched in vain for it in
all the Nemertina which I found in Heligoland.

But the outside covering of the Ichthydina is quite different;
these possess, as I have before stated, a firm cuticula, which
consists of chitin, and which bears a number of different firm
excrescences. The vibrating hairs of our animal are, in com-
parison with those of Turbellaria, very closely distributed,
and are also peculiar on account of their conjunction with
the cuticula. These differences in the integument, which
also give rise to the differences of form in the two groups,
seem to be so striking that we may readily use them as proofs
against the opinion of Schultze, whilst the anatomical
properties also of these animals do not present any striking
agreement. Besides this, I must remark that, as we have seen
above, the peculiarly simple organisation of the Ichthydina
cannot have so great a systematical worth as other naturalists
think. If one were to consider the negative character, the
want of muscles, nerves, and water vessels, of our animals as
important in regard to their systematic position, we could
use the same character in regard to Infusors, and, in fact, to
all animals which show a like want.

Neither can I agree with Ehlers’ idea above mentioned,
since I can see no important reasons for the relationship of
Ichthydina with Nematodes in the alimentary apparatus of the
former. The winding of muscular tissue in the cesophagus
is present in Rotatoria and Tardigrada, and the straight
intestine in a number of lower animals. The secondary like-
ness in the formation of the digestive organs loses all import-
ance when we compare the other organs of the Ichthydina
and Nematodes, which have nothing in common.

From the foregoing remarks it is easy to see that I believe
the nearest allies of our animals to be the Rotatoria. This is
shown, not only by the above attempts at combating the
ideas of Schultze and Dujardin, but also by a nearer com-

248 MECZNIKOW, ON ICHTHYDIUM, ETC.

parison of the two groups of animal. Concerning the former
we must admit that the bottle-shaped forms of Cheto-
notus, Ichthydium, and Cephalidium, are like no forms of
Rotatoria; but, on the other hand, we may add that our
Chetura bears a great resemblance to certain soft wheel
animals, for example, to Notommata tardigrada. The furcal
appendages of our Ichthydina find analogous forms only in
the Rotatoria. The similarity of form of the vibrating
apparatus, which becomes apparent especially on comparing
the interesting ciliated apparatus in Cephalidium with certain-
wheel animals, I have mentioned and considered as a point
of relationship between the two animal groups. The presence
of two kinds of eggs in our animal speaks strongly for my idea ;
-as regards the other organs, we can satisfy ourselves if we
remember the above critique on the ideas of other naturalists.
We add only one more proof, namely, that the highly
developed sensory organs in the Ichthydina agree with the
same structures in the Rotatoria. The relationship between
the two groups cannot be carried into details. The
absence of jaws, and the presence of ventral cilia, in the
Ichthydina, together with a few secondary properties, show
striking differences between them. If we reckon all these
circumstances together, we come to the conclusion that
the Ichthydina form a small group of themselves, which is
related to the Rotatoria, and is best named Gastrotricha. If
we call the wheel animals after their most striking character,
Cephalotricha, then we can perhaps not unfittingly form
a new class out of these two orders, which possess some re-
lationship with the Vermes, and a still more distant one with
the Arthropods.

The arrangement of the Gastrotricha consists at present of
six genera:—Chetonotus (Ehrenb.), Ichthydium (Ehrenberg),
Turbanella (Schultze), Sacculus (Gosse), Chetura (Mihi),
and Cephalidium (Mihi).

II. Remarks on Ecuinoprres.—Dujardin has described
under this name a remarkable animal which he found at
St. Malo, which appeared to be related to the Worms as well
as the Rotatoria and lower Entomostraca. The same animal
was found by Leuckart in Heligoland, and was considered to
be a Dipterous larva. Claperéde has lately made some further
remarks concerning this creature, which he calls Hchinoderes
Dujardinii, and has added some remarks on a second new
form, namely, Echinoderes monocercus.

I have found and examined both the species mentioned, in
Heligoland ; but, nevertheless, have found nothing which can

MECZNIKOW, ON ICHTHYDIUM, ETC. 249

give any conclusive result as to the nature of these remark-
able animals ; therefore my wish is only to amplify or correct
some conclusions of Claperéde, which merely touch upon the
outside skeleton.

The body of our animal (Hchinod. Duj.) is convex on
the back, and, on the contrary, concave on the belly, so that
the diameter shows a kidney-like form. The three foremost
segments differ in that they seem to be convex on the ventral
surface. The first body-segment consists of a thin lamella,
which is provided with perpendicular thickenings of the
cuticula, with a bending character, and which therefore
differs from all the other rings. It is a formation which is
obviously necessary for the pushing in and out of the snout-
like head. The following segment possesses a strong cuticula,
which is simply thickened on the upper edge, and which
shows on the lower edge a fine marking. The markings
resemble thickened stripes on the edge of the cuticula,
and form in no way, as Claperéde represents, “a girdle of
stiff bristles, which arise from different pieces of chitin.’
The third, which is also biconvex, differs from the others
principally because on its thickened ring begins a division
into sections. ‘Two tergal pieces are formed by a looping on
the middle line in the back, which pass to the side parts of
the body, and stop again at two symmetrical loops of the
unequal sternal portion. On the back surface of the third
segment is a middle unpaired tuft of bristles.

The skeleton commences only in the fourth segment, and
does not occur, as Claperéde states, in every segment but the
first. Here the sternal plate splits itself into two separate
pieces by a deep crack which lies in the middle of the
body, formed by bending in the concavity of the ventral sur-

face. In this segment, as well as in all following, the above-
mentioned indentation, which divides both the tergal portions,
can be plainly seen—a fact which Claperéde has quite over-
looked, as he described the whole skeleton as consisting of
only one tergal and two sternal parts.

The formation of the skeleton as described by me in the
fourth is true for all the following, and for the last or furcal
segment which is formed by two plates. The strong ventral
and more weakly marked dorsal indentations both continue
to the end of the body. The furcal parts carry on both
sides a long and a shorter tuft of bristles, which, like the
bristles on the penultimate segment, arise from the ridge of
the skeleton. But the other bristles are placed very diffe-
rently. In the middle of the back, in the neighbourhood of
the dorsal indentation, there is a bristle from the third to the

VOL. VII.—NEW SER. s

250 MECZNIKOW, ON ICHTHYDIUM, ETC.

ninth segment, and on the sides of the body there is from the
sixth to the tenth segment just such a one on each side.

Besides the EL. Dwardinii upon which the foregoing re-
marks touch, I have also examined EH. monocercus as described
by Claperéde. I have also a few remarks to make on this
form.

This second kind is about 0:2 mm. long, and is easily
distinguished through the pale colour of the skeleton, but one
finds still further differences if one examines it closely.
Claperéde speaks as follows about it :—“ Instead of the long
terminal bristles of H. Dujardinii, we find in E. mono-
cercus an unequal tail-tuft of bristles which really belongs
to the back, so that the anus comes to lie underneath it; as
to the rest, the exo-skeleton of HE. monocercus agrees with
that of H. Dujardinii.”” But in spite of this plain statement
the skeleton of both these kinds is strikingly different; not
only in EZ. monocercus is the division of the exo- skeleton into
four parts wanting, but it differs from the former species in
that the unequal bristles on the posterior segments increase
in size. The tail-bristle in L. monocercus agrees therefore in
no way with the last bristle in LE. Dyardinii, as Claperéde
believes. The correctness of my idea is borne out not only
by the circumstance that this bristle lies above the anus, but
also by a peculiarity of HL. monocercus, which Claperéde had
overlooked, and which first induced me to oppose his ideas.
This peculiarity is that EH. monocercus consists of eleven
segments, and not twelve, as HE. Dwjardinii. Therefore the
last furcal segment is wanting in E. monocercus, and the last
segment in this species agrees with the last but one in the
other. The difference in the bristle armature of the two
kinds consequently reduces itself to this—namely, to the
presence of the dorsal, that is, the side bristles on the last
segment of EH. monocercus.

But at the same time I think J may consider this kind to
be only a young condition of E. Dujardinii.

As regards the inner inaccessible organisation of our
animal I can only add some remarks to those of Claperéde.
I must first state that our animal possesses a layer of side
muscles under the integument, whose single broad structure-
less fibres stand far from one another, and run through the
whole length of the body. I may also add, that the sexual
organs described by Claperéde cannot be counted as male or
any other part of the generative apparatus, because they
consist of an ill-defined mass of cells, which lie on each side
in the four last segments, and have no plain communication
with a tube or efferent canal, as Claperéde supposes.

MECZNIKOW, ON ICHTHYDIUM, ETC. 201

As to the systematic position of this animal, through our
incomplete knowledge of it, it is difficult to say much. It
seems to me possible that the Echinoderes represents the
larval condition of a perhaps unknown creature. At all events,
the independence of this animal can scarcely be proved.
This much is certain, that the Echinoderes bears no remark-
able relationship to the Ichthydina, as M. Schultze believes,
and still less to Nematodes, as Ehlers maintains.

IIT. ConcerNING THE OUTSIDE STRUCTURE OF DesMoscoLex.
—After having spoken of a very little known animal, I will
now pass on to a still less known one, which was discovered
by Claperéde, and named by him Desmoscolex minutus,
which I have found in Heligoland. This animal possesses,
besides the head, eighteen strongly chitinised brown-coloured
rings, which are separated from one another by pale elastic
spaces. From the brown rings (the head being omitted)
spring peculiar tubercles, which Claperéde considers to be
compound Annelid bristles, and which he has used for
the foundation of his ideas on the zoological nature of these
animals. But the closer examination of these bristles allows
us to contradict the idea of Claperéde. Each such bristle
forms an uninterrupted continuation of the segment ridge
itself, and is not therefore planted in the space of the same, as
is the case with Annelid bristles. To this may be added that
the somewhat crooked and tapering bristles show in the
inside a fine canal, and pass at their end to a fine flat point,
which must be considered as a particular part of the bristle,
but which at the same time can give no foundation for a com-
parison with a compound Annelid bristle. Both parts ‘stand
in uninterrupted connection with one another, and therefore
present a form which I consider as a sensitive hair, and would
in a certain sense compare with cirrhi and tentacular cirrhi.

After my description and elucidation of the bristles, their
position on the head will lose all that is paradoxical. Besides
the four head bristles, Claperéde describes in his species
others which are placed on each side of the second, fourth,
sixth, eighth, &c., segments. This description does not
entirely agree with his drawing, where there is no bristle to
be seen at the sixteenth segment, but where on the other
hand the following segment is provided with four.

In on species—if it represents a new kind at all—the position
of the bristle is still more peculiar. Our animal bears through-
out, besides the four head bristles already known, one pair
on each segment (with exception of the eleventh and fifteenth).
One of the bristles lies in the median line of the animal in the

252 MECZNIKOW, ON ICHTHYDIUM, ETC.

second, fourth, sixth, tenth, twelfth, fourteenth, and seven-
teenth segments, on the ventral surface, and in all the rest
on the dorsal surface (compare Pl. V, fig. 9). The side
bristles are placed on the left of those segments which carry
the ventral median bristles, and in the rest on the right. The
last, and at the same time the smallest, ring forms an excep-
tion, in that its two terminal bristles are very near one another,
‘and arise from the under edge of the segment.

These remarks may be sufficient to show, in spite of the
contrary supposition of Claperéde, that these animals are not
in any way allied to the Annelids, and in fact not to the
Worms at all. It strikes me as being probable that Desmos-
colex is the larval condition of a known or unknown Arthropod,
and I can only hope that more fortunate researches may very
soon give a firmer footing for a judgment on the question.

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE OF MICROSCOPICAL
SCIENCE.

GERMANY.—We fear that our anticipations expressed
in the last Chronicle have proved too true. We have not
received any number of the ‘ Zeitschrift,’ or of Max Schultze’s
‘Archiv,’ since last May, and can only conclude that the
excitement and pressure caused by the late war have delayed
their publication.

Muller’s Archiv. July.—The following microscopical papers
occur in this number :— Microscopical Researches on the
Texture, Development, &c., of Fatty Tissue,” by Herr Czjawicz.
“ On the Black Pigment of the Lung and the Iung Cuticle,”
by Herr Mettenheimer. ‘“ On the Trachee of Tenebrio mo-
litor (Meal worm),”’ by Drs. Landois and Thelen. ‘ On Spiral
Bundles in the Sympathetic of the Frog,’ by Dr. J. Sander.
“ On the Typical Structure of the Echinodermata,’ by Dr.
Dornitz.

FRANCE.—Comptes Rendus.—“ On the Reproduction and
Embryogeny of the Aphides,’’ is the title of a paper lately laid
before the Academy by M. le Dr. Balbiani. The author
remarks that, “ according to the ideas which observers have
formed of the nature of the reproductive organs of these
insects, their multiplication has been referred sometimes to
the phenomenon of alternate generations, sometimes to those
of parthenogenesis. As regards the opinion which assumes
an androgynous condition in these animals, and is still main-
tained by some authors, as well as by Leeuwenhoek, Cestoni,
and Réaumur, it rests upon a mere hypothesis which has not
yet received its demonstration by the detection of the male
element in the viviparous Aphides.” It is this last view which
M. Balbiani defends in his paper, by adducing observations
which he considers afford the positive proof for which science

254. QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

has waited since the time of the illustrious observers
who first pronounced in favour of the hermaphroditism
of these creatures. He believes that this state is the
normal condition of the Aphides throughout the viviparous
period of their existence, and that, under certain determinate
conditions, a separation of the sexes is effected, and their
mode of reproduction reverts to the law common to the gene-
rality of species of animals.

The ovary of the viviparous Aphis is minutely described
by the author, and the changes undergone by the ovum or
pseud-ovum, in its earlier stages, in the first part of his
paper. In the second, the embryonal development is entered
upon, and the evolution of a seminal vesicle and two male
glandular cords is described. The seminal corpuscles are
stated to be developed from larger coloured cells which con-
stitute the mass of the male organs situated in the vicinity
of the ovaries. They have an amceboid form, and sometimes
break up into small, unequal bacilli, ‘(005 mm. in length.
M. Balbiani states that several times he has succeeded in
seeing some of these corpuscles in the ovarian tubes, or
forming small groups at the bottom of the terminal chamber
of the ovigerous sheaths.—The third portion of the paper is
devoted to the consideration of the oviparous-sexual Aphides.
Up to the period of birth, the development of both oviparous
and viviparous Aphides is stated to be the same. It is only
when their development has become considerably advanced
that the first tendency to the separation of the sexes is ma-
nifested. The separation is not effected by the atrophy of
one of (what M. Balbiani considers to be) the sexual appa-
ratuses. The male apparatus is said not to disappear, but is
found after birth, in individuals of both sexes, with characters
scarcely differing from those which it presents in the vivi-
parous Aphides. M. Balbiani says that this male embryonic
organ must not be confounded with an ordinary testis; but
he will not say what it is until another occasion. He main-
tains that this male organ arrives at maturity even in the
females which are to produce eggs in the usual manner, to be
fertilised by copulation, and that it, in some mysterious
manner, fecundates the ovum within the female before copu-
lative fertilisation has occurred. It really would be very
desirable that we should hear a little more about this extra-_
ordinary male organ, which is not a testis, and which never-
theless is said to impregnate the ova of viviparous and ovi-
parous Aphides, which possess it. Surely it is not correct to
apply the term hermaphrodite to a female simply because she
may possess this very questionable organ. Like too many of

+
QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 255

his countrymen, we notice that M. Balbiani pays very little
regard to what previous observers have written on the same
subject.

Annales des Sciences Naturelles. Tom. V.—‘ On a New
Parasitic Crustacean, belonging to the order Lerneida, forming
anew family,’ by M. Hesse. The very remarkable crustacean
described by M. Hesse was observed by him very commonly
burrowing in the scales of the Green Wrasse (Labrus Dono-
vant). It has five thoracic and six abdominal segments ; the
head terminates in a round point, and has a single median
eye. The maleisunknown. M. Hesse systematises this form
as follows among the Lernzida:—“< Family Lerneosiphono-
stomee. Females fixed upon their prey by means of the scales
of the latter, in which they hollow out a residence. Several
footjaws placed around the mouth. Head not horned.
Oviferous pouches, large and flat.—Genus Lepidophilus. Body
fusiform, divided into eleven segments which are very distinct,
with the exception of the third and fourth; of these five are
thoracic and six abdominal ; all surrounded by a transparent
border. Head small, rounded at the apex, bearing above a
median eye, and beneath presenting the buccal orifice, which
emits, in a proboscidiform process, some denticulated jaws
adapted for the trituration of objects, and laterally three pairs
of prehensile footjaws. Antenne very small, rounded at the
end, and terminated by divergent hairs. Abdominal segments
retractile and capable of invagination ; last segments termi-
nated by divergent appendages. Embryo ovulate, furnished
with three pairs of feet. Eggs agglutinated, and forming a
broad fiat mass.—Species Lepidophilus Labri. Colour vary-
ing from yellow to pale red. Length about 10 to 12 mm.”

July.—* New Observations on the Multiplication of the Ceci-
domyie,’ by M. F. Meinert.—The author gives an abstract of
two papers published by him on this subject, of the greatest
value ; they appeared in M. Schjédte’s ‘ Naturhistorisk Tids..
skrift,’ 3rd ser., vol. ii. In the first, entitled “On the
Origin of the Germs in the Larve of Miastor,’ he maintains,
contrary to the opinion of Pagenstecher, that the germs of
the larvze originate in the adipose tissue (see former Chroni-
cles). The second, which is entitled “ Some further Words
on the Miastor,” contains some remarks on the formation of
the germs in another larva of the Cecidomyiz, and on the for-
mation and the development of the egg in animals in general.
And here the author describes more minutely the relation
between the germs and the corpus adiposum. He also was
the first to show that two forms of two very different genera
have been the subject of the researches of different authors;

256 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

That of Wagener is the Miastor, that of.Pagenstecher and
Leuckart is Oligarces.

In Miastor, the cells which become germs form part of the
adipose tissue ; but in Oligarces they are a little separated from
it, though they do not form an ovary properly speaking, for
all the cells develope into eggs and larve, and none serve to
form the stroma, or envelopes of the eggs, nor any analogous
functions. M. Meinert explains the peculiarities of the
Cecidomyia larvze by the following general views :—-The egg is
composed either of a single cell, the “‘ germinative cell,” or of
the germinative cell accompanied byothers—“ vitelline cells,”
or their secretion the “vitelline mass.’”? The mammalian
egg, and that of most inferior animals, belongs to the first
category. That of other animals, and especially that of
birds, belongs to the second, and that of most insects
to the third sort. The single “ germinative cell” of
which the nucleus is the “ germinal vesicle” is subject to the
vitelline segmentation so much discussed. The “ vitelline
cells” and the “ vitelline mass” are never broken up, but
pass without any form of development to the nutritive vitellus.
The germinative cell divides by “vitelline segmentation ”
(or, as one ought by rights to call it, “segmentation of the
germinative cell”) into minute cells (embryonic cells). One
part of these embryonic cells, which are not absorbed by the
formation of the embryo, furnish the material for the new
ovaries and testicles ; and generally some of the cells form a
stroma which separates and encloses a more or less consider-
able quantity of other cells. The non-separated cells which
remain form, among the insects, what one calls “ the adipose
tissue.” Another element, the sperm, is necessary among
most animals in order that the egg, or rather the germinative
cell of the egg, may be able to develope ; but this stimulus is
not always necessary among a large number of inferior ani-
mals. The development-of the egg does not depend at all
upon 2 certain more or less advanced point of development of
the maternal animal, or of its ovary; for the maternal
animal attains sometimes a complete development, even
with the external and internal genital marks (partheno-
genesis, the Bee); sometimes it advances only to the larval
condition without genital marks, and this may repeat itself
through several generations—in some cases under the same
larval form (our Cecidomyia), sometimes under a diverse
exterior (alternating generation, or rather metagenesis,
Trematodes). M. Meinert does not at all admit that there is
a marked limit between parthenogenesis and metagenesis,
and that one can, for example, explain in two ways the mode of

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 257

propagation in the Aphides. In relation to other insects, he
considers it as characteristic, that whilst it is necessary in
general to draw a distinction between the epithelial and
vitelline cells, and that these last serve solely to nourish the
embryo, the epithelial cells in this case, on the contrary, serve
for the epithelium and vitelline cells of the larve.

Journal de l’Anatomie et de la Physioligie (Robin’s)—In the
number of this periodical issued for the months of July and
August, will be found a paper “ On the Organisation of the
Linguatule of Serpents,’ by M. Jacquart, the best part of
which is the plate. The nervous system is well figured, the
author having established the fact of the existence of a sub-
cesophageal ganglion, but he has failed to trace any cerebri-
form ganglion. The embryos of the Linguatule described
are figured, and the author remarks that they are quite
similar to those of the Lernzans.

The number for September and October contains some
good papers.

“* Microscopic Researches on the Lymphatic Vessels of the
Penis,’ by M. le. Docteur Al. Belaieff.—This paper is accom-
panied by two plates illustrating preparations described by
the author. The bulk of the paper is occupied by a descrip-
tion of the method of preparation adopted, the disposition
and form of the lymphatics being best shown by the plate.

“* Study on the Development of Fibrillous (called Connec-
tive) and Fibrous Tissues,” by M. le Docteur E. C. Ordonez.
—This is a long essay illustrated by two plates. The author
finishes by giving the following conclusions :—1lst. The cor-
puscles, called indifferently plasma-cells and corpuscles of
connective tissue, are not permanent elements belonging
peculiarly to fibrillous or connective tissue, but rather transi-
tory elements belonging properly to elastic tissue, and in
which the existence of a cavity cannot be demonstrated by
any means. 2nd. The primitive fibrille of fibrillous tissue,
called “ connective,” possesses no central canal ; no procedure
can demonstrate such a canal. 3rd. The elastic fibres are
certainly not canaliferous. Hence the theory proposed by
Virchow in his ‘ Cellular Pathology’ is no longer supportable,
for it has no foundations but hypotheses, and our study has
led us to oppose to these hypotheses, facts, which any observer
can verify.

“ Researches on the Structure of the Pulmonary Vesicle,
and on Emphysema,” by M. Villemin.—This paper appears to
be of some pathological interest. It was originally com-
municated to the French Société de Micrographie.

258 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

Among the miscellaneous extracts and notices at the end
of Robins’s Journal, we would draw attention to—

‘“‘ Hematozoa found in the right Heart of a Dog,’ by M.
Collas. —It appears that the dog in question fell down dead,
when a post-mortem showed a mass of entozoa, fourteen to
fifteen in number, packed together in the right ventricle,
auricle, and pulmonary artery. The largest was 230 mm.
in length. When the worms were crushed, little worms
came out from them 72 mm. in length, very fine and thread-
like. The parasite appears to be the Pseudalius filum of
Dujardin, common in the Porpoise.

“ On the Action exercised by Electricity on the Noctiluca
miliaris,’ by MM. Ch. Robin and Ch, Legros.—In the
first place, the authors feel satisfied that the phosphor-
escence exhibited by Noctiluca is not localised at any
particular spot, but is exhibited at the centre of irritation.
If the irritation is increased, the phosphorescence becomes
general. A current of electricity was made to pass through
a vessel containing Noctiluca. The effect produced was a
line of phosphorescent Noctiluce between the poles of the
battery used, the phosphorescence ceasing and recurring
with the making and breaking of the electric circle.

ENGLAND.—Annals and Magazine of Natural History.
July.—* On the Affinities of Peridinium Cypripedium, Jas.
Clk., and Urocentrum Turbo, Ehr.,” by Prof. H. James Clark,
A.B., B.S., Soe. Am. Acad.—In this paper Mr. Clark replies
to an attack upon his identification of Peridinium, lately
made by Mr. Carter in the ‘Annals.’ An abstract of the
original paper was given in these pages.

“On the Rhabdocela,” by HK. Mecznikow.—This is a
translation, by Mr. Dallas, of an interesting paper by this
hard-working observer. In the first part of his paper he
discusses the reproductive organs of Prostomum, describes a
new species, P. Heligolandicum, and states that he met with
Claparéde’s P. Caledonicum in Heligoland. Secondly, he
briefly describes a marine species of Acmostomum, a genus
established by Schmarda on two North American brackish-
water forms. Thirdly, he describes a remarkable Turbellarian
allied to the Alaurina prolifera of Busch, once found at
Malaga, and similar also to a form described by Claparéde as
a larval Turbellarian occurring on the Scottish coasts. Both
these animals were sexless. Herr Mecznikow’s specimens
were composed of four parts, the foremost being longest, the
total length of the animal being 14 mm. The anterior
part was furnished with a tactile proboscis, differing in
colour from the body, and in the absence of the fine coat of

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 259

cilia by which that was covered. There were no strong
vibratile hairs as in Claparéde’s animal, but there was a long
posterior seta similar to those of Busch’s Alaurine. The
pharynx was muscular, and the intestine straight; no trace
of a nervous system occurred. On either side of the body
was a fine water-vascular stem. This Alaurina is evidently
not a larva, since in each segment hermaphrodite organs
were present. The four parts are not to be considered as
buds which will separate, but as analagous to the joints of
the animal colonies of Cestoda, as suggested by Prof. Leuckart
to the author. He would classify the Microstome and
Alaurine as allied families under the Rhabdocela.

August.— Observations on the Microscopic Shell-structure
of Spirifer cuspidatus, Sow., and some similar forms,’ by
F. B. Meek.—This abstract from ‘Silliman’s American
Journal ” for May, 1866, is of considerable interest as bearing
on the late controversy between Dr. Carpenter and Professor
King as to the structure of Rhynchopora Geinitziana. My.
Meek shows that the shell of Spirifer cuspidatus, both of
American and Irish specimens, is clearly punctate, contrary
to the decision of Dr. Carpenter. It must, however, be borne
in mind that the statements of so practised and able an
observer as Dr. Carpenter are not lightly to be called in
question either by Mr. King or Mr. Meek.

September.—‘‘ On two New Species of Freshwater Poly-
zoa,” by Edward Parfitt. The species described and figured
are called Plumatella lineata, and Pl. Limne. The first is
from a pond, the second from the canal at Exeter.

British Association Microscopical papers were not abun-
dant at Nottingham, but we have one or two to chronicle.

“ On the Movements of the Protoplasm of the Egg of
Osseous Fishes,’ by Dr. Ransom, of Nottingham.—This and
the paper the title of which is given below are, to a certain
extent, parts of a memoir lately presented by the author to the
Royal Society, of very great interest, and the result of very
careful researches. The contractions exhibited by the yelk
were shown to be independent of the action of spermato-
zooids, and to be reactions following the entrance of water into
thebreathing chamber ; and this not only as regards the rhyth-
mic waves which pass over the surface of the food-yelk, but also
the fissile contractility of the formative yelk, by virtue of
which it cleaves into irregular and unsymmetrical masses, and
which the author conceived only to be regulated by the
influence of the seminal particles. The cortical layer of the
food-yelk, or inner sac, shown to resist in a remarkable man-
ner osmosis, is found to be the rhythmically contractile part,

260 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

although requiring for the manifestation of movements the
presence of acid food-yelk upon its inner surface. Evidence
was given to show that the contractile property of the yelk of
both kinds requires, as an essential condition of its manifesta-
tion, the presence of oxygen in the surrounding medium.
Proofs were given that a certain moderate rise of temperature
increases the activity of these contractions. The reactions of
the yelk under the stimulus of galvanism were also recorded,
the food-yelk and cortical layer alone being excited to con-
traction by it. Poisonous agents had very little effect on the
yelk-protoplasm : carbonic acid, however, rapidly destroyed
the contractility, and chloroform arrested it for a time.

“On the Structure of the Ovarian Ovum of Gasterosteus
leiurus,” by Dr. Ransom.—This paper will be published in
full, with illustrations, in the next number of this Journal.

“ On the Question, Whether Carbonate of Lime exists in an
Amorphous or Crystalline State in the Egg-shells of Birds,”
by Dr. John Davy.—The author gave his observations, which
led him to conclude that the condition was amorphous. In
the discussion which followed, Mr. Charles Stewart, of
Plymouth, maintained that the polariscope revealed a crys-
talline structure in what Dr. Davy regarded as amorphous
particles.

“ On the Action of Carbonic Oxide on the Blood,” by Dr.
A. Gamgee.—When carbonic oxide is passed through venous
blood, it acquires a persistently florid colour, which was first
pointed out by Claude Bernard; and the colouring matter,
although it possesses a spectrum identical with that of ordi-
nary blood, is distinguished from it by not yielding, when
treated with reducing agents, the spectrum first described by
Stokes as that of reduced or purple cruorine. This property
of carbonic oxide blood was first published by Hoppe. Asa
result of his own investigations, Dr. Gamgee has found—
First, that the peculiar compound of carbonic oxide and blood
colouring matter is formed even when the latter has been
reduced, and is still in the presence of a large excess of a
reducing solution. Secondly, that when the compound of
carbonic oxide and colouring matter is treated with acetic
acid, whilst heematine is formed, carbonic oxide is disengaged.
Thirdly, that carbonic oxide, besides modifying the optical
properties of the colouring matter of blood, affects in a re-
markable manner the point at which it coagulates, so that,
under its influence, an almost perfect separation of the hema-
toglobulin (using the term to express the normal colouring
matter of the blood) from the albumen may be effected.
Normal ox’s blood, when diluted with nine times its volume

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE. 261

of water, becomes turbid at 145° Fahr.; and when the tem-
perature has reached 172° Fahr. its colour is completely de-
stroyed. If such a blood solution have been treated with
carbonic oxide, whilst, when the temperature has been raised
to 172°, the albumen has separated in flakes, the blood colour-
ing matter remains wholly unchanged. It is only when the
temperature is raised to about 185° that the colouring matter
commences to coagulate. The coagulum which is obtained
on further heating is of a reddish colour, unlike that of nor-
mal blood. Fourthly, if blood be saturated with CO, and
evaporated to dryness at a temperature below that at which
the colouring matter coagulates, the dry residue yields its
colouring matter to water, and the solution presents all the
optical properties of carbonic oxide blood. When this solu-
tion is boiled, the compound with the colouring matter yields
carbonic oxide gas. Fifthly, poisoning by pure carbonic
oxide, or by the fumes of charcoal, invariably leads, before
death occurs, to those changes which are characteristic of
carbonic oxide blood, becoming quite irreducible. Sorby’s
micro-spectroscope answers admirably for these investigations;
and the solution which Dr. Gamgee recommends for this spe-
cial process is one containing tin, in preference either to sul-
phide of ammonium or protoxide of iron. Sixthly, whilst it
results from Dr. Gamgee’s researches that no gas or poisonous
agent exerts the peculiar action on blood colouring matter
which is produced by CO, it is specially to be noticed that
prussic acid and laughing gas, which have the power of ren-
dering blood florid, do not prevent its being reduced. Thus,
the question which Claude Bernard suggested some years ago,
as to whether prussic acid exerts on blood a similar action to
that of carbonic oxide, is answered in the negative.

“ Remarks on the Rhizopoda of the Hebrides,” by Henry B.
Brady, F.L.S.—The author stated that whilst the question
was still occasionally raised as to the amount of good
resulting from the annual money-grants of the associations
for aiding researches in marine zoology, it was obviously the
duty of those who had facts of interest obtained by their
means to bring them before that section. It was with this
view that he presented a few points concerning the Forami-
nifera contained in Mr. Jeffrey’s dredgings in the Hebrides.
He proposed merely to touch on the subject, leaving details to
a future paper, when he should have had time to conclude
his examination of the material. Of the total number of
species and tolerably permanent varieties hitherto numbered
in the British fauna—which might be regarded as 121—
seventy-six had occurred in the Hebrides dredgings: In

262 QUARTERLY CHRONICLE.

addition to these, a new Lugena, having an acerose surface
and spiral ornament round the neck, had been found, which
he proposed to call L. Jeffreysii. A specimen of Lagena
crenata, P. and J., hitherto only known as a Tertiary fossil,
and L. gracillima, Seguenza, which could scarcely be said to
have been recorded from a British locality, were noticed, and
three other species, viz., Hauerina compressa, VOrb., Cristel-
laria cultrata, Mont., and Marginulina Raphanus, Linn.

The distribution of the different families of the Rhizopoda
in the area dredged was found to be as follows :—Of the
twenty-one species of Miliolida inhabiting the British seas,
eighteen were obtained, and the whole of the six species of
Lituolida were found most of them in considerable abundance
Of the Lagenida 2*, of the Globigerinida 23, and of the
Nummulinida =, had been noticed, but it was probable that
further search would increase these numbers.

“On the Systematic Characters of the Echinoidea Regularia,”
by C. Stewart.— The author of this, a very valuable and
suggestive paper, dwelt on the importance of the minute
structure of the hard parts of the Echinoidea as bases of
classification. He particularly drew attention to a series of
calcareous spicules, entirely new, discovered by himself,
scattered in the alimentary canal, and highly characteristic
of the different genera and species.

“On the Asexual Reproduction and Anatomy of Cheto-
gaster vermicularis, Mill,” by E. Ray Lankester, of Christ-
church, Oxford. The fissiparous propagation of this minute
worm, which lives on water-snails, was minutely described,
and shown to present some peculiarities in regard to the
relation between parent stock and zooids. The anatomy and
general morphology of the worm had never been before dis-
cussed. The chief points of interest were—lst. The exceed-
ingly small number of segments composing an individual
(four or five). 2nd. The remarkable degree of cephalization,
the cephalic bristles differing from the rest possessed by the
worm, and being connected with the mouth, separated by a
wide gap from the succeeding bundles. 3rd. The total
absence of cilia in the animal. 4th. The presence of stiff
sensory (?) hairs on the cuticula. 5th. The absence of
marked segmentation. 6th. The non-occurrence of any
individuals bearing sexual organs. Prof. Huxley considered
Chetogaster a larval form, and suggested a comparison with
Sagitta.

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NOTES AND CORRESPONDENCE.

The Stanhoscope.—Until within the last few weeks I have
been unable to obtain a lens sufficiently powerful to be
useful and sufficiently portable to be convenient, in examin-
ing diatoms on the spots where they were gathered. I
have tried compound microscopes, and found their arrange-
ments on the open field or on the seashore tedious and
awkward. I have used the ordinary Stanhope and triplet
lenses, but none of them gave satisfaction; the latter being
much too low in magnifying power to enable me to deter-
mine with any certainty what species or even genera I had
gathered.

The Stanhoscope, however, is excellently adapted for field
purposes, its power, is great, ranging from 100 to 150
diameters, its field is clear, and the method of using it is
simplicity itself, all that is required being to place the object
to be examined, say diatomace, desmidez, scales from moths’
wings, &c., on the square end of the lens, and then look
through the apparatus towards the light. The size of the
entire apparatus is only one inch in length and five eighths of
an inch in diameter ; it is therefore exceedingly portable, and
is also very cheap. The lens is of French manufacture, and
may be had of any optician who deals in foreign goods, or of
any respectable toy dealer for 1s. 6d.; it can also, without
fear of injury, be sent post free to any address on payment
of eighteen postage stamps.

These Stanhoscopes of French manufacture, being originally
made as toy microscopes, and very cheap, are, of course, not
in every instance so perfect optically as is desirable; one half
of those sold are very good, but the remainder are either im-
perfect or very inferior. In order that the public might be
supplied with really good articles, at not too high a price, I
wrote to a London optician, requesting him to turn his atten-

264 MEMORANDA.

tion to the subject of manufacturing a portable article on the
French principle, but with care as to optical details. He, in
reply, stated that a small pocket lens of the kind referred to
could be manufactured, upon the working of which reliance
might be placed, and which would answer every purpose
required by a microscopist in search for diatomacez, desmidez,
or infusoria, but that the price could not be less than five
shillings.

As a proof of the power and clearness of the better Stan-
hoscopes of French manufacture, I may state that I can
recognise with ease Nitzschia closterium, N. reversa, and even
Cocconeis excentrica, when they have been prepared and the
endochrome has been removed by acid.—T. P. Barxas, New-
castle-on-Tyne.

On the Improvement of the Compound Microscope.—You
would much oblige me by the insertion of the following
remarks on the improvement of the Compound Microscope,
as sequel to a contribution of July, 1863, to which I must
refer your readers. Concave mirrors in place of lenses in the
eye-piece, so inclined as to reflect the body of rays into the
form of a figure of 4, would afford a convenience of manipula-
tion almost irrespective of the dimensions of the instrument.
If approved, a mirror as objective also might afford additional
mechanical facilities. On a smaller scale the form of the
letter N might be preferred. Attached to each objective
should be a length of tube twice or more its focal distance.
To avoid moving the body of the instrument, I would apply
the adjustments to the stage.

The experimental instrument of glasses described in 1863
performs admirably, on a white enamelled watch-case, on the
surface of a flea, on solid deal, on mouse’s hair, and on the
surface of the pollens of whin, broom, and geranium, without
condenser. The field is remarkably flat, and available at
every part.—F rep. Curtis, 44, Church Street, Stoke Newing-
ton, N

The Rev. M. J. Berkeley and Mr. Hogg.—In the January
number of the Journal, p. 21, Mr. Jabez Hogg has brought
a charge of inconsistency against me which is quite un-
founded.

In the first place, the passage in the ‘ Outlines’ cited by him
does not run “it is possible,” but “it is probable.” And, in

MEMORANDA. 265

the next place, it does not refer to cutaneous affections at all,
but to those of the mucous membranes. There is not, therefore,
the inconsistency with which he charges me. Moreover, I
have not cited Mr. Lowe as an authority for the production
of diseases by the rubbing in of the spores of fungi. What I
say is, that “‘ Dr. Lowe has induced skin-diseases by inocula-
tion with the granules of yeast, and he is inclined to attribute
a great deal more to the agency of fungi than has hitherto
been allowed.”—Outlines of Brit. Fungology.
M. J. BERKELEY,

VOL. VI.—NEW SER. Hh

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Dustin MicroscoricaL Cius.

April 19th, 1866.

Dr. E. Perceval Wright exhibited portions of the ambulacral
feet, ling membrane of the intestine, and ovaries of several
species of Echinidw, showing the very peculiar arrangement of
spicules which appeared to be characteristic of each. His atten-
tion had been.called to this subject by his friend Mr. C. Stewart,
of Plymouth, who had read a very elaborate paper on these struc-
tures as they occur in the Regular Echinoidia before the Linnean
Society, and from what he (Dr. Wright) had been able to observe he
had little doubt but that the comparative form and structure of
these spicules would be of vast importance in helping to dis-
criminate not only between the families, but also between the
genera of these Echinoderms. He regretted not being able to
show a series of these preparations from Mr. Stewart himself, as
he had at first expected, as he had not succeeded in mounting his
specimens at all in the same manner as those he had seen prepared
by that gentleman: but the specimens he brought to the meeting
would still be quite sufficient to justify the remarks he had made.
Specimens were shown of the following :—Leiocidaris papillata,
Psammechinus microtuberculatus, Psilechinus variegatus, Toxo-
pneustes lividus, Tripneustes ventricosus, Echinometra lucunter,
and Acrocladia mammillata. The importance of drawing up
diagnoses of the Genera of Echinida, not as is usually done, simply
according to the number and position of the ambulacral pores
and the characters of the spines, but based upon details of all
the structures met with in the recent animal, was strongly
insisted on. Until some such plan is adopted nothing but an
appeal to type specimens will determine genera and species that
have been insufficiently described, even by such authors as
Dujardin and Hupé, Forbes, Agassiz, and others.

Mr. Archer drew attention again to the Rhizopod he had shown
at the January meeting, and which he referred, as yet somewhat
doubtfully, to Difflugia corona, in order to point out a peculiarity

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 267

which had since then presented itself, and which seemed suffi-

ciently remarkable. This consisted in many of the specimens

presenting from one, two, or the whole three of the posterior

horn-like extensions, a tuft of very slender linear appendages, of
greater or less density, issuing from the apex of the horn, and

oftentimes as long or longer than the whole creature, test and all.

These curious fasciculi were sometimes very dense, the individual

linear elongations being very numerous, or these latter were

sometimes few only, or reduced even to one. Under a moderate

power these tufts might suggest fasciculi of so many minute

colourless algoid or fungoid filaments issuing from the apex of

the horn-like extension ; when viewed under a higher power they

were seen to be pellucid, with a central series of granules some- .
what irregularly disposed. A question presented itself as to the

nature of these novel appendages— Were they prolongations of
the sarcode or mass of the body of the Difflugia within, or were

they parasitical growths of any nature? For the first assump-

tion their considerable resemblance to the slender linear prolonga-

tions from the body of Ameba villosa, brought forward by Mr.

Archer at the February meeting, seemed to speak. Besides, if

they were parasitical growths, it might be presumed that such

would take place rather on dead or diseased specimens than on

active living ones, and these were sending forth the usual pseudo-

poda from the frontal opening very vigorously, and making quite

their usual progress along. For the second assumption, indeed,

the seeming want of change of form of these appendages and

their seeming power of being shed would appear to speak. There

did not seem to be any internal flow of the central granules.

But as regards their being sometimes cast off, it seems undoubted

on the other hand that Actinophrys Hichornit could be made to

shed its rays, unquestionably sarcode. (See Kiihne—“ Unter-
suchungen tiber das Protoplasma und die Contractilitat’’; ‘ Die

Bewegungserscheinungen der Actinophrys Eichornii,’ pag. 68.

Leipzig, 1864.) There does not seem any vegetable filament to

which these, indeed, could be well compared. Be then their

nature what it may, Mr. Archer thought that the singular.
appearance presented by these Difflugize carrying about these

remarkable-looking tufts or appendages at the least worth this

crude and brief note.

Rev. E. O'Meara, A.M., exhibited Aulacodiscus orientalis, well
showing its spines, also Omphalopelta punctata.

Dr. John Barker exhibited and explained a modification of
Smith’s new Growing Slide, which he had contrived. This con-
sists of a shallow glass box, as in Smith’s, but both upper and
lower plate having cut out of each a circle of about an inch in
diameter, and a piece of glass tubing set therein and cemented,
so as again to hermetically close the box. Immediately over the
aperture thus made through and through the box, a circle of

268 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

glass, a shade wider in diameter and rather thinner than an
ordinary slide, is cemented, thus again closing the aperture
through the box at one of the surfaces. The upper surface of
this circle of glass forms the table on which the object for
examination is placed. At the right hand side, just beyond the
edge of this circle of glass, and near the lower edge of the box,
a small hole is drilled through the upper plate of the box, which
is the feeding hole for the water, which is introduced into the
box by a small opening ground away at the lower right hand
corner. The object is now covered by a square of thin covering
glass in the usual way; one angle of the cover extends at the
right hand side beyond the circular table, and reaches so far as to
cover the little feeding aperture in the box, and the flow is estab-
lished. There is a little strip of glass cemented at the lower
side to prevent the square cover slipping. This plan has the
advantage of allowing the light to come up from the mirror, not
through a stratum of water, however thin, but directly through a
thin plate of glass, permitting, too, the use of the achromatic
condenser if needful. Dr. Barker stated he had found this plan
to act very well.

Dr. E. Perceval Wright exhibited also Smith and Beck’s new
modification of Smith’s principle of Growing Slide.

Mr. Yeates exhibited a soap-bubble under the microscope,
forming a very gorgeous object, owing to the magnificent and
ever-changing play of colours which was presented.

17th May, 1866.

Mr. Archer exhibited specimens fully conjugated, and in
various stages of conjugation, of a filamentous form, which at
first sight might be supposed to belong to the genus Zygogonium,
as modified and explained by de Bary in his ‘ Untersuchungen
tiber die Familie der Conjugaten,’ p. 79. But though de Bary
employs the name Zygogonium, he does not do so in the same
sense as Kiitzing. The name Zygogonium is one of Kiitzing’s,
and his genus so denominated may be most briefly defined by
saying that it comprehends those Zygnemata in which the
zygospore is formed in the middle space, half-way between the
conjugating cells; whereas to the genus Zygnema, as understood
by him, Kiitzing would consign those forms only in which the
zygospore becomes formed within one of the parent cells, the
endochrome in both presenting the characteristic doubly stellate
arrangement. Now, there can be no doubt but that de Bary is
quite right in doing away with this distinction as a generic one,
nor would the distinction be, manifestly, at all available as
regards a barren filament. Therefore, although de Bary refers

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 269

the genus Zygogonium to Kiitzing, Zygogonium (Kiitz.) is not
the same thing as Zygogonium, de Bary.

Now there could be almost no doubt, Mr. Archer ventured to
think, but that the plant now exhibited would fall under the genus
intended to be established by Prof. de Bary under this name—
that is, had this distinguished observer been present and asked to
what genus the plant exhibited should be referred, that he would
doubtless have replied that it belonged to Zygogonium, as laid
down in his work. There could not be any doubt but that
the present, though not the same plant, was at least congeneric
with de Bary’s. But, on the other hand, if Prof. de Bary be
correct in his appreciation of the characters of his plant, and in
his views of the genus founded thereon, Mr. Archer thought the
present plant could zo¢ fall under Prof. de Bary’s genus as laid
down by him, that strict attention being paid to the characters
given by him which is enjoined by a rigid scientific accuracy. In
other words, assuming the present plant to be really congeneric
with that examined by de Bary, then his genus must be regarded
as based on a somewhat erroneous foundation; and, if it should
be retained at all, it should be so, not for this plant, but for the
typal form Zygogonium ericetorum, Kiitz., or possibly for some
others of Kiitzing’s forms in which no conjugation has been seen
and whose special characteristics, therefore, in this regard, are, of
course, as yet problematical.

In order to draw attention, then, to the reason why Mr.
Archer had formed this opinion and ventured on this statement,
it would be necessary to give the characters of Zygogonium as
modified by de Bary, then to describe the plant now exhibited,
and afterwards to compare it with such diagnosis and endeavour
to point out its divergencies therefrom, and, finally, to indicate
what appeared to Mr. Archer to be its proper location.

The diagnosis of Zygogonium, as given by de Bary (op. cit.),
is as follows :—‘ Cells cylindrical or barrel-shaped, with thick
often many-layered cell-wall: towards the middle at each side an
irregular chlorophyll-corpuscle, furnished with a starch-granule,
both often confluent into an axile string (in the very thick-walled
filaments mostly covered with granules). Union of the conju-
gating filaments ladder-formed. The processes of the two cells of
the filament which grow opposite one another and take up the
chlorophyll contents, become cut off as fructification-cells by
septa, which then become fused together to a non-contracted,
zygospore.” (‘ Untersuchungen,’ &c., p. 79.) 3

The type of this genus so defined is supposed to be the
common Z. ericetorum; but, as it appears, according to de Bary,.
that the typical Z. ericetorum has not been found conjugated,
his allusion to the process in the generic diagnosis is founded on
dried examples, from Professor Rabenhorst’s collection, of a form
named Z. didymum, which he (Professor de Bary) considers very
closely to resemble the water-form of Z. ericetorum.

Now, the plant exhibited by Mr. Archer had short. cells,

270 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

varying in this regard from nearly quadrate to three or four times
longer than broad, according to the interval of time elapsed since
division ; the contents bright herbaceous green, forming an axile
compressed band (never separate stellate chlorophyll bodies, as in
Zygnema) ; the conjugation taking place by short, wide processes,
which, along with the shortness of the cells or joints, gives the
pair of conjugating filaments somewhat the appearance of a per-
forated ribbon-like structure; the total cell-contents of each pair
of conjugating jomts become massed together into an elliptic
zygospore within the inflated transverse tube ; the longer diameter
of the zygospore placed vertically to the length of the filaments;
the cavity occupied thereby not shut off by any septum from the
cavities of the parent joints. .

That the total cell-contents, “primordial utricle” and all,
wholly coalesced to form the zygospore, Mr. Archer had com-
pletely satisfied himself both by there being no granular matter
whatever left behind in the parent conjugated joints, and by no
further contraction of any contents taking place on the applica-
tion of re-agents. In the same way it was equally evident that
there was no septum separating the zygospore from the cavities
of the parent-cells, but it lay freely in the inflated transverse
process, though frequently in contact with its walls about the
middle.

A seemingly fair figure of this type is given in Rabenhorst’s
‘Kryptogamen-Flora von Sachsen,’ &e., p. 162; but the plant is
referred by that author to Zygogonium in the Kiitzingian sense,
and de Bary’s characters are not taken into consideration. Little
information can be drawn from the figure referred to as regards
the arrangement of the endochrome in the unconjugated joint,
whether doubly stellate or forming a compressed band. If the
former it would be a Zygnema, with the zygospore in the middle.
It may be assumed, however, that the figure may represent the
broad or flat view of the band of endochrome as towards the
observer. Therefore, Rabenhorst’s figure would be still more
likely to represent a plant congeneric with the present, seeing
that here the whole cell-contents are represented as fused into the
spore, which is not shut off by any septum from the cavities of
the parent joints.

Now, the foregoing characters of the plant now exhibited, as
has been described, would seem at once so decisive that it should
be referred to Mougeotia (de Bary, non Agardh), and not to
Zygogonium in either sense, that it might almost be asked why
there should be any question on the subject, or any allusion to
the genus Zygogonium, de Bary, or Zygogonium, Kiuitz., as con-
nected with it. For the definition of this well-marked genus
(Mougeotia, de Bary, non Ag.), see de Bary’s already quoted
work (pag. 78, t. viii, figs. 20—25), also Mr. Archer’s observa-
tions thereon, and on the only hitherto established form therein,
Mougeotia glyptosperma, de Bary, in the ‘ Microscopical Journal,’
vol. xiv, p. 65 (in the separate copies of the Club Proceedings,

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 271

p- 27). In the examples now shown we have a plant whose
endochrome forms an axile band, whose zygospore is formed by
the total fusion of the entire cell-contents of two conjugating
joints into the-zygospore within the transverse tube, and without
any septum between it and the cavities of the parent joints,
This plant is not a Mesocarpus, being quite shut out from that
genus for the last reason mentioned. It is in truth a Mougeotia,
in the de-Baryian, but not the Agardhian sense. It is to be dis-
tinguished from Mougeotia glyptosperma, de Bary, by its much
shorter and wider cells, much wider transverse tubes, by its cells
not becoming kneed or curved during conjugation, but presenting
(as before mentioned) the appearance of a perforated ribbon-like
structure, not a wide-looped network, and above all, by its
zygospore being simply elliptic and destitute of the grooves and
ribs, and the somewhat acute keel which form so distinguishing
features of that of I. glyptosperma.

But another reason for bringing Zygogonium, de Bary, into the
question in connection with this plant, besides its no doubt con-
siderable general resemblance thereto, was that at certain stages
of the process of conjugation the present plant presented appear-
ances so like de Bary’s figure (op. cit.), but perhaps still more like
Rabenhorst’s, as to lead to the view, as before mentioned, that it
and his plant are congeneric, notwithstanding that de Bary made
a separate genus of his plant.

This circumstance alluded to is a standstill, as it were, sometimes
noticeable, of the globular mass of the contents of each parent
joint, just within the connecting tube, where they became defi-
nitely bounded, to appearance as if distinct individualised cells,
ultimately, however, coalescing into the zygospore.

Now, the question arises—May de Bary’s figures (it will be
noted, made from dried specimens) have been possibly taken from
examples arrested at this stage of advancement of the process of
conjugation, and, from the same cause (that is, dried and dete-
riorated specimens), may he not have supposed these bodies, thus
partially advanced towards conjugation, to be portions only, not
the total cell-contents, wholly retracted from the cell-wall?
May some external granules have lent to the specimens an appear-
ance of certain granular contents left behind within the parent
conjugating cells; and, as regards the two bodies, not; yet
coalesced, represented by him as specially coated by a cell-wall and
separated by a septum from the parent-cells, may they not have
been, just as in the specimens now exhibited, simply the con-
tracted total cell-contents, without any special coat, arrested or
caught at the point just before mutual fusion ?

But great as is the resemblance of the plant figured by de
Bary, when we reflect on the beauty and accuracy of his observa-
tions in general, it is indeed with difficulty that we can bring
ourselves to believe in his having misconceived the character of
the plant he describes and calls Zygogoniwm didymum; and if
there be really after all no such misconception, then the present

272 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

plant now exhibited cannot be Zygogonium ericetorum, nor any
variety, nor can it indeed fall under the genus Zygogonium at all,
either as Zygogonium (de Bary), or as Zygogonium (Kiitz.) ; for
as already mentioned, as will be seen from the characters above
detailed, it must find its place truly in Mougeotia (de Bary, non
Agardh). If, on the other hand, de Bary have really erred as
regards his plant, the genus Zygogonium, as constituted by him,
may possibly not stand, or at least it may have to remain contingent
on its being necessary to retain it for the common plant Zygogo-
nium ericetorum (Kiutz.), for it should not certainly be main-
tained for those species of Zygnema only, which form their zygo-
spores within the transverse tube.

In endeavouring to identify this plant with any form already
described, Mr. Archer ventured to think that it comes quite close
enough to Zygogonium leve (Kiitz.) as to render it probable that
they are indeed one and the same thing, though Kiitzing describes
only the barren plant. And if this view be correct, adopting the
genus Mougeotia (de Bary, non Agardh), this plant should be
henceforth called Mougeotia levis.

Mr. Archer had to apologise for the present somewhat round-
about description of this plant. It is not easy without a figure to
convey at once a definite idea of the points dwelt upon, but he
trusted his meaning would be sufficiently apparent to observers
who have made themselves acquainted with the peculiarities and
the characters of these interesting Algew. Those who have be-
come familiarised with these forms will well know that these dis-
tinctions are by no means imaginary, and will, he thought, accord
with him in feeling that they each possess an individuality, and
that we can know and recognise the same thing, time after time,
when it offers itself to observation, although we may not be always
able to tell exactly why. And that feeling seems to be increased
and strengthened when, as in the present instance, we are able to
follow up the characters of a perhaps tolerably familiar form to its
fructification, compare it in its various stages with its allies, and,
though they are sometimes hard to describe, note its differences
and its idiosyncracies.

Rey. E. O’Meara exhibited a species of Coscinodiscus found
in a frond of Vanvoorstia spectabilis, Hary., from Ceylon. In its
general appearance it so much resembles Coscinodiscus symmetricus,
Greville, that Mr. O’Meara was disposed to identify it with that
species. There are, however, slight differences worthy of notice.
In the case of C. symmetricus the fasciculi of radial beaded lines
are seven in number, whereas in the form now presented there
are eleven such fasciculi of lines; the marginal portion of the dise
in the present case is smooth ; in the case of C. symmetricus it is
striated. This form seems of exceedingly rare occurrence in the
material, only one specimen of it having been found.

Dr. Moore showed fine and numerous specimens, perfectly un-

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES, 273
mixed with other forms, of Closteriwm Pritchardianum (Arch.),
which species had presented itself copiously in one of the warm
tanks in the Botanic Garden, watered from the River Tolka.

Read, the following extract from a letter from Professor
Hodges, of Belfast, dated 27th April, 1866, accompanying a
sample of the material alluded to therein :

“Some time ago I received a specimen of the enclosed substance
for analysis; and on submitting it to the microscope I was sur-

rised to find that it consisted almost entirely of Diatomacee.
The person who forwarded it to me stated that it appeared on the
surface of a lake near Seaforde, Co. Down, in May, 1865, and
covered about 500 square yards, forming a layer three or four
inches in thickness, having been driven by the wind into a sort of
estuary. The smell was so intolerable that the people were
obliged frequently to leave off work in the adjoining fields. I
found it to consist, in the 100 parts, of—

PUES eo Ae a ec ee 87°50
Organic matters, ».:.0. 20.20.08... 10°30
Inorganic matters ............... 2°20

100°00

“The mineral matters were chiefly oxide of iron and silica.
You will find the substance very rich in Diatoms.”

Mr. O’ Meara had carefully examined a sample of this very bad-
smelling stuff, and had found the following Diatoms :—Oyclotella
operculata, Synedra radians, S. capitatum, SN. delicatissima, Cocco-
nema lanceolatum, C. parvum, OC. cymbiforme, Navicula crypto-
cephala, Diatoma elongatum, Tabellaria flocculosa, Fragillaria capu-
cina, Epithemia Argus, E. gibba, Cocconeis placentula, Plewrosigma
attenuatum, P. Spenceru, Himantidium bidens, Nitzschia parvula,
Gomphonema constrictum. Also a few sponge-spicules; and he
suggested that Spongilla might have had something to do in pro-
ducing the very bad odour proceeding from this curious deposit.

Mr. Archer exhibited a number of fresh examples of the zygo-
spores of some Desmidiacez, which, so far as he was aware, had
rot yet been met with.

Amongst these novelties was the zygospore of Xanthidium
fasciculatum. Of this he showed the only two specimens he had
ever seen; for, although the plant itself seems to be pretty com-
mon in suitable localities, he had never before met it conjugated,
nor did he think the zygospore was recorded. It is orbicular,
large, beset with very long slender spines, broadest at the base,
and tapering in a concave manner upwards (Eddystone Light-
house like) to the bifid apices. This formed an extremely pretty
object.

edie: that of this fine species, and in the same gathering, he
was able to show, not yet recorded, the zygospore of Xanthidium
aculeatum. It, too, is large, und beset with spines, at the base

*
274: PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

like those of Xanthidium fasciculatum, but somewhat broader,
and tapering upwards to the blunt and uncinate extremities.

In the same rich gathering the zygospore of Arthrodesmus con-
vergens presented itself, and it also does not seem to be before
known. It forms a contrast to both the foregoing, being quite
smooth, and altogether destitute of spines. This is a fact some-
what singular in the free short forms of Desmidiacee.

Mr. Archer was likewise able to show fresh specimens of the
zygospore of Cosmarium margaritiferum in many stages. It is
arrayed with spines very like those of the zygospore of C. Botrytis.

Spherozosma vertebratum, too, was there also conjugated, and it
was worth noting that the zygospore of this species is beset with
numerous slender, subulate, acute spines. ‘This was the third
occasion in which Mr. Archer had taken this species conjugated ;
and, that the zygospores are spinous deserves a note, making an
exception amongst filamentous genera in that fact, just as Arthro-
desmus convergens and a few others make, on the other hand, rare
exceptions amongst the short free forms, in having smooth zygo-
spores. In all books Spherozosma vertebratum is, unfortunately,
erroneously stated to have smooth, non-spinous zygospores.

In this same gathering Mr. Archer was also able to show fresh
zygospores of Stawrastrum controversum and Staurastrum Dickiei,.
both rare, as well as of Hwastrum binale, and several others mor
frequently met with in the conjugated state. .

Mr. Archer was quite disposed to hold that, if we were only as
familiar with the zygospores of the different species of this Family
as with the mature forms themselves, we might be able to deduce
from the former quite as good characters as are presented by the
latter; for instance, the difference between the spines of the
zygospores in the two related species, Xanthidiwm fasciculatum
and X. aculeatum. It was indeed very beautiful to see all these
varied species distributed over the slide, sometimes in pairs ready
for conjugation, the contents now partially emerged, and again,
the zygospore more and more adyanced and in different stages,
each parent individual unerringly making choice of its own spe-
cies—the rare, as it were, seeking out the rare, and the abundant
freely conjugating with the abundant.

Resolved, that the members of the Club desire to express and
place on record their unfeigned sorrow at the announcement of
the death of Professor Harvey, one of their two honorary mem-
bers.

June 21st, 1866.

Dr. Moore showed samples of the substance found in some
quantity, scattered on the ground, houses, &c., by Mr. R. A.
Duke, C.E., in the neighbourhood of Templemore, County Sligo,
after a night’s rain, and which had been sent to the Rev. Pro-
fessor Haughton under the impression that it was sulphur. This

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 275

‘turned out to be pollen of Pines, indeed that of, the Scotch Fir,
which Dr. Moore verified by showing some pollen of that species
side by side under another microscope ; nay, Dr. Moore had
found that several of the grains at first thought to be sulphur, and
then by some regarded as possible insect’s eggs, upon being
moistened developed a pollen tube.

Mr. Crowe exhibited a very minute Cosmarium from Bray
Head, which was sufficiently puzzling, as it seemed to come
exceedingly close to Cosmarium tuberculatum (Arch.), and yet not
to be truly that form. The plant is very minute, segments
broadly elliptic, constriction very obtuse and shallow, isthmus
broad, surface smooth.

Mr. Archer said this seemed, no doubt, a very puzzling little
form; indeed, as much so as he had ever met. Leaving the
minute tubercles and somewhat smaller size of C. tuberculatum
out of view, the present plant seemed fairly to agree with that
form. It is to be drawn attention to that the figure of C.
tuberculatum (‘ Proceedings Nat. Hist. Soc. Dub.,’ vol. iii, pl. ii,
figs. 11—15; also, ‘ Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci.,’ N. 8., vol. ii, pl. xii,
figs. 11—15) gives these very minute tubercles as much too large
and prominent and pellucid. They, on the other hand, are
exceedingly minute and opaque. However decidedly Mr. Archer
felt disposed to rely on the permanence of these forms, he would
not insist too strongly in any case, without a much closer
acquaintance with the forms in question than he had as yet been
able to make. Tbe plant now shown by Mr. Crowe may indeed
be but a variety of C. tuberculatwm, for the actual differences are
but slight, but it may be premature to pronounce until these
little forms are more frequently met, and any characters deducible
from their zygospores discovered. But, be it as it may, Mr.
Archer thought that this plant could be mistaken for no other
than C. tuberculatum. Nor could either (@f they should indeed
turn out distinct) be at all confounded with any other species.

Mr. Porte exhibited some pupa cases of aphides, all of which
had been inhabited by Ichneumons, leaving the well-known
curious aperture by which these insects made their exit.

Dr. E. Perceval Wright exhibited sections of the pitcher of
Sarracenia purpurea and S. flavans, showing the peculiar arrange-
ment of the cellular tissue of these strangely metamorphosed
leaves, and especially the glands, which were found underneath
the outside layer of the epidermis. He alluded to Vogl’s paper
in ‘Sitzungsberichte der k. Akad. der Wissenschaften,’ Band 1,

p- 281

Dr. John Barker showed the (with us rather rare, and withal
very elegant) Micrasterias Americana, Ehr., gathered on the
occasion of the Glen-ma-lur excursion.

276 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Dr. Frazer, referring to a former instance in which portions of
the pulp of an orange had been sent to him as hydatids taken
from the human stomach, mentioned another instance of the same
blunder having been made within the last week. This was a good
instance of how easy it is to fall into an error from want of a
sufficiently accurate diagnosis of various objects, which may more
or less simulate each other, without having the smallest affinity or
community of nature.

Mr. Archer had an opportunity to show specimens of Coleochete
orbiculare, quite barren, unfortunately. These were, indeed,
mainly remarkable for the great number of bristles issuing from
the frond, whereas Pringsheim, whilst he justly regards this
character as of little importance, describes this species as re-
markable for the fewness of the bristles.

Mr. Archer would here venture to observe that it seemed to
him quite probable that the plant lately recorded by Dr. Gray in
Seeman’s ‘ Journal of Botany’ as a Phyllactidium, is in reality a
Coleochete ; but without figures it would not be easy to form a
definite opinion, and it is to be hoped that Dr. Gray may fulfil
his promise by giving a plate of his plant.

Mr. Archer showed, likewise, a Bulbochete in fruit, which he
regarded as Pringsheim’s Bulbochete gigantea, these specimens
being chiefly remarkable for the very short “foot” to the
antheridium, and the somewhat varying sizes of the oogonia, as
compared with Pringsheim’s figures and descriptions of his
species.

Mr. Archer drew attention to the record in de Bary’s recent
work treating of Lichens, in Hofmeister’s ‘ Handbuch der physio-
logischen Botanik’ (Band ii, p. 270), of what he (Mr. Archer)
conceived was nothing else than the plant we know as Chroolepus
ebeneum. As Mr. Archer had already exhibited this plant, and

showed its structure, and referred to it on two occasions at the-

_Meetings of the Club (‘ Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci.,’ vol. xiii, p. 168),
indicating reasons why it may be considered a lichen rather than
an alga, and predicating for it an apothecium whenever it may be
found fruited, he thought it right to mention that that idea was
not then borrowed, and that until he saw de Bary’s work a few
days ago, he did not know that lichenists had already claimed
this species.

Mr. Archer showed also a number of dried Desmids from Italy,
thanks to the kindness of Professor Gagliardi, which were quite
identical with British species.

ee

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. Pl

QuexetTr MrcroscoricaL Crus.

Ar the Annual Meeting held at University College, July 24th,
Dr. Lankester in the Chair, the following Report of the Committee
was read by the Secretary :—

“Tn making this their first report of the progress and present
state of the Quekett Microscopical Club, your Committee consider
it a subject of congratulation that the Club has not only made a
great step towards the carrying out the objects for which it was
started, but can also, from the earnestness with which the
advantages of the Club have been accepted by the members,
entertain the most sanguine expectations that in the future its
objects will he fully realised.

“So rapidly has the number of members increased, that your
Committee found it necessary to announce through the chairman
at the seventh meeting—what was already evident to the members
generally,—that the room in Sackville Street was no longer capable
of accomodating the Club ; and our grateful acknowledgments are
due to the Council of University College for their kindness in
permitting use the us of their noble Library for our meetings.

“ No small amount of our success has been due to the influence
of our President. Ever foremost in any movement haying for its
object the advancement of popular science, Dr. Lankester at once
placed himself at our command, and although from his numerous
public engagements his attendances here have not been so frequent
as he and ourselves would have desired, he will vacate the chair
this evening (in accordance with our Bye-Laws), carrying with
him the sincerity and hearty thanks of your Committee and
yourselves.

“The Committee regret to announce for the first time the loss
of one of the members of the Club by death. At the June
meeting, Mr. Joseph Toynbee, F.R.S., was proposed, on the
recommendation of the Committee, as President for the ensuing
year. At the July meeting it becomes their melancholy duty to
record that his services are lost to them for ever. The circum-
stances under which this unfortunate deprivation took place are
generally known to members, and nothing is left us but to mention
his name with honour, mingled with expressions of the deepest
regret.

“ The subject of class instruction has been tested with the greatest
success. Through the kindness of our Vice-President, Mr. P. Le
Neve Foster, a room at the Society of Arts was placed at the
service of a class formed under the direction of Mr. Suffolk, who
has generously given much time and patience to impart to the
members of it a thorough grounding in those important and
fundamental principles necessary to working with the micro-
scope, and there is little doubt that a second class, which

278 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

that gentleman has signified his willingness to undertake, and
for which there have been numerous applications, will be equally
successful.

“ Field excursions, which have been long established in the north
of England, have not been forgotten by your Committee. Two
experiments have been made under the superintendence of Mr. M.
C. Cooke (Vice-President) and Mr. W. W. Reeves. The first
excursion was to Hampstead on the 2nd ult., when about twenty
members and their friends attended, and an excellent collection
of objects was made. The second excursion was to Darenth Wood
and Northfleet marshes, on the 26th ult., when about the same
number attended. Having the advantage of Mr. M. C. Cooke as
their guide in the wood, and Mr. Joseph Smith as their guide in
the marshes, the members were able to lay in ample stores for
microscopical work at home.

“ With regard to the formation of a Library of Books of Refer-
ence, &c., your Committee have to announce that they have
already received several donations from Messrs. R. Beck, W. M.
Bywater, M. C. Cooke, R. Hardwicke, and 8S. Highley, in
furtherance of that object.

“The formation of a Cabinet of Objects has been most successful,
the following slides having been presented, viz. :—

“ From Mr. Hislop, 39 slides; Mr. Marks, 24; Mr. Quick, 24;
Mr. Archer, 11; Mr. Hailes, 8; Mr. Bockett,6; Mr. Bywater, 6 ;
Mr. Breese, 5;—making the number 123; and through the
liberality of Mr. Charles Collins, in presenting the Club with a
cabinet, those slides are now rendered accessible to the members
on the evenings of meeting.

“The following are the papers which have been read during the
year, evincing much careful research and patience :—

“Mr. M. C. Cooke, on ‘ Work for the Microscope; R. Beck, on
‘ Spiracles of Insects ;?> M. C. Cooke, on ‘ Five New Forms of Micro-
scopical Fungi;’? M. C. Cooke, ‘The Application of the Microscope
to the discrimination of Vegetable Fibres ;’ J. Bockett, on ‘ How to
Arrange and Keep a Cabinet ;’ W. Hislop, on‘ A New Form of Micro-
scope; J. T. Suffolk, on ‘Class Instruction ;’ J. A.‘Archer, on ‘ The
Respiratory Organs of Insects;’ D. E. Goddard, on ‘ Manipulation
with Canada Balsam ;’? M. C. Cooke, on ‘ Universal Microscopical Ad-
measurements ;’ S. Highley, on ‘ The Application of Photography and
the Magic Lantern to Microscopical Demonstrations ;> H. Wigg, on
‘Some Motions in the Pale Blood-corpuscles ;’ N. Burgess, on ‘ The
Pigment Cells of Plants in some of their varied Forms and Structure.’

“Tn December last a Sub-Committee was appointed for the .
examination of vegetable fibres. They gave considerable attention
to the subject during the past winter, and at the termination
of their investigations an interesting Report may be looked
for.

“From the 14th of June, 1865, when eleven gentlemen held the
preliminary meeting, until the present time, 155 members have
enrolled themselves in the Quekett Microscopical Club, and their

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 279

unabated interest in its proceedings has been manifested, not only
by the good attendance at the meetings, but also by the free
discussion and friendly intercourse which has been maintained,
and which it is hoped may be still further increased by the genial
influences of a soirée at no long distant day.

“ Satisfied with the past, hopeful in the future, it only remains
for us to remind the members that it rests chiefly with themselves
individually to advance the interests of the Club. Let the
pleasure which they may have experienced at these meetings be
extended by the introduction of their friends, and as new members
are enrolled, we shall be multiplying the sources of enjoyment,
and at the same time be enlarging the usefulness of the Club.

On retiring from the office of President, Dr. Lankester delivered
a short address; and the following gentlemen were elected officers
for the ensuing year :—

“President—Ernest,Hart. Vice-Presidents—Arthur E. Durham,
F.L.S.; Tilbury Fox, M.D.,M.R.C.P.; William Hislop, F.R.A:S.;
K. Lord, F.Z.S.

“ Treasurer—Robert Hardwicke, F..8. Secretary—Witham
M. Bywater.

“ Committee—J. A. Archer; Richard Beck; J. Bockett; C. J.
Breese ; P. Le Neve Foster, M.A.; W. Gibson; H. F. Hailes;
S. Highley, F.G.S.; E. Jaques; T. Ketteringham ; W.W. Reeves ;
Joseph Smith. Excursion Committee—W. J. de L. Arnold; W.
W. Reeves; Joseph Smith; W. T. Suffolk.”

The first meeting of the second session, 1866-67, was held in
the Library of University College on Friday evening, August 24;
Ernest Hart, Esq., President, in the chair. After the usual.
preliminary business, the Secretary announced that the special
classes open to all members for the instruction of beginners in
microscopic manipulation, which had been so successful during
the last session, would be continued; Mr. Suffolk having again
kindly consented to undertake the direction of them. It was
proposed to limit the number in each class to fifteen, and, if
necessary, several classes would be formed. The next field-day
excursion into the country in search of living natural-history
specimens will be advertised, with the time and place of meeting,
in the September number of Hardwick’s ‘ Science Gossip.’ Dr.
Tilbury Fox, one of the Vice-Presidents, then read a papef “On
Human Vegetable Parasites.” The author’s chief aim was to
elicit from the members information in regard to the part played
by fungi in the production of diseased conditions of plants, men,
and insects ; and he confined his remarks to the following points
—first, the probability of the frequent existence of the germs of
fungi in the textures of healthy living beings, and in situations to
which the external air has no access; the modes by which fungi
effected an entrance to those spots; the fact that parasitic germs
enter the systems of plants and animals at a much earlier date
than is generally believed, through the soft textures of the young

280 PROCEEDINGS OF SUCIETIES.

tissues ; that fungi lie dormant a long time in the system, until
favourable conditions occur to promote their growth; that fungi
only become sources of inducers of disease when they develope to
an undue amount; that fungi will not flourish on a healthy
surface; the distinctive features of vegetable and animal structures,
especially artificial germination; and the effects, chemical and
other, produced by the growth of fungi. Dr. Fox illustrated all
these different conditions by a reference to the phenomena of
“ringworm” and allied diseases. Mr. M. C. Cooke gave anumber
of very interesting facts in reference to the parasitism of plants,
entirely confirmatory of Dr. Fox’s observations, detailing cases in
which the germs of mildew and rust must have entered very early
indeed into plants, and even been contained in the seed, develop-
ing as the “‘plant grew up;” also where the elements of rust
entered through the first pair of young (cotyledonous) leaves.
He also stated that he never looked for parasitic fungi on those
plants that appeared vigorous and healthy, but was sure to find
them on those which looked sickly or grew in unhealthy places.
After a few complimentary remarks from the President and others,
a second and short paper was read “On a New Mode of Mounting,”
by Mr. N. Burgess, who exhibited a number of beautifully pre-
pared specimens in illustration of the process which he recom-
mended. Mr. Burgess uses slides of a much larger size than usual,
so that the whole area of a large object can be displayed in the
same specimen, and his method is one well worthy of adoption
by amateurs. The meeting terminated with the usual microscopic
conversazione.

~DiDuncan del. Taffen West se.

Po i a —_

JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE I,

Illustrating Dr. P. M. Duncan’s paper on the Histology of the
Reproductive Organs of the Ivid, Tigridia conchiflora ; with
a description of the Phenomena of its Impregnation.

Fig.

1.—Transverse section of one ovarian cell, showing two ovules, one

ready for impregnation (13-inch object-glass). @. External coat.
&. Projection of the nucleus. c. ‘‘ The papillary structures,’ a por-
tion of the placenta which is usually perforated by pollen-tubes, and

~ with which the open micropyle is in contact when undisturbed by

Q.—a.

4.—a.

manipulation. d. Position of the body of the nucleus, the embryo-
sac being in its interior. e. Position of the micropyle when sepa-
rated from the papillary structure near the placenta. (This portion
of the placenta is continuous with the so-called conducting tissue of
the style; the name placenta ought properly to be restricted to the
tissue through which the vessels pass from the axis to the ovule).
The ovarian wall is closely applied to the ovules in nature, but is
readily separated by violence ; as growth proceeds after impregna-
tion the wall becomes distant.

Nucleus stripped of its external coat (4). d. Body; the unshaded
central oval spot shows the square cells, and denotes the position of the
internal pellucid embryo-sac. dw. Cells magnified (4). 0. Neck of
the nucleus composed of elongated cells. c¢. Circular opening of
the micropyle whose canal can be traced as a dark line extending
upwards to the central light spot. ¢, «. Micropyle (mag. 4 object-
glass). e. Part of immature embryo-sac, the position of its cells
being shown by their nuclei (3).

. Micropyle and “the papillary structure” slightly separated (4).

ec. Overlapping circular cells of embro-sac (4). d. Some square
cells from the upper part of embryo-sac (4). The ovule has reached
its full devlopment before impregnation.

Cells of external coat of ovule. 4. Cells of the projection of the
nucleus. c. Micropyle in an ovule not fully developed.

. Pollen-tube (cellular) from the stigma. 6. From thestyle. ¢. Drawn

out from the “papillary structure” close to the micropyle; very
turgid. d, e. Hair and cells of the conducting (nourishing tissue)
tissue of the style (all + inch).

. Cells of anterior end of impregnated embryo-sac (3). J. Same (2).

PLATE I (continued).

. Pollen-tube pulled out of the micropyle; one end remains in the

papillary structure,’’ and the other is bulbous, has lost its granules,
and the contiguous cells of the embryo-sac have come away with
it (¢). 4. Bulbous end of pollen-tube (}). 2. Embryo-sac-cells.
y. End of pollen-tube. c. End of pollen-tube, not yet become bul-
bous, impinging on, and slightly pressing in, the cellular coat of
sac (¢). 4d. Embryo-sac removed from nucleus. d, x. The position
of the indentation by the pollen-tube (2).

. Pollen-tube drawn out of the side of the ovarian cell-wall, and

remaining in the micropyle-canal. 4. Tube drawn out of papillary
structure, it being tight in the micropyle canal, twenty-four to thirty
hours after application of pollen to stigma (4).

. Terminal cells of pollen-tube; the empty cell has been drawn out of

the ovule ; it is not bulbous. 4, c, d. Forms taken by terminal cell

(3).

e and d. Outline of embryo-sac after impregnation. wz. The position
of contact with the pollen-tube ($). e. First trace of granular
embryo in embryosac.

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JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE II,

Jilustrating Dr. Macalister’s paper on Ascaris (Atractis)
dactyluris.

].—Male.
a, Tuberculated mouth.
6. Stomach.
c. Cecal glandular apparatus.
d. Testicular tube.
e. Vesicule seminales,
J. Intestine.
g. Vas deferens.
A. Spicula, large and small.
i, Glandular apparatus around the dilated lower end of the intestine.
2.—¥emale.
a. Mouth, with exserted proboscis.
6. Commencement of ovarian tube.
“ec. Lateral line.
d. Cardiac constriction of stomach and tooth-like processes ?
e. Pyloric valvular constriction.
J. Intestinal dilatation.
. Secreting cceca, perhaps renal.
. Cornu of ccecun.
. Ducts of cceca around rectum.
Anus.
. Ovarian tube, containing perfect ova.
. Opening of ovarian tube.
. Cecal glandular apparatus.

3.—Head of the alate variety of 4. dactyluris.

4.—Tail of female.
a. Glandular ceca, renal ?
b. Ducts.
c. Tubercles on the curved cauda.

5.—Fine prolonged tail, found in immature females.
6.—Termination of oviduct, and ovarian orifice.

7, 8.—Secreting cceca of males and females.

9, 10, 11.—Ova with yolk in process of segmentation.

12, 13, 14.—Ova further advanced, eee the development of the in-
testinal canal.

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JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE III,

Illustrating the Translation of ‘ Observations on the Develop-
ment of Resting Spores of Gidogonium.’
Fig.
1.—A resting dogonium-spore before germination.

2and 3.—Germinating spores, which are releasing the contents divided
into four masses and surrounded by a delicate hyaline
covering.

4 and 5.—The four masses surrounded by their covering.

6 and 7.—Abnormal formations, the spore-contents forming three or two
masses.

8 and 9.—The two spore-membranes after the contents of the spores have
emerged; a the outer, d the inner membrane.

10 and 12.—The membranes of the four cells formed in germination after the
zoospores have left them.

11.—A zoospore emerging from its mother-cell.
13.—A free zoospore.
14 to 19.—Young Cdogonium plants.

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TRANSACTIONS OF MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATES XI & XII,

Illustrating Dr. Greville’s paper on New Diatoms.
Series XX.

Fig.
1.—Plagiogramma elongatum, front view.
2.— * valve.
3.— a angulatum, front view.
4.—Cestodiscus Stokesianus.
5.— pulchellus.

6.—Aulacodiscus sparsus.
1.—Gephyria gigantea, \ower valve, frout view.

§.— s 5 valve, side view.
9.—Rutilaria elliptica, front view.
10.— w a valve.
11.— 5, superba, front view.
12.— ~ » valve, side view.

13.—Cocconeis armata.
14.—Omphalopelta Moronensis.
15.—WNavicula excavata.

16— ,, Sgyptiuca, front view.
Wi 3 = side view.
18,19.— ,, permagna, very large, from Berbice.
20.— ,, 3 small var., from Berbice.
2h—"- v,, re var. from Delaware River, U.S. (out-
line of Dr. Lewis’s figure).
22.— ,, Zanzibarica.
93— =, Jamaiceasis.
Q24.— strangulata.
2.— ,, rimosa.

All the figures are x 400 diameters.

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JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE IV,

Illustrating Dr. Moxon’s paper on the Peripheral Termination
of a Motor Nerve.

Fig. .
1.—Root of antenna, with its nerve, ganglion, and muscle, seen with 3th
inch object-glass. a, ganglion; 4, motor antennal nerve coming,
at 4, from, a’, the sensory antennal nerve; c, motor anteanal
muscle; d, root of antenna; ¢e, the nuclei of its sarcolemma; g v,
apparent nuclei in the space between the edge of the sarcous sub-
stance and the sarcolemma; / 4’, nuclei on motor antenne uerve.

2.—The same muscle in a state of contraction. Letters as in Fig. 1.

3.—Partial outline drawing of the head of the larva of Culex. Specimen
seen from above with }th inch object-glass. Letters as Figs. 1
and 2. m, eye; 2, antennal lobe of encephalon; 0, optic uerve ;
p, end of dorsal vessel; g, part of armature of mouth; s, con-
strictors of, 7, pharynx; v, cesophagus.

4.—One of the muscles of the trunk, seen with }th inch object-glass. Its
sarcous tissue torn; the sarcolemma remaining perfect. e, a
nucleus upon the sarcolemma.

JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE V,

Illustrating Herr Mecznikow’s paper on some Little-known
Lower Animals.

Fig.
1.—lIcthydium ocellatum.
2 & 3.—Chetura capricornia—e, their tail- -hristles.

4.—Cephalidium lougisetosym—o,,the proboscis; @, sensory hairs.

5.—Chetonotus Larus—ov, summer eggs.

6.—Chatonotus Hystriv—c, cellular organ; A, a dorsal bristle; 8,
mouth apparatus.

7.—Chetonotus. tesselutus.

8.—Hinder part of the body of Hehkinoderes Bein a sternal
bristle, & : ivéss 2 9

9.—Desmoscolex. ;
9a.—A sensory bristle of the same.

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