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i-NRLF..

GIFT OF

Catalogue No. 3

Rail Bonds

and

Bonding Appliances

THIS company maintains a fully
equipped bonding department, super-
vised by able and experienced engineers
and manned by competent workmen, which
has for many years and with marked success
attended to all matters pertaining to bond
installations. Through this department we
are at all times prepared to install bonds,
to make estimates or to advise customers
regarding specifications, costs of installations
and so on, or to furnish competent super-
visors for installations made by the customer
himself. Correspondence solicited.

Sales Offices

CHICAGO 72 West Adams Street

NEW YORK 30 Church Street

WORCESTER 94 Grove Street

DENVER First National Bank Building

SAN FRANCISCO Rialto Building

BOSTON 120 Franklin Street

CINCINNATI Union Trust Building

CLEVELAND Western Reserve Building

DETROIT Ford Building

LOS ANGELES Jackson and Central Avenues

MONTREAL Bank of Ottawa Building

PITTSBURG Frick Building

PORTLAND, ORE Sixth and Alder Streets

SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH Dooley Building

SEATTLE, WASH. . Fourth Ave. South and Connecticut St.
ST. PAUL-MINNEAPOLIS . Pioneer Press Building, St. Paul

ST. LOUIS Third National Bank Building

LONDON, ENG 36 New Broad Street, E. C.

EXPORT REPRESENTATIVES

UNITED STATES STEEL PRODUCTS COMPANY
30 Church Street, New York, N. Y.

Rail Bonds

and Appliances

Catalogue and Manual

American Steel & Wire Co<

Preface

SINCE the edition of our 1907 cata-
logue, many changes and improve-
ments have been made in rail bonds and
bonding tools, and much valuable informa-
tion has been obtained, so that we are now
enabled to present a more complete and
useful treatise on this subject.

The purpose of this book is two-fold.
First, a systematic and thorough cataloging
of all our rail bond products, which have
been arranged with a view of rendering the
customer all possible assistance in selecting
and specifying the material best suited to
his requirements. And secondly, to pre-
sent in serviceable form for all classes of
readers, complete and reliable information
pertaining to rail bond matters in general.

270319

- 0

Contents

PART I

Page

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS . . . .12
Construction of rail bonds.
Their selection and installation.
Testing rail bonds.

PART II

RAIL BONDS 49

Bonds for head of rails.
Bonds for web of rails.
Bonds for flange of rails.

PART III

BONDING TOOLS AND APPLIANCES . . 93

Drilling machines.
Compressors.
Soldering and hand tools.
Bond testers.

PART IV

XOTKS ON ELECTRICITY . . . .145

Electric railway material.
Engineering data.
Index.

Regarding Orders

O avoid errors, delays and misunderstandings,
purchasers should note the following:

1. Orders and correspondence regarding orders
should always be sent to the nearest sales office.

2. In ordering bonds, state capacity, diameter
of terminals, distance between centers of bond holes
and type, and form number. To enable us to check
up orders, we should also know the maker's name
and section number of rail and joint plates, also the
location of all bolt holes and diameter of bolts.

3. When referring to orders always give the
number and date of the order.

4. State distinctly how goods are to be shipped,
whether by freight, express or mail. If any special
route is preferred it should be mentioned in the
order. We reserve the right to route all shipments
upon which we pay or allow freight.

5. Before returning tools or material, please
secure from us shipping directions.

' . G. No claims for allowances will be entertained
unless made within ten days, after arrival of the
goods, and no allowance will be made beyond the
original invoice price of material.

7. All agreements are contingent upon strikes,
accidents or other causes beyond our control.

Part I

General Considerations

Page
Function and types of rail bonds . . 12, 13

Copper, material used ..... 13

Rail bond terminals ...... 14

Area of contact surfaces ..... 20

Electrical contact of stud terminals ... 22

Installation of stud terminals .... 24

Temperature effects on stud terminals ... 26

Rail bond conductors ...... 26

Vibration tests ....... 27

The welded union between terminal and

conductor ....... 29

Selection of rail bonds ..... 30

Location and length of bonds ... 30, 31

Carrying capacity of bonds .... 32, 3?

Cost of installing rail bonds .... 37

Rail bond testing 39

British Board of Trade regulations . . 43
Specifications for rail bonds .... 48

Aittetfca'ki' "Steel and Wire Company

General Considerations

HE steel rails of an electric railroad not only serve as track to
guide and support the car wheels, but they are also used in
general for the return or grounded portion of the electric power
circuit. To serve these two functions, the rails have to be joined
end to end both mechanically and electrically. In paved streets
these two connections are sometimes effected in one operation
by welding the rails together, but they are more generally united by the separate
use of steel splice bars and copper rail bonds. The splice bars are securely
bolted to the abutting ends of contiguous rails to hold them together rigidly and
to maintain them in perfect alignment. The splice bars cannot be depended
upon, however, to serve as good conductors to conduct the return current from
rail to rail, owing to the coating of rust and scale always present on exposed rail-
way steel, which at times effectually insulate the parts. Therefore the rails
have to be bonded together electrically with copper rail bonds in a manner which
will secure a continuous or uninterrupted metallic circuit having a very low
electrical resistance. The continuity of the return circuit is fully as essential to

Rail Bonds and Appliances 13

the economical operation of an electric railway as that of the feeder circuit.
Rail bonds therefore serve as electrical conductors for bridging rail joints, and
they have no other function. (See " Notes on Electricity, page 140.)

The many styles, shapes and sizes of rail bonds shown in Part II of this
book are made necessary by the great variety of types and dimensions of rails
and splice bars, and by various kinds of track construction. All rail bonds in
common use are alike in having some kind of a solid copper terminal connected
to each end of a flexible copper conductor. The terminals which serve to
make electrical contact with the rail vary greatly in shape and size, depending
upon the manner in which they are connected to the rail and upon the carry-
ing capacity of the bond. The style, shape and size of the conductor portion
of a rail bond are determined by the particular kind of rail joint to be bonded,
by the carrying capacity of the bond, and by the method of applying the
terminals to the rails. The useful life of any bond will depend equally upon
the integrity of the terminal contact and the power of the conductor wires to
withstand the motions of the rail joint.

Copper

Pure copper such as used in the construction of all our bond terminals and
conductors, possesses many physical properties which make it indispensable for
rail bond purposes. It has to a very high degree the qualities of conductivity,
malleability and ductility. Its strength and hardness are greater than that of
any other metal except iron and steel, and when drawn into smaller wire it is
extremely flexible. Copper has the power of resisting oxidation, is easily
worked and can be forged with less difficulty than iron. Any foreign substance,
whether metallic or oxide, alloyed with copper will have a bad effect upon
these useful properties. Copper takes a fine polish, and all the rail bonds we
make are given, by special processes, a beautiful bright finish which will be
retained indefinitely.

Types of Rail Bonds

The American Steel & Wire Company manufactures five distinct types
of rail bonds, there being many forms and sizes of each, classified as follows :

Crown Rail Bonds Having stud terminals either solid for compression or
tubular for pin expansion, the conductors joining the
terminals being either single solid
copper wires, or strands composed
of a number of small round wires.
See pages 60 to 75.

14 American Steel and Wire Company

United States Having single stud
Rail Bonds terminals either
solid for compres-
sion or tubular for pin expansion,
the conductor being composed of flat
copper strips or ribbons laid par-
allel. See page 76.

Twin Terminal Having two small

Rail Bonds paraHel studs on

each terminal, the

conductor between the terminals
being composed of a strand of small
round wire. See page 52.

Soldered Stud Bonds Having flat
terminals

for soldering to the rail, provided
with two small integral studs which
are expanded into corresponding
holes in the rail. This bond has a
combination stud and soldered ter-
% •..;,£ minal. The conductor is composed
either of round wire strand or of flat
copper ribbons. See page 5(5.

Soldered Rail Ronds Having flat
terminals.

The electrical connection with the
rails is made with common solder
and the conductor between the ter-
minals is composed either of round
wire strand or of flat copper rib-
bons. See page 58.

Rail Bond Terminals

The cuts show five different kinds of rail bond terminals, differing
in form and in method of application to the rail. Of these, three have short
cylindrical studs which are expanded into holes drilled in or through some
portion of the rail and which make intimate contact with the steel. These
terminals are drop-forged from pure rolled copper of highest conductivity. A

Rail Bonds and Appliances

fourth style is soldered to the rail surface, while the fifth is a combination soldered
and stud terminal. Each style of terminal has certain distinguishing features
which make it best suited for certain conditions, as will now be pointed out.

Solid Stud Terminals This style of terminal requires for its application to
the web or flange of a rail, the use of some form of

powerful screw or hydraulic compressor, such as described on pages 120
to 126. Under a sufficiently
and correctly applied com-
pression stress from one of
these compressors, a solid ter-
minal stud of pure annealed
copper, such as made for
the Crown and United States
bonds, will expand radially
until it presses against the
annular walls of the hole in
the rail with great force, mak-
ing an intimate molecular
contact that is lasting and
high in electrical conductivity.
These bonds have at each end
a single large solid terminal
stud, or two small terminal
studs separated 1*^ inches
between centers.

In comparison with the
other two styles of stud
terminals to be described, the
solid stud offers the single

mechanical advantage of having a rivet or button head formed against each side
of the rail section, which helps to seal the contact and to hold it more securely.

Tubular Terminals These terminals are expanded radially against the walls
of holes drilled through the web of rails, by means of

tapered expansion punches driven through them. After the terminal is
inserted in the hole, a long taper punch (A, next page) lubricated with
grease or heavy oil is first driven entirely through the terminal, then a short
drift pin B is driven home, as shown in cuts D and F. The diameter of the
latter is about B12 inch greater than that of the former. Thus the small drift
pin supplements the expansion of the taper punch, while the compressed
copper lying between the cylindrical surface of drift pin and the larger cylin-
drical surface of the hole in the rail, maintains sufficient friction on the pin to

Section Through a Solid Terminal

American Steel and Wire Company

Tubular Terminals

Rail Bonds and Appliances

hold it in place. The diameter of the hole through the terminal is thus
enlarged about ^ of an inch, causing a material displacement of copper. As
the metal flows against the wall of the hole in the rail it makes an extremely
great pressure and an intimate molecular bearing which ensures a highly efficient
and lasting contact. All further expansion hardens the copper and causes
a portion in contact with the expanding punch to flow along with it out of
the hole, where it expands and forms a burr or rivet head, as shown in cuts
I) and F.

Rail bonds provided with this style of terminal have several inherent
advantages. They can be installed more quickly and economically than the
compressed type, as shown on page 38. No special tools are required for their
installation, only a taper punch, a drift pin and a heavy hammer. The simplic-
ity of the operation ensures uniformly good results. In the application of this
terminal the human element is almost entirely eliminated. All the work can
be done from one side of the rail, which is often of advantage in rebonding rails
in paved streets and in bonding frogs or other special track construction. If
necessity requires, these bonds if carefully removed may be used a second or
even a third time. A taper punch and drift pin somewhat larger than used in the
first installation will produce the required extra expansion and a perfect contact.

With every tubular terminal bond we ship two steel drift pins without
extra charge, and in large orders we supply an extra number amounting to
rive per cent. We provide hardened steel taper punches, in sizes correct for
the terminals in which they are to be used, at moderate prices, which will be
quoted upon application.

One taper punch should install from one hundred to two hundred rail
bonds. The following table shows the dimensions of taper punches and pins
regularly made for different sizes of tubular terminals. The sizes of pins
designated as " standard " are those which will be supplied with bonds, unless
otherwise specified. Standard sizes are adequate when the bond holes are
drilled reasonably accurate to size. Larger pins will be substituted for those
of standard diameters, without additional expense, when specified.

Dimensions of Drift Pins and Taper Punches
Table I

Terminals

Drift Pins

Taper Punches

Diameter in Inches

* For
Size of Bond
B. and S.
Gauge

Diameter of Pins in Inches

Greatest
Diameter in
Inches of
Standard Taper
Punches

Length of
Taper
Punches in
Inches

Outside
Stud

Hole
Through
Terminal

Standard

Special

1 and over

4/6

-if to if

If to ^

15
F£

X
ft

l/2

3/0

2/0
1/0

4
8*

American Steel and Wire Company

Twin Terminal Bond

Twin Terminals This style of terminal, as more fully explained on page
52, is provided with two solid parallel copper studs, each

one-half inch in diameter by -^ (or J±) inch long. It also has two bosses
located axially on the outer side over the studs. The two terminal studs are

spaced .1. ^ inches between centers
and are placed into close-fitting
bottomed or cup-shaped holes drilled
in the outer face of the rail head.
The four holes required for a bond
are drilled by one of the four-
spindle drills described on pages 95
to 105. A shallow annular groove
or thread is cut into the wall of
each hole near the orifice, as shown.
The depth of the holes is equal to
the length of the terminal studs,
less -^g- of an inch. The end of

each stud rests upon the bottom of the hole, \yhich serves as an anvil.
The soft copper of the studs is expanded laterally by means of hammer blows
applied to the bosses on the outer face of the terminal, filling the annular
groove and every minute depression in the wall of the hole. The extra length

of the studs and the surplus copper in the
bosses supply enough extra metal to more
than fill the holes. The impact of the ham-
mer on these short studs fills the holes full
of copper and causes an extremely great
contact pressure between the copper and
steel.

This style of terminal has several ad-
vantages peculiar to itself. There is but
one possible entrance for moisture to each
hole and this is sealed by the ring or thread
of copper that forms about each stud as the
copper is hammered into the hole. Each
stud is securely anchored in the hole. The
area of contact is comparatively large.
Being sealed against corroding agencies and
under great pressure, the contact will
remain bright and highly conductive for an

indefinite period. The cost of installing this terminal is extremely low. No

special skill is required for its installaton.

Section Through Terminal Hole

Rail Bonds and Appliances 19

Soldered Terminals This style of terminal has a plane surface which is
soldered direct to the rail. The soldering surfaces

are knurled and tinned for purposes of making a better and stronger soldered
union to the steel. The durability and electrical conductivity of a soldered
contact between copper and railway steel depend to a great extent upon the
physical condition of the surfaces as to whether they make uniformly close
contact, and whether they are clean and well tinned and free from oxide at
the time of soldering. When well made the contact resistance per square inch
of surface will be extremely small. The working temperature of the metals,
the composition of the solder and of the flux may vary between fairly wide
limits without affecting the strength of the joint. A well made soldered contact
should last indefinitely unless it is broken by severe jarring of the running
rail caused by the hammering of car wheels at the rail joints. (See type
B. S. B., next page.)

In making a soldered joint, the rail surface to be soldered is first bright-
ened with an emery wheel, such as shown on page 132. The rail is then
heated with a double burner
brazier (see page 135) until the
steel takes on a bright blue oxide.
The surface is then quickly tinned
by alternately applying a good
grade of soldering flux and stick

solder. The bond terminals are Type s> B Soldered Bond

then fitted closely to the rail so

as to make close contact throughout, then clamped in this position. The
parts are reheated and treated freely with flux, then wire solder is fed into
the space between the surfaces as long as it will take solder. There is no
positive assurance of having made a perfect soldered union except by testing
it for strength or for electrical resistance. The latter test, which would in no
way injure a good joint, is preferable and can easily be made with the Crown
Bond Tester shown on page 42.

The Brazed or IVelded Terminal is very similar in form and size to the
soldered terminal. The brazing spelter which secures the terminal to the rail
differs from solder only in being stronger and in requiring a much higher
temperature for melting. It offers no advantage electrically. In making a
welded union, the copper is melted and the steel must be brought to an
equally high temperature before the two metals will unite. As the melting
temperature of copper or brazing spelter is but little below that of steel, a
complex and expensive apparatus of some kind is required for heating the parts.
Great skill and care of the workmen are required to control this high tempera-
ture so as not to injure the steel or burn the copper while applying the terminals.

20 American Steel and Wire Company

Soldered Stud Terminals This style of terminal combines all the good fea-
tures of both the soldered terminal and of the solid

stud terminal. As shown in the illustration, two small studs, y^- inch in diameter

by a half inch long, project from the
inner face of each terminal and are
expanded in corresponding holes
drilled into the outer side of the head or
through the web of a rail. These
studs in addition to making good and
independent electrical contact with
the steel, relieve the solder of all jar-
ring strains which alone tend to shorten
the life of a soldered bond contact.
Extremely good soldered contacts are

Type B. s. B., Form A Bond easily secured with this style of ter-

minal, for in compressing the studs into

the holes the two plane soldering surfaces are brought without the use of clamps
into an intimate contact which is ideal for soldering. This double form of
contact which the terminal makes with the steel is large in area, extremely
efficient and as durable as the rail. It has the strength of a well made welded
contact, with the added advantage of not requiring for its installation any
elaborate heating equipment or any dangerously high working temperatures.

In the installation of this terminal, the rail is first drilled with one of our
two or four-spindle drills. The rail surface is then brightened and tinned the
same as for soldered bonds. The terminal studs are then hammered home if
in the head of the rail, or compressed if in the web. The rail is then reheated
and the bond is soldered as described on preceding page for soldered bonds.
The work if carefully done will need no testing. The cost of installation will
be but little in excess of that for the regular soldered bond, as shown on page
38. This form of double application to the rail has been used extensively and
we have yet to hear of the failure of a single terminal. It can be recom-
mended very highly for all general bonding purposes.

Area of Contact Surfaces

For minimum 12R losses in a rail joint, the contact area between each
terminal and steel should theoretically bear the same ratio to the sectional
area of the bond conductor that the specific resistance of the steel does to that
of copper. This ratio varies with different grades of steel commonly used in
track rails from 9 to 13, 12 being considered a good average working figure
for modern railway steel. (See page 33.)

In practice it has been found unnecessary to use so large a contact area as
this would require, for the following reasons. A good contact will take care of

Rail Bonds and Appliances

a fairly high current density without over-heating, because of the very excellent
heat radiating and conducting properties of the steel to which the terminals are
attached. The smaller the diameter of a solid stud the greater the contact
pressure obtained under a given compression, and incidentally the smaller the
contact resistance. On account of these conditions it is customary to provide
a contact area which is about eight times greater than the sectional area of the
bond conductor.

Actual Contact Areas of Stud Terminals in Holes through Rail Webs
of Different Thicknesses

Table II

Diameter

Area of Annular Contact, Square Inches

of Stud Terminal
Inches

50-pound T-rail
with /6-inch Web

65-pound T-rail
with J$-inch Web

84-pound to 100-pound
T-rail with T9,,-inch Web

.69

.79

.88

.86

.98

1.10

1.03

1.18

1.33

1.20

1.37

1.55

1.38

1.57

1.77

1.55

1.77

1.99

Required Contact Areas of Terminal Studs having Ratios of 1 to 8

Table III

Capacity of
Bond Conductor

Sectional Area in Square Inches
of Bond Conductor

Contact Area of Terminal Equal
to Sectional Area Bond, Times 8

1/0 B. & S. gauge

.0830

.66

2/0 B. & S. gauge

.1045

.84

3/0 B. & S. gauge

.1318

1.05

4/0 B. & S. gauge

.1662

1.33

300,000 cir. mils

.2356

1.89

500,000 cir. mils

.3927

3.14

From the above, it will be observed that for general rail bond purposes, a

1/0 bond should have stud terminals ^ inch in diameter.

2/0 bond should have stud terminals ^ inch in diameter.

3/0 bond should have stud terminals ^ inch in diameter.

4/0 bond should have stud terminals ^ inch in diameter.
Larger bonds should have stud terminals from 1 inch to 1^ inches in
diameter.

American Steel and Wire Company

With a current density in the bond conductor of one ampere per 500
circular mils, these sizes of terminal studs will give a current density of about
320 amperes per square inch of contact surface for bond capacities of 4/0 and
under. Though this current density may seem high, it has been found in
practice that the suggested diameters are ample for reasons already given, and
because of the general fluctuating character of the load current. This subject
is continued on page 37.

Electrical Contacts of Stud Terminals

The effectiveness of the electrical contacts between stud terminals and
steel rails will depend in every case upon the physical condition of the surfaces
in contact and the pressure forcing the parts together. This form of electrical
contact is by far the simplest of all to make, and when properly made it is
permanent and most effective.

CONTACT RESISTANCE

PER SQUARE INCH
EXPRESSED IN MICROHMS

BETWEEN

SOFT STEEL AND PURE COPPER
PLAIN SURFACES

5000

10000

15000 20000

POUNDS PRESSURE

25000

;3o ooo

A long and carefully conducted series of tests have been made in our
rail bond laboratory to determine at different contact pressures the actual
contact resistance per unit area of plane and carefully prepared surfaces of
copper in contact with common railway steel. The results of these tests are

Rail Bonds and Appliances 23

given in the curves opposite. It will be observed that the contact resistance
drops rapidly at first with increasing pressure until at 30,000 pounds the
resistance has reached a minimum and nearly constant value of .000,000,76 ohm
per square inch. If the applied pressure of 30,000 pounds be slowly reduced
the contact resistance will remain constant until at 10,000 pounds, when it
begins to increase, as shown in the broken line curve. In other words, onlv
one-third of the maximum contact pressure is required to maintain the minimum
contact resistance.

The actual contact resistance of a cylindrical stud terminal which has
been expanded in a hole through steel cannot be measured directly with any
instrument, owing to the irregular form of the contact surface. Corrections
have to be made for more or less metallic resistance included. For example,
suppose two galvanometer contact
points be taken one-quarter inch

apart in the direct path of the test- GALVANOMETER

ing current, one point being near the
edge of the crown or head of the
expanded terminal and the other
point in the steel itself. The testing
current flowing from the bond ter-
minal through the contact into the
steel will cause a difference of poten-
tial between the two galvanometer
contact points and a deflection will

be produced which will be proportional to the total resistance between the two
points. This resistance will consist of two parts, a portion only of the total
contact resistance lying between the contact points and a certain amount
of metallic resistance which must be calculated. Careful tests made in this
manner with a sensitive galvanometer on cylindrical stud terminals, varying in
diameter from one-half inch to one inch, show resistances varying all the
way from .000,001,5 to .000,002,22 ohm per terminal, and they prove conclu-
sively that the measured resistances are not proportional to the total contact
area. Varying resistance measurements may be obtained in this manner
between other sets of contact points about the same terminal showing that the
actual contact resistance of the whole terminal cannot be measured by this
method. But between plane surfaces it can be measured as already explained.
Inasmuch as the true resistance of the copper to steel contact will depend
solely on the area of contact, the pressure between and the physical condition
of the two surfaces, the true contact resistance of any stud terminal can be
obtained directly from the above curves for any particular pressure, other
conditions remaining the same.

American Steel and Wire Company

If, therefore, a cylindrical copper stud be placed in a hole through the
web of a steel rail T9B inch thick and having a specific resistance twelve times
that of copper, and if the terminal be installed under favorable conditions, the
real contact resistances would be approximately as follows :

Actual Contact Resistances of Stud Terminals under a Contact Pressure
of 15 Tons per Square Inch

Table IV

Diameter of Terminal Stud, Inch

Area of Contact, Square Inches Contact Resistance, Ohm

1.77

0.00000040

1.55

.00000045

1.33

.00000053

1.10

.00000064

0.88

.00000080

2 Twin Terminal Studs

2.00

.00000035

In order to secure a contact pressure of 15 tons per square inch, a
compressor should apply to the opposite faces of a solid terminal a direct
pressure of at least 25 tons per square inch of terminal stud section.

The above resistance values are so extremely small that their effects may
be neglected in practice. They cannot be reduced by the introduction of any
known substance between the surfaces. No electrolytic action can ever take
place between the metals in contact so long as moisture and air are excluded.
At intermediate or lower contact pressures, the resistance will be lowered by
previously amalgamating both surfaces, the amalgam under these less favorable
conditions serving to increase the actual contact area, and to prolong the life of
the union by excluding corroding agencies.

The presence in the joint of a thin film of clean lard oil. which is very
useful in drilling steel, will increase the initial contact resistance of a well made
joint less than three per cent, practically all of the oil being squeezed out of
the joint. Since oil will remain unchanged so long as it is kept from heat and
air, its presence about a poorly expanded terminal might even serve the use-
ful purpose of excluding corroding agencies, thus prolonging the life of the
joint.

Installation To obtain in practice these extremely efficient results with stud
terminal bonds, it is only necessary to observe the following few
precautions while the bonds are being installed. Both contact surfaces should be
smooth and they must be very clean, dry and bright at the time they are brought
together. This being done, the required amount of expansion should be imme-
diately applied to the terminals. All terminal studs are annealed and have highly

Rail Bonds and Appliances

polished surfaces that are exact to size within 0.005 inch when they leave our
factory. Our drilling machines as described on later pages will cut holes smooth
in bore and true to size, and our compressors have been built to work most
effectively when correctly operated. But one thing more is needed for perfect
results, and this is a very essential detail, careful and trustworthy men to do
the actual work of bonding.

In one of the largest and* most important electric railway systems of this
country, equipped eight years ago with our stucl terminal bonds, the total aver-
age depreciation of joint conductance has been under 1 per cent and not a
single bond has failed without good cause. These bonds have been tested
frequently and carefully and all records are preserved. There are thousands
of other installations where this type of bond has served for ten or twelve years
or more with little or no depreciation. Since all the bonds are essentially alike
but one inference can be drawn. The secret lies in giving rigorous attention
to the little details of installation. This is equally true of any type of bond.
See page 61.

No management would expect that an irresponsible unskilled clay laborer
would make a permanent and efficient joint in an overhead feeder cable, and
yet this joint is no more difficult to make nor is it of any greater impor-
tance than the bonded joint in the return track circuit which this same man
is often required to make. A high resistance joint in either will cause the
same load current loss and one in the track would probably cause additional
trouble from electrolysis. There would be this difference, however, a poor
feeder joint would very likely become apparent, while the defective joint in the
track would remain unnoticed until located by means of some test.

Copper

The accompanying photomi-
crograph of the physical contact
made between steel and a com-
pressed copper terminal stud shows
plainly the perfect union of the two
metals. Not a single open space
or separation can be detected in
such a union at a magnification of
1600 diameters, just a fine line
contact. Under the tremendous
contact pressures obtained, there
results an adhesion of the surfaces,
an actual meshing together of
adjacent particles, which ensures
a perfect electrical contact, and
one which will endure permanently.

steel

rnion

Copper

American Steel and Wire Company

Temperature Effects It is sometimes asserted that temperature changes
due to varying weather conditions will cause a copper

stud terminal to loosen and make poor contact, owing to copper having a higher
temperature coefficient of expansion than steel. While this statement might be
true of soft copper, it is not true of the extremely hard copper constituting a
terminal which has been expanded.

While a terminal is being expanded, there •svill be a flow of the copper and
a distortion of form. The copper hardens and becomes elastic to a degree
depending on the amount of distortion, and it loses its malleable properties.

The intense lateral pressure of the expanding copper stud against the
confining wall of steel will distort both metals, compressing the one and
expanding the other, but both within their elastic limits. There will reside
potentially and permanently in each of these metals under this stress a certain
restitution pressure which is more than sufficient to maintain a nearly constant
contact pressure even with the slightly unequal expansions or contractions
brought into action by normal temperature changes. In other words, the
elastic properties of these two metals will allow a certain give-and-take action
between them which within normal temperature ranges considerably more than
counteracts the effects due to differing temperature coefficients. This action
maintains a nearly constant contact pressure and there is no flow or displace-
ment of copper from the hole. Only at the higher temperatures of 230 to 40<>
degrees Fahrenheit and above will the greater expansion of the copper cause
a flow of this metal out of the hole, the amount being proportional to the tem-
perature elevation. But these are abnormal temperatures so far as rail bonds
are concerned, and need not be further considered here.

Rail Bond Conductors

The return current is transmitted from one bond terminal to the other
through some form of a copper conductor. This may vary in length, form and
cross section, but it must always be more or less flexible, for all rail joints are
subjected to vibrations due to the hammer blows of car wheels passing over
the joints, and to occasional endwise movements of the rails caused by
temperature changes. These conditions require that some form of loop or
crimp be placed in all bond conductors, that solid conductors be quite long to
absorb the vibrations, and that all short conductors be built up of very flexible
small round stranded wires, or thin copper ribbons.

If a rail bond be placed underneath the splice bars, the conductor is
usually divided into two branches, one passing above the track bolts, the other
underneath. If the available space underneath the bolt is greater than that
above, the lower conductor branch is often made larger than the upper
branch, in which case the bond is said to be " unbalanced,'1 to distinguish it from
the so-called "balanced" bonds which have branches of equal sectional area.

Rail Bonds and Appliances 27

If the space between the rail web and the splice bar is narrow it is
usual to build up the conductor of narrow fiat ribbons laid parallel one above
the other to economize in space.
If this space is large enough to
accommodate strands made up
of very small wires, these are
generally used in preference to
fiat ribbons because of advan-
tages to be mentioned later. In
classifying these bonds, those
having unbalanced branches are
given the odd form numbers 1,
3 or 5, while those with equal

branches are designated with the even form numbers 2, 4 or 6. If the two
loops in the branches are near the center of the bond, the bond is numbered

I if unbalanced, or 2 if balanced; if the loops are near one end it is
numbered 3 or 4, and if at opposite ends, 5 or 6, as fully explained in Part

II of this book.

A short exposed bond attached to the head or to the fiange of a rail
usually has a single deep loop in the flexible conductor. Long exposed bonds
have either a coarse wire strand or a solid wire conductor ; the latter is used
almost exclusively for cross bonds and for long bonds around special work.
Whenever possible the loop in any bond is placed near the center of the
conductor, and is made quite long and deep to absorb the motions of the joint.
Sometimes it has to be placed near one end to avoid the track bolts or other
objects.

Vibration Tests The continual bending of a copper wire of any section
will in time harden and crystallize the copper locally and
cause it to break, due to inherent properties of the metal. In order to with-
stand the track vibrations and jarring indefinitely, the wire in a bond conductor
should be small in section, quite long and it should be annealed very soft. All
wires must be entirely free from nicks or surface imperfections and they should
contain but one loop. These statements though self evident can readily be
verified by experiment.

The cut on next page represents a machine specially designed for making
vibration tests of rail bonds. The upright clamps which rigidly grip the bond
terminals are caused by cams to move rapidly in alternate and opposite vertical
directions, through any desired distance. Coincident with every 125 vertical
oscillations the bond is lengthened and shortened once through any required
distance by the horizontal movement of the outer upright spindle, thus making
it possible to approximate all the motions of a very loose rail joint.

American Steel and Wire Company

Vibration Testing Machine

A large number of tests which have been made in this machine have
developed the following facts : Wires having a diameter of from .040-inch

to .045-inch twisted into a strand,
give best general service for short
bonds. A short straight copper
wire of this size will withstand
approximately twice as many vibra-
tions as a wire of same length and
twice the diameter. A single loop
in the small wire will double its
useful life, while in the larger wire
the effect of the loop is less marked.
For durability, the conductors of a
two-branch concealed bond should
enter straight into the shoulder of
the terminal without any appreci-
able bend, as in the Type CP-02
bond shown on page 64. Each
separate conductor wire whether
round or fiat should be in perfect
condition at this its weakest point,

Drop Hammer and is SO made in a11 OU1"

Rail Bonds and Appliances

The life of a bond placed on a loose joint is determined largely by its
length, as will be observed from a study of the following breaking tests obtained
from breaking many Type CP-02 4/0 bonds of varying lengths in the machine
above described. All of the bonds were subjected to similar tests. This test
represents extremely poor joint conditions, and gives no indications whatever
of the life of a bond on a good joint. The wires in the 7-inch bonds began
breaking at the end of 41,000 vibrations, while the

8-inch bonds began breaking at 215,000 vibrations,
10-inch bonds began breaking at 1,279,000 vibrations and the
14-inch bonds began breaking at 7,887,000 vibrations.

Thus the 14-inch bond withstood this particular breaking test 192 times as
long as the 7-inch bond. This type of bond will remain intact under severe
service conditions longer than a ribbon bond of similar style and dimensions.
There is also another difference in favor of the strand of small wires w?hen used
on poor rail joints ; the individual wires will seldom if ever be caught between
the splice bar and rail, while ribbons of wire, not being bound together through-
out their length, as in a strand, will often be caught in this manner and broken.

The Welded Union Between Terminal and Conductor

In the making of a stud terminal bond, the blank terminals of pure
annealed copper are drilled or milled for the reception of the conductor portion,
previously cut to proper length, and the parts are then assembled. The bond
terminals are then placed in a specially constructed furnace having a closely
regulated reducing flame and quickly brought to a welding temperature without
causing the bond wires to be oxidized or injured in the least. The heated
parts are transferred to a die and
welded together by blows of a
powerful drop hammer, resulting
in an actual amalgamation of the
parts. The union has the same high
conductivity and the same physical
strength as the solid pure metal.
These statements may be verified
by any chemical, electrical or physi-
cal test or by a microscropic exam-
ination of the union, such as sho\vn
herewith.

The accompanying photomicro-
graph represents a typical weld,
magnified two hundred diameters.
That an actual coalescence rather
than an approximation of the

80 American Steel and Wire Company

surfaces has taken place is made evident by noting several grains of the crystal-
loid structure which have grown completely across the junction line, A. B.

The successful working out of the many small details arising during the
process of manufacturing a bond is learned only by years of practice, by close
observation and by constant research work. These have determined to a very
large extent the very complete and excellent line of bonds shown in Part II of
this book.

Selection of Rail Bonds

Many considerations should be taken into account when selecting a type
of bond for any given track service, otherwise the bond may fail to give
service through no fault in its design or construction. This article, together
with the arranging and cataloging of all the bonds shown in Part II,
have been prepared with a view of assisting our patrons in making the
best possible selection of bonds for any given set of conditions. The first
thing to be decided in making such a selection is whether they shall be

Concealed or Exposed In laying new track, bonds can be placed under

splice bars at little or no additional cost, provided

there is enough space for them. In this position they are protected from
theft and from breakage due to external causes, but they are not open to
visual inspection nor can their condition at later periods be determined except
by making electrical tests of the joints. In our various types of Crown and
United States bonds, pages GO to 85, we offer an excellent choice that will
meet any condition requiring concealed bonds.

If splice bars be removed from old rails, the bolts usually have to be cut.
and it is seldom possible to draw the plates back into their original seat where
they will make as good a joint as they did before opening. In rebonding old
track it is therefore often advisable to use exposed bonds. And in new track
work also, there are many conditions where this would be advisable, such as in
paved streets, on private rights of way, and on joints where no other type could
be used to advantage. If it be advisable to use an exposed bond, the ques-
tion arises whether it shall be attached to the head of the rail, to the web
bridging the splice bars, or to the flange.

Regarding the latter type (page 91) experience has demonstrated that
it gives best service on feeder rails. Its application requires the removal
of splice bars. Long bonds bridging splice bars in general are flexible and
durable, and they can be applied easily and at small cost, but they are open to
the following objections : High first cost on account of the amount of copper
involved, liability of theft in many localities for a like reason, and low
conductance on account of length. In general, the rails on account of their
comparatively large section are more conductive than the bonds used. The
use of long bonds therefore will indirectly cause an added increase in the total
track resistance by cutting out of circuit a larger portion of rail.

Rail Bonds and Appliances 81

The use of bonds applied to
the head of rails during; the past
decade has proven very satisfactory,
and in general this type of bond
should be chosen whenever con-
ditions will permit of its use,
especially for open track work.
This type of bond has several
valuable features. It can be applied

at low cost and without disturbing the joint ; it is always open to visual
inspection and is very high in conductance owing to the short length of
conductor and large terminal contact areas. Our Twin Terminal bond (page
52) and our type B. S. B. bond (page 5(5), and the apparatus for applying them,
have all been developed to the highest state of perfection for this class of
service. Regarding the latter type especially, we challenge the world to show
its equal from any consideration. These bonds are not open to the objections
of theft because of the great difficulty of removing the terminals and on account
of the small amount of copper exposed.

Pure copper, being malleable, is easily abraided and worn away by contact
with harder substances, and copper wire, if small in diameter, is easily
broken. If exposed copper bonds of any type be allowed to come in contact
with pavements or wagon wheels, or other such objects, one should expect that
sooner or later such bonds would be injured or entirely broken. The careful
railway manager who looks after the little details will see to it that such
bonds are protected from such destructive agencies at the time of installation,
and the efficiency of his track return system will be improved and prolonged
to that extent.

Having decided on the type of bond to be used in any given installation
we must settle next upon the

Length of Bonds If the type to be used is a head bond or a foot bond the
matter is in most cases already settled, for these bonds are

regularly made in standard lengths. It should be borne in mind, however, that if
they are to be used on (50-foot rails, or on very small rails subjected to
heavy traffic conditions, or if they are to be used on loose joints, the bonds
should be made with extra long loops of fine wire strand, otherwise the
conductor might soon be broken by the excessive jarring or vibration of
the joint. Long bonds for spanning splice bars on small rails should be made
about five (5) inches longer (formed) than the splice bars, and about six ((})
inches longer than the splice bars on large rails.

32 American Steel and Wire Company

The length of a concealed bond is determined within certain limits by the
bolt hole drilling. Unless the rail joint be rigidly buried in concrete paving,
no short concealed bonds of any kind should be used. For general conditions
the leading engineers are now specifying bonds for single bonding which are
10 inches long or more, the terminals being placed between the first and
second bolt holes. In double bonding it is customary to place one terminal of
each bond between the first and second bolt hole of each rail, and the other
terminals beyond the second bolt holes. On electrified steam roads it is
customary in this country to use concealed bonds from 16 to 24 inches long.
The shocks and jarrings of the joint are gradually absorbed throughout the
length of such long bonds, and the period required to crystallize and break
the copper wires would be prolonged in proportion to the increased length. In
cases where the conductors were rigidly clamped under the plates this condition
would not of course hold true. In locating holes for concealed bonds, at least
one inch of solid metal should be left in the rail web between the bolt and
the terminal holes. After having fixed upon the type and the length of bond
to be used, the final and most difficult feature to be settled is its

Carrying Capacity The electric generators at any railway power house
produce a nearly constant potential difference of, say, 600

volts, practically all of which is required to force the load current first through
the copper feeder system, then through the car motors where it overcomes
counter e. m. f. and does useful work, and finally through the track return
circuit. The number of volts available for doing useful work in the motors
will equal the 600 generated minus the number required to overcome the com-
bined resistance of the feeder circuit and the return circuit, which are lost so
far as useful work is concerned. The only method of reducing this loss is by
decreasing the resistance of the circuit. That of the feeder circuit will depend
upon the length and the combined sectional area of all feeder and trolley wires
in parallel and may be considered constant in this connection. The number
of volts lost in forcing the load current through any portion of the track circuit
will equal the product of the current times the resistance of that portion of the
circuit (E = I R, see "Notes on Electricity," Part IV). One of the factors,
I, the current, is fixed by the motor load, the other factor, R, alone can be
varied as will be pointed out later. In interurban railway systems using
medium sized rails, it is considered good practice to allow a loss in a single
track of two rails from two to five volts per mile per 100 amperes of load
current, depending on size of rail and other conditions. The total feeder
circuit resistance is made from one to ten times that of the return track
resistance, this also depending on local conditions.

The electrical resistance per mile of track will depend upon the resistance
of the steel rails themselves, and of the rail joints. Let us first consider the
resistance of the steel rails.

Rail Bonds and Appliances

Steel Rails The resistance of common railway steel varies widely in different
samples, depending largely upon the chemical composition of the
metal. In general it is much higher in modern rails than in the earlier makes
of rails. According to best authorities, special soft steels used for third rail
purposes have resistances from 7.9 to 9 times that of copper for equal sections,
while the steel in running rails varies from 11 to 13 times that of copper, or
even more. The resistance ratio of manganese steel to copper sometimes
exceeds 30. The copper equivalent of steel in conductance is given in the
following table for various ratios :

Area of Copper in Circular Mils Equivalent to Railway Steel in

Conductivity

Table V

Weight of
Rail
Pounds
Per Yard

Actual Area in

Ratio of Resistance of Steel to that of Copper

Square
Inches

Circular o

Mils

50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120

4.90

5.88
6.86
7.84
8.82
9.80
10.78
11.76

6,238,800
7,486,600
8,734,400
9,982,100
11,229,900
12,477,700
13,725,400
14,973,200

779,850
935,825
1,091,800
1,247,763
1,403,737
1,559,712
1,715,675
1,871,650

623,880
748,660
873,440
998,210
1,122,990
1,247,770
1,372,540
1,497,320

567,164
680,600
794,036
907,463
1,020,900
1,134,336
1.247,763
1,361,200

519,900
623,883
727,866
831,841
935,825
1,039,812
1,143,783
1,247,766

479,908
575,890
671,876
767,853
863,838
959,823
1,055,800
1,151,784

At a ratio of 1:12 the copper equivalent of steel in circular mils approximately equals
its weight per yard in pounds, multiplied by 10,000.

Resistance in International Ohms of a Continuous Steel Rail at
2O° C. or 68° F., no Joints

Table VI

W eight

Ratio of Resistance of Steel to that of Copper

ot Kan
Pounds
Per
Yard

8 , 10

11 12 13

1000 Ft.

Mile 1000 Ft.

Mile

1000 Ft.

Mile 1000 Ft.

Mile

.013243

.069923 .016605

.087674

.018266

.096444 .019925

.105204 .021587

.113979

.011071

.058455 .013838

.073065

.0152211.080367 .016606

.0876801.017989

.094982

.009489

.050097 .011861

.062621

.013047

.068888 .014233

.075152 .015419

.081412

.008303 .043834 .010378

.054796

.011416

.060276 .012454

.065757 .013480

.071174

.007380

.038966 .009225

.048708

.010147

.053576 .011070

.058449'. 011992

.063318

100

.006642

.035070 .008302

.043835

.009133

.048222 .009963 .052604 .010794

.056992

110

.006039

.031886 .007548

.039853

.008302

.043834 .009057

.047821 .009812

.051807

120

.005535

.029224 .006919

.036532

.007611

.040186 .008303

.043839 .008994

.047488

Rail Joint Resistances The resistance of a bonded rail joint measured at

different times varies in accordance with the
contact made by the splice bars and by the abutting ends of the rails. But

American Steel and Wire Company

since these forms of electrical contacts are transient and unreliable at best,
and since their only effect would be to improve the joint conductance, their
effects will, for simplicity, not be considered in the following.

The true resistance of a bonded joint is measured between points in the
rail adjacent to the outer extremities of the terminals, and in line with the
natural path of load current. Such measurements include the resistance
of the whole bond plus both terminal contacts and a small amount of steel, and
they are nearly independent of the size of the rail. As thus measured, the
resistances of bonded joints at 20° C. or 08° F. are for 10-inch stud terminal
bonds of various capacities, approximately as follows :

Resistance of Bonded Joints, in Ohms

(See pages 24 and 25 )

Table VII

Size of Bond

Diameter of Stud
Terminals in
Inches

Resistance of a
Joint Bonded
with a 10-inch
Formed Stud
Terminal Bond

Total Resistance
of 1TO Rail Joints
Bonded with
10-inch Bonds

Ohm Resistance
per Inch of
Duplex Parallel
Bond Conductor

Total Resistance
of 170 Inches of
Bond Conductors

1/0

2/0
3/0
4/0
300,000 C. M.
500,000 C. M.

H
i
i

.00008271
.00006957
.00005343
.00004553
.00003443
.00002200

.0140607
.0118269
.0090831
.0077401
.0058531
.0037400

.00000792
.000006435
.00000518
.00000410
.00000292
.000001782

.001346
.001094
.000881
.000697
.000496
.000309

With the above information at our command we are now in position to
readily determine the approximate track resistance under nearly all conditions,
and to estimate the proper carrying capacity of bonds for a given track loss.
For example : What bond or bonds should be placed on a 70-pound rail that
would give a track loss of four volts per mile per 100-ampere load current ?
Thirty-foot rails, conductivity of steel to copper, 1 : 12.

The resistance of such a track according to Ohm's law would be .04 ohm
per mile, or .08 ohm for each rail. From table VI we note that the resistance
of the steel itself is .07515 ohm. The difference between these two quantities
or .00485 ohm represents the allowable resistance of the 170 joints in series.
Looking through table VII, fourth column, we see that a single large bond or
two small bonds in parallel could be used to meet the requirements. If the
joints were double bonded with two small bonds, we see from page 75 that the
bonds should be at least 14 inches (10 + 4) long. Referring again to table
VII, the resistance of two 14-inch 4/0 bonds in parallel per 170 joints is
YV [ 4 (.000097) + .0077401] = .005204 ohm.

The resistance of one mile of bonded rail would therefore be

.005204 + .075150 = .08041 ohm
and the resistance of the track would be

# (.080414) = .040207 ohm,
or approximately the amount required.

Rail Bonds and Appliances

If it were desired to use a single bond on this joint, it will be seen from
table VII that a 10-inch 500,000 circular mil bond would be too large in capa-
city, but that a 10-inch 300,000 circular mil bond shortened might do. This
bond shortened two inches will give a total joint resistance per mile of single
rail equal to (.0058531)-2(.000496) = .004861 ohm, and a track resistance per
mile of .0400055 ohm. Such a large bond could not be placed under the
splice bar of a 70-pound T-rail, and even if it could it would be too short for a
concealed bond. Made in this capacity in the form of a twin terminal bond,
or a type B. S. B., soldered stud bond and 8 inches long, the joints would be
exceedingly well bonded. By decreasing the length to 7^2 inches, provided
the joints were in excellent shape, the loss would be further reduced.

What would be the result of using 4/0 36-inch formed bonds on these
joints to bridge the splice bars ? A single 4/0 bond of this length per joint
would result in a total track loss of 5.1 volts per mile per 100 amperes current.
Double bonding with two of these bonds would reduce the loss to 4.43 volts.

Energy Loss The following table shows the voltage drop and energy loss
(I2R) per mile of track per 100 amperes load current when
each joint is bonded with a single 7^>-inch 300,000 twin terminal or soldered
stud bond, or with two 4/0 concealed bonds, each 14 inches long. 70-pound
rails, conductivity of steel TV that of copper, 170 joints per mile in each rail,
temperature '20° C. or 68° F.

Table VIII

One 300,000 C. M.— ?J$-inch Bond

Two 4/0— 14-inch Concealed Bonds

Size of Rail
Pounds

Voltage Drop in
Track (2 rails)
per 100 Amperes

Energy Loss in
Track (PR)
Watts per
100 Amperes

Voltage Drop
in Track
per 100 Amperes

Energy Loss in
Track (PR)
Watts per
100 Amperes

Per Cent of Total
Loss Expended in
Rail Joints

4.61

461

4.65

465V

6.0

3.99

399

4.02

402

6.9

3.52

352

3.55

355

7.8

3.15

315

3.19

319

8.8

100

2.86

286 2.89

289

9.6

110

2.62

262 2.65

265

10.5

120

2.42

242

2.46

246

11.3

The four volts per mile of track which we have allowed in the above
problems are utilized in forcing the 100 amperes of current through the .04
ohm of track resistance. The energy lost in doing this work equals the square
of the current times the resistance (I2R) and is expressed in watts. This
energy is converted into and dissipated as heat. For example, suppose that an
average of 400 amperes flows continuously for eighteen hours per day, through

36 American Steel and Wire Company

ten miles of the track, already considered in the above examples, what will be
the loss, expressed in dollars, of electrical energy per year in the track ?

(a) Drop of volts per 100-ampere mile = 4
Track resistance per mile . 0.04 ohm and
For 10 miles 0.4 ohm

Loss in watts (I2R) = (400)2 X 0.4 = 04,000 watts, or 64 K.W.

Number of hours per year = 18 X 365 = 0570

Number of K.W. hours per year of service = 0570X04=420,480

If the electrical energy cost 1 cent per K. W. hour delivered, the loss
in the track per year as heat would equal $4,204.80, of which 7 per cent or
$294.34 would represent the amount lost in the rail joints alone.

(b) If the track loss were 5.1 volts per 100-ampere mile, the energy loss,
figured as above, would amount to $5,361.12 in the track.

These examples show clearly the advantage of using short bonds whenever
conditions will permit, also the necessity of giving very careful thought to the
determination of proper lengths and capacities of rail bonds, if it is desired to
reduce the energy loss in the track to a minimum or stated amount. In the
first example, the total resistance of 170 joints in series amounts to only .005264
ohm, or 7 per cent that of the steel resistance, a small amount. It can easily be
imagined how a few poor or high resistance joints would affect our problem.
A single poor joint may easily cause a loss greatly exceeding that in the
rest of the mile of track, and this without being visable ; hence the
importance of frequent, systematic and thorough testing of bonds to discover
any poor joints. (See page 39.)

According to best authorities, no dependence should ever be placed
on earth or fresh water for conducting any great amount of return current.
The resistance of these substances, according to best authorities, varies
between wide limits, under different conditions, from 50,000,000 to
6,750,000,000 times that of copper. In general, if the bonding for any railway
system has been properly figured and installed, if all special work is well
bonded or shunted with good bonds, and if the bonds are maintained in first-
class condition, there will be little or no leakage of current into earth, and no
stray currents to cause serious electrolytic troubles.

Graduated Bonding While it is not customary in this country to graduate
the bonding of railway systems, that is, to use varying

sized bonds the larger ones being placed near the power house, there are
quite as many reasons for doing so as for tapering the overhead feeder system.
This is especially so on systems having heavy and uniformly distributed car

Rail Bonds and Appliances 37

service. A simple rule followed by some in determining the size of bonds to
use on a given section of road, is to make the aggregate sectional area of all
the bonds in parallel across the one or more tracks approximately equal to the
sectional area of the copper feeder system above the tracks in question.

The track losses already considered vary directly as the resistance and
as the square of the current. They represent too the losses at the one
temperature of 20 degrees C or 68 degrees F. At higher temperatures the
losses would be greater and at lower temperatures less, for the track resistance
changes with temperature. They also represent conditions for direct current
only. With alternating current, the impedance of the circuit is several times
greater than the ohmic resistance, due to the "skin effect" of the steel rails,
but the current in general would be smaller. (See page 150.)

In general, rail bonds which are large enough to keep the allowable track
losses within bounds, will be more than ample to carry the load current with-
out heating. Bare exposed conductors will carry one ampere per 500 circular
mils without undue heating. At this current density, a

1/0 B. £. 8 gauge bond would carry 210 amperes.
2/0 B. & S. gauge bond would carry 265 amperes.
3/0 B. & S. gauge bond would carry 335 amperes.
4/0 B. & S. gauge bond would carry 425 amperes.
300,000 C. M. bond would carry 600 amperes.
500,000 C. M. bond would carry 1000 amperes.

If the bond be short, say 12 inches or less, and if the terminals be
connected to rails of relatively much greater conductance, the current density
could safely and without undue loss be carried 50 per cent higher than the
above, because any heat developed in the bond by the load current would
rapidly radiate and conduct into the large masses of steel where it would be
dissipated. It is found in practice that such bonds will carry for short periods
of time current densities live times as great (or 1 ampere per 100 circular
mils) without injurious heating, so comparatively small bonds can be depended
upon to carry very heavy momentary load currents. Extra large terminals,
however, should be used on bonds frequently subjected to such heavy overloads.

Cost of Installing Kail Bonds

So many variable factors enter into the total cost of any rail bond
installation that it would manifestly be impossible to give estimates that would
apply accurately to individual cases. The cost would depend upon the
organization of the working force, the skill and energy of the workmen, the
ability of the foreman to lay out his work to best advantage, upon weather
conditions, track conditions, traffic conditions and many other things. The
first item is often a very important one in determining the cost of installing
bonds, and for that reason we give below in tabular form information
concerning the organization of gangs of men which would work under one

American Steel and \Vire Company

foreman to best advantage for the installation of our various types of bonds.
The number of bonds installed is based upon a full working day of eight hours,
all working conditions being favorable, and no account is taken of labor which
might be required to remove or replace paving or splice bars.

Type of Bond
Installed
(See Part II)

Bonding Tools
Required

Number of Men Required in
Addition to One Foreman and
Their Disposition

Number of
Bonds Installed
per 8-hour Day

Compressed
Terminal
Crown and
United States
Bonds

Two No. 21 hand drills
Two compressors, either
No. 40 or No. 61

4 men on 2 drills
4 men on 2 compressors
8 men

100

One No. 21 M motor drill
Two compressors, either
No. 40 or No. 61

2 men on 1 drill
4 men on 2 compressors
6 men

Tubular
Terminal
Crown and
United States
Bonds

Two No. 21 hand drills
Supply of bonding ham-
mers and taper punches

4 men on 2 drills
1 bonder and
1 helper
6 men

100

One No. 21 M motor drill
Supply of bonding ham-
mers and taper punches

2 men on 1 drill
1 bonder and
1 helper
4 men

Type U. B.
United States
Bonds

One hydraulic punch
No. 66
Two hydraulic compres-
sors No. 68

2 men on punch
3 men on compressors
5 men

100

Twin
Terminal
Bonds

Two No. 22 hand drills
Supply of bonding ham-
mers and hand tools

4 men on 2 drills
1 bonder and
1 groove cutter
6 men

130

Two No. 22 M or 24 M
motor drills
Supply of bonding ham-
mers and hand tools

4 men on 2 drills
1 groove cutter and
2 bonders
7 men

275

Soldered
Terminal
Bonds

Four No. 83 torches
One No. 81 electric grinder
Bonding clamps, gasoline
and solder

2 men for soldering
2 men for grinding
2 men for helpers
1 man for tinning
7 men

200

Type B. S. B.
Soldered
Stud Bonds

One No. 22 M motor drill,
in addition to list re-
quired for soldering on
bonds, given above

Same number of men
as for soldered bonds,
2 men for motor drill,
7 men

140

This company maintains a fully equipped bonding department supervised
by able and experienced engineers and manned by competent workmen, which
has for many years and with marked success attended to all matters pertaining
to bond installations. Through this department we are at all times prepared to
install bonds, to make estimates or to advise customers regarding specifications,
costs of installations and so on, or to furnish competent supervisors for instal-
lations made by the customer himself. Correspondence solicited.

Rail Bonds and Appliances 39

Testing and Inspecting Rail Bonds

We have already called attention on a previous page to the importance of
frequent and careful testing and inspection of rail bond installations. A capable
man should be placed permanently in charge of this work and he should be
required to make, at least twice a year, careful tests of all rail joints. He should
keep permanent records of all tests, should have charge of all bonding gangs,
and should be required to maintain the track circuit at a minimum resistance at
all times. He should also work in conjunction with the track department and
notify this department of all loose joints or other poor track construction which
might lead to broken bonds.

We often hear the question asked, at what stage should a poorly bonded
joint be rebonded ? This will depend in every case upon how much electrical
energy the company is willing to sacrifice at the joint in question when all the
factors of cost and voltage fluctuation at the car have been given consideration.
The resistance of any well bonded joint can be determined from table VII. If
this be divided by the resistance per foot of the bonded rail given in table VI,
the quotient will represent the joint resistance expressed in feet of rail. For
example : If an 80-pound rail were bonded with a 12-inch 4/0 bond, what
should be its resistance expressed in feet of rail, resistivity of steel 12 times
that of copper?

Resistance of joint, .00004553 + 2(.0000041) =.00005373 ohm.

Resistance per foot of 80-pound rail, .000012454 ohm.

Feet of rail equal to resistance of joint, .00005373 -^.000012454 = 4. 3.
From this and other examples already given it will be evident that the
empirical rule advocated by some to arbitrarily classify all joints measuring
3 feet of rail as very good, and those measuring over 6 feet as bad, is absurd.
The bonding may be in first class condition and still have a resistance exceeding
6 feet of rail, for the joint resistance expressed in feet of rail will depend in
every case upon the length and the size of bond conductance of the rail,
as well as on other conditions. To determine whether a joint should be
rebonded or not, first decide the maximum voltage drop or energy loss which
can be allowed in the joint, then knowing the resistance of the joint when well
bonded, the maximum allowable joint resistance can readily be determined.

Rail Joint Testing The simplest way of determining the track resistance
is to measure it direct by the drop of potential method,

when conditions are favorable for so doing. Knowing the current flowing
through a given section of track and the drop of potential across the opposite
ends of the track section, the resistance will equal the quotient of the latter
divided into the former. The current can be measured by an ammeter, while
the drop of potential can be determined by placing a low reading voltmeter in
any line, such as a pressure wire or an insulated and disconnected telephone

American Steel and Wire Company

The Differential Millivoltmeter

Showing an A. S. & W. Bond Tester and Instrument

Rail Bonds and Appliances 41

wire that may conveniently be connected to the opposite ends of the track.
The total resistance thus measured less the steel resistance will equal the
aggregate joint resistance. If this latter be higher than permissible, it is
customary to test each joint independently by means of some form of rail bond
tester, such as those described below.

The A. S. 6° IV. Rail Bond Tester, shown on opposite page, is adapted
for very accurate measurements. While it can readily be operated by one
man, the work can be carried on more rapidly by one man and a helper. It is
a compact device for measuring the resistance of a bond in terms of the
adjacent rail length. The measurements are direct reading and absolutely
reliable, they are easily and rapidly obtained and accurate to within ^ inch
of rail length. The only reading is taken direct from a self-winding tape line
stretched along on top of the uncut rail when the differentially wound milli-
voltmeter needle has been balanced, or brought to zero in the center of the
scale. This is probably the most accurate and reliable bond tester ever made
and should be used whenever such results are desired. See page 136 for
further description of the instrument and for operating directions.

Our Crown Bond Tester shown on next page differs from the one described
above in being self-contained and more easily handled. This instrument,
however, is not intended for extremely accurate or close measurements, but
for indicating rapidly and positively the general condition of bonded joints.
The instrument box contains a primary battery which supplies all current
required for the test, and which renders the testing set independent of any
load current through the track. It has given quite satisfactory results on
A. C. systems. The condition of the joint is determined by the relative
intensities of two tones produced in a telephone receiver attached to the
operator's ear. When the four-point contact bar is first placed on a joint, a
certain definite tone will be produced which is nearly the same for all conditions,
except on open joints, when no tone will be produced. By pressing the spring
contact point on the rail, a different tone will in general be produced. When
the intensity of this second, or switch tone, is low in comparison with the first,
the bonding of a joint will be good. When the two tones are of equal intensity,
the joint resistance will be equal to approximately 6 feet of 70-pound rail, or
any other predetermined amount for which the instrument may be calibrated
by request. The greater the comparative intensity of the switch tone, the
poorer will be the bonding. With this instrument a single operator can test
from 12 to 15 miles of track per day, and he will be able to discover all poorly
bonded joints that may be in the track. The instrument weighs but eight
pounds, is inexpensive, and contains no sensitive parts. Detailed information
w7ill be found on page 138. (Patents pending.)

American Steel and Wire Company

Operating a Crown Bond Tester

(See preceding page)

Rail Bonds and Appliances 43

Board of Trade Regulations for Great Britain

Regulations prescribed by the Board of Trade under the provisions of

Section of the _ Tramways Act, 189 , for regulating

the employment of insulated returns, or of uninsulated metallic returns of low
resistance ; for preventing fusion or injurious electrolytic action of or on gas
or water pipes or other metallic pipes, structures or substances ; and for
minimizing, as far as is reasonably practicable, injurious interference with
the electric wires, lines and apparatus of parties other than the company and
the currents therein, whether such lines do or do not use the earth as a return.

Definitions In the following regulations : The expression " energy " means electrical
energy.

The expression "generator" means the dynamo or dynamos, or other electrical
apparatus used for the generation of energy.

The expression " motor " means any electric motor carried on a car and used for the
conversion of energy.

The expression " pipe " means any gas or water pipe or other metallic pipe, structure
or substance.

The expression " wire " means any wire apparatus used for telegraphic, telephonic
electrical signaling or other similar purposes.

The expression " current " means an electric current exceeding one-thousandth part of
one ampere.

The expression " of the company " has the same meaning or meanings as in the
Tramways Act, 189

Regulations 1. Any dynamo used as a generator shall be of such pattern and con-
struction as to be capable of producing a continuous current without
appreciable pulsation.

2. One of the two conductors used for transmitting energy from the generator to the
motors shall be in every case insulated from earth, and is hereinafter referred to as the
" line," the other may be insulated throughout or may be insulated in such parts and to
such extent as is provided in the {following regulations, and is hereinafter referred to as the
" returns."

3. Where any rails on which cars run, or any conductors laid between or within three
feet of such rails form any part of a return, such part may be uninsulated. All other
returns or parts of a return shall be insulated, unless of such sectional area as will reduce
the difference of potential between the ends of the uninsulated portion of the return below
the limit laid down in Regulation 7.

44 American Steel and Wire Company

Board of Trade Regulations — Continued

4. When any uninsulated conductor laid between or within three feet of the rails
forms any part of a return, it shall be electrically connected to the rails at distances apart
not exceeding 100 feet, by means of copper strips having a sectional area of at least
one-sixteenth of a square inch or by other means of equal conductivity.

5. When any part of a return is uninsulated it shall be connected with the negative
terminal of the generator, and in such case the negative terminal of the generator shall
also l>e directly connected, through the current indicator hereinafter mentioned, to two
separate earth connections, which shall be placed not less than twenty yards apart.

Provided, that in place of such two earth connections, the company may make one
connection to a main for water supply of not less than three inches internal diameter, with
the consent of the owner thereof and of the person supplying the water ; and provided that
where, from the nature of the soil or for other reasons, the company can show to the
satisfaction of an inspecting officer of the Board of Trade that the earth connections herein
specified cannot be constructed and maintained without undue expense, the provisions
of this regulation shall not apply.

The earth connections referred to in this regulation shall be constructed, laid and
maintained so as to secure electrical contact with the general mass of earth, and so that
an electromotive force not exceeding four volts shall suffice to produce a current of at least
two amperes from one earth connection to the other through the earth, and a test shall be
made at least once in every month to ascertain whether this requirement is complied with.

No portion of either earth connection shall be placed within six feet of any pipe except
a main for water supply of not less than three inches internal diameter, which is metallically
connected to the earth connections with the consents hereinbefore specified.

6. When the return is partly or entirely uninsulated, the company shall, in the con-
struction and maintenance of the tramway, (a) so separate the uninsulated return from the
general mass of earth and from any pipe in the vicinity ; (b) so connect together the several
lengths of the rails; (c) adopt such means for reducing the difference produced by the
current between the potential of the uninsulated return at any one point and the potential
of the uninsulated return at any other point ; and (d) so maintain the efficiency of the earth
connections specified in the preceding regulations as to fulfill the following conditions, viz. :

(1) That the current passing from the earth connections through the indicator to the
generator shall not at any time exceed either two amperes per mile of single tramway line,
or five per cent of the total current output of the station.

(2) That if at any time and at any place a test be made by connecting a galvanometer
or other current indicator to the uninsulated return and to any pipe in the vicinity, it shall
always be possible to reverse the direction of any current indicated by interposing a battery
of three Leclanche cells connected in series if the direction of the current is from the
return to the pipe, or by interposing one Leclanche cell if the direction of the current is
from the pipe to the return.

In order to provide a continuous indication that the condition (I) is complied with, the
company shall place in a conspicuous position a suitable, properly connected and correctly
marked current indicator, and shall keep it connected during the whole time that the
line is charged.

Rail Bonds and Appliances 45

Board of Trade Regulations — Continued

The owner of any such pipe may require the company to permit him at reasonable
times and intervals to ascertain by test that the conditions specified in (2) are complied
with as regards his pipe.

7. When the return is partly or entirely uninsulated, a continuous record shall be kept
by the company of the difference of potential during the working of the tramway between
the points of the uninsulated return furthest from and nearest to the generating station.
If at any time such difference of potential exceeds the limit of seven volts, the company
shall take immediate steps to reduce it below that limit.

8. Every electrical connection with any pipe shall be so arranged as to admit of easy
examination, and shall be tested by the company at least once in every three months.

9. Every line and every insulated return or part of a return, except any feeder, shall
be constructed in sections not exceeding one-half of a mile in length, and means shall be
provided for insulating each such section for purposes of testing.

10. The insulation of the line and of the return when insulated, and of all feeders and
other conductors, shall be so maintained that the leakage current shall not exceed one-
hundredths of an ampere per mile of tramway. The leakage current shall be ascertained
daily, before or after the hours of running, when the line is fully charged. If at any time
it should be found that the leakage current exceeds one-half of an ampere per mile of
tramway, the leak shall be localized and removed as soon as practicable, and the running of
the cars shall be stopped unless the leak is localized and removed within twenty-four
hours. Provided that where both line and return are placed within a conduit, this regula-
tion shall not apply.

11. The insulation resistance of all continuously insulated cables used for lines, for
insulated returns, for feeders or for other purposes, and laid below the surface of the
ground, shall not be permitted to fall below the equivalent of ten megohms for a length
of one mile. A test of the insulation resistance of all such cables shall be made at least
once in each month.

12. Where in any case, in any part of the tramway, the line is erected overhead and
the return is laid on or under the ground, and where any wires have been erected or laid
before the construction of the tramways in the same or nearly the same direction as such
part of the tramway, the company shall, if required to do so by the owners of such wires or
any of them, permit such owners to insert and maintain in the company's line one or more
induction coils or other apparatus approved by the company for the purpose of preventing
disturbance by electric induction. In any case in which the company withhold their approval
of any such apparatus the owners may appeal to the Board of Trade, who may, if they think
fit, dispense with such approval.

13. Any insulated return shall be placed parallel to and at a distance not exceeding
three feet from the line, when the line and return are both erected overhead, or 18 inches
when they are both laid underground.

14. In the disposition, connections and working of feeders, the company shall take
all reasonable precautions to avoid injurious interference with any existing wires.

46 American Steel and Wire Company

Board of Trade Regulations — Continued

15. The company shall so construct and maintain their systems as to secure good
contact between the motors and the line and return respectively.

16. The company shall adopt the best means available to prevent the occurrence of
undue sparking at the rubbing or rolling contacts in any place, and in the construction and
use of their generator and motors.

17. In working the cars the current shall be varied as required by means of a rheostat
containing at least twenty sections, or by some other equally efficient method of gradually
varying resistance.

18. Where the line or return or both are laid in a conduit, the following conditions
shall be complied with in the construction and maintenance of such conduit :

(a) The conduit shall be so constructed as to admit of easy examination of and access
to the conductors contained therein, and their insulators and supports.

(b) It shall be so constructed as to be readily cleared of accumulation of dust or other
debris, and no such accumulation shall be permitted to remain.

(c) It shall be laid to such falls and so connected to sumps or other means of drainage
as to automatically clear itself of water without danger of the water reaching the level of the
conductors.

(d) If the conduit is formed of metal, all separate lengths shall be so jointed as to
secure efficient metallic continuity for the passage of electric currents. Where the rails are
used to form any part of the return they shall be electrically connected to the conduit by
means of copper strips having a sectional area of at least one-sixteenth of a square inch, or
other means of equal conductivity, at distances apart not exceeding 100 feet. W7here the
return is wholly insulated and contained within the conduit, the latter shall be connected to
earth at the generating station through a high resistance galvanometer, suitable for the
indication of any or partial contact of either the line or the return with the conduit.

(e) If the conduit is formed of any non-metallic material not being of high insulating
quality and impervious to moisture throughout, and is placed within six feet of any pipe, a
non-conducting screen shall be interposed between the conduit and the pipe of such material
and dimensions as shall provide that no current can pass between them without traversing
at least six feet of earth, or the conduit itself shall in such case be lined with bitumen or
other non-conducting damp-resisting material in all cases where it is placed within six feet
of any pipe.

(f ) The leakage current shall be ascertained daily before or after the hours of running,
when the line is fully charged, and if at any time it shall be found to exceed half an ampere
per mile of tramway, the leak shall be localized and removed as soon as practicable, and the
running of the cars shall be stopped unless the leak is localized and removed within twenty-
four hours.

19. The company shall, so far as may be applicable to their system of working, keep
records, as specified below. These records • shall, if and when required, be forwarded for
the information of the Board of Trade.

Rail Bonds and Appliances 47

Board of Trade Regulations — Continued

Daily Records Number of cars running ; maximum working current ; maximum

working pressure.

Maximum current from earth connections (vide Regulation 6(1).
Leakage current (vide Regulation 10 and 18 f).
Fall of potential in return (vide Regulation 7).

Monthly Records Condition of earth connections (vide Regulation 5).

Insulation resistance of insulated cables (vide Regulation 11).

Quarterly Records Conductance of joints to pipes (vide Regulation 8).

Occasional Records Any tests made under provisions of Regulation 6 (2).

Localization and removal of leakage, stating time occupied.
Particulars of any abnormal occurrence affecting the electric working of the tramway.

Signed by order of the Board of Trade this day of 19—

Assistant Secretarv, Board of Trade.

48 American Steel and Wire Company

Typical Specifications for Rail Bonds

General The intentions of these specifications are to state the type, form, capacity and
dimensions of rail bonds required, and the manner in which they are to be made,
tested, packed and delivered. The completed bonds and the copper of which they are
made shall conform to the requirements of the following specifications :

Description The number of bonds required is — — .

The kind of bond required is Type , as shown on page 000 of the

(19 — ) Rail Bond catalogue published by — — Co.

All parts of these bonds shall be made of commercially pure and uniformly soft
annealed copper having a conductivity of not less than 98 per cent. Matthiesen's Standard.

No individual wire shall be reduced in section or materially weakened at any point.

All terminals and all wires, whether round or flat, shall be of uniform size and quality,
free from cracks, burrs, fins, slivers and hard spots.

The cylindrical surfaces of all terminal studs shall be machined smooth and true to
size, and the bonds shall afterwards be carefully annealed.

All flexible stranded or laminated conductors shall be united to the terminals in
such manner as to make a perfect electrical and physical union.

Dimensions All bonds furnished under these specifications shall have an aggregate
cross sectional area, measured at right angles to the axes of the individual
wires, of — — circular mils, or — — B. & S. gauge.

The bonds shall conform in design and dimension to the accompanying drawings
which are made a part of these specifications.

The flexible conductor shall have 000 round (or flat) wires arranged and dimensioned
as specified in the attached drawing.

No diameter of the terminal studs shall exceed that specified on the drawings. A
variation of .005 inch will be allowed under the maximum required diameter.

Tests ( a ) In bonds with copper terminal heads united to conductors of either stranded

cable or ribbon, the character of the union between conductor and terminal head

shall be determined preferably by an electrical test, or in the following manner.

The stud of the bond shall be sawed lengthwise into four (4) equal segments,
allowing the saw to cut to, but not into, the conductor. These segments shall then be bent
back, tending to separate the welded parts. If a clean, bright fracture is exhibited with a
surface entirely free from oxide, the weld shall be considered satisfactory.

( b ) The test for flexibility hereinafter described is not made a condition of
acceptance, but may be at the option of the company and accorded due weight in the
determination of the relative excellence of the bond submitted. This test shall be made by
holding rigidly one terminal of a bond while the other end is given a longitudinal movement
of three-sixteenths (T3^) of an inch, or a transverse movement of three-sixteenths (13^) of an
inch, and continuing the movement until the first ribbon or wire breaks.

Packing The bonds shall be so packed for shipment that they will be suitably protected

from deformation or injury, each package being plainly marked with the

number, type and length of bonds, and the number of the order upon which shipment
was made.

Delivery The proposition must state the shortest time after the receipt of the order
in which shipment can be made.

Part II

Rail Bonds

Page

Rail bonds for rail heads .... 51
Rail bonds for rail webs .... 60

Rail bonds for rail flanges .... 91

Our company makes bonds which are most
carefully constructed, well finished and very high in
conductivity.

The entire energies and resources of a corps of
experts are devoted to the production of our rail
bonds and bonding appliances, resulting in a varied
product which represents the highest attainable types
of excellence.

Our manufacturing facilities, which have in the
past often been taxed to their utmost, have been
largely increased by the addition of new buildings,
fully equipped with the most modern machinery.
These increased facilities will enable us to handle
large orders with dispatch and to maintain the lowest
possible prices consistent with the high standard of
materials now required. Special attention .is given
to the manufacture of rail bonds to the customer's
own specifications.

Inquires are solicited, and prices will be quoted
upon application.

American Steel and Wire Company

Rail Bonds and Appliances 51

Rail Bonds ior Rail Heads

Twin. Terminal bonds.
Soldered Stud bonds.
Soldered bonds.

For the convenience of our customers in selecting bonds best suited to their
needs, the various styles and forms of bonds shown will be arranged in three
groups, according as they are designed for the head, the web or the flange of
rails. This, we believe, will be more convenient to the customer than any
classification we might give based on construction details of the bonds, such as
already made on page 13.

In the first group will be shown those bonds designed especially for appli-
cation to the outer sides of heads of rails. We make three styles suitable for this
purpose, given above. These differ only in style of terminals used. In general
these bonds have short conductors made of fine wire strand bent into single
deep loops which render them very flexible. They can be attached to any
style of rail having a head thick enough for the application of the terminal.

These bonds in comparison with other types have the following distinct
advantages : They can be installed without disturbing the rail joint, a feature
of marked advantage in rebonding old tracks. Their cost of installation is in
general less than that of other types. They are always open to visual in-
spection. The large terminal contact area and the short length of conductor
combine to make a bond extremely high in conductivity. The twin terminal
and the soldered stud bonds, owing to the extreme difficulty of removing the
terminals from the rails, effectively resist theft.

All rail joints on which these bonds are used should be kept in first class
condition, for no short bond can be made to last long on joints having loose
plates. When these bonds are used in paved streets, the conductor wires should
be mechanically protected against abrasion from the paving.

Twin Terminal Rail Bonds

American Steel and Wire Company

Rail Bonds for Rail Heads

Twin Terminal Rail Bonds

These bonds are designed for attachment to the head of rails. They are
extensively used in all parts of the United States, and they make an ideal
bond for interurban railroads especially. The conductor loop extends down
over the splice bar between the inner track bolts, and the four terminal studs
are expanded into holes drilled in the lower edge of the outer vertical surface
of rail heads as already explained on page 18. This bond can be applied to
any form of rail having a head provided with an outer vertical plane sur-
face equal to or exceeding J-| inch in thickness. It is made in capacities up
to and including 500,000 circular mils. By double bonding as shown on
preceding page, any rail can easily be bonded to its full capacity.

Each terminal of this bond is provided with two parallel cylindrical studs,
each of which is y? inch in diameter by T9g- inch long for sizes of bonds up
to and including 250,000 circular mils capacity or -^1 inch long for larger sizes.
The studs are milled smooth and have blunt conical ends which fit into the
bottom of correspondingly drilled cup-shaped holes. The two studs of each
terminal are spaced 1^ inches between centers. The outer face of the
terminal is provided with copper bosses in alignment with the studs as illus-
trated. Each complete terminal is forged into shape from a single piece of
soft rolled copper. As with our other bonds the same improved process of
copper forging insures a perfect union between conductor and terminals.

Showing Terminal Stud about to be installed in Bottomed Hole

Rail Bonds and Appliances 53

Rail Bonds for Rail Heads

Application Our four-spindle drills, described on pages 95 to 105, operated
by hand or motor power, provide accurate and ready means for
drilling in one operation the four ^2 -inch holes required for this type of bond.
The outer sharp edges of the holes are rounded over slightly with a blunt ex-
panding tool (No. 11, page 143) to avoid scarfing the close fitting terminal studs.
A few threads or a single small annular groove is cut in the wall of each hole
near its orifice with one of the two forms of special hand groove cutting
tools shown on page 142. After this the terminal studs are inserted in the
holes and then expanded with hammer blows applied squarely to the face of
the terminal. At first the hammer blows should be moderate, and increased
in force as the copper begins to fiow over the surface of the rail. They
are continued until the outer boss has disappeared and the rivet head formed
is quite thin. When used in paved streets the upper edge of the terminals
can easily be drawn to a thin edge that will turn off wagon wheels.

Before inserting the terminal studs into the holes, both copper and steel
contact surfaces are made bright and smooth and dry and clean. The length
of the copper stud is greater than the depth of the hole by ^ of an inch or
more. Hence, with the bottom of the hole serving as an anvil, the hammer
blows applied to the studs force more and more copper into the holes, driving
the soft material into every pore of the steel under an intense pressure which
entirely fills the hole to the permanent exclusion of all corroding agencies.
The copper also fills the annular grooves or threads about each hole, thoroughly
sealing the hole and anchoring the studs in the hole. This annular ring
formed about each stud must be entirely sheared off before the studs can even
be loosened in the hole, making it difficult to remove the terminals.

Advantages Twin terminal rail bonds possess many distinct advantages of
their own. The very great contact pressure obtained especially
in the groove and the adjacent zone seals the hole permanently and makes
an electrical contact of very high efficiency. Each single terminal stud has
a contact area of one square inch or more, depending on its length. This
large contact area, not easily obtained with any other type of terminal stud
bond, permits the construction of very efficient and compact bonds of large
capacity. No torsional stresses can ever loosen these terminals. As each stud
connection to the rail is quite independent of the other, this double and
independent method of attachment of terminal offers all the advantages of
double bonding. The rail joint does not have to be disturbed for applying
this bond, and its cost of installation is very low compared with that of any
other type. The conductor is not injured by the vertical movements of the
joint, for it enters the lower edge of the terminals in a direction parallel to the
direction of motion.

American Steel and Wire Company

Rail Bonds for Kail Heads

Twin Terminal Rail Bonds — Continued

Four forms of twin terminal bonds are shown herein, differing principally
in form of loop and conductor.

Form A bond, having the broad loop, is used on all joints where the two
inner track bolts are far enough apart not to interfere with the bond loop. If
the two inner bolts are very close together, and if neither of them can be turned
so as to bring the nuts on the inside of the rail, then form B bond is recom-
mended. Form A, B and C bonds are furnished with very small wires stranded
together, making an extremely flexible and durable bond.

The extended length of standard bonds, measured from center to center
of terminals between studs, is seven inches. A large quantity of these bonds
always kept in stock. Other lengths to order.

Form A Twin Terminal Bond

Form B Twin Terminal Bond

Rail Bonds and Appliances

Kail Bonds for Kail Heads

Form C Twin Terminal bond, as shown below, is made specially for
application to the \Veber joint. In applying this bond the inner terminal is
installed first with the aid of a special punch (No. 17, page 144) resting against
the terminal studs. The other terminal is then bent back into position forming
the horizontal loop which lies on top of the angle bar. The four holes are
drilled by either of our standard four-spindle drills described on pages 95 to
105. The extended length of these bonds measured between centers of
terminals is \)IA inches.

Form C Twin Terminal Bond

A fourth style of twin terminal bond
is made for cross bonding purposes.
The conductor, made in any required length,
extends across the track between two ties and
underneath both rails to the terminals which
are connected to the outer sides of the rail heads.

Form C Twin Terminal Bond Applied to a Weber Joint

American Steel and Wire Company

Hail Bonds for Hail Heads

Soldered Stud Rail Bonds

This style of bond, as already explained, has a combination twin stud
and soldered terminal. The terminal, as will be seen from the illustrations,
differs from the standard twin terminal in being extended a half inch or so
beyond each stud, so as to offer a large fiat surface for soldering to the rail. It
differs from the regular soldered terminal in having two small T7g-mch studs
integral with the terminal and projecting from its inner surface. These studs
are expanded into corresponding shallow holes drilled into the head of the rail,
thus relieving the solder of all vibratory strains and greatly increasing the
contact area and life of the joint.

This type of bond is made in two forms for the head of rails, similar to
the twin terminal bond, and in sizes up to and including 500,000 circular
mils. Form A has the broad, deep loop and is used on rail joints having
plenty of space for the loop between the inner track bolts. Form B has the
narrow loop for use on joints where the inner track bolts are close together.
Length of bond from center to center of terminals between studs, 7 ^2 inches
extended. The bond shown below is specially suited for third rail work.

Type B. S. B. (B-est S-oldered B-ond)-Form A Bond
(5OO,OOO circular mils capacity)

Rail Bonds and Appliances 57

Rail Bonds for Rail Heads

Extremely good soldered contacts are easily secured with this style of
terminal, for in hammering and expanding the studs into the holes, the two plane
soldered surfaces are brought without the use of clamps into an intimate
contact that is ideal for soldering. This double form of contact, which the
terminal makes with the steel, is large in area, extremely efficient and as durable
as the rail. It has the strength of a welded contact, with the added advantage
of requiring no elaborate equipment and no dangerously high working
temperatures for its installation. It would be impossible to imagine a more
lasting or efficient form of electrical contact than can readily be obtained with
this style of bond.

In the installation of this terminal, the rail is first drilled with one of our
standard two or four-spindle drills. The rail surface is then brightened, heated
and tinned the same as for soldered bonds. The terminal studs are then ham-
mered home. The rail is then reheated and the bond is soldered, as described
on page 10 for soldered bonds. The work if carefully done will need no test-
ing. The cost of installation will be but little in excess of that for the regular
soldered bond. This form of double application to the rail has been used
extensively, and we have yet to learn of the failure of a single terminal. The
bond is recommended very highly for any set of conditions where exposed bonds
can be used. For concealed bonds of this types see pages (57 to 84.

Type B. S. B.-Form B Bond Applied to a Rai

American Steel and Wire Company

Rail Bonds for Rail Heads

Soldered Rail Bonds

Type S. B. - Foi

1 Soldered Bond

The Type S. B. (S-oldered B-ond) Form 1 Bond, shown above, has been
designed for application to the head of T-rails. In this bond the flexible con-
ductor is composed of a large number of small copper wires, twisted together
into a compact strand, which is flexible in all directions. The small, tough
wires do not break in the loop, and projecting or loose joint plates will not
force the bond from the rail. All 3/0 and 4/0 bonds are made in two sizes
each, as shown below. Those having small terminals can be used on any
ordinary size of rail ; large terminals used only on 70-pound standard T-rails
or larger. The extended length of these bonds is measured from end to end
of terminals.

Type S. B. - Form 1 Bond

Size of Bond

Length of Bond
Formed, in Inches

Dimensions of
Contact Surfaces
Inches

Length of Bond
Extended, in Inches

Number of Wires
in Conductors

1/0 B. & S.

9/16 x 2

2/0 B. & S.

9/1(5 x 2

3/0 B. & S.

5/8 x 2%

3/0 B. & S.

3/4 x2^

4/0 B. & S.

5/8 x2X

127

4/0 B. & S.

3/4 x2^

127

300,000 C. M.

3/4 x 2^

127

Showing Application of Type S. B. - Form 1 Soldered Bond

Rail Bonds and Appliances

Rail Bonds for Rail Heads

Type S. B.-Form 1 B. Soldered Bond

The bond shown above is similar to the Form 1 bond shown opposite,
except that the conductor is composed of very thin copper strips instead of
round wire strand. It will be observed that the depth and form of loop which
is offset to clear the joint plate, insure great flexibility.

See page 10 for a general discussion of soldered contacts, and for
proper methods of installing soldered bonds. For concealed soldered bonds
see pages 67 to 84, and for the soldered foot bond, see page 91.

Type S. B.-Form 1 B. Bond

Size of Bond

Length of Bond
Formed, in Inches

Length of Bond
Extended, in Inches

Number of Copper
Ribbons in Conductor

2/0 B. & S.

Q/2

3/0 B. & S.

4/0 B. & S.

300,000 C. M.

500,000 C. M.

W/2

For a description of tools for soldered bonds, see pages 131 to 135.

60 American Steel and Wire Company

Rail Bonds for Rail Webs

As already explained on page 2(>, rail bonds which are placed under-
neath the splice bars and attached to the webs of rails are usually provided
with two conductor branches, each of which is made either of stranded fine
copper wires (Crown bonds) or of thin copper strips laid parallel (United
States bonds). The former style of bond is generally used in all cases where
the space underneath the splice bar is large enough not to compress the strand,
while the latter style is used in all joints having narrow spaces between plate
and web. There is a third class of single strand Crown bonds made to extend
around the splice bars, and for cross bonding and special purposes. These
three styles of bonds are made in different capacities, lengths and forms to
meet the great variety of track conditions, as will be pointed out in the follow-
ing pages. The lengths of these bonds are measured between centers of terminals.
The principal advantage of placing bonds under splice bars, is protection
against theft and from external mechanical injury. For application between
a splice bar and the web of a rail, a bond of such type and size should be
selected, as will never be compressed or injured by the bar. The bond con-
ductors should also be carefully formed or bent into shape after installation.

Many of the forms of bond conductors, as will be seen, can be provided
with any one of the following styles of terminals :

(a) Single solid stud terminals for compression.

(b) Single tubular stud terminals for pin expansion.

(d) Double stud soldered terminals for compression and soldering.

(e) Soldered terminals for soldering to the webs.

Style (d) terminal differs from style (c) only in having its surfaces tinned
ready for soldering to the rail surface. The relative merits of these various
kinds of terminals have already been fully discussed on pages 15 to 20, to
which the reader is referred.

In the following pages will be shown the various styles and forms of Crown
and United States bonds, having duplex parallel branches. Each will be divided
into two general classes. First will be shown those in which the branches enter
the terminal head in a straight line, or are tangent to the terminal studs. The
merits of this style have already been pointed out on page 28. Secondly,
those bonds in which the branches converge at and enter the central portion of
the terminal heads. A single rail bond of each form of this series will be
shown in two views at the top of a page. On the same page below will be
shown one end only of the other bonds in the same series.

Rail Bonds and Appliances

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American Steel and Wire Company

Concealed Rail Bonds for Rail Webs

(See pages 60 and 74)

Type C. S.-O 1 Crown Bond

These bonds are used largely for single bonding on rail joints having a
larger bonding space below than above the track bolts. The terminals are
usually placed midway between the first and second bolts. Made in any
length or capacity.

Type C. P.-O1 Crown Bond

Showing a Type C. P.-O1 Crown Bond Installed on a Rail

Rail Bonds and Appliances

Concealed Hail Bonds for Rail Webs

(See pages 60 and 74)

LENGTH

Type C. S.-03
Crown Bond

«— B — *

The bonds shown here are used largely for double bonding on rail joints
having a larger bonding space below than above the track bolts. One terminal
is usually placed between the first and second bolt holes of one rail and the
other is placed between the second and third bolt holes of the other rail, the
two bonds being staggered. The long open space between the conductors at
one end of the bond provides room for one track bolt and one terminal of the
opposite bond, as shown below. Made in any length or capacity.

Type C. P.-O3 Crown Bond

Showing a Type C. S.-O3 Crown Bond Installed on a Kai

American Steel and Wire Company

Concealed Rail Bonds for Rail Webs

(See pages 60 and 74)

— B

Type C. P.-O2 Crown Bond

These bonds are used largely for single bonding on rail joints having equal
bonding spaces above and below the track bolts. The terminals are usually
placed midway between the rirst and second bolt holes. Made in any length
or capacity.

Type C. S.-O2 Crown Bond

Showing a Type C. S.-O27Crown Bond Installed on a Rail

Rail Bonds and Appliances

Concealed Rail Bonds for Hail Webs

(See pages 60 and 74)

— LENGTH ~

Type C. P.-O4 Crown Bond

The bonds shown here are used for double bonding on rail joints having
equal bonding spaces above and below the track bolts. One terminal is usually
placed midway between the first and second bolt holes of one rail and the other
terminal is placed between the second and third holes of the other rail, the two
bonds being staggered. The long open space between the conductors at one
end of the bond provides ample room for one bolt and one terminal of the bond
on the other side of the rail. Made in any length or capacity required.

Type C. S.-O4 Crown Bond

Showing a Type C. S.-O4 Bond Attached to the Web of a Rail

American Steel and Wire Company

Concealed Rail Bonds ior Rail Webs

(See pages 60 and 74)

-B -H

Type C. P.-O6 Crown Bond

This form of bond is used for single bonding or for double bonding. Except
in very special cases, this style of forming the conductor loops is not as
satisfactory as those shown on the two preceding pages, and on this account
none of the other styles of Crown bonds will be shown with this form of loop,
but any of them may be so formed upon request. Bonds with unequal sized
branches will take form No. 5, while those with equal branches will take the
form No. 6. Made in any size or length.

Type C. S.-O6 Crown Bond

Showing a Soldered Bond Applied to Web of Rail

Rail Bonds and Appliances

Concealed Rail Bonds for Rail Webs

(See pages 60 and 74)

r- a

B— H

Type C. S.-l Crown Bond

This type of bond differs from those shown on page 02, only in the form of
terminal head, which is narrower, and in its method of connection to the strand.

The three styles of bonds shown below are exactly similar to the one above,
except in style of terminals, and they can be used in similar places.

Type C. P.-l Crown Bond

Having tubular terminal
studs for pin expansion.

Type B. S. B.-Form C 1
Soldered Stud Bond

The terminals of this bond
are furnished plain for com-
pression or tinned for sol-
dering, as ordered.

Type S. B.-Form C 1 Sol-
dered Bond

The terminals of this boijd
are furnished tinned for sol-
dering.

American Steel and Wire Company

Concealed Rail Bonds for Rail Webs

(See pages 60 and 74)

B -

Type C. S.-3 Crown Bond

This type of bond differs from those shown on page (33 only in the form
of terminal head, which is narrower, and in its method of connection to the
strand.

The three styles of bonds shown below are exactly similar to the one above
except in style of terminals, and they can be used in similar places.

Type C. P.-3 Crown Bond

Having tubular terminal
studs for pin expansion.

Type B. S. B.-Form C 3
Soldered Stud Bond

The terminals of this bond
are furnished plain for com-
pression or tinned for sol-
dering, as ordered.

Type S. B.-Form C 3 Sol-
dered Bond

The terminals of this bond
are furnished tinned for sol-
dering.

Rail Bonds and Appliances

Concealed Rail Bonds for Rail Webs

(See pages 60 and 74)

Type C. P.-2 Crown Bond

This type of bond differs from those shown on page 64 only in the form
of terminal head, which is narrower, and in its method of connection to the
strand.

The three styles of bonds shown below are exactly similar to the one above
except in style of terminals, and they can be used in similar places.

Type C. S.-2 Crown Bond

Having solid studs for com-
pression.

Type B. S. B.-Form C 2
Soldered Stud Bond

The terminals of this bond
are furnished plain for com-
pression or tinned for sol-
dering, as ordered.

Type S. B.-Form C 2 Sol-
dered Bond

The terminals of this bond
are furnished tinned for sol-
dering.

American Steel and Wire Company

Concealed Rail Bonds for Hail Webs

(See pages 60 and 74)

Type C. P.-4 Crown Bond

This type of bond differs from those shown on page 60 only in the form
of terminal head, which is narrower, and in its method of connection to the
strand.

The three styles of bonds shown below are exactly similar to the one above,
except in style of terminals, and they can be used in similar places.

Type C. S.-4 Crown Bond

Having solid terminal studs
for compression.

Type B. S. B.-Form C4
Soldered Stud Bond

The terminals of this bond
are furnished plain for com-
pression or tinned for
soldering, as ordered.

Type S. B.-Form C4
Soldered Bond

These terminals of this
bond are furnished tinned
for soldering.

Rail Bonds and Appliances

Concealed Rail Bonds for Rail Webs

(See pages 60 and 74)

!-— B— M

Type C. S.-OF Crown Bond

This single conductor bond is sometimes used under splice bars having a
large bonding space beneath the track bolts and little or none above the bolts.
It is a good bond to use wherever the joint construction will permit. Some
advantage is gained by making this style of bond long enough to allow the
terminals to project beyond the ends of the splice bars.

The three styles of bonds shown below are exactly similar to the above
except in style of terminals, and they can be used in similar places.

Type C. P.-OF Crown
Bond

Having tubular terminal
studs for pin expansion.

Type B. S. B. Form C. F.
Soldered Stud Bond

The terminals of this bond
are furnished plain for
compression or tinned for
soldering, as ordered.

Type S. B.-Form C. F.
Soldered Bond

The terminals of this bond
are tinned for soldering.

American Steel and Wire Company

Concealed Rail Bonds for Rail Webs

(See pages 60 and 74)

Type C. P. C. Crown Rail Bond

Type C. P. T. Crown Rail Bond

These bonds are made with flexible strand, either straight or crescent-
shaped between terminals, as shown in the cuts. In the crescent-shaped
Crown bond, type C. P. C., the curve of the strand permits the terminals to
spring farther apart or closer together when the rails contract or expand. In
the straight bond, type C. P. T., to provide additional length of each wire to
compensate for the movement of rails, the strand is pressed back so that it
bulges sidewise midway between the terminals. The standard bonds of both
styles are four inches between centers of terminals, but either bond can be
made in any length greater than four inches between centers, if desired. Solid
terminals for compression will be furnished on order when desired.

These two types of bonds are used on the web of the rail under the splice-
bar, and are especially suited to very rigid rail joints having little or no vibration.

Rail Bonds and Appliances

Bonds for Rail Webs

Mining Track Rail Bonds

Showing a lO-inch 2/O Type C. P.-O2 Crown Bond Applied to a Small Mining Rail

The conditions in mining tracks are so severe that special bonds are
required. In general, the rails are small and there, is considerable motion in
the joints. The bonds must therefore be very flexible. The facilities for work-
ing about rail joints are poor, owing to the confined space and absence of light.
Therefore the bonds should be easy to apply. As the cars frequently jump the
track, the bonds should be protected. Finally the bonds must be efficient and
lasting.

The two styles of bonds shown on this page will fully meet all these re-
quirements. In laying new track rails, 25 pounds per yard or larger, we would
recommend the special Type C. P.-02, shown above, having extremely flexible
conductors. For small rails or for bonding old tracks the Type C. P. F. bond
should be used as shown below. The strand of this bond can be placed below
the heads or nuts of track bolts, where they will be protected from injury.

Showing a 22-inch 2/O Type C. P. F. Crown Bond Applied Over Plate of Small Rail

7-4

American Steel and Wire Company

Concealed Rail Bonds for Hail Webs

Standard Dimensions of Crown Rail Bonds

Table IX
Bond Terminals

All Dimensions in Inches

Solid Stud Terminals

Tubular Stud Terminals

Outside

Size of Bond Diameter B Length of Thickness of
Stud under Crown or

Length of
Stud under

Thickness of
Crown or

Diameter of
Hole

Head, D Head, C

Head, I)

Head, C

Through

Stud, G

1/0

X X X

2/0
3/0

$ X t

4/0

]/% ty y5y

300,000 C. M. 1 # #

500,000 C. M.

3/4 *

Bond Conductors

Duplex Parallel Bonds

jjjs_ Unbalanced Bonds

Balanced Bonds

Size of Bond

tween Smaller Strand

Larger Strand

No. of

Con

Dia.

Capacitv

ductors T
A No.
Wires

Dia.
Strand

Capacity

No.
Wires

Dia.

Strand

Capacity

in each
Strand

of each
Strand

I/O

# ..

.28

53,000

2/0

^ 19

.28

50,000 C.M.

.36

86,000 C.M.

.32

67,000

3/0

^ 37

.32

65,000 C.M.

.40

105,000 C.M.

.36 86,000

4/0

^ 37

.36

88,000 C.M.

.44

125,000 C.M.

.40

106,000

300,000 C. M.

% 61

.44

125,000 C.M.

.51

175,OOOC.M.

.47

150,000

500,000 C. M.

1 127

.56

210,000 C.M.

127

.65

290,000 C.M.

127

.61

250,000

Single Strand Bonds

Pitch of

Size of Bond Number
of Wires

Diameter
over Strand

Strand in
Diameters

Size of Bond

Number
of Wires

Diameter
over Strand

Strand in
Diameters

Degrees

1/0

. 27

.41 20

4/0 B. & S. G.

.56

2/0 37 .45 20

300,000 C. M.

.67

3/0

.50

500,000 C. M.

.85

! -1

Rail Bonds and Appliances

Concealed Rail Bonds for Rail Webs

We give below in tabulated form the particular size, type and length of
duplex parallel Crown bonds best suited to standard rail sections and drillings
as given in the latest editions of rail catalogues issued by the Carnegie Steel
Company and the Lorain Steel Company. Any style of terminals can be used
equally well on these bonds. The capacity of the bond is such that there will
be approximately ^ inch clearance about each strand in a new rail joint.
If the rail drilling differs from the standard as given on pages 177 and 179,
the bonds can be lengthened or shortened in proportion, so as to bring the
bond terminals midway between the bolt holes.

A. S. C. E. T-Rail Sections
Table X

Capacity of Strands in

Length of Bond Form Number

Rail

Capacity
of Bond

Circular Mils

Inches of Bond

Section

in Circular

Pounds

Mils

Smaller
Strand

Larger
Strand

Single
Bonding

Double Single
Bonding Bonding

Double
Bonding

132,716

66,358

66,358 10

14 2

150,052 66,358

83,694 10

14 01

167,388

83,694

83,694 10

14 02

167,388 83,694

83,694 10

14 02

216,773

83,694

133,079 10

14 01

85 238,704

105,625

133,079 10

14 01

238,704

105,625

133,079

14 01

100

238,704

105,625

133,079

14 01

110 300,851

133,079

167,772

14 01

Series "

A" and "B" T-Rails

(See page 177)

167,388

83,694

167,388

83,694

266,158

133,079

211,250

105,625

105,625 10 14 2

100

211,250

105,625

10 14

Lorain Girder Rails

(See page 179)

266,158

133,079

266,158

133,079

266,158

133,079

116

266,158

133,079

9 13

129

335,544

167,772

American Steel and Wire Company

Concealed Rail Bonds for Rail Webs

(See pages 60 and 85)

Type U. S.-O1 United States Bond

The United States rail bonds have their flexible conductors made of flat
parallel laid ribbons of annealed copper. They are adapted for use in rail
joints having narrow spaces between the joint plates and rail web, as already
explained on page 27. The bonds shown here are used largely for single
bonding on rail joints having a larger bonding space below than above the track
bolts. The terminals are usually placed midway between the first and second
bolts. Made in any length or capacity.

Type U. P.-01 United States Bond

Showing a Type U. P.-O1 United States Bond Installed on a Rail

Rail Bonds and Appliances

Concealed Rail Bonds for Rail Webs

( See pages 60 and 85 )

Type U. S.-O3 United States Bond

The bonds shown here are used largely for double bonding on rail joints
having a larger bonding space below than above the track bolts. One terminal
is usually placed between the first and second bolt holes of one rail, and the
other is placed between the second and third bolt holes of the other rail, the
two bonds being staggered. The long open space between the conductors at
one end of the bond provides room for one track bolt and one terminal of the
opposite bond, as shown below. Made in any length or capacity.

Type U. P.-O3 United States Bond

Showing Type U. S.-O3 United States Bond Installed on a Rail

American Steel and Wire Company

Concealed Rail Bonds for Rail Webs

( See pages 60 and 85 )

LENGTH

Type U. S.-O2 United States Bond

These bonds are used largely for single bonding on rail joints having
equal bonding spaces above and below the track bolts. The terminals are
usually placed midway between the first and second bolt holes. Made in any
length or capacity.

Type IT. P.-O2 United States Bond

Showing a Type U. P.-O2 United States Bond Installed on a Rail

Rail Bonds and Appliances

Concealed Kail Bonds for Rail Webs

( See pages 60 and 85 )

Type LT. S.-O4 United States Bond

The bonds shown here are used largely for double bonding on rail joints
having equal bonding spaces above and below the track bolts. One terminal
is usually placed midway between the first and second bolt holes of one rail,
and the other terminal is placed between the second and third holes of the
other rail, the two bonds being staggered. The long open space between the
conductors at one end of the bond provides ample room for one bolt and one
terminal of the bond on the other side of the rail. Made in any length and
capacity required.

Type U. P.-O4 United States Bond

Type U. P.-O4 Bond Attached to Web of a Rail

American Steel and Wire Company

Concealed Rail Bonds for Hail Webs

Type U. S.-O5 United States Bond

This form of bond is used for single bonding or for double bonding.
Except in very special cases, this style of forming the conductor loops is not
as satisfactory as those shown on the two preceding pages, and on this account
none of the other styles of United States bonds shown will have this form of
loop, but any of them may be so formed upon request.

Type U. P.-O6 United States Bond

Type U. S.-O6 United States Bond Applied to a Rail

Rail Bonds and Appliances

Concealed Rail Bonds for Rail Webs

( See pages 60 and 85 )

Type U. S.-l United States Bond

This type of bond differs from those shown on page 7t> only in the form
of terminal head, which is narrower, and in its method of connection to the
conductor.

The three styles of bonds shown below are exactly similar to the one
above, except in style of terminals, and they can be used in similar places.

Type U.P.-l United States
Bond

Having tubular terminal
studs for pin expansion.

Type B. S. B.-Form U 1
Soldered Stud Bond

The terminals of this bond
are furnished plain for com-
pression or tinned for sol-
dering, as ordered.

Type S. B.-Form U 1 Sol-
dered Bond

The terminals of this bond
are furnished tinned for
soldering.

American Steel and Wire Company

Concealed Rail Bonds for Rail Webs

(See pages 60 and 85)

Type U. S.-3 United States Bond

This type of bond differs from those shown on page 77 only in the form of
terminal head, which is narrower, and in its method of connection to the conductor.

The three styles of bonds shown below are exactly similar to the one
above, except in style of terminals, and they can be used in similar places.

Type U.P.-3 United States
Bond

Having tubular terminal
studs for pin expansion.

Type B. S. B.-Form U 3
Soldered Stud Bond

The terminals of this bond
are furnished plain for com-
pression or tinned for sol-
dering, as ordered.

Type S. B.-Form U 3 Sol-
dered Bond

The terminals of this bond
are tinned for soldering.

Rail Bonds and Appliances

Concealed Rail Bonds for Hail Webs

(See pages 60 and 85)

8 H

Type U. P.-2 United States Bond

This type of bond differs from those shown on page 78 only in the form
of terminal head, which is narrower, and in its method of connection to the
conductor.

The three styles of bonds shown below are exactly similar to the one
above except in style of terminals, and they can be used in similar places.

Type U. S.-2 United States
Bond

Having solid studs for com-
pression.

Type B. S. B.-Form U 2
Soldered Stud Bond

The terminals of this bond
are furnished plain for com-
pression, or tinned for sol-
dering, as ordered.

Type S. B.-Form U 2 Sol-
dered Bond

The terminals of this bond
are tinned for soldering.

American Steel and Wire Company

Concealed Rail Bonds for Rail Webs

(See page 60)

Type U. P.-4 United States Bond

This type of bond differs from those shown on page ?(.) only in the form
of terminal head, which is narrower, and in its method of connection to the
conductor.

The three styles of bonds shown below are exactly similar to the one
above, except in style of terminals, and they can be used in similar places.

Type U. S.-4 United States
Bond

Having solid terminal studs
for compression.

Type B. S. B. - Form U 4
Soldered Stud Bond

The terminals of this bond
are furnished plain for com-
pression or tinned for sol-
dering, as ordered.

Type S. B.-Form U4 Sol-
dered Bond

The terminals of this bond
are tinned for soldering.

Rail Bonds and Appliances

Concealed Rail Bonds for Hail Webs

Standard Dimensions of United States Rail Bonds
Table XI

Bond Terminals

All Dimensions in Inches

Size of Bond

Outside
Diameter B
of Stud

Solid Stud Terminals Tubular Stud Terminals

Length of Thickness Length of
T-*"d of Crown Stud
Under or f[eacj £ Under
Head I) Head D

Thickness of
Crown or
Head C

Diameter
of Hole
Through
Stud G

1/0 B. & S. G.

X Xto* A

X to A

2/0 B. & S. G.

X X tO & T%

X tO 3%

3/0 B. & S. G.

X V tO 3^ T»y

X to ^

4/0 B. & S. G.

X X tO ^ T»F

X to A

300,000 C. M.

X ^ H

Bond Conductors

Duplex Parallel Bonds

Unbalanced Bonds

Balanced Bonds

Distance Between

Conductors (A) = 1 Inch.

Smaller Conductor

Larger Conductor

Forms 02 to 06

Size of

i )icfanrp

Bond

Between

Number

Conductors
A

Number

Strips

Capacity

Number
Strips

Capacity

of Strips
in Each
Conduc-

Capacity Each
Conductor

tor

1/0 B. & S. G.

36,000 C. M.

70,000 C. M.

53,000 C. M.

2/0 B. & S. G.

53,400 C. M.

81,000 C. M.

67,000 C. M.

3/0 B. & S. G.

62,000 C. M.

106,OOOC. M.

11&12

86,000 C. M.

4/0 B. & S. G.

80, 000 C. M.

132.000C. M.

106,000 C. M.

300,000 C. M.

115,000 C. M.

185,000 C. M.

150,000 C. M.

American Steel and Wire Company

Exposed Bonds for Bridging Splice Bars

(See pages 60 and 74)

A long rail bond extending around the splice bar and attached to the
web of rails can often be used to better advantage than any other type of
bond, as explained on page 30. This style is especially serviceable on small
rails in mines where there would not be sufficient room for bonds underneath
the splice bars ; and for rebonding old rails in paved streets, in which case it
is not necessary to disturb the plates. Several types will be shown on this
and the next two pages. They are made of any length or capacity required.

Type C. S. S. Crown Bond

These are "one-piece" bonds, the terminals being forged from the solid
conductor. They are provided with either solid or tubular terminals. The
extended length of these bonds should be 1^ inches more than the distance
between bond holes, to allow for forming.

Showing a Type C. P. S. Crown Bond Applied to a Rail

Rail Bonds and Appliances

Exposed Bonds for Bridging Splice Bars

(See pages 60 and 74)

Type C. S. F. Crown Bond

This type of bond is very similar to the Type C. S.-O. F. series, shown on
page 71. It is a very flexible and serviceable bond for any special or exposed
track bonding. Also made with tubular terminals as shown below. Made in
any length or capacity.

Type C. P. F. Stub End Crown Bond

Stub End Bonds

Are made to any length or capacity, and though we have
shown here but one style of terminal, it will be understood
that stub end bonds can be made with any of our regular terminals.

Type C. P. F. Crown Bonds Applied to Conduit Rails

American Steel and Wire Company

Exposed Bonds for Bridging Splice Bars

(See pages 60 and 74)

Type C. S.-O. G. Crown Bond

(Patented)

These make an extremely flexible and serviceable bond for bridging splice
bars or for other purposes. The portions of the strand adjacent to the ter-
minals are bent out to clear the splice bars and then dipped in molten solder,
which renders this portion of the bond conductor stiff enough to retain this form
indefinitely. Its extended length is about 1 ^ inches longer than the distance
between bond holes.

Type C. P.-O. G. Crown Bond

The Chicago bond, of which we have always been the only makers, was
the first type to be provided with enlarged tubular terminals, and from this have
been developed all Crown bonds having pin expanded terminals. This is a
one-piece bond, suitable for spanning joint plates. Made in any length or
capacity up to 4/0, and furnished with expanding pins.

Rail Bonds and Appliances

Type C. P. X. Crown Bond

Used for Cross Bonding

It is advisable to bond together at frequent intervals the two rails of a
track, or the several parallel tracks of a system, by means of cross bonds.
These aid materially in preventing open track circuits. For this purpose we
supply the two Crown bonds here shown. On interurban roads it is advisable
to use ten or more of these bonds per mile, while in city streets with heavy
traffic, they should be placed much nearer together.

Made in any length, though generally about rive inches longer than the
track gauge.

Application of Type C. S. X. Crown Bond to Rail

NOTE— We make other bonds similar in form to types C. S.-O. G. and C. P.-O. G.
shown on opposite page. The terminal shoulders of these extend back on the conductor to
a considerable distance, and the ends of the bonds are not dipped in solder. This bond
provided with solid terminals is known as type C. S.-G. Crown bond and the tubular
terminal bond is called type C. P.-G. Crown bond.

American Steel and Wire Company

Socket Terminals

These terminals can be used in many places where it would be incon-
venient to order special lengths of bonds. The various styles of terminal
shanks shown are provided with deep sockets, into which the conductors, cut
to proper length, may be soldered by the purchaser. Standard terminals of these
designs are made with studs having diameters of S/8, ^, fa and 1 inch. The
sockets in every case are drilled to fit the conductor, as ordered.

Type C. P. N. D. Duplex Crown Socket Terminal

Type C. S. O.

Type C. P. O.

Rail Bonds and Appliances

Rail Bonds for Rail Flanges

(See pages 19 and 58)

Under certain conditions, bonds can be advantageously applied to the
flanges of rails. This is especially true of feeder rails, which being elevated
on insulators, are easy of access, and which are comparatively free from
severe vibrations. In general, feeder rails require short heavy bonds of high
conductance, such as the type B. S. B., form A bond (see page 56) applied
to the rail head, or either of the following bonds which is attached to the flange.

Type S. B.-Form 2 Soldered Bond

No other soldered bond has given such efficient and lasting service as this
which is attached to the under side of the flange. This bond is often made
large in capacity.

Type S. B.-Form 2 Soldered Bond Applied to Third Rail

American Steel and Wire Company

Hail Bonds for Hail Flanges

Type U. S. B. United States Bond— Single Loop

The bond here shown is designed for the under side of the flange of rails.
The crown of the terminal is beveled to bring the axis of the terminal
perpendicular to the upper surface of the rail flange. The terminals are
connected by a conductor built up of layers of thin copper ribbons bent into
either of the two forms shown. The standard formed length of this bond is
five inches. Using our hydraulic punch and compressor, shown on pages 126
to 130, this bond can be quickly and effectively installed. The bond is
specially suitable for feeder rails, and is made in any size up to 500,000
circular mils.

Type U. S. B. United States Bond Applied to Rail— Double Loop

Part III

Bonding Tools and Appliances

Page
Drilling machines 94

Compressors ........ 120

Tools for Soldering 131

Bond Testers and Hand Tools 136

The durability and efficiency of a rail bond in-
stallation, as well as its cost, will depend to a large
extent upon the effectiveness of the tools used. No
workmen can do good work with poor bonding tools.
We were the pioneers in the manufacture of rail
bonds and our extensive and thorough experience
has enabled us to develop the complete series of
perfected tools shown in this section. First and
foremost our aim has been to produce tools of the
greatest effectiveness and suitability for the service
to which they are to be put ; to make them perfect
in every detail, and as strong, durable and reason-
able in cost as possible. With the exception of the
small hand tools, which are sold only, all of the
bonding tools shown are sold or rented to customers
using our rail bonds.

We solicit your correspondence and shall be
pleased to quote you on rail bonds or bonding tools.

American Steel and Wire Company

Drilling Machines

To drill a bond hole in a rail as it should be drilled, exact to size, with
smooth surfaces, fitting closely the terminal of the bond to be used, the drilling
machine must be attached rigidly to the rail. Its parts must be strong and
durable to resist wear, and they must be accurately and closely adjusted. The
various styles of drilling machines here shown meet these requirements in every
particular. They are unique and simple in their design and construction and
make a long step forward in the evolution of rail bonding. Easily handled and
operated, they work rapidly and accurately. All machines shown (except
Nos. 19 and 21-M) are rigidly attached to the rails with a vise-like grip.
Those which are attached to the head of the rail can easily be placed in
position or removed in eight (8) seconds, and without disturbing the joint
plates. Each machine has a positive automatic feeding device which can be
controlled at will. The drills are operated with a vertical hand lever or with a
GOO-volt D. C. series wound electric motor. It has been demonstrated beyond
question that a man can do a given amount of drilling much easier by
operating a lever than he can by turning a crank.

In every hand-operated machine each half stroke of the lever rotates all
drills forward through equal angles of rotation. In all multiple-spindle drilling
machines each separate spindle is provided with an adjusting nut so that each
drill can be adjusted independently of the others. This provision offsets uneven
wearing of drills or setting of rails. The drill points are held rigidly in the
machine and therefore seldom break or chip. For the same reason the holes
may be started without first prick punching the rail.

Where necessary the machines
are equipped with gauges for deter-
mining the correct depth of holes,
and with screws to raise or lower
the frames quickly so as to bring
the drill points into their correct
position. The levers by which the
machines are operated are detach-
able and in many cases serve as
handles for carrying the tools, and
as wrenches for attaching the drills
to the rails. Each drilling machine
is equipped with all fittings and one
set of new drills. Many parts of
these machines are interchangeable
and small parts may be ordered by

No. 22 Drill Being Operated by Two Men mail.

Rail Bonds and Appliances

Drilling Machines

Parts should be ordered by part numbers as shown on later pages. All
parts are made of high grade steel, and machined accurately to size.

Four-Spindle Drill, Type No. '2'2

The hand-operated double-twin drill shown above is one of the most
perfect machines ever constructed. It drills at one time all four holes for the
twin terminal bond. Two men can operate this machine and drill the holes
for eight joints per hour. This reduces the cost of installing the twin terminal
bonds to a very low figure. The drill grips the head of the rail rigidly and it
can be placed in position without disturbing the splice bars.

Weight of machine complete approximately 125 pounds.

See next page.

Directions for Operating Type 22 Four-spindle Hand-operated Drill

Place clamping bars 22 over head of rail and adjust vertically for drilling
by means of adjusting screws 27. Holes should be high enough on rail head
to leave at least ^ inch of steel in lower edge. Clamp machine to rail tight

96 American Steel and Wire Company

Drilling Machines

Directions for Operating No. 22 Drill — Continued

enough to hold securely, but not tight enough to break the clamping bar, with
handle wrench 34, on clamping "nuts 25. Machine should be level with track.
Run drill points up to rail by means of hand wheel 9, and adjust drills by means
of adjusting nuts 41, so that all four drills will press against rails. Keep all
the adjusting nuts 41 well back on spindles so as to afford good driving seats
for twist drill shank.

Set depth gauge 29 to nearest index mark on guide bars 22. Turn pawl
cam 15 to mesh feed pawls 18 with feed ratchet gear 13, so that the drills will
feed into rail automatically. Place handle lever 34 on driving stud 31 and
operate, drilling holes in rail to required depth, which will be shown when depth
gauge travels to next index mark on guide bars. Exact depth of holes is important.

Lift feed pawls out of mesh with feed ratchet gear by means of pawl cam
15. Then feed drills back from rail with hand wheel 9, loosen clamping nuts.
remove machine from rail, move to next joint, and repeat.

To remove twist drill from drill spindles, loosen set screw 43 on clamp dogs,
then pull out the drill. Drills must be kept sharp and ground at proper
angles at all times, else much trouble will result, and the machine may be
broken. In grinding drills duplicate the exact shape of a new drill point.
While use of oil on drill points is optional with customers, the life of the
machine and the drills will be much prolonged by using lard oil, and the
machine will work easier. The holes can easily be cleaned with gasoline. (See
page 24.) Keep the machine clean and free from sand, and well oiled with
good machine oil. This machine can be operated with any one or two drills

removed.

Parts for Type 22 Drill

1 Large part of body (back) casting. 26 Washer on guide bar (clamp).

2 Small part of body (front) casting. 27 Adjusting screw on guide bar.

3 Gear cover, casting. 28 Tie for guide bar (clamp).

4 Springs on gear cover. 29 Depth gauge for drilling.

5 Truss plate on back part of body. 80 Thumb nut for depth gauge.

6 Small yoke for feed screw. 31 Driver lever for driving machine.

7 Large yoke for feed screw. 32 Pawl for drive lever.

8 Plate on large yoke (outside of brass nut). 33 Stud for drive lever, pawl stud.

9 Hand wheel. 34 Handle and wrench for drive.

11 Brass nut on feed screw. 35 Single gear spindle.

12 Feed screw. 36 Double gear spindle.

13 Feed ratchet gear. 37 Intermediate gear.

14 Collar on feed screw. 38 Intermediate gear staggered teeth.

15 Cam for feed pawls on feed screw. 39 Ratchet driving gears.

16 T\-inch plunger for cam in truss plate. 40 Shaft for drive gears.

17 Spring for plunger in truss plate. 41 Adjusting nuts on spindle.

18 Feed pawls. 42 Clamps (dogs) for holding drills.

19 Spring for feed pawls. 43 %-mch headless set screws for dogs on

20 y5(T-inch headless set screw in pawls. spindle.

21 Brass friction in feed pawls. 44 Ball race in truss plate.

22 Guide and clamping bar for machine. 45 Truss block for feed screw.

23 Loose jaw on guide bar (clamp). 46 ^ -inch balls.

24 1-inch nut on guide bar (clamp). 48 Oil hole cover (front body).

25 ly^-inch nut on guide bar (clamp). 49 Oil hole cover (back body).

Rail Bonds and Appliances

Drilling Machines

Type 22 Drill
Hand Operated

50 Oil hole cover (back body). 58

51 Collar on driving shaft. 62

52 Friction spring on adjusting nut on

spindles.

53 Woodruff key for guide bars. 63

54 j^-inch cap screw in truss plate. 64
56 Spring for driving pawls.

T\-inch pins for collar on feed screw,
^-inch cap screws for small and large

part of body truss plate and tie on

guide bars.

^-inch cap screw for small yoke.
T5s-inch Fil. screws for plate on large yoke

outside brass nut for feed screw.

American Steel and Wire Company

Drilling Machines

Motor Drill, Type 22 M

The four-spindle motor drill shown above is one of the most perfect
machines ever constructed. It drills at one time all four holes in the head of
a rail for our standard twin terminal bond. The construction of the drilling
machine is the same as for drill No. 22, already explained on preceding pages.
Two men can easily handle this machine and drill holes for seventeen or more
joints per hour. This reduces the cost of installing twin terminal bonds to an
extremely low figure. The series wound motor built specially for this drill is
light and compact and will operate directly on a 600-volt trolley circuit.
The internal windings are thoroughly well protected and insulated, and the
armature shaft is geared direct to the drill spindles. The machine, having
two small carriage wheels, can be placed on the rail and moved easily from joint
to joint, or it can be carried about by means of the handle which hooks into
the motor frame. Weight of machine approximately 300 pounds.

Rail Bonds and Appliances

Drilling Machines

Four-Spindle
Motor Drill, Type O22 M

Single Spindle
Motor Drill
Type 0:2 1 M

9Sb American Steel and Wire Company

Drilling Machines

The 022 M and O21 M Motor Drill

An entirely new design of four-spindle motor drill has been developed for
our Twin Terminal Bond, as shown on preceding page. While this new
machine weighs but little more than our old drill (shown on page 98) and can
readily be carried about by three men, it is much stronger, more durable and
more easily handled. It is carried on a light three-wheel truck, and is so
designed that all adjustments and operations can be made easily and quickly.
It is fed by hand, the correct depth of holes can readily be determined by a
plainly marked index, and the gearing which runs in a grease tight casing is
pratically noiseless and f rictionless. All four holes can be drilled in about one
minute, and it requires less than a minute to set the machine, thus bringing the
cost of drilling down to a very low figure. It is operated by a GOO-volt D. C.
series wound motor of ample capacity for the work and of standard make.

By removing a few nuts and bolts, the whole gear case can be removed
from the side bars and can be replaced by a similar gear case operating a
single drill spindle suitable for drilling holes of any size through webs of
rails. Adjustments are provided for quickly raising or lowering the drill point
for different sizes of rails. This separate attachment provides means of
obtaining a first class motor driven single spindle drill, and the two styles of
drills make a very flexible arrangement for any railway system using the Twin
Terminal Bond as a standard.

List of Parts for Type O22 M Motor Drill

Made by American Steel & Wire Co.

1 Drill Frame. 15 Feed Points Holder.

2 Gear Housing on Drill Frame. 16 Feed Wheel.

8 Brass Bushing in No. 2 with Ijs-mch 16- A Feed Wheel Shaft.

Hole. 16- B Raising Wheel.

4 Brass Bushing in No. 2 with if -inch 17 Bearing for Clamping Lever Stud on

Hole. No. 14.

5 Brass Bushing in No. 2 with 1^-inch 18 Screw Points on No. 15.

Hole. 19 Motor Yoke.

5- A Brass Bushing in No. 2 with 1-inch 20 Wheel on rear end of Truck.

Hole. 20- A Wheel on forward end of Truck.

6 Thrust Plate for Drill Spindles. 21 Handles on No. 6.

7 Back Bearing Casting for Drill. 22 Pivot Bracket on No. 39.

8 Brass Bushing in No. 7 with i;|-inch 23 Bushing in No. 20.

Hole. 24 Bushing in No. 20-A.

9 Brass Bushing in No. 7 with l|-inch 25 Stud for No. 20-A.

Hole. 26 Nut for No. 25.

10 Gear Housing on Motor. 27 Stud for No. 22.
10- A Bushing in No. 10. 28 Sliding Bracket. .

11 Back Bearing Cover for Motor. 29 Truck Frame.

12 Feed Yoke. 30 Raising Screw.

13 FeedNutBushinginFeedYoke. 31 Brass Washer on No. 30.

14 Feed Bracket. 32 Nut on No. 30.

14-A Bearing for No. 14. 33 Yoke Bracket on Truck.

Rail Bonds and Appliances

98c

Drilling Machines

84 Raising Yoke on No. 14.

35 Stud for No. 34.

36 Nut for Raising Screw on No. 33.

37 Bolt for Feed Yoke No. 12 and Pivot

Bracket No. 22.

38 Nut for No. 39.

98cl American Steel and \Vire Company

Drilling Machines

List of Parts ior Type O22 M Motor Drill— Continued

39 Guide Rods. 63 Roll Bearing Bushing on end of Arma-

40 Stud for Rear Truck Wheel No. 20. ture Shaft.

41 Adjusting Screws. 64 Roll Bearing Cup on end of Armature

42 Drilling Gage. Shaft.

43 Thumb Nut for No. 42. 65 Rolls for Roll Bearing.

44 Washer for No. 42. 66 Spring Ring for No. 63.

45 Inside Drill Spindle and Gear. 67 Stud for Compound Gears in No. 11.

46 Outside Drill Spindle and Gear. 68 Ball Race in No. 6 for end of Drill

47 Adjusting Nut on Drill Spindles. Spindles.

49 Clamping Dog for Drills. 69 ^-inch Steel Balls for Ball Race No. 6S.

50 Set Screw for No. 49. 70 Bevel Gear on Feed Stud No. 73.

51 Intermediate Gears in No. 1. 71 Bevel Gear on Feed Screw.

52 40-Tooth Gear in No. 2. 72 Feed Screw.

53 24-Tooth Gear in No. 2. 73 Feed Stud.

54 Pinion Gear in No. 2. 74 Stud in No. 2.

55 55-Tooth Gear in No. 10. 75 Clamping Lever.

56 Compound Gears in No. 10. 76 Short Clamping Lever.

57 Pinion Gear on end of Armature Shaft. 77 Releasing Lever on No. 75.

58 Nut on end of No. 60. 78 Pawls on No. 75.

59 Sleeve Coupling on No. 60 and No. 79 Pawl Rack on No. 14.

54. 80 Lever Stud on No. 17.

60 Transmission Shaft between Motor and 81 Connecting Rod between Nos. 77 and 78.

Drill. 82 Brass Connecting Post on Starting Box.

61 Washers on end of No. 54. 83 Armature Shaft.

62 Nut on end of No. 54. 84 Brush with Pig Tail.

Directions for Operating Type O22 M Motor Drill

Place machine over rails and adjust vertically for drilling by means of adjusting screw
No. 41, then clamp to rail with lever No. 75.

Run drills up to rail with feed wheel No. 16 and adjust by means of adjusting nuts

No. 47, so that all four drills will contact with rail. Keep all adjusting nuts No. 47 well

back on spindles so as to afford good driving seats for twist drill shanks. Set depth

gage No. 42 to nearest index mark on guide bars No. 39. This machine is graduated for

— bonds.

Start motor by placing trolley terminal bushing on connecting post No. 82 and feed
machine by hand, taking care that drills are cutting freely until the depth gage reaches the
next index mark. Feed drills back from rail and release lever No. 75, then raise machine
by means of wheel No. 16-B, so that the drill points will be above the rail when going
from one joint to another. To remove twist drills from drill spindles, loosen set screw
No. 43 on clamp dogs and then pull out.

Drills must be kept sharp and ground at the correct angle at all times, duplicating
the point of a new drill. Customers should use a good quality of lard oil on drill points
while drilling. This is necessary to get the best results from the machine and drills, as it
will prevent a lot of trouble. The holes should be cleaned with gasoline.

Keep all working parts of the machine well cleaned and oiled with a good quality
machine oil, making sure that oil hole covers are always kept closed. This is very impor-
tant to keep dust and sand out of bearings and will increase the life of the machine.

MOTOR. Use a two (2) ampere fuse wire in motor circuit at all times. Never start
motor under full load. Use starting rheostat in starting motor. Keep all parts of motor
wiring and especially the commutator clean and dry. Examine brushes frequently to see
that they make good contact with the commutator.

Kail Bonds and Appliances

Drilling Machines

(See next page)

List of Parts for Type 22 M Motor Drill

65 Motor drill casting. 85

66 40-tooth gear. 87

67 20-tooth gear. 88

68 30-tooth gear. 90

69 Stud for gears. 91

71 Gear housing on motor.

72 Double gear. 92

73 Screw on end of double gear.

75 Intermediate gears. 93

76 Stud for intermediate gears. 94

77 Nut for stud. 95

78 Back bearing cover. 96

79 Ball race for back bearing. 97

80 T\-inch steel rolls. 98

81 Cone for ball race.

82 Pinion gear on end of armature shaft. 99

83 Armature shaft. 100

84 T5?-inch hexagon nut on armature shaft. 101

Spring on ball race cone.

T\-inch cap screw on back bearing cover.

Carbon brush with pig tail.

X-inch roundhead screwT on gearhousing.

Collar to take the place of drive lever in

drill.
Connector for joining motor with power.

(Not shown.)
Rheostat.

Brass connecting post,
^j-inch pipe plugs on gear housing.
f5^-inch stud bolt on armature shaft.
Insulating bushings in frame for leads.
Round head screw for fastening lead to

body.

Oil drain plug.

Thumb screw for cover over commutator.
T5?-inch cap screws on front bearing yoke.

100 American Steel and Wire Company

Drilling Machines

Directions for Operating Motor Drill, Type 22 M

The directions already given on page 96 for operating the type 22
double twin drill, apply equally well to the operation of type 22 M motor drill,
since the drilling machines are the same in each. The rear end of this
machine should be supported by blocks. After the machine has been placed
in position on the rail, the motor is started by fastening the connector 92
(page 99), which is attached to the trolley wire by means of a flexible wire
and light pole, to the brass connecting post 94. The motor is grounded
through the drill frame to the rail.

Motor Use a two (2) ampere fuse in motor circuit at all times. This should
be placed on the trolley pole. Never start the motor under full load.
Use the starting rheostat 93 in starting motor. Keep all parts of motor wiring,
and especially the commutator, clean and dry. Examine the brushes frequently
to see that they make good contact with commutator. Keep the drill points
sharp and well lubricated with lard oil. The motor is built for 500-600 volts,
is series wound and is amply large for the work required under normal condi-
tions. The motor operates at variable speed, depending on load, the speed
decreasing with increasing load. It should not be required to work steadily
at very low voltages or under extremely heavy overloads.

Parts ior Type 22 M Double Twin Drill

1 Large part of body (back). 25 ly^-inch nut on guide bar (clamp).

2 Small part of body (front). 26 Washer on guide bar (clamp).

5 Truss plate on back part of body. 27 Adjusting screw on guide bar.

6 Small yoke for feed screw. 28 Tie for guide bar (clamp).

7 Large yoke for feed screw. 29 Depth gauge for drilling.

8 Plate on large yoke (outside of brass nut). 30 Thumb nut for depth gauge.

9 Hand wheel. 34 Handle and wrench for drive.

11 Brass nut on feed screw. 35 Single gear spindle.

12 Feed screw. 36 Double gear spindle.

13 Feed ratchet gear. 37 Intermediate gear.

14 Collar on feed screw. 38 Intermediate gear staggered teeth.

15 Cam for feed pawls on feed screw. 39 Ratchet driving gear.

16 T5B-inch plunger for cam in truss plate. 40 Shaft for drive gears.

17 Spring for plunger in truss plate. 41 Adjusting nuts on spindle.

18 Feed pawls. 42 Clamps (dogs) for holding drills.

19 Spring for feed pawl. 43 X~mcn headless set screws.

20 T5g-inch headless set screw in pawls. 44 Ball race in truss plate.

21 Brass friction in feed pawls. 45 Truss block for feed screw.

22 Guide and clamping bar for machine. 46 ^-inch balls.

23 Loose jaw on guide bar (clamp). 48 Oil hole cover (front body).

24 1-inch nut on guide bar (clamp). 49 Oil hole cover (back body).

Rail Bonds and . V p p I i:m <•«<>*

Drilling Machines

(See page 98)

Motor Drill, Type 22 M— Continued

(Motor parts shown on page 99)

50 Oil hole cover (back body). 63

51 Collar on driving shaft. 64

52 Friction spring on adjusting nut on

spindles. 102

53 Woodruff key for guide bars. 103

54 j^-inch cap screw in truss plate. 104
56 Spring for driving pawls. 105
58 y3^-inch pins for collar on feed screw. 106
62 ^-inch cap screws for small and large 107

part of body truss plate and tie on 108

guide bars. 109

^5-inch cap screw for small yoke.
T5g-inch Fil. screws for plate on large
yoke outside brass nut for feed screw.
Handle stud.

Wheel bracket (right hand).
Wheels.
Wheel stud.
Nut for wheel stud.
Wheel bracket (left hand).
Clamping bracket,
^-inch cap screws for clamping bracket.

102

Steel and Wire Company

Drilling Machines

Motor Driven Drill, No. 24 M

The four-spindle motor drill shown above is one designed especially for
third rail lines, and similar places where a very short and compact machine is
required. It bores at one time all four holes in the head of a rail for our stan-
dard twin terminal bond. Two men can easily handle this machine and drill
holes for fifteen or more joints per hour. This reduces the cost of installing
the twin terminal bonds to an extremely low figure. The motor built specially
for this drill is light and compact and will operate directly on a 600-volt trolley
circuit. The internal windings are thoroughly protected and insulated,
and the armature shaft is geared direct to. the drill spindles. The machine can
be carried about by using the wrench as a handle and hooking it into the
motor frame. Approximate total weight, 185 pounds.

Rail Bonds and Appliances

103

Drilling Machines

(See pages 94 and 104)

List of Parts for Type 24 M (and Type 2O M) Motor

1 Body.

2 Back bearing support.

3 Gear housing.

4 Cover over front of motor.

5 Front bearing support.

6 Brace over cover.

7 Armature shaft.

8 Bushing on armature shaft.

9 Ball race for front bearing.

10 Cone for ball bearing in front bearing.

11 Spring on cone in front bearing.

12 y^-inch steel ball for ball bearings.

13 Carbon brush.

14 Brush holder.

15 Spring in brush holder.

16 Cone for ball bearing in back bearing.

17 Ball race for back bearing.

18 Spring on cone in back bearing.

19 Intermediate gears.

20 Double gear for type 20 motor drill.
20-A Double gear for type 24 motor drill.

21 Ball rest for truss in gear housing.

22 Stud for intermediate gears.

23 J^-inch hexagon nut for stud.

24 Cap screw for ball rest.

26 ^g-inch cap screw on body.

27 Rubber washer.

28 Insulating bushing.

29 Hexagon nut.

30 Brass connecting post.

31 Fiber ring for brush holder.

32 ^j-inch cap screw for bracket on drill.

33 Flat head screw in body.

34 Round head screw for brush holder.

35 Connector for connecting power with

post 30. Not shown.

104 American Steel and Wire Company

Drilling Machines

Directions for Operating Type 24 M Motor Drill

Place clamping bars 5 over head of rail and adjust vertically for drilling
by means of adjusting screws 39. Holes should be high enough on rail head
to heave at least /2 -inch of steel in lower edge. Clamp machine to rail just
tight enough to hold it securely, but not tight enough to break the clamping
bar, with handle wrench 48 on clamping nuts 8. Machine should be level
with track. Run drill points up to rail by means of crank handle 13 and ad-
just drills by means of adjusting nuts 36, so that all four drills will press
against rails. Keep all these adjusting nuts 36 well back on spindles so as to
afford good driving seats for twist drill shanks.

Set depth gauge 41 to nearest index mark on guide bars 5. Turn pawl
cam 19 to mesh feed pawls 22 with feed ratchet gear 16, so that the drills will
feed into rail automatically. Connect up motor and operate, drilling holes in
rail to required depth, which will be shown when depth gauge travels to next
index mark on guide bars. Exact depth of holes is important.

Lift feed pawls out of mesh with feed ratchet gear by means of pawl cam
19. Then draw back drills from rail with crank handle 13, loosen clamping
nuts, remove machine from rail and move to next joint.

To remove twist drills from drill spindles, loosen set screw 34 on clamp
dogs, then pull out of spindle end. Drills must be kept sharp and ground at
proper angles at all times, else much trouble will result, and the machine may
be broken. In grinding drills duplicate the exact shape of a new drill point.
Keep the machine clean and free from sand.

The motor is started by fastening the connector 35 (page 103), to the
brass connecting post 30 and attaching to the trolley wire by means of a
flexible wire and light pole. The motor is grounded through the drill frame
to the rail.

Motor Use a two (2) ampere fuse in motor circuit at all times. This can be
placed on the trolley pole. Never start the motor under full load.
Keep all parts of motor wiring, and especially the commutator, clean and dry.
Examine the brushes frequently to see that they make good contact with com-
mutator. Keep the drill points sharp and well lubricated with lard oil, thus
avoid overloading the machine. Keep all bearings well oiled with good
machine oil. The motor is built for 500-600 volts, is series wound and is
amply large for the work required under normal conditions. The speed of the
motor varies with and depends upon the load. It should not be required to
work steadily at very low voltages, or under extremely heavy overloads.

Rail Bonds and Appliances

105

Drilling Machines

(See page 102)

List of Parts for Type 24 M Drill

(Motor parts shown on page 103)

1 Large part of body (front).

2 Small part of body (back).

3 Truss plate on back part of body.

4 Yoke for feed screw.

5 Guide and clamping bar for machine.

6 Loose jaw on guide bars (clamp).

7 Washer on guide bars (clamp).

8 ljVmch nut on guide bars (clamp).

9 Key for guide bars.

10 Yoke strap on guide bars.

11 1-inch nut on guide bars.

12 Feed screw.

13 Crank handle.

14 Collar on feed screw.

15 Pin in collar on feed screw.

16 Feed ratchet gear.

17 Ball race in truss plate for feed screw.

18 34-inch steel balls.

19 Cam for feed pawls.

20 Plunger in truss plate for feed pawls.

21 Spring in truss plate for plunger.

22 Feed pawls.

23 Brass plunger for friction in feed pawls.

24 Spring for feed pawls.

25 T5^-inch headless set screw for feed

pawls.

26 Bevel gear for connecting drill with

motor.

27 Spur gear on bevel gear.

28 Stud for spur and bevel gear.

29 Intermediate gears.

30 Drill spindles with gear, 2^ inches from

outer edge of thread.

31 Drill spindles with gear, 33/s inches from

outer edge of thread.

32 3^-inch steel balls.

33 Ball race in truss plate.

34 X'mch headless set screw for dogs on

spindle.

35 Clamps (dogs) for holding drill.

36 Adjusting nut on drill spindle.

37 Friction spring on adjusting nut on

spindle.
39 Adjusting screw on guide bars.

41 Depth gauge for drilling.

42 Thumb nut for depth gauge.

44 ^-inch cap screws on truss plate.

45 Y% -inch cap screws on bracket.

46 Bracket to support motor on drill.

47 3^-inch cap screw for fastening motor to

drill.

48 Handle and wrench for machine.

106

American Steel and Wire Company

Drilling Machines

Two-spindle Drill, Type ISo. 2O, for Soldered Stud Bonds

The two drills shown on this page have been developed primarily for the
installation of type B. S. B. bonds on webs of rails, though they can be used
equally well for drilling holes in the heads of rails for twin terminal bonds.
These are two-spindle machines, drilling two half-inch holes 1^-inch centers
in one operation. No. 20 is operated by hand, and weighs approximately 80
pounds. No. 20 M is operated by a 600-volt series wound motor and weighs
approximately 105 pounds. Special brackets for connecting to head of rail
will be made for either drill, adapting either for drilling holes in web or head of
any style or size of rail. The same high class of material and workmanship enters
into the construction of these drills as in the four-spindle drills already described.

Motor Drill, Type >To. 2O M

Rail Bonds and Appliances 107

Drilling Machines

Directions for Operating Type 2O and Type 2O M Drills

Place clamping bars over head of rail and adjust vertically for correct
position of holes in rail, as shown on opposite page. Clamp machine to rail tight
enough to hold it securely, but not tight enough to break the clamping bar,
with handle wrench on clamping nuts. Machine should be level with track.
Run drill points up to rail by means of hand wheel or crank handle and adjust
drills by means of adjusting nuts, so that both drills will press against rails.
Keep all the adjusting nuts well back on spindles so as to afford good driving
seats for drill shanks.

For twin terminal bonds set depth gauge to nearest index mark on guide
bars and turn pawl cam to mesh feed pawls with feed ratchet gear, so that the
drills will feed into rail automatically. Place handle wrench on driving stud or
connect up motor and operate, drilling holes through the rail web or to required
depth in the head.

Lift feed pawls out of mesh with feed ratchet gear by means of pawl cam.
Then draw back drills from rail with hand wheel or crank handle, loosen clamp-
ing nuts, remove machine from rail, move to next joint, and repeat.

To remove twist drills from drill spindles, loosen set screw on clamp dogs,
then pull out of spindle end. Drills must be kept sharp and ground at proper
angles at all times, else trouble will result, and the machine may be broken.
In grinding drills duplicate the exact shape of a new drill point. Keep the
machine clean and free from sand.

The motor is started by fastening the brass connecting post with connector,
which is attached to the trolley wire by means of a flexible wire and light pole.
The motor is grounded through the drill frame to the rail.

Motor Use a two (2) ampere fuse in motor circuit at all times. This should
be placed on the trolley pole. Never start the motor under full load.
Keep the drill points sharp and well lubricated with lard oil and thus avoid
overloading the machine. Keep all bearings well oiled with good machine oil.
The motor is built for 500-600 volts, is series wound and is amply large for the
work required under normal conditions. Speed of motor varies with and
depends upon the load. It should not be required to work steadily at very
low voltages, or under heavy overloads.

See pages 108 to 111.

108

American Steel and Wire Company

Drilling Machines

List of Parts for Type 2O Hand Drill

(See page 106)

1 Large part of body (back). 29

2 Small part of body (front). 30

3 Truss plate on back part of body. 31

4 Clamping frame. 32

5 Clamp bar. 34

6 Loose jaw on clamp bar.

7 Loose washers on clamp bar. 35

8 lT73-mch nut on clamp bar.

9 Key on clamp bar. 36

10 Guide rods. 37

11 Yoke for feed screw. 38

12 Nuts on guide rods.

13 Small yoke on feed screw. 39

14 Feed screw. 40

15 Hand wheel. 41

16 Pin in hand wheel.

17 Collar on feed screw. 42

18 Pin in collar on feed screw. 43

19 Truss block for feed screw. 44

20 Feed ratchet gear. 45

21 Spring for plunger in truss plate. 46

22 Plunger for cam in truss plate. 48

23 Feed pawls. 50

24 Cam for feed pawls. 51

25 Brass plunger for friction in feed pawls. 52

26 Springs for feed pawls. 53

27 T5B-inch headless set screw for feed pawls.

28 Drive lever for driving machine. 54

Pawls for drive lever.
Double ratchet driving gears.
Single ratchet driving gear.
Stud for drive lever (pawl stud).
Intermediate gear with the gears 1||

inches apart.
Intermediate gear with the gears % inch

apart.

Drill spindle with one gear.
Drill spindle with two gears,
j^-inch headless set screw for dogs on

spindle.

Clamp (dogs) for holding drill.
Adjusting nuts on spindles.
Friction spring on adjusting nuts on

spindles.

^-inch steel balls.
Ball race.

Clamping screw on clamp bar.
Adjusting screws on clamp bar.
Depth gauge for drilling.
Thumb nut for depth gauge.
Dust shield on drive lever.
Cap screw for small yoke in truss plate.
Cap screw for truss plate.
Cap screw for small and large part of

body.
Handle and wrench for drive.

List of Parts for Type 2O M Drill

Lists of parts of motor shown on page 111
(See page 106)

1 Large part of body (front). 9

2 Small part of body (back). 10

3 Truss plate. 11

4 Yoke for feed screw. 12

5 Guide and clamping bar for machine. 13

6 Loose jaw on guide bar (clamp). 14

7 Loose washer on guide bar (clamp). 15

8 lyVinch nut on guide bars (clamp). 16

Key in guide bars.

Yoke strap on guide bars.

1-inch nut on guide bars.

Feed screw.

Feed ratchet gear.

Ball race for feed screw in body.

T5^-inch steel balls.

Cam for feed pawls.

(Parts continued on page 110)

Rail Bonds and Appliances

109

Drilling Machines

Type 20 Hand Drill

110

American Steel and Wire Company

Drilling Machines

Type 2O M Drill

(List of parts contini

17 Stud for reversing feed.

18 Crank handle.

19 Gear on reversing stud.

20 Gear on feed screw.

21 Pin in gear on feed screw.

22 Nut on stud for reversing feed.

23 Washer on stud for reversing feed.

24 Spring for plunger in body.

25 Plunger for feed cam in body.

26 Feed pawls.

27 Brass plunger for friction in feed

pawls.

28 Spring in feed pawls.

29 T5g-inch headless set screw in feed pawls.

30 Drive gear.

31 Bevel gear on drive gear stud to con-

nect drill with motor.

33 Intermediate gears.

34 Drill spindle with gear 2^ -inch from

outer edge of thread.

:ed from page 108)

35 Drill spindle with gear 3^-inch from

outer edge of thread.

36 3^ -inch steel balls.

37 Ball race in truss plate.

38 X'mcn headless set screw for dogs in

spindle.

39 Clamps (dog) for holding drill.

40 Adjusting nut on drill spindle.

41 Friction spring on adjusting nut on

spindle.

42 Depth gauge for drilling.

43 Thumb nut for depth gauge.
45 Adjusting screw on guide bars.

47 ^-inch bolts for fastening parts of drill
together.

49 Bracket to support motor on drill.

50 ^s-inch cap screw on bracket.

51 ^-inch cap screw for fastening motor

to body of drill.

52 Handle and wrench for machine.

Rail Bonds and Appliances

111

Drilling Machines

(See page 106)

1 c|

List of Parts for Type 2O M Motor

1 - Body.

2 - Back bearing support.

3 Gear housing.

4 Cover over front of motor.

5 Front bearing support.

6 Brace over cover.

7 Armature shaft.

8 Bushing on armature shaft.

9 Ball race for front bearing.

10 Cone for ball bearing in front bearing.

11 Spring on cone in front bearing.

12 T5^-inch steel ball for ball bearings.

13 Carbon brush.

14 Brush holder.

15 Spring in brush holder.

16 Cone for ball bearing in back bearing.

17 Ball race for back bearing.

18 Spring on cone in back bearing.

19 Intermediate gears.

20 Double gear for type 20 motor drill.
20A Double gear for type 20 motor

drill.

21 Ball rest for truss in gear housing.

22 Stud for intermediate gears.

23 ^-inch hexagon nut for stud.

24 Cap screw for ball rest.

26 ^-inch cap screw on body.

27 Rubber washer.

28 Insulating bushing.

29 Hexagon nut.

30 Brass connecting post.

31 Fiber ring for brush holder.

32 ^-inch cap screw for bracket on

drill.

33 Flat head screw in body.

34 Round head screw for brush holder.

35 Clamp for connecting power with post

30. Not shown.

112

American Steel and Wire Company

Drilling Machines

Single Spindle Drill No. 21

(See page 114)

The large single spindle drills shown on this and the next page will bore
any size hole up to 1^ inch, through rail webs for any type of single stud
terminal bond. Like the multiple spindle drills already described, they have
a double acting lever and an automatic feed. They are adjustable in all
respects and are provided with fittings for rigid attachment to the rail, either
by means of a special splice bar, as shown in No. 021, or to the head of the
rail, as shown in No. 21. Being held so rigidly, the drill points will pass
entirely through the rail without breaking, at the same time boring a perfectly
smooth and true hole. These drills have many distinct advantages over other
track drills, as pointed out on page 94.

Type No. 21 can be used on all roads where traffic will permit. It has a
positive and simple method of attachment to the head of the rail. Approxi-
mate weight, 85 pounds.

Rail Bonds and Appliances

113

Drilling Machines

No. 021 Drill

(See pages 116 and 11?)

Type Xo. 021 has been developed specially for drilling rails on roads
where traffic cannot be interrupted. The drill is attached to a special splice
bar made for each style of rail. This special bar is provided with a guide
along the lower edge of its base to which the drill may be rigidly attached,
and along which it can easily be moved and set for each bond hole. The special
bar replaces one of the regular plates and is held in position by two track
bolts. Two of these special bars accompany each drill, so that as the holes
are being drilled at one joint, the plates can be changed at the next joint by
another operator. This whole drilling outfit lies below the top of the rails, thus
allowing trains to pass above it freely. This makes an ideal drill for use by
electrified steam roads, where it is unsafe to attach any device to the head
of the rail. It cannot be used on T-rails under 85 pounds per yard in size.

Nos. 21 and 021 drills can readily be operated by two men who should
drill from twelve to fifteen holes per hour, depending upon the rail and traffic
conditions.

Approximate weight of Xo. 021 drill, 100 pounds, and of the plate, 40
pounds.

114

American Steel and Wire Company

Drilling Machines

Directions for Operating Type 21 Drill

Place clamp bar 4 over ball of rail and clamp securely, but not enough to
break the rod, using handle wrench 54 on clamping nut 6. Bring adjusting
screw 31 into contact with top of rail. Run back drill spindle 20 by means of
crank handle 30 to within one-eighth inch of brass bushing 14. Loosen clamp
screws 28 and adjust frame 1 so that drill point will be in required position for
drilling, and as close to the rail as possible, then tighten screws 28 firmly. Turn
pawl cam 27 to mesh feed pawls 26 with feed ratchet on feed sleeve 8. Place
driving handle wrench 54 on driving lever 9 and operate drill.

Allow the feed of the machine to drive the drill entirely through the rail. If
fed through by hand after the point has passed partly through, it is liable to
leave a burr in the hole, and injure the bond terminal when installed. Take
pawls out of mesh with feec^ ratchet by means of pawl cam 27, after hole is
drilled. Draw drill spindle and drill back by means of crank handle 30.

Drill must be kept sharp and ground to the proper angle at all times.
This is very important. Oil on the drill point is optional with the customer,
but the life of machines and drills is prolonged, and the machine works much
easier when good lard oil is used. The holes can be cleaned with gasoline.

List of Parts for Type 21 Drill

1 Frame. 26

2 Body. 27

3 Cover on body. 28

4 Clamp bar. 29

5 Loose jaw on clamp bar. 30

6 Nut on clamp bar. 31

7 Washer on clamp bar. 32

8 Feed sleeve. 33

9 Driving lever. 34

10 Ratchet driving gear — 25 teeth. 35

11 Ratchet driving gear — 27 teeth. 36

12 Gear sleeve on drill spindle. 38

13 Adjusting bar on clamp bar. 39

14 Brass bushing in front end of frame. 40

15 Brass bushing in rear end of frame. 41

16 Feed screw. 42

17 Shaft for driving lever and gears. 43

18 Ball race on drill spindle. 46

19 Intermediate gear. 47

20 Drill spindle. 49

21 Collar on drill spindle. 50

22 Large nut on drill spindle. 51

23 Large washer on drill spindle. 52

24 Stud for driving pawls. 53

25 Stud for connecting body to frame. 54

Feed pawl.

Cam for feed pawls.

Clamp screws on frame.

Catch pawl for feed ratchet.

Crank handle on feed screw.

Adjusting screw.

Driving pawls.

Washers on rear end of drill spindle.

Key in drill spindle.

Stud for catch pawl.

Key in clamp bar.

Small nut on drill spindle.

Cap screw for adjusting bar.

Key in feed screw.

Spring for catch pawl.

Cap screws for body.

Round head screw for driving lever.

Set screw for clamping drill in spindle.

Spring for driving pawls.

Friction plunger in feed pawl.

Headless set screw in feed pawl.

Spring in feed pawl.

^4-inch steel balls (ball bearing).

Shield (gear cover).

Driving handle and wrench.

Rail Bonds and Appliances

115

Drilling Machines

(See page 112)

Type 21 Drill

116 American Steel and Wire Company

Drilling Machines

Ratchet Drill No. 19

The above ratchet drill under some conditions can be used to very good
advantage, and for that reason we are making the one shown above. This drill
is of our own make and will do its work well.

Directions for Operating Type O21 Single Spindle Drill

Fasten splice bar 5 to rail with two track bolts and place clamping bracket
4 of machine over splice bar. Locate machine for drilling by letting drilling
gauge drop in hole in splice bar. Then clamp machine to splice bar by means
of screw 7.

Adjust drill point vertically by means of screw 56 and clamp rear end of
frame 1 to clamping bracket 4 by means of lever 51, making sure that frame
presses against nuts 53.

Place wrench 55 on driving shaft 18 and adjust cam 34 to place feed pawl
39 into mesh with feed ratchet and sleeve 42, then operate drill.

When hole is drilled, take feed pawl out of mesh and draw drill back out
of hole by means of handle 48.

Release clamping lever 51 and turn machine over on clamping bracket, to
drill hole for other end of bond.

To clamp drill in holder, insert drill into holder 11 and tighten nut 9.

To take drill out of holder, place wrench on nut 9 and 12 and loosen nut 9.

Drills must be kept sharp, and ground at the proper angle at all times.
Oil on drill points is optional with customers. The life of the machine and
drill is much prolonged when lard oil is used and the machine works much
easier.

Rail Bonds and Appliances

117

Drilling Machines

(See page 113)

List of Parts for Type O21 Single Spindle Drill

1 Frame. 29

2 Gear case. 30

3 Cover on gear case. 31

4 Clamping bracket. 32

5 Special splice bar. 33

6 Drilling gauge. 34

7 Clamping screw. 35

8 Clamping gibb. 36

9 Nut on drill holder. 37

10 Bushing on drill holder. 38

11 Drill holder. 39

12 Large nut on drill spindle. 40

13 Large washer on drill spindle. 41

14 Set screw holder on drill spindle. 42

15 Set screw on holder. 43

16 Drill spindle. 44

17 Brass bushing in frame. 45

18 Driving shaft in gear case. 46

19 Pin for holding frame and gear case. 47

20 Dowel pin on frame and pawl pin. 48

21 Double gear in gear case. 49

22 Key in drill spindle for double gear. 50

23 Spring in driving pawl. 51

24 Driving pawls. 52

25 Key in driving shaft. 53

26 Stud for driving pawls. 54

27 Intermediate gear in gear case. 55

28 Driving ratchet and gear (28-tooth gear). 56

Driving ratchet and gear (34-tooth gear).

Set screw in pawl holder.

Pawl holder.

X-inch pipe plug.

Hook on gear case.

Feed pawl cam.

Take-up pawl.

Headless set screw in feed pawl.

Friction plunger in feed pawl.

Spring in feed pawl.

Feed pawl.

Spring in take-up pawl.

Stud for take-up pawl.

Feed ratchet and sleeve.

^g-inch steel ball in feed sleeve.

Ball race on drill spindle.

Key on feed screw.

Feed nut in frame.

Feed screw.

Handle on feed screw.

Small washer on drill spindle.

Small nut on drill spindle.

Clamping lever on frame.

Bolt on clamping nut.

Nuts on clamping brackets.

Cap screw on gear case cover.

Wrench for machine.

Adjusting set screw, for drilling.

118

American Steel and Wire Company

Drilling Machines

Motor Drill, Type 21 M

(Duntley Track Drill)

The above cut represents the most recent type of heavy duty single spindle
motor drill. It is mounted in a special frame and forms the most complete and
convenient motor track drill on the market. The side spindle feature of the
drill permits drilling close to the ties without the use of an angle gear, and the
vertical screw adjustment affords ready means of locating the holes vertically
on ordinary T- or deep girder rails. The horizontal rods are of seamless
drawn tubing and the bearing surface of the drill frame on the rods is very
long, insuring true, straight holes so essential for efficient bonding. A screw
and band wheel feed is provided in the combination with means for quickly
removing the drilling tool for sharpening or renewal. Weight of track drilling
frame complete with electric drill, 150 pounds.

Rail Bonds and Appliances 119

Drilling Machines

Directions for Operating Type 21 M Drill

Place machine over the rails with the ears on the under part of yoke, 1
resting on the outside of rail. If on a steep grade, clamp frame to rails with
cam 31.

To adjust for drilling, turn hand wheel 6 on bracket 7 to raise or lower the
drill until the right position has been found.

Bring drill point up to rail and put end of feed screw 27 into thrust yoke
23 and put pin u B " in to hold screw. Now adjust yoke 26 and drop pins " C '
through holes in yoke and guide rods.

Start motor by means of switch button "A."

When hole is drilled, take pins " B " and " C " out and bring back yoke 26,
then pull machine back by means of handle 24.

Drills must be kept sharp and ground at the proper angles at all times.
Oil on drill points is optional with customers. The life of machine and drill is
much prolonged when lard oil is used. The holes can be cleaned with gasoline.
Special high speed drills should be used in this machine. See page 1-40.

Motor Use a two (2) ampere fuse in motor circuit at all times. This should
be placed on the trolley pole. Never start the motor under full load.
Keep the drill points sharp and well lubricated with lard oil and thus avoid
overloading the machine. Keep all bearings well oiled with good machine oil.
The motor is built for 500-600 volts, is series wound and is amply large for the
work required under normal conditions. It should not be required to work
steadily at very low voltages, or under heavy overloads.

List of Parts for Type 21 M Motor Drill

1 Yoke on guide rods on front of machine. 16 Knurled nut on drill spindle.

2 Guide rods. 17 Sleeve in drill spindle.

3 Slide bracket on guide bar (right hand). 18 Cover on bearing casting.
3-L Slide bracket on guide bar (left hand). 19 Bearing casting.

4 Motor frame. 20 Brush holder. •

5 Yoke on motor frame for adjusting. 21 Spring for brushes.

6 Adjusting wheel on yoke. 22 Carbon brushes.

7 Adjusting bracket on motor frame. 23 Thruss yoke.

8 Gear housing on motor frame. 24 Handle on bearing casting.

9 Cover between gear housing and frame. 25 Feed nut.

10 Armature shaft, pinion and commutator. 26 Yoke for feed nut.

11 Intermediate gears in housing. 27 Feed screw.

12 Gear on drill spindle. 28 Hand wheel on feed screw.

13 Sleeve outside of drill spindle. 29 Yoke on guide rods on rear end of

14 Drill spindle. machine.

15 High speed drill with No. 3 Morse 30 Lead wires for motor.

shank. 31 Cam for clamping frame to rail not shown.

120

American Steel and Wire Company

Compressors

In these screw compressors, the old style outer screw has been replaced
by a cylindrical sleeve 2, which in one position is free to slide in or out of the
frame with a single thrust or pull of the operator. Turning this sleeve through
a quarter revolution brings two shoulders to press against the compressor frame,

and these take all the
thrust of the inner
screw ram. This
construction is sim-
ilar to the breech
block of a modern
cannon. The speed
with which it can be
operated gives to this
tool a distinct advan-
tage over the large
outer screw of the
older style compres-
sors. This mecha-
nism also permits
the use of a short
stiff well constructed

screw ram, and brings the wrench close to the frame of the tool and near to the
rail. These features add to the life and effectiveness of the tool.

To bring the head or crown of the terminal against the web of the rail, a
steel collar 5, backed by a strong compression spring 7, is placed around
and projects beyond the ram toward the web of the rail. When the breech block
is thrown forward and the ram is screwed in, the collar which surrounds the
projecting end of the terminal stud will be pressed against the web of the rail
with great force by the compression spring, thereby drawing the head of the
terminal into place against the other side of the rail.

The diameter of the collar 5 is slightly greater than the diameter of the
hole in the rail. As the terminal stud expands and forms the button in
front of the ram, the flow of the copper over the rail surface is restricted to the
diameter of the collar, so that the metal of the stud is kept directly in front of
the ram, where it should be in order to produce a very intense contact pressure.
The frame is of high grade cast steel and it is compact, strong and durable,
and the compressor produces uniformly good results. The strength of each
frame is ample to sustain the load for compressing 1 inch diameter terminals,
or less, with a good margin of safety.

We make five styles of screw compressors, which differ only in form and
size of frame.

No. 4O-48 Screw Compressor

Rail Bonds and Appliances

121

Compressors

Hand Screw Compressors

Number of Compressor

Approximate
Weight, Pounds

Style and Size of Rail

T- rails up to 5 X inches

T-rails under 7 inches

105

Girder rails under 7 inches

140

Girder rails up to 9 inches

165

Girder rails 9 inches and over

A. B. X W. CO

PAT?B-!E-DB
I-B-D7.

List of Parts for Type 4O-48 Screw Compressor

1 Body casting.

2 Breech block sleeve.

3 Screw ram.

4 Screw in body.

5 Collar on screw ram.

6 y^-inch pin in screw ram.

7 Spring on screw ram.

8 Wrench for machine.

122

American Steel and Wire Company

Compressors

Type 61 Hydraulic Screw Compressor

The screw hydraulic compres-
sor, shown above, is built upon en-
tirely new principles. It is extremely
strong and durable, rapid in action
and contains no valves or intricate
parts to get out of order. It has
a capacity of 35 tons, which pres-
sure exerted on a terminal stud will
produce lasting and effective results,
as explained on page 15.
Weight, 115 pounds.

Directions for Operating Type 61
Screw Hydraulic Compressor

Run the piston screw 3 up until
the outer sleeve 5 is at the top of the

threaded sleeve 2. Then run screw 24 clear back and draw out the steel breech
block sleeve 23 as far as necessary to place the compressor over the ball of the rail.
By means of adjusting screws 26 adjust the machine vertically to allow the
collar 20 to pass over the projecting end of the bond terminal, and then return
sleeve 23 to its proper place and turn shoulders against the stops provided.
Tighten the screw ram 24 very solid against rail over terminal with wrench
27. Make sure that the oil chamber is properly filled with machine oil. By
turning the outer sleeve 5 by hand, the piston should be felt to strike the oil when
the outer sleeve is half an inch down on the threaded brass sleeve 2.

By means of wrench 29, run the piston screw 3 down to the bottom or
shoulder of the threaded sleeve 2. The terminal of the bond will then have
been fully and effectively compressed. Now run the piston screw back to the
top of the threaded sleeve 2, and the screwT ram 24 back to its original place.
Draw back the sleeve 23, lift compressor from the rail, and all is ready for the
next terminal.

Bond terminals should be straight, smooth and clean. No bond terminal
or bond hole should vary enough in diameter to require more than one com-
pression. Our bond terminals are within .005 inch of specified size, and our
No. 21 drilling machines will drill holes within this same limit.

These standard machines have ample factors of safety in all cases when
the bond terminals and the holes they are in tented to fit are of correct size.
A machine with extra heavy frame will be furnished at slightly increased cost
for extra special compression work.

Kail Bonds and Appliances

123

Compressors

ZO 21 ZZ

List of Parts for Type 61 Screw Hydraulic Compressor

1 Body or frame. 16

2 Threaded brass sleeve. 17

3 Piston screw. 18

4 T5ff-inch headless cap screw for outer 19

sleeve.

5 Outer sleeve. 20

6 ^-inch pin in piston screw and on small 21

piston. 22

7 Leather packing for cup in oil chamber. 23

8 Steel cup for oil chamber. 24

9 Small piston. 25

11 Handles on body. 26

12 Leather cup packing on end of small 27

piston. 28

13 Packing screw on end of small piston. 29

14 Leather cup packing on large piston. 30

15 Brass nut on large piston.

Large compressor piston.
Leather washer on large piston.
Brass washer on large piston.

round head screw on

large

piston.
Collar on screw ram.

n screw ram.

-nc pn
Spring on screw ram.
Breech block sleeve.
Screw ram.
Adjusting gauge.
Adjusting screw.
Wrench for sleeve screw.
Spanner wrench for nut on large piston.
Wrench handle.
J^-inch headless set screw in body.

124

American Steel and Wire Company

Compressors

O63 and O64 Screw Hydraulic Compressors

The screw hydraulic compressor shown above is a special and heavier
form of No. 61 compressor already described on preceding page, and is made for
use on large rail sections. The No. 063 compressor, which weighs 160
pounds complete, will work on all girder and high T-rails under seven inches
in height, while No. 064 compressor, weighing 180 pounds, is intended for all
rails equal to and over seven inches in height. These machines are operated
just the same as No. 61 compressor, directions for which have already been
given.

List of Parts for Type O63 and O64 Compressor

1 Body. 22

2 Threaded brass sleeve. 23

3 Piston screw. 24

4 Outer sleeve. 25

5 T5g-inch headless set screw in outer sleeve. 26

6 %-inch pin in piston screw and on small 27

piston. 28

7 Small piston. 29

8 Leather packing for oil chamber cup. 30

9 Oil cup for oil chamber. 31

10 Cup packing for end of small piston. 32

11 Packing screw in end of small piston. 33

12 Large compressor piston. 35

13 Brass nut on large piston. 36

14 Leather cup packing on large piston. 37

15 Brass washer on large piston. 38

16 Leather washer on large piston. 39

17 X -inch round head screw on large piston. 40

18 Cup on sleeve screws 42

19 Sleeve screw. 45

20 X'mcn Pm m sleeve screw. 46

21 Spring on sleeve screw. 47

Steel sleeve.

^-inch headless set screw in body.

Lever for adjusting shoe.

Pawl for locking shoe.

Link for connecting pawl with handle.

Handle for releasing pawl.

Cotter pin for pins in pawl on handle.

Pins for pawl on handle.

Spring in lever.

Adjusting shoe.

Plunger in shoe.

Spring for plunger in shoe.

Nut for stud.

Chain for connecting lever with body.

Hook for chain.

Plate on body over shoe.

Plunger in plate.

Spring for plunger in plate.

Handles on body.

Wrench handle for piston screw.

Spanner wrench for nut on large piston.

Wrench for screw in steel sleeve.

Rail Bonds and Appliances

125

Compressors

126

American Steel and Wire Company

Compressors

Screw Hydraulic Compressor No. 68

This represents a very compact and light but powerful and effective form
of screw hydraulic compressor for installing type U. S.-B. rail bonds (see page
92) in the flange of T-rails. It is a companion tool to the hydraulic punch
No. 66, shown on succeeding page. All metal parts are of steel and well
constructed. Weight, 60 pounds.

Directions for Operating Type 68 Screw Hydraulic Compressor

Run the piston screw 4 up until the outer sleeve 3 is at the top of the threaded
sleeve 2. Turn back screw ram 5 far enough to pass over bond terminal
projecting through rail base. Place compressor on rail, bring point of ram 5
over center of terminal and place hook 21 over ball of rail. Set lever 16 by
means of adjusting screw 20, so that when handle of lever is drawn upward the
terminal head will be drawn up against base of rail. Run ram 5 solid against
bond terminal by means of rod 25. Make sure that oil chamber is properly
filled with oil. By means of wrench 24, now run the piston screw 4 down as
far as it will go, or until the outer sleeve 3 contacts with bottom of threaded
sleeve 2. The bond terminal will then be fully and effectively compressed.

Run the piston screw back to the top of the threaded sleeve 2, and the
ram 5 back to its original place, move compressor to next terminal and repeat.

Rail Bonds and Appliances

127

Compressors

List of Parts for Type 68 Screw Hydraulic_Compressor

(Patents pending)

1 Body. 12

2 Brass threaded sleeve. 13

3 Outer sleeve. 14

4 Piston screw. 15

5 Screw ram. 16

6 Large compressor piston. 18

7 Small piston. 19

8 Steel cup for oil chamber. 20

9 Leather packing for cup in oil chamber. 21

10 ^-inch pin in piston screw and on 23

small piston. 24

11 Leather cup packing on end of small 25

piston. 26

Packing screw in end of small piston.

Brass nut on end of large piston.

Leather cup packing for large piston.

J^-inch pipe plug in body.

Lever for forcing rail on head of bond.

Plunger in lever.

Spring for plunger in lever.

Adjusting screw on lever.

Hook for holding machine to rail.

Headless set screw in outer sleeve.

Wrench handle.

Rod for large screw in body.

Handle on body.

128 American Steel and Wire Company

Compressors

Hydraulic Punch ISo. 66

This is a very effective and highly developed machine for punching one
inch holes or smaller through the flange of T-rails for type U. S.-B. rail bonds.
It is a companion tool to the screw hydraulic compressor No. 68, described on
preceding page. It is provided with a pump having two pistons, one of large
diameter for filling the power cylinder quickly, and one of small diameter for
applying the working pressure. The pump and power piston are above the
rail, bringing a minimum amount of metal below the rail. A knuckle joint
between the die and the plunger ram permits the die to readily adjust itself to
any irregularities in the rail section. The frame is made of high grade cast
steel and is strong and durable. Weight of machine complete, 200 pounds.

Rail Bonds and Appliances 129

Compressors

Directions for Operating Type 66 Hydraulic Punch

Place machine on rail with edge of flange resting against guide strap 56,
and lower the slide 48 over head of rail. Release all the valves by forcing
down operating levers 4 and 5 against ears on body of pump. Make sure
that pump is properly filled with clean oil, which should reach within ^ inch
of the top of pump. Insert lever 59 in operating lever 5 and work large piston
until punch 54 and die 53 are tight on the rail. Insert lever 59 in operating
lever 4 and work small piston until hole is punched in rail.

Release valves and insert end of lever 59 in slot of slide 48, and by pry-
ing under ball of rail force back punch 54 from hole in rail, then pull slide
up and remove machine from rail. To carry this punch, insert lever 59 in
opening back of 39, and use lever as handle or use small handle 41.

CAUTION— Make sure that punching or slug is removed f rom the die 53, after
each hole is punched. Keep all inner working parts clean and nicely adjusted.

List of Parts for Type 66 Hydraulic Punch

(Diagram of punch shown on page 128)

1 Body of punch. 29 Leather cup packing in end of low

2 Body of pump. pressure piston.

3 Cover on pump. 30 Nut in end of low pressure piston.

4 Operating lever for high pressure piston. 31 Valve stem.

5 Operating lever for low pressure piston. 32 Valve chamber for low pressure piston.

6 Piston and releasing lever for high pres- 33 Leather washer for valve chamber.

sure piston. 34 Spring for valve in valve chamber.

7 Piston and releasing lever for low pres- 35 Nut on valve chamber.

sure piston. 36 Cup packing on end of pump.

8 Leather washers on operating lever. 37 Nut for packing on end of pump.

9 Threaded washer, right hand thread. 39 Bolt for fastening pump and punch.

10 Threaded washer, left hand thread. 40 Washer for bolt fastening pump and

11 Screw and pin for releasing levers. punch.

12 High pressure piston. 41 Handle for machine.

13 Rod in high pressure piston. 42 Leather cup packing on end of large

14 Valve stem in high pressure piston. piston.

15 Stuffing nut in valve chamber. 43 Brass nut on end of large piston.

16 Leather washer for stuffing nut. 44 Large compression piston.

17 Cup packing for stuffing nut. 45 Headless set screw in body for large

18 Spring for valve in high pressure piston. piston.

19 Plug on end of high pressure piston. 46 Spring in body for plunger for slide.

20 Valve chamber for high pressure piston. 47 Plunger for slide.

21 Valve in valve chamber. 48 Slide.

22 Spring for valve in valve chamber. 49 Plate for slide.

23 Leather washer on valve chamber. 52 Connecting link.

24 Nut in end of valve chamber. 53 Die.

25 Low pressure piston. 54 Punch.

26 Rod in low pressure piston. 55 Screw for punch.

27 Valve stem in low pressure piston. 56 Guide strap.

28 Spring for valve in low pressure piston. 59 Lever for pump.

130

American Steel and \V^ire Company

Compressors

Type 66 Hydraulic Punch

(See preceding page)

Rail Bonds and Appliances

131

Tools for Soldering

Material Needed for Soldered Bonds

Clamp No. 84 for all Types o

Clamps The operation
of the clamps
for holding soldered bonds
in position while soldering
is a detail of considerable
importance. The effec-
tiveness and economy of
our clamps are unequalled.
They are very simple,
strong and durable, and
can be manipulated easily
to locate and hold the bond
securely while soldering.

Soldered Bonds

Clamp No. 85 for Form 1 Soldered Bonds

132

American Steel and Wire Company

Tools for Soldering

Hand-power Grinder No. SO

Hand-power Grinding Machine The frame of the hand-power grinding

machine is made of cast steel. All wear-
ing parts are machined accurately to size. The shaft is our special design,
made of the highest grade of tempered spring steel and is very flexible. This
machine, though light and easily handled, will endure very rough usage.

Portable Electric Grinder We illus-
trate here

a very convenient outfit for grinding rail
surfaces when electric power is available.
A small six hundred volt D. C. motor with
rheostat and switch attached to the
handle has the emery wheel mounted
directly on the armature shaft, as shown.
Total weight, 30 pounds ; speed, 2400
revolutions per minute. A two-ampere
fuse should be placed in the motor
circuit.

Portable Electric Grinder No. SI
(Diintley)

Rail Bonds and Appliances

133

List of Parts for No. 8O Hand-power Grinder

1 Frame.

2 Bearing for driving shaft.

3 Bearing for high speed shaft.

4 Handles.

5 Pipe legs.

8 Collar on driving shaft.

9 Set screws in collar on driving shaft.

10 Driving shaft.

11 Crank handle.

13 Keys for gears.

14 Large gear.

15 Pinion gear.

16 Balance wheel.

17 Nut on high speed shaft.

18 Collar for emery wheel on high speed

shaft.

19 Grinding rest.

20 Thumb nut.

2L Bolt for grinding rest.

22 Set screw in balance wheel.

23 Set screw in sleeve on flexible shaft.

24 Sleeve on flexible shaft.

25 Outer spring for flexible shaft.

26 Inner spring for flexible shaft.

27 Sleeve on spindle end of flexible shaft.

28 Sleeve for emery wheel spindle on flex-

ible shaft.

29 Collar for emery wheel on spindle.

30 Nut on wheel spindle.

31 Emery wheel spindle.

32 Catch for flexible shaft.

33 Washer on catch for flexible shaft.

34 Cap screw on catch for flexible shaft.

35 High speed shaft on machine.

36 Emery wheel.

134

American Steel and Wire Company

Tools for Soldering

Double Burner Brazier No. S3 for
Soldered Bonds

Braziers The brazier is a most potent
factor in the cost of install-
ing soldered bonds. Our type has two
adjustable burners, which consume all of
the generating gases and produce an in-
tense flame, which is regulated by needle
valves in each burner, or by a single globe
valve in the swinging arm. By means of
a pipe wrench, the burners are placed in
the position most advantageous for any
given type of bond. The tank holds
enough fuel to last more than half a clay,
and is equipped with a very efficient air
pump, the handle of which serves for
carrying the tank. All parts of this brazier
are simple in design, strong and durable.

List of Parts for Type 83 Double Burner Brazier

1 Gasoline tank. 22

2 Pump handle and rod. 23

3 Pump rod guide. 24

4 Leather washer for pump rod guide.

5 Brass plug in cup in top of tank. 25

6 Brass cup on top of tank. 26

7 Leather washer in cup on top of tank.

8 Pump tubing. 27

9 Large steel washer on pump rod. 28

10 Leather cup packing for pump.

11 Small steel washer on pump rod. 29

12 X"mcn hexagon nut on end of pump 30

rod. 31

13 Air valve seat. 32

14 Leather plug in air valve.

15 Air valve in pump chamber. 33

16 Spring in air valve. 34

17 Leather washer for brass plug in lower 35

end of tank. 36

18 Brass plug in lower end of tank. 37

19 Brass elbow union. 38

20 Union nut. 39

21 Brass nipple in union.

Air valve chamber in pump.

Elbow pipe.

^•8 -inch x l^j-inch nipple between valve

and lower elbow,
^-inch globe valve.
^ -inch pipe between globe valve on

tee pipe.
Tee pipe.
^8-inch x 3^-inch pipe nipple between

tee and elbow.
Hook for holding pipes up.
Burner.

Shield on burner,
^-inch round head screw for shield on

burner.

Needle valve seat nut on burner.
Stuffing nut on burner.
Needle valve stem.

-j5g-inch x 1^-inch set screw on burner.
y5g-inch x ^-inch set screw on burner.
x j^-inch set screw on burner.
x 3-inch pipe between elbow

and burner.

Rail Bonds and Appliances

135

Tools for Soldering

Directions for Operating Type 83 Double Burner Brazier

To start the torch, remove brass plug 5, and pour a good grade of clean
gasoline into tank, leaving 2-inch top space for air. Pump air into tank by
means of pump handle 2. Quite high pressure required for best results.

Lower burners 30 from tank, letting them rest on rail or a stone. Open
globe valve 25 and needle valves 35, and light escaping gasoline, regulating
valves 35, so that not too much gasoline escapes. When burners get heated
and give out blue flame, they will be ready for work.

Burners 30 should be turned or adjusted so that flame will strike squarely
on surface to be heated. Adjust screws 36 so as to bring hottest portion of
flame against rail surface. When through brazing, close valves 35 and globe
valve 25 and let air out of tank by means of brass plug 5.

Brazier Torch Type 83

136 American Steel and Wire Company

Rail Bond Testers

Directions for Using A. S. & W. Rail Bond Tester

(See page 41)

Place the two-point contact bar 1 across the rail joint, bringing the
contact points 4 into contact with the inner or bright edge of rail head.
Ordinarily these points should be 12 inches apart for correct readings, though
they may be spaced nearer together for short bonds. A very slight pressure
on the hand lever 12 will be sufficient to make positive contacts with the rail
provided the points are kept sharp.

The single-point contact bar 22 carrying the tape-line 27 should be placed
on the rail, either to the right or to the left of the joint, according to direction
it is intended to work, and if let fall an inch or so on top of the rail, the
contact will be good. Connect the single-point contact bar 28 with instru-
ment binding post marked R (rail), and hook tape line on nearest end of two-
point contact bar. Always connect the two contact points above the rail joint
to the instrument so that the center instrument binding post marked C will be
connected with the central or common contact point on the rail, or the one
nearest to the single-point contact bar.

By means of the shoulder-strap 30 suspend the instrument in a horizontal
position, so that on open circuit the needle rests on zero. The millivoltmeter
is differentially wound, and the right-hand scale measures the potential drop
across the joint. In this circuit is placed an open circuit (O. C.) switch, and
a multiplier of 10, marked 250, which should be used in every case where there
is liable to be a sharp deflection.

Handle the instrument carefully on account of its delicate construction.
The needle is adjustable to zero by screw on box cover. When everything is
in readiness, as above outlined, and when there is sufficient direct current
flowing through the rail for a readable deflection, move the single-point contact
bar out on the uncut rail until zero deflection is obtained, when the number of
feet of rail equivalent in resistance to the joint is read off the tape-line direct.

List of Parts for A. S. & W. Rail Bond Tester

1 Contact bar. 18 Spring holder

2 Right hand contact post. 19 Spring for tape.

3 Left hand contact post. 20 Stud for adjusting spring.

4 Contact screws. 21 Headless set screw on stud for adjusting

5 Clamping screws on contact posts. spring

(5 Binding screws on contact posts. 22 Wood handle for holder

A 4 jUi! g ""T8' *• 28 Round-head wood screw in tape holder.

8 Washers on adjusting screws. ,..„. 1A

9 Collar on adjusting screws. ^ Millivoltmeter.

10 Pin in collar on adjusting screws. 25 Leads for connecting millivoltmeter with

11 Adjusting bar. co^ ' bar s

12 Hand lever. *" Round- head screws for cover on tape

13 Stud on adjusting bar. holder.

14 Cotter pin for stud on adjusting bar. 27 Tape.

15 Tape holder. 28 Contact screw on tape holder.

16 Cover for tape holder. 29 Leather strap.

17 Cover on spring holder. 30 Leather strap.

Rail Bonds and Appliances

137

Rail Bond Testers

138 American Steel and Wire Company

Rail Bond Testers

(See pages 41 and 42)
Directions for Setting Up and Using Crown Rail Bond Tester

This testing apparatus has recently been simplified and greatly improved.
To set up this apparatus, turn the short horizontal contact bar 27 at right
angles to the handle and fasten in this position with the thumb nut 6. Close
the small battery switch on the side of the testing box. This switch should be
kept open at all times, except when the instrument is not in use, otherwise
when the contact points 23 rest on any conducting substance, the battery in
the testing box will run down. Adjust the telephone receiver 16 to the ear by
means of the head piece and connect the receiver to the two binding posts 15
on the testing box. The apparatus is now ready for te.sting.

Place the contact bar carrying the four contact points across the rail joint
to be tested so as to bring the joint midway between the two central contact
points. If the two outer points make good contact with the rail a certain
definite tone will be produced in the receiver. This tone, called the first tone,
will be nearly constant in intensity for all conditions of rail joints except tho^e
which are entirely open. By pressing the spring contact point down on the
rail with the foot, a second tone, usually differing from the first, will be pro-
duced. When this second tone is equal to the first in intensity, the resistance of
the joint will be equal to that of approximately 6 feet oflQ-pound rail, or 0.00009
ohm. When the second tone is less intense than the first tone the resistance
of the joint will be less than (5 feet of 70-pound rail and the softer the switch
tone the better the condition of the joint. If, however, the second tone is more
intense than the first tone the resistance of the joint is greater than that of 0
feet of 70-pound rail, and the louder the second tone with respect to the first,
the greater the resistance of the joint. Joints which give no first tone at all but
an extremely loud second tone, may be considered as open circuited. If no
second tone can be obtained differing from the first tone, then one of the two
inner contact points probably does not contact with the rail. If both first and
second tones are extremely faint, or if they are intermittent, the battery is
running very weak and it should be replaced by a new battery.

Keep the four contact points sharp and maintain a good, clean and tight
electrical connection between the contact points and the wires. Do not burn
out the instrument on an open and arcing rail joint. The longer the contact
bar is allowed to remain on each joint the quicker the battery will run down,
because they are short circuited through the rail joints. A little practice will
soon enable one to determine the condition of a joint very quickly.

List of Parts for Crown Rail Bond Tester

1 Handle. 15 Binding post for receiver cords.

4 Bolts on handle and hinge joints. 16 Telephone receiver.

5 Hinge on handle. 17 Telephone receiver cords.
8 Plate for hinge joint. 21 Dry cells in testing box.

10 Plate oh connecting bar.- 25 Head piece for receiver.

11 Contact screw holder. 26 Short bar for contact points.

12 Contact screw points. 27 Connecting bar.

Kail Bonds and Appliances

139

Rail Bond Testers

A. B. & W. CD.
PAT. APPLIED FDR

Crown Rail Bond Tester

140

American Steel and Wire Company

Hand Tools

Portable Drill Grinder No. 16 (Clark I

We again call attention to the importance of keeping drill points very
sharp and properly shaped. This cannot be emphasized too strongly. A dull
or poorly sharpened drill point greatly increases the amount of power required for
operating the machine. It may, in fact, require enough to break the machine,
and will always lead to enlarged or roughened holes. We show, on these two
pages, a light portable hand drill grinder, which every railway company should
possess, so that their men can sharpen the drills while they are working on the
track. This machine can be readily attached to any support, and operated
by hand. In sharpening points, give them exactly the same angles, and make
them look exactly like new drill points, then they will cut smoothly and easily.

6-inch Blacksmith's Drill

One-half Inch Twist Drill No. 12

The above ^-inch twist drill is used on all of our multiple spindle drilling
machines for twin terminal and type B. S. B. rail bonds. It has a specially formed
shank designed for the spindles of these machines.

The standard blacksmith's drill shown above is used in all of our single
spindle machines. The drill is approximately 6 inches long over all, and can
be used in varying diameters up to 1 ^ inches. Its shank is f4-inch in diameter
by 2 inches long. Made special for drill 21 M.

These drills are kept in stock for immediate shipment, at reasonable prices.

Rail Bonds and Appliances

141

Hand Tools

List of Parts for Hand Drill Grinder No. 16

1 Back casting. 12

2 Front casting. 13

3 Front bearing casting. 14

4 Wheel cover. 15

5 Bolt for wheel cover. 16

6 Large drive gear. 17

7 Pinion on intermediate shaft. 18

8 Large gear on intermediate shaft. 19

9 Pinion on wheel shaft. 20

10 Intermediate shaft. 21

11 Wheel shaft. 22

Collar on wheel shaft.

Emery wheel.

Drill holder.

Set screw on back casting.

Stand.

Collar on driving stud.

Set screw for collar on driving stud.

Driving stud.

Crank handle.

T-bolt on stand.

Clamping nut on T-bolt.

142

American Steel and Wire Company

Hand Tools

Tap Style of Groove Cutter No. 16, for Form C
Twin Terminal Bond

Hand Groove Cutter No. 14

The two styles of groove cutters shown above are used in cutting threads
or a groove in the wall of the hole drilled in steel for twin terminal bonds, as
described on page 53. No. 16 cutter should always be used in connection
with form C twin terminal bonds, while No. 14 gives best results with forms A
and B bonds.

Hail Bonds and Appliances

143

Hand Tools

Blunting Punch No. 11

The punch No. 11 is used to dull the outer edge of the holes to prevent
scarfing the copper terminal studs as they are inserted in the holes.

Expanding Hammer No. 1O

The three-pound hammer No. 10 has a long flexible handle and is espe-
cially suited for installing twin terminal bonds.

144 American Steel and Wire Company

Hand Tools

Driver for Form C Twin Terminal Bond No.

The special punch or set No. 17 is used when installing form C twin ter-
minal bonds, which are placed on Weber joints. The horizontal angle of this
style of joint prevents the direct driving of the terminal studs.

Steel Taper Punch No. 12

(See table I, page 17)

This No. 12 punch should always be used in the installation of tubular ter-
minal bonds, as explained on page 15. It is made of a high grade steel.
and given a special temper. Made in different sizes for different sized terminals.

Part IV

Page

Notes on Electricity ..... 146
Electric Railway Material . . . .163

Engineering Data 176

Index 189

We are extensive manufacturers of iron, steel
and copper wire of every description — round, fiat,
square, triangular and odd shape — for mechanical
and electrical purposes. A few of these products
will be briefly catalogued in this section.

We make electrical wires and cables, both solid
and stranded, of any capacity, for all purposes.
Insulated with paper, varnished cambric or with our
special Crown or Globe, or 30 per cent rubber.
These are lead encased, steel armored or protected
in any other way required for aerial, underground or
submarine service, as used in connection with incan-
descent lighting or distribution of power.

American wire rope, heavy cables and hawsers ;
elevator, tramway, derrick ropes and extra flexible
rope.

American Railway Fences, for right of way and
all other service. Also fence gates and steel fence
posts.

Inquiries accompanied by specifications respect-
fully solicited. Write for catalogues. Prices quoted
on application.

146 American Steel and Wire Company

Notes on Electricity

SO far as the practical electrical worker or engineer is concerned, electri-
city may be considered as one of the various forms of energy. Being
such, it is never created, but is always produced at the expense of an
equal or greater amount of energy in some other form. Energy in the form of
electricity serves no useful purpose as such. It must be transformed back into
some useful form of energy such as mechanical, chemical or thermal before it
can be utilized. P^lectrical energy must always be used when it is produced,
and produced when needed for it cannot be stored. Because of the ease of
transforming it into other useful forms of energy, and of transferring it over
great distances, electricity is being utilized more and more for commercial
purposes. The ultimate nature of electricity is unknown, though recent dis-
coveries would indicate that matter itself is composed of ultimate particles or
charges of electricity.

Electric Current This may be defined as the quantity of electricity per
second which passes through any circuit or conductor when

the flow is uniform. An electric current is thought to be transmitted through
a conductor by being handed on from particle to particle. The electric cur-
rent (transformed) is that which does work. It heats the conductor, furnish-
ing heat and light ; it turns the motor armature, furnishing mechanical power.
It deposits the metal in the electrolytic cell, and it is the source of the lifting
power of the electro magnet. Current is measured by ammeters, instruments
through which all of the current passes.

A current which continues flowing in the same direction no matter how
its strength may vary, is called a continuous current, or sometimes a direct
current (I). C.). If the strength of such a current is constant, it is called an
unvarying current ; if its strength is not constant, it is a varying continuous
current. A regular varying continuous current is called a pulsatory current.
A current which alternately flows in opposite directions, no matter how its
strength may vary, is called an alternating current (A. C.). This may be
periodic or non-periodic. The continuous or direct current is generally used
where small amounts of power are involved, as in telephone and telegraph and
bell circuits, also in cases where large amounts of power are to be transmitted
through comparatively short distances, as in the lighting of a large building or
operation of a small railway system. When electric energy in quantity is to be
transferred over long distances or distributed over wide areas, alternating
currents are used to reduce the cost of the necessary copper.

The practical unit of current is the ampere. The value of an ampere is equal
to one-tenth of unit current in the C. G. S. system of electro-magnetic units,
and is represented with sufficient accuracy for practical purposes by the
unvarying current, which, when passed through a solution of nitrate of silver

Rail Bonds and Appliances 147

Notes on Electricity

in water, in accordance with certain specifications, deposits silver at the rate of
0.001118 of a gramme per second. It is that current which will flow in a cir-
cuit having a resistance of one ohm and a voltage pressure of one volt.

Voltage The direct cause of a flow of current is a propelling or driving
force in the circuit called an electromotive force (e. m. f.) or a
difference of potential or voltage difference. This may be compared to a flow of
water through a pipe line connecting two reservoirs. As long as both reservoirs
remain at the same level (or potential) there will be no flow ; when one is
raised above the other a pressure or head will be established (similar to a
difference of potential, or e. m. f. in a circuit) which will cause a flow.
It is the primary function of all electrical generators to produce this e. m. f.
Thus the two unconnected poles of a battery or dynamo in operation, are
at different potentials, they are charged with opposite kinds of electricity,
positive and negative, and this e. m. f. will cause a current to flow when the
poles are connected by a conductor. If this connecting conductor be opened
at any point, the full voltage of the generator will be found at the separated
points, the region between them will be under electric stress, and the electronic
transfer will cease.

The practical unit of e. m. f. is called a volt. A volt is such electromotive
force as w7ould cause a current of one ampere to flow against a resistance of
one ohm. Volts are measured by voltmeters, through which a very small
portion of current, or none, passes.

Circuit The complete path through which a current flows is called a circuit.
There must always be at least three parts to any circuit, an electric
generator, a receiving device in which the electric energy is transferred into
useful energy, such as a motor or electric lights, or both, and two conductors,
the feeder and the return, which connect the generator with the receiver.
Under certain unfavorable conditions the conductors may become the receiver,
in which case all the electric energy will be dissipated as heat. In D. C.
railway circuits the overhead feeder system is usually connected with the posi-
tive dynamo brush, and the grounded track return is connected with the nega-
tive brush. If the rails are poorly bonded or heavily loaded, the current wall
divide and some of it will return or be shunted through the earth or through
parallel pipe lines and the earth to the generator.

In commercial work only three of the pure metals are used as conduc-
tors— copper, aluminum and iron. Of these the first is pre-eminently the
best, while next in order come aluminum and iron. The last is used
almost exclusively for telegraph work and for the return portion of railway
circuits.

148 American Steel and Wire Company

Notes 011 Electricity

A circuit is said to be grounded when any metallic portion is connected to
ground. The grounded portion will be at zero potential, or at the potential of
the earth. If but one point of a circuit is grounded, no current will flow into
ground, but if two or more points are grounded, some current will escape into
ground, for the ground between such points then becomes a " parallel " or shunt
circuit, and the current will divide between the two paths. If no part of a circuit
is grounded, it is said to be insulated. Conductors may be insulated (a) by sup-
porting them on insulators or substances which conduct little or no electricity,
or (b) by covering them throughout their length with some form of insulation or
dielectric material which will not conduct electricity.

The conducting power of any substance of unit dimensions is called its
conductivity. The commercial standard of conductivity in this country is the
one established by Dr. Matthiesen in 1861. It is that of a piece of sup-
posedly pure copper wire of constant cross-section meeting the following speci-
fications : *

Specific gravity, 8.89.
Length, 1 meter, or 39.3704 inches.
Weight, 1 gram, or 15.432 grains.
Resistance, 0.141729 ohm at 0° C.

Specific resistance, 1.594 microhms per cubic centimeter, or
0.6276 microhm per cubic inch at 0° C.

Much of the copper now produced is higher in conductivity than Dr.
Matthiesen 's standard by one or two per cent, owing to improved methods of
refining copper. It is usual, however, to specify that soft drawn copper shall
have 98 per cent conductivity, and hard drawn copper 97 per cent of
Matthiesen's standard.

The diameter of a conductor is usually expressed in mils. A circular mil.
is very generally taken as the unit of area in considering the cross-section or
carrying capacity of electrical conductors. This is the area of a circle whose
diameter is one mil, or one-thousandth of an inch. It equals .7854 of a square
mil. This unit area possesses several advantages in making wiring calculations
and in determining the relations between different wires having known diameters.
The cross-section of any solid round wire in circular mils is found by squaring
the diameter of the wire in mils, and conversely, the diameter of a wire in mils
is obtained by extracting the square root of the section expressed in circular
mils. The constant TT, which expresses the ratio between the circumference
and diameter of any circle, does not enter into these calculations, thus greatly
simplifying them.

Circular mils = square inches -r .0000007854 = (diameter in mils)2

Square inches = circular mils X .0000007854

One circular mil = .0005067087 square millimeter

One square millimeter = 1,973 circular mils

There are 1,273,236 circular mils in one square inch

* This and much of the following is taken from our " Electrical Wires and Cables " Catalogue and Handbook.

Rail Bonds and Appliances

149

Notes on Electricity

Wire Gauges

The sizes of wires are ordinarily expressed in certain gauge numbers
arbitrarily chosen. There are several independent gauge systems, and
it is necessary in each case to specify the particular wire gauge used.
Though the gauge numbers have the advantage of enabling manufacturers to
carry wires in stock from which purchasers may choose with a reasonable
assurance of quick delivery, there is nevertheless a tendency to do away with
all gauge numbering methods and to distinguish different electrical wires by
their diameters expressed in mils.

The American Standard or Brown & Sharpe gauge is used in America as
the standard for copper wire used for electrical purposes. In this gauge both
the sizes and the areas vary in geometrical progression. The diameters of
wires are obtained from the geometric series, in which the first number, No.
4/0 = 0.46 inch in diameter, and No. 36 = .005 inch, the nearest fourth sig-
nificant figure being retained in the areas and diameters so obtained.

The American Steel and Wire Co.'s gauge is used almost universally
in this country for steel and iron wires, except galvanized telegraph and tele-
phone wire which is always made to the Birmingham wire gauge.

The Birmingham wire gauge is used largely in England as their standard,
and in this country for galvanized telegraph and telephone wires.

The following table gives the numbers and diameters in decimal parts of
an inch for the various wire gauges used in this country and England.

Comparative Sizes Wire Gauges in Decimals of an Inch

^ so

_ 3
D_tJ

6 "

American
Steel and Wire
Co.'s Gauge

American
Standard
(B.&.S)Gauge

E
&

s°

111
211

!§
.=1

TJ^
O °

_ 3
O ^

American
Steel and Wire
Co.'s Gauge

11*

Birmingham
or Stubs'

British
Imperial
Standard

||
O °

•5

OUUUUOO

.4900

.500

.0475

.04030

.049

.048

.0490

.238

OIXJOOO

.4615

.58000

.464

.0410

.03589

.042

.040

.0400

.250

00000

.4305

.51650

.500

.432

.0348

.03196

.035

.036

.0350

.263

0000

.3938

.4(5000

.454

.400

4540

.0317

.02846

.032

.0315

.279

000

.3625

.40964

.425

.372

!4250

.0286

.02535

.028

.0295

.290

.3310

.36480

.380

.348

.3800

.0258

.02257

.025

.024

.0270

.303

.3065

.32486

.340

.324

.3400

.0230

.02010

.022

.0250

316

.2830

.28930

.300

.3000

.033

.0204

.01790

.020

.0230

.331

.2625

.25763

.284

.276

.2840

.040

.0181

.01594

.018

.0205

.342

.2437

.22942

.259

.252

.2590

.050

.0173

.01420

.016

.0164

.01875

.356

.2253

.20431

.238

.232

.2380

.063

.0162

.01264

.014

.0148

.01650

.371

.2070

.18194

.220

.212

.2200

.068

.0150

.01126

.013

.0136

.01550

.383

.1920

.16202

.203

.192

.2030

.083

.0140

.01003

.012

.0124

.01375

.394

.1770

.14428

.180

.176

.1800

.097

.0132

.00893

.010

.0116

.01225

.408

.1620

.12849

.165

.160

.1650

.110

.0128

.00795

.009

.0108

.01125

.419

.1483

.11443

.148

.144

.1480

.120

.0118

.00708

.008

.0100

.01025

.431

.1350

. 10189

.134

.128

.1340

.135

.0104

.00630

.007

.0092

.00950

.448

.1205

.09074

.120

.116

.1200

.149

.0095

.00561

.005

.0084

.00900

.458

.1055

.08081

.109

.104

.1090

.162

.0090

.00500

.004

.0076

.00750

.472

.0915

.07196

.095

.092

.0950

.172

.0085

.00445

.0068

.00650

.485

.0800

.06408

.083

.080

.0830

.185

.0080

.00396

.0060

.00575

.499

.0720

.05706

.072

.0720

.197

.0075

.00353

.0052

.00500

.509

.0625

.05082

.065

.064

.0650

.212

.0070

.00314

.0048

.00450

.524

.0540

.04525

.058

.056

.0580

.225

150 American Steel and Wire Company

Notes on Electricity

Resistance All substances offer a resistance to the passage of an electric
current through them. The resistance of a substance may be
denned as that inherent physical property, depending on temperature, molecular
construction, and dimensions, which modifies the strength of current flowing
through it. Resistance bears a reciprocal relation to conductivity, the greater
the one the less the other.

The practical unit of resistance is the international oJini, which is the
resistance offered to an unvarying electric current by a column of pure mercury
at a temperature of melting ice, 14.4521 grams (0.51 ounce) in mass, of a
constant cross-sectional area, and 106.3 centimeters (41.85 inches) in length.
To obtain a concrete idea of this unit it may be remembered that a copper
wire having a diameter of one-tenth of an inch (No. 10 B. and S. gauge) has at
08 degrees F. a resistance of approximately one ohm per thousand feet, or 5.28
ohms per mile.

Resistance varies greatly with different metals and is in general less for a
pure metal than for any of its alloys. Its value will in every case depend upon
the relation of three factors, the length of the wire, its cross-sectional area,
and the nature or chemical composition of the metal, all of which vary with
temperature. Increasing or decreasing the length (L) of any conductor will
increase or decrease the resistance (R) of the conductor in direct proportion.
Increasing or decreasing its sectional area (A) will inversely affect its resistance,
that is, as the section of the conductor increases the resistance becomes pro-
portionately less, and conversely. The term conductor as used in this connec-
tion should be taken in its broadest sense, meaning the whole length of any
circuit or any portion of a circuit under consideration, whether it be in a straight
or curved line or wound in a coil.

For example : One mile of any given wire will have twice the resistance
of one-half mile of the same wire, or 5.28 times the resistance of 1000 feet.
Again, if we have two wires of equal length, one of which has a sectional area five
times as great as that of the other, then, assuming uniform quality and treat-
ment, the electrical resistance of the larger wire will be one-fifth that of the
smaller, and as the weight per unit length varies directly as the sectional area,
it follows that the resistance of a wire weighing, for example, 500 pounds per
mile, will equal one-fifth the resistance of a wire weighing 100 pounds per mile,
assuming uniform quality and treatment as before.

Algebraically, these relations may be expressed thus :

R=K X(L-f-)

Where (K) is a constant for any metal and represents its resistivity or
specific resistance.

Resistivity, a factor depending only on the material or structure of the
metal, as compared with pure copper as unity, may be expressed in a number

Rail Bonds and Appliances

151

Notes on Electricity

of different ways, all being equivalent to the resistance of some unit of cross-
section. This unit may be expressed either in linear dimensions or as a com-
bination of weight and dimensions. It may represent the resistance measured
between opposite faces of a unit cube of the metal. Or, another and more com-
mon way of expressing resistivity is in terms of oJuns per mil-foot, meaning
the resistance of a round wire one foot long, having a diameter of one mil or
. 001 inch and an area of one circular mil. With this unit, the resistance of
any wire is found by multiplying its length (L) by its resistivity (K, below) in
ohms per mil-foot and dividing this product by the section area expressed in
circular mils.

Physical Properties of Copper, Aluminum, Iron and

Steel Wire

Physical Properties

Copper

Aluminum
99 Per Cent
Pure

Iron
(Ex. B. B.)

Steel
(Siemens
Martin)

Annealed

Hard Drawn

Conductivity, Matthiesen's stan-
dard

99 to 102
10.36

96 to 99
10.57

61 to 63
16.7

16.8
62.9

8.7
119.7

Ohms per mil-foot at 68° F. = 20°
C. (K.)

Ohms per mile at 68° F. = 20° C.

f 54,600 55,700 88,200

332,000

632,000

cir. mils

1 cir. mils cir. mils cir. mils

cir. mils

Pounds per mile-ohm at 68° F. =
20° C

875
.00238

896 424.0
.00238 .0022

4700
.0028

8900

Temperature coefficient of resistiv-
ity per degrees F. at 32° F.

Temperature coefficient of resistiv-
ity per degrees C. at 0° C. . .

.00428

.00428 .0040 .0050

Specific gravity. Mean values . .

8.89

8.94 2.68 7.77

7.85

Pounds per 1000 feet per circular

.003027

.320
.093

.003049 .000909 .002652

.322 .0967 .282
.093 .214 .113

.002671

.288
.117

Weight in pounds per cubic

Specific heat. Mean values . . .

M citing point i
values . .

Melting point i

i degrees F. Mean

2012
1100
.00000950

1157
625

.00001285

2975
1685

.00000673

2480
1360
.00000662

n degrees C. Mean

Mean coefficient of linear expan-
sion. Degrees F

Mean coefficie
sion. Deg

nt of linear expan-
rees C

.0000171

.0000231

.000120

.000118

SOLID WIRE
Pounds per
square inch

Tensile strength .
Elastic limit . . .
Modulus of elas-

( 30,000 to
1 42,000

i 6,000 to
1 16,000

( 7,000,000 to
1 17,000,000

45,000 to
68,000

25,000 to
45,000

13,000,000 to
18,000,000

20,000 to
35,000

} 14,000 {

10,500,000 to
11,500,000

50,000 to
55,000

25,000 to
30,000

22,000,000 to
27,000,000

100,000 to
120,000

50,000 to
72,000

22,000,000 to
27,000,000

CON-

Tensile strength .

( 29,000 to
i 37,000

43,000 to
65,000

J 25,800 {

. . .

98,000 to
118,000

CENTRIC
STRAND

Elastic limit . . .

( 5,800 to
1 14,800

23,000 to
42,000

} 13,800 {

45,000 to
55,000

Pounds per
square inch

Modulus of elas-
ticity

f 5,000,000 to
\ 12,000,000

12,000,000 to
14,000,000

Approx.
10,000,000

16,000,000 to
22,000,000

152

American Steel and Wire Company

Notes on Electricity

Bare Copper Wire Table

The data from which these tables have been computed are as follows :
Matthiesen's standard resistivity, Matthiesen's temperature coefficients, special
gravity of copper=8.80. Resistance in terms of the international ohm.

Diameter of Wire

Cross-sectional Area

American
Standard
(f5. & S ) Gauge

In Inches

Allowable
Variation in
Per Cent
Either Way

Millimeters

Circular Mils
(d2)
d = .001 Inch

Square Inch
(d2 x .7854)

Square
Millimeter

0000

.4600

.45

11.68

211600.

.166190

107.219

000 .4096

.50

10.40

167772.

.131770

85.011

00 .3648

.50

9.266

133079. .104520

67.432

0 .3250

.50

8.255

105625. .082958

53.521

.2893

.50

7.348

83694.

.065733

42.408

.2576

.50

6.543

66358.

.052117

33.624

.2294

.75

5.827

52624.

.041331

26.665

.2043

.75

5.189

41738.

.032781

21.149

.1819

.75

4.620

33088.

.025987

16.766

.1620

.75

4.115

26244.

.020612

13.298

.1443

.75 3.665

20822.

.016354

10.550

.1285

1.00 3.264

16512.

.012969

8.3666

.1144

1.00

2.906

13087.

.010279

6.6313

.1019

1.00

2.588

10384.

.0081553

5.2614

.0907

1.00

2.304

8226.5

.0064611

4.1684

.0808

1.25

2.052

6528.6

.0051276

3.3081

.0720

1.25

1.829

5184.0

.0040715

2.6267

.0641

1.25

1.628

4108.8

.0032271

2.0819

.0571

1.25

1.450

3260.4

.0025607

1.6520

.0508

1.50

1.290

2580.6

.0020268

1.3076

.0453

1.50

1.151

2052.1

.0016117

1.0398

.0403

1.50

1.024

1624.1 .0012756

.82294

.0359

1.75

.9119

1288.8 .0010122

.65304

.0320

1.75

.8128

1024.0

.00080425

.51887

.0285

1.75

.7239

812.25

.00063794

.41157

.0253

1.75

.6426

640.09

.00050273

.32434

.0226

2.00

.5740

510.76

.00040115

.25880

.0201

2.00

.5105

404.01

.00031731

.20471

.0179

2.00

.4547

320.41

.00025165

.16235

.0159

2.00

.4039

252.81

.00019856

.12810

.0142

2.00

.3607

201.64

.00015837

.10217

.0126

2.00

.3200

158.76

.00012469

.08044

.0113

2.00

.2870

127.69

.00010029

.06470

.0100

2.50

.2540

100.00

.000078540

.05067

.00893

3.00

.2268

79.74

.000062631

.04040

.00795

3.00

.2019

63.20

.000049639

.03202

.00708

3.00

.1798

50.13

.000039369

.02540

.00630

3.50

.1600

39.69

.000031173

.02011

.00561

4.00

.1425

31.47

.000024718

.01594

.00500

4.50

.1270

25.00

.000019635

.01266

.00445

5.00

.1130

19.80

.000015553

.01003

.00396

6.00

.1006

15.68

.000012316

.00794

.00353

7.00

.08966

12.46

.0000097868

.00631

.00314

8.00

.07976

9.86

.0000077437

.00499

Rail Roiids and Appliances

153

Notes on Electricity

Bare Copper Wire Table — Continued

Giving dimensions, weights, lengths and resistances of bare round solid
wires, Matthiesen's Standard of Conductivity. While these values are theo-
retically correct, slight variation should be expected in practice.

Pounds per

Ohms per Feet per

American

Standard

Ohm at Pound at

1000 Feet at

Ohm at

(B. & S.)

1000 Feet

20 C. 20 C.

20 C.

50 C. Pound

20 C.

Gauge

68 F.

122 F.

68 F.

640.5

13,090

.0000764

.04893

.05467

1.561

20,440

0000

508.0

8,232

.0001215 .06170 .06893 1.969

16,210 000

402.8

5,177

.0001931 .07780 .08692 2.482

12,850 00

319.5

3,256

.0003071

.09811

.1096 3.130

10,190 0

253.3

2,048

.0004883

.1237

.1382

3.947

8,083

200.9

1,288 .0007765 .1560

.1743 4.977

6,410 2

159.3

810.0 .001235 .1967

.2198 6.276

5,084 3

126.4

509.4 .001963 .2480

.2771 7.914

4,031 4

100.2

320.4 .003122

.3128

.3495

9.980

3,197

79.46

201.5 .004963

.3944

.4406

12.58

2,535

68.02

126.7

.007892

.4973

.5556

15.87

2,011

49.98

79.69

.01255

.6271

.7007

20.01

1,595

39.63

50.12 .01995 .7908

.8835

25.23

1,265 9

31.43

31.52 .03173 .9972

1.114 31.82

1,003 10

24.93

19.82 .05045 1.257

1.405 40.12

795.3 11

19.77

12.47 .08022 1.586

1.771 50.59

630.7 12

15.68

7.840 .1276 1.999

2.234 63.79

500.1

12.43

4.931 .2028 2.521 2.817 80.44 396.6 14

9.858

3.101 .3225 3.179 3.552 101.4

314.5 15

7.818

1.950 .5128

4.009 4.479 127.9

249.4

6.200

1.226

.8153

5.055

5.648

161.3

197.8

4.917

.7713

1.296

6.374

7.122

203.4

156.9

3.899

.4851

2.061

8.038

8.980 256.5

124.4

3.092

.3051 3.278

10.14

11.32 323.4

98.66

2.452

.1919 5.212 12.78

14.28 407.8

78.24

1.945

.1207

8.287 16.12

18.01

514.2

6205

1.542

.07589

13.18

20.32

22.71

648.4

49.21

1.223

.04773 20.95

25.63

28.63

817.6

39.02

.9699

.03002 33.32

32.31

36.10

1,031

30.95

.7692

.01888 52.97

40.75

45.52

1,300

24.54

.6100

.01187 84.23

51.38

57.40

1,639

19.46

.4837

.007466 133.9

64.79

72.39

2,067

15.43

.3836

.004696 213.0

81.70

91.28

2,607

12.24

.3042

.002953 338.6

103.0

115.1

3,287

9.707

.2413

.001857 538.4

129.9

145.1

4,145

7.698

.1913

.001168 856.2

161.8

183.0

5,227

6.105

.1517

.0007346

1,361

206.6

230.8 6,591

4.841

.1203 .0004620

2.165

260.5 i 291.0 j 8,311 3.839

.09543 .0002905

3,441

328.4 366.9 10,480 3045

.07568 .0001827

5,473

414.2

462.7

13,210

2.414

.06001

.0001149

8,702

522.2

583.5

16,660

1.915

.04759

.00007210

13,870

658.5

735.7

21.010

1.519

.03774 .00004545

22,000

830.4

927.7

26,500

1.204

.02993 .00002858

34,980

1047.0

1170.0

33,410

0.955

154 American Steel and Wire Company

Notes on Electricity

For telephone and telegraph conductors it is customary to use still another
unit of resistivity — weight per mile-ohm. This is the weight of a conductor one
mile in length, which has a resistance of one ohm. It equals the product of
the resistance per mile and the weight per mile. However great may be the
variation in weight of wires of different sizes, the variation in resistance is
equally great inversely, and so the balance is preserved.

To illustrate : If the mile-ohm be 5,000, the resistance of a wire weighing
1,000 pounds per mile will be 5 ohms, while a similar wire weighing 5 pounds
per mile will have a resistance of 1,000 ohms. This method of expressing
resistance is more direct than the others, which require interpretation before
the results may be used in any calculation. Values for these various units will
be found tabulated on page 151.

Temperature Effects on Resistance

Temperature bears an important part in all tests and calculations of
electrical conductors, for their resistances vary directly with temperature. The
resistance of copper wire increases about twenty-three one-hundredths and
that of iron wire about twenty-eight one-hundredths per cent for each addi-
tional degree F.

Dr. Matthiesen, while experimenting with copper conductors, derived the
following formula for the change of resistance with temperature in copper wire :

R=R0 (1+ .00387t+ .000005!)t2)

Later experiments have shown that for practical engineering purposes all
terms below the second may be dropped, and that the above equation for tem-
perature changes in copper wire may now be written :

R, = R0(1 + .0042t) for t in degrees C. or
R, = R0(1 + .0023t) for t in degrees F.
Where R0 = Resistance at 0° C.

Rt = Resistance at any temperature t".
The general equation for any conductor is usually written :

Rt=R0(l+^t), where

a is called the temperature coefficient of the conductor. These coefficients vary
considerably with the purity of metals, and they change slightly even in the
purest metals. The following average values of the temperature coefficient
have been found, experimentally, at 0" C.

Metals

Centigrade

Fahrenheit

Aluminum

.0040

.0022

gar

.00428
.0038

.00238
.0021

Mercury
Platinum

.0007
.0025

.0004
.0014

Silver, annealed

.0040

.0022

Soft iron

.0050

.0028

Tin

.0044

.0025

Zinc

.0041

.0028

Rail Bonds and Appliances

155

INotes on Electricity

Pounds per Mile-ohm of Copper Wire at Various Temperatures
and Conductivities

Per Cent

Pounds per Mile-ohm

Per Cent

Pounds per Mile-ohm

Conductivity
Matthiesen's
Standard

At 32° F.
0°C.

At 60° F.
15.6° C.

At 68° F
20° C.

At 104° F.
40° C.

At 32° F.
0° C.

At 60° F.
15. 6° C.

At 68° F.
20° C.

At 104° F.
40° C.

96.0

841.9

893.4

908.7

980.8

99.0

816.4

866.3

881.1

951.0

840.2

891.5

906.8

978.7

814.8

864.6

879.4

949.1

838.4

889.7

904.9

976.7

813.1

862.8

877.6

947.2

836.7

887.8

903.0

974.7

811.5

861.1

875.8

945.3

835.0

886.0

901.2

972.7

809.9

859.4

874.1

943.4

97.0

833.2

884.2

899.3

970.6

100.0

808.2

857.6

872.3

941.5

831.5

882.4

897.4

968.7

806.6

855.9

870.6

939.6

829.8

880.5

895.6

966.7

805.0

854.2

868.8

937.8

828.1

878.7

893.8

964.7

803.4

852.5

867.1

935.9

826.4

876.9

891.9

962.7

801.8

850.8

865.4

934.1

98.0

824.7

875.1

890.1

960.7

101.0

800.2

849.2

863.7

932.2

823.1

873.4

888.3

958.8

798.7

847.5

862.0

930.4

821.4

871.6

886.5

956.8

797.1

845.8

860.3

928.5

819.7

869.8

884.7

954.9

795.5

844.1

858.6

926.7

818.1

868.1

882.9

953.0

794.0

842.5

856.9

924.9

102.0

792.4

840.8

855.2

923.1

Data Relating to Bare Copper Strand
Approximate Values

Size
B. &S.

|
Area
Circular Strand
Mils Square
Inches

Number
Wires in
Strand

Diameter
Each Wire
Inches

Diameter
of Strand
Inches

Weight
per 1000-
Foot Strand
Pounds

Weight
per Mile
Pounds

Resistance
per 1000
Feet at
68° F. or
20° C.

2,000,000 1.56874

.1482

.6302

6204.8

32761.

.00530

1,750,000 1.36494

.1387

.5257

5429.3

28667.

.00607

1,500,000 1.17831

.1284

.4124

4653.6

24571.

.00707

1,250,000 .98170

.1172

.2892

3878.0

20475.

•00852

1,000,000 .78494

.1280

.1520

3100.3

16370.

.01060

950,000 .74618

.1248

.1232

2945.3

15551 .

.01115

900,000 . .70724

.1215

.0935

2790.3

14733.

.01179

850,000 .66852

.1181

.0629

2635.3

13914.

.01247

800,000 .62810

.1145

1.0305

2480.2

13096.

.01325

750,000 .58922

.1109

.9981

2325.2

12277.

.01413

700,000 .54954

.1071

.9639

2170.2

11459.

.01514

650,000 .51020

.1032

.9288

2015.2

10640.

.01630

(500,000 .47146

.0992

.8928

1860.2

9822.

.01767

550,000 .43181

.1219

.8533

1703.0

8992.

.01925

500,000 .39237

.1162

.8134

1548.2

8175.

.02116

450,000 .35234

.1103

.7721

1393.4

7357.

.02349

400,000 .31431

.1040

.7280

1238.5

6539.

.02648

350,000 .27512

.0973

.6811

1083.34

5720.

.03026

300,000 i .23591

.1256

.6285

926.01

4889.

.03531

250,000 .19635

.1147

.5738

771.67

4074.

.04233

0000

211,600 .16609

.1055

.5275

653.14

3448.5

.04997

000

167,772 • .13187

.0940

.4700

512.07

2703.7

.06293

183,079 : .10429

.1380

.4134

406.98

2148.9

.07935

105,625 .08303

.1228

.3684

322.39

1702.2

.10007

83,694 .06559

.1093

.3279

255.45

1348.8

.12617

66,358 .05205

.0973

.2919

202.5

1069.2

.15725

52,624 .04132

.0867

.2601

160.6

848.0

.19827

41,738 .03276

.0772

.2316

127.4

672.7

.25000

26,244 .02059

.0612

.1836

80.1

422.9

.39767

16,512 .01298

.0486

.1458

50.4

266.1

.62686

10,384 .00815

.0385

.1155

31.7

167.4

1.00848

6,528 .00511

.0305

.0915

19.9

105.0

1.59716

4,108 .00322

.0242

.0726

12.5

66.0

2.54192

156 American Steel and Wire Company

Notes on Electricity

Ohm's Law In any circuit or portion of circuit through which a current flows
there is always a fixed numerical relation between the current,
the voltage and the resistance. This relation was first discovered and formu-
lated into a law by Ohm, a noted German scientist. This law states that the
current which floivs in the circuit equals the electric pressure divided by the resistance
of the circuit. (I = E-r R.) Under any given set of conditions the resistance
of a circuit will remain nearly constant. The current flowing through this
circuit will then vary directly as the voltage, and conversely the potential drop
across the ends of a circuit or any portion of a circuit will vary with the
current strength and will equal the product of the current flowing times the
resistance of the circuit or portion of circuit under consideration (E = I X R).
Thus, for example, if 100 amperes flow through a single rail having a resistance
of .00043 ohm, the voltage drop from end to end of the rail will be 100 X
.00043 = .043 volt. And if the resistance of the bonded joint were say .05
ohm, the potential drop across the joint would be 5 volts, and this would be
indicated by a voltmeter connected across the joint.

Conductors are in series when they are connected end to end and when the
same current flows successively through each. The total resistance of several
resistances in series will equal the sum of the separate resistances. Thus we
place five 100-volt incandescent lamps in series between the trolley and ground,
and the same current passes through all of the lamps. Conductors are in
parallel or multiple when the current divides among them or when only a
separate portion of the main line current passes through each branch. For
example, all of the electric cars on a system would be in parallel between the
trolley and ground, the current operating the motors of one car would not flow
through the motors of another car. That portion of the total current flowing
through each parallel branch will be inversely proportional to the resistance of
each branch. The total or combined resistance of several circuits in parallel
will equal the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the separate resistances, or it
will equal the reciprocal of the sum of the conductances.

Alternating Currents

In a I). C. circuit the same current passes continuously in one direction
through the circuit, and it has a uniform strength in all parts of a series circuit.
Just as much current enters the negative brush of the generator as leaves at
the positive brush. In an alternating current circuit the current alternates
or reverses regularly in direction 25 or 60 times a second. The number of
complete cycles or double alternations per second is called the frequency. The
action of an alternating current may be compared to that of water in a closed
tube which is caused to move back and forth in the tube by the regular
reciprocating motion of a close fitting piston. The body of water once set

Rail Bonds and Appliances 157

Notes on Electricity

in motion would tend to continue in motion owing to its momentum, and when
at rest it would resist motion owing to its inertia. Alternating currents, unlike
direct currents, have two properties somewhat similar to these mechanical
properties.

Induction The region surrounding any conductor carrying a current is filled
with magnetic flux. This flux is due to the current and varies in
strength with it. Any conductor lying in this region of varying flux density
will have generated in it an e. m. f. opposite in direction to the generator e. m. f.
There will be a counter e. m. f. induced in the current-carrying wire itself which
will at all times oppose the impressed e. m. f. This action which is called self-
induction tends to retard the building up of the current, and to prolong the
current when it approaches zero value.

Capacity When an e. m. f. is impressed on a conductor, a certain current
called a charging current will be required to fill or charge the con-
ductor. These, like condensers, will absorb and retain a certain amount of
electricity until the impressed e. m. f. is removed or reversed, at which time
they will discharge back through the generator. The strength of the charging
current will depend upon the impressed voltage, the frequency and the capacity
of the circuit. When capacity is in series with induction in any circuit they
tend to annul each other's effects.

In any alternating circuit then there are four quantities which have to be
considered in determining the current strength, voltage, resistance, inductance
and capacity, though the last two may be very small in some circuits. There
is but one voltage acting in any portion of the circuit, and this will always be
the resultant of three active voltages, the impressed, the inductive, which
opposes the impressed, and the capacity voltage, which is in advance of the im-
pressed. This resultant voltage may equal, be smaller than or at times may
be much larger than the generator voltage at certain points in the circuit.
Ohm's law holds true when the e. m. f. (E) is the resultant e. m. f., or when the
resistance of the D. C. circuit (R) is replaced by the impedance of the A. C.
circuit, and when all operations are figured geometrically. The impedance
is a complex quantity depending upon resistance, inductance, capacity and
frequency.

Watts Power may be defined as the rate of doing work or of expending
energy. The unit of electric power is the watt. It equals the product
of three factors, amperes, volts and power-factor, the latter of which is unity in
all D. C. circuits. In A. C. circuits the power factor is a fraction obtained by
dividing the true watts delivered and measured by a wattmeter by the apparent
or volt-ampere watts. Since electric energy depends upon a product, either

158 American Steel and Wire Company

Notes on Electricity

factor may be small, and the other correspondingly large without affecting the
product. Thus, 1000 watts will equal 100 amperes times 10 volts, or 10
amperes times 100 volts. While we are dealing with the same amount of
energy in each case, the 100 amperes in the first case will require a conductor
10 times larger than the 10 amperes in the second case, to conduct the energy
with the same given loss in the conductor. The size of the conductor is deter-
mined by the current, not the e. m. f. One thousand watts are called a kilowatt
(K. W.), and 746 watts of electric energy are equivalent to one-horse power of
mechanical energy. Joules (\v)=work done=watts times seconds.

Transformers Owing to its property of induction, alternating currents are
used almost exclusively for transmitting electric energy over
long distances. In these circuits the current must be small, requiring a small
conductor, but the voltage may be very high, as high as 110,000 has been
used in a few instances. Suppose three separate and entirely independent
coils of uniform size of insulated wire were wrapped closely about each other and
about a piece of soft iron. Let coil A have 1 complete turn, B 10 turns and C
100 turns. If an alternating current be sent through coil B, the following
results will be obtained, neglecting losses : In the single turn A (coil C open)
there will be induced an e. m. f. equal to -^0- that at the terminals of coil B, and a
current will be produced 10 times as large. In coil C (coil A open) an e. m. f.
will be induced 10 times as great as in coil B and a current -J{} as great will result.
The same amount of power in watts will be involved in each case, but the
relative amounts of current and voltage will have been transformed or changed.
In the one case (A) the voltage has been " stepped down,11 in the other case
(C) it has been " stepped up." This is the underlying principle of the commercial
stationary transformer ; it enables the generator voltage to be increased at will,
with a corresponding change of current and cost of transmission conductors.
At the receiving end of the line the voltage is stepped down sufficiently to be
used in motors or lamps and the current is increased in equal ratio. Alter-
nating currents can be converted to direct currents commercially only by means
of a converter, which is a dynamo-electric machine having one armature and one
field for converting alternating currents to direct currents, or direct currents to
alternating currents.

Alternating Current Heating Effects If an alternating current be trans-
mitted through a conductor, portions

of the electrical energy supplied may be transformed into heat in four different
ways, each resulting in an energy loss and in a corresponding reduction of the
current-carrying capacity of the conductor.

Rail Bonds and Appliances 159

Notes on Electricity

1. A definite amount of electrical energy will be required to overcome
the ohmic resistance of the conductor, just as in the case with continuous
currents. This is commonly known as the I2R loss, where I is the effective
current. ( An effective current is one which will produce the same thermal
effect as an equivalent direct current.)

2. Under certain conditions there will be loss of energy due to the
skin effect of alternating currents. A current induced in a conductor builds up
from the surface, and an appreciable period of time is required for the current
to penetrate to the interior portions of the conductor. If the frequency be
high the central portion of large conductors or of iron conductors may contribute
nothing to the conducting powers of the conductor. This is equivalent to
increasing the resistance of the conductor, or in effect the conductor will
have a spurious resistance which will be greater than its real resistance. On
account of this action the resistance of track rails may be increased seven
or eight times when alternating currents are used.

3. Foucanlt or eddy currents may be induced in the conductor itself, or
in the lead sheathing or in the steel armor wires of a cable by the rapidly changing
alternating magnetic flux. Foucault currents are produced at the expense of
energy supplied the conductor, and they are dissipated in the form of heat.
This loss would be much greater in single conductor cables carrying alternating
current than in two-conductor or three-conductor cables in which the outer
resultant magnetic field should be very small. Placing a single-conductor
alternating current cable in an iron conduit would very greatly increase the
energy loss, and for that reason it is seldon done. This loss will be greater
in solid conductors than in stranded conductors of equal section, and it will
increase with thickness of lead sheath and with the diameter of the armor wires.

-4. Dielectric hysteresis losses in the insulating material. This loss is
somewhat similar in kind to the magnetic hysteresis loss in iron. A dielectric
is a poor conducting material used for insulating conductors through which an
electromotive force establishes a molecular strain or an electro-static field of
flux. The total dielectric loss is due to the sum of a direct I2R leakage of
current through the dielectric and to the dielectric hysteresis loss, which is
thought to be a function of the insulation resistance, varying inversely. The
hysteresis loss in the dielectric of a cable is constant and independent of load.
It increases with voltage, with the length of cable and with frequency. It may
be lessened by increasing the thickness of the dielectric, by using a dielectric
of low specific inductive capacity and by working at low voltage and low
frequency. The loss is thought to be negligible in direct current systems and
in low voltage alternating current distribution systems.

160

American Steel and M^ire Company

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Rail Bonds and Appliances

161

Notes on Electricity

Wiring Formulae and Tables The current carrying capacity of a conductor

is not only limited by its allowable tempera-

ture rise, but also by the allowable drop of potential. The potential difference
required to transmit a given electric current through a conductor will vary
directly as the resistance of the conductor and inversely as its cross-sectional
area. The diameter of conductors used for long distance transmission purposes
is usually determined by the drop of potential allowable, rather than from other
electrical considerations.

For most practical purposes the following formula; can be used to deter-
mine the size of copper conductors, current per wire, and weight of copper per
circuit for any system of electrical distribution.

Area of conductor in circular mils — -- — K — C. M.

L /\ rL ~

\y I) X W

Current in main conductor = — — T. From which P =

w . , c

U eight of copper =

X W X K X A

, Pounds.

x E. x 1>00(XQOO

In these equations the symbols used denote the following quantities :
W = total watts delivered.

D = distance of transmission, one way in feet.
E = voltage between main conductors at the receiving or consumers' end of

circuit.
P = loss in line in per cent of power delivered, i. e., of W, this being a whole

number. K, T and A are constants given in the following table :

Wiring Formulae Constants

System

Values of A

ues of K

Values of T

Per Cent Power Factor

100

1-phase, and D. C.
2-phase-4 wire
8-phase-3 wire

6.04
12.08
9.06

2160
1080
1080

2400
1200
1200

2660
1330
1330

3000
1500
1500

3380
1690
1690

1.00
.50

.58

1.05
.53
.61

1.11
.55
.64

1.17
.59
.68

1.25
.66
.72

These constants depend upon the system of distribution as well as the
conditions of the circuit.

For continuous current K = 2160, T = 1 and A = 0.04.

For any particular power factor the value of K is obtained by dividing
2160, the value for continuous current, by the square of the power factor for
single phase, and by twice the square of the power factor for three-wire three-
phase or four-wire two-phase. The three wires of a three-phase circuit and
the four wires of a two-phase circuit should all be of the same size, and each
conductor should be of the cross-section, as obtained by the proper applica-
tion of the first formula.

The following assumed values of power factors for circuits may be used
in any calculation when their exact values are not known.

Incandescent lighting and synchronous motors, 95 per cent.

162

American Steel and Wire Company

Notes on Electricity

Lighting and induction motors, 85 per cent.

Induction motors alone, 80 per cent.

For continuous currents and for railway feeder circuits, for lamp and motor
outlets, the following formula for determining area of conductor is found more
convenient to use.

10.8 X amperes X length of circuit in feet.
Circular mils = —

\olts permissible drop in wire.

For example: What size of wire would be required for an 800-foot circuit
carrying current to a 500-volt, 20-kilowatt, direct current motor, allowing 2 per
cent drop in the circuit ?

20 kilowatts = 20, 000 watts.

20,000-^-500 = 40 amperes in line.

1 per cent loss in each wire or branch of circuit = 500 X .01 = 5 volts.

Length of each wire = 800 feet.

Circular mils =:

10.8 X 40 X 800

= 69,120 or No. 2 B. & S. wire say,

for each branch of the circuit.

Watts

Power

unit of electric power = h. p. X 746.
current X volts X power factor,
foot-pounds per sec. -j- 1.355.

3412 B. t. u.

2,654,156 foot-pounds.
1 kw. hour = -4 3.53 pounds water evaporated at 212° F.

22.8 pounds water raised from 62° to 212° F.

0.235 pound carbon oxidized at 100 per cent. eff.

Three-phase Formula — Unity Power Factor

POWER — If A = amperes per phase and V = delta voltage then AV V 3 = total watts.
LINE DROP — If A = amperes per phase and R = resistance of one conductor then
AR V 3 = drop in delta voltage.

Arcing Distance of High Voltage Alternating Current Between Sharp

Needle Points in Air

(Adopted by A. I. E. E.)

Effective Volts

Inches

Effective Volts

Inches

Effective Volts

Inches

5,000
10,000
15,000

.225

.47
.725

50,000
60,000
70,000

3.55
4.65
5.85

140,000
150,000
175,000

13.95
15.00
17.80

20,000
25,000
30,000

1.000
1.3
1.625

80,000 7.10
90,000 8.35
100,000 9.60

200,000
250,000
300,000

20.50
25.60

31.00

35,000
40,000
45,000

2.00
2.45
2.95

110,000
120,000
130,000

10.75
11.85
12.95

350,000
400,000

36.10
41.20

Rail Bonds and Appliances

163

Electric Railway Material
Trolley Wire

Dimensions of Hard Drawn Copper Trolley Wire

Section of
Trolley
Wire

Sizes
Am. Stan.
(B.&S.)
Gauge

Sectional
Area in
Cir. Mils.

Approximate Dimensions, See Cuts Below

Round

0
00
000
0000

105,600
133,200
168,100
211,600

.325
.365
.410
.460

.1625
.1825
.2045
.230

••

• •

Grooved
"American

Standard"

00
000
0000

133,200
168,100
211,600

.392
.430

.482

.196
.215

.241

.0313
.0469
.0625

.20
.22
.25

78°
78"
78°

27°
27°
27°

51°
51°
51°

.015
015
015

Figure 8

00
000
0000

133,200
168,100
211,600

.480
.540
.600

.352
.400
.450

.108
.130
.150

.196
.222
.250

• •

Round, Grooved and Figure 8 Copper Trolley Wire

Size B. & S.

Approximate Weight, Pounds

Electrical Conductivity
(Minimum)

Per Mile

Per 1000 Feet

0
00
000
0000

1685
2132
2690
3386

319
404
509
641

Mile— ohm @ 68 degrees
Fahr. not to exceed 890.1
equals 98$ Matthiesen's
Standard

Round

Grooved

Figure 8

164

American Steel and Wire Company

Electric Railway Material

Extra Galvanized W. & M. Telephone and Telegraph Wire

There are three standards of
extra galvanized telephone and
telegraph wire in general com-
mercial use.

" EXTRA BEST BEST"(E.B.B.).
Made by improved continuous
process and stands highest in con-
ductivity of any telegraph wire
with a weight per mile ohm of
from 4700 to 5000 pounds. Uni-
form in quality, pure, tough and
pliable. It is largely used by
'telegraph companies and in rail-
way telegraph service.

"BEST BEST" (B.B.). Supe-
rior to the E.B.B. in mechanical qualities and equal in galvanizing, but of
somewhat lower electrical value. Weight per mile ohm, 5600 to 6000 pounds.
This grade is used very largely by telephone companies.

" STEEL" (or homogeneous metal). More expressly designed for short-line
telephone service, where a measure of conductivity can be exchanged for high
tensile strength in a light wire. Weight per mile-ohm, 6500 to 7000 pounds.

*-. ^,

Properties of Galvanized Telephone and Telegraph Wires
Based on Standard Specifications

Diameter

Area

Approximate
Weight in Pounds

Approximate Breaking
Strain in Pounds

Resistance per Mile ( Interna-
tional Ohms) at 68° F. or20°C.

Size

B. W. G.

M'l — d

ivri // *

Per 1000

Per

Feet

Mile

Ex. B. B.

B. B.

Steel

Ex. B. B.

B. B.

Steel

340

115,600

313

1,655

4,1 as

4,634

4,965

2.84

3.38

3.93

300

90,000

244

1,289

3,223

3,609

3,867

3.65

4.34

5.04

284

80,656

218

1,155

2,888

3,234

3,465

4.07

4.85

5.63

259

67,081

182

960

2,400

2.688

2,880

4.90

5.83

6.77

238

56,644

153

811

2,028

2,271

2,433

5.80

6.91

8.01

220

48,400

131

693

1,732

1,940

2,079

6.78

8.08

9.38

203

41,209

112

590

1,475

1,652

1,770

7.97

9.49

11.02

180

32,400

463

1,158

1,296

1,889

10.15

12.10

14.04

165

27,225

390

975

1,092

1,170

12.05

14.86

16.71

148

21,904

314

785

879

942

14.97

17.84

20.70

134

17,956

258

645

722

774

18.22

21.71

25.29

120

14.400

206

515

577

618

22.82

27.19

31.55

109

11,881

170

425

476

510

27.65

32.94

38.28

9,025

129

310

347

372

37.90

45.16

52.41

6.889

247

277

297

47.48

56.56

65.66

5,184

185

207

222

68.52

75.68

87.84

4,225

152

171

183

77.05

91.80

106.55

Rail Bonds and Appliances

165

Electric Railway Material

W. & M. Telephone Wire

Prices quoted on application

Sizes
Birming-
ham

Diameter
in
Decimals

Bdls.
per Mile

Weight
lOOoVeet

Weight
per Mile
in

Sizes
Birming-
ham

Diameter
in
Decimals

Bdls.
per Mile

Weight
per
1000 Feet

Weight
per Mile
in

Wire Gauge

of an Inch

in Pounds

Pounds

Wire Gauge

of an Inch

in Pounds

Pounds

0.238

153

811

0.134

258

0.203

112

590

0.120

206

0.165

390

0.109

170

0.148

314

0.083

Extra Galvanized Bond

Used for signal bonding on steam roads. Extra B. B. extra galvanized
telephone wire is nearly always used for this purpose. Cut and straightened
to lengths at a small extra charge. Usually o to 5 feet long, and of any gauge
number desired.

Extra Galvanized Steel Signal Wire

This wire is used as a connection from a lever or other pulling device to a
semaphore signal which is operated mechanically. The two sizes of Extra
Galvanized Signal Wire in common use are:

No. 8 B. W. gauge, with an approximate breaking strength of 2350 pounds.

No. 9 B. W. gauge, with an approximate breaking strength of 1900 pounds.

The wire is made especially to meet the important requirements of this
service. It is extra galvanized, and of a quality that possesses high strength
and as low elongation as is practicable without sacrificing toughness. The
coils are 5 feet in diameter and approximately one-half mile in length without
welds or joints.

Steel Strand ior Guying Poles and for Span Wire

Galvanized or Extra Galvanized

Diameter
in
Inches

Approximate
Weight
per 1000 Feet
Pounds

Approximate
Strength
in Pounds

Diameter
in
Inches

Approximate
Weight
per 1000 Feet
Pounds

Approximate
Strength
in Pounds

510
415
295
210
125

8500.
6500.
5000.
3800.
2300.

95
75
55
32

1800.
1400.
900.
500.
400.

This strand is used chiefly for guying poles and smoke stacks, for support-
ing trolley wire, and for operating railroad signals.

For overhead catenary construction suspending trolley wire, the special
grades of strand are considered preferable because they possess greater strength
and toughness.

166

American Steel and Wire Company

Electric Railway Material

Extra Galvanized Special Strands

We manufacture three special grades of Extra Galvanized Strand which
will meet all requirements for durability, strength, toughness and light weight.

Extra Galvanized Siemens-Martin Strand.

Extra Galvanized High Strength (crucible steel) Strand.

Extra Galvanized Extra High Strength (plow steel) Strand.

Strands of all three grades are composed of seven wires each, and they
have a very heavy coating of galvanizing, which insures long life.

Minimum Values

Extra Galvanized Siemens-
Martin Strand

Extra Galvanized High Strength
Strand

Extra Galvanized Extra High
Strength Strand

Prices
00 Feet

.8°

. c 8

±J O.C

all

y°

.fl£

c-2-g

6 a

IJS-B
^1

'B*i

j S
au

III

5. a

3 -

Sfe

JS&H

la*

5.3

f-s

% I

2|*

.SM
O.S

— ' *3^

sjai

19,000

$4.35

10.0

25,000

$6.25

42,500

$8.75

11,000

2.80

10.0

18,000

8.95

27,000

5.50

9,000

2.30

10.0

I7B

15,000

3.45

I78

22,500

4.60

6,800

1.80

10.0

11,500

2.70

17,250

3.55

4.860

1.35

10.0

16B

8,100

2.10

I8B

12,100

2.70

4,380

1.10

10.0

7,300

1.75

10,900

2.10

3,060

1.00

10.0

5,100

1.50

7,600

1.90

2,000

.85

10.0

3,300

1.30

4,900

1.60

900

.55

10.0

1,500

.80

2,250

1.05

Special

6,000

1.35

Messenger Strand The heavy encased telephone cables are not in them-
selves sufficiently strong, without an unusual deflection,

to safely withstand the strain incident to stringing these cables between poles at
considerable distances apart. It is common practice now to stretch from pole
to pole, with very little sag, T5^-inch diameter Extra Galvanized Siemens-Martin
Strand; or Extra Galvanized High Strength Strand of ^/8-inch or -^-inch
diameter, and from this messenger strand the heavy telephone cable is sus-
pended by means of clips, wire, cord, or marline at short intervals. The mes-
senger strand thus sustains most of the stress due to weight of cable, wind or ice
load. We have mentioned the sizes and qualities now generally employed by

Rail Bonds and Appliances 167

Electric Railway Material

the largest telephone companies. The Extra Galvanized Extra High Strength
Strand, while affording the greatest strength for its weight, is naturally stiff and
springy and not so easy to fasten. The so-called common galvanized strand
should never be used for messenger lines, as it does not possess the requisite
strength and uniform toughness of the special grades of steel.

Catenary Method of Sup- In the ordinary electric railway overhead con-
porting Trolley Wire struction, the copper trolley wire dips and sags

between the supporting points, which are opposite

poles, and from 100 to 125 feet apart. The catenary method of carrying the
trolley wire consists of one or more messenger strands stretched over the
center of the tracks. Every few feet along the messenger strand are pendant
hangers that clamp on the trolley wire and retain it in a rigid, straight hori-
zontal line, an especially desirable feature for the operation of electric cars at
high speed. The catenary construction also makes it possible to space the
poles at greater distances apart, but this necessarily causes great tension on
the messenger strand and poles. The common galvanized strand is not suit-
able for this work. The selection of the best size and quality of strand
depends upon the length of span, the deflection of the messenger strand, and
the weight of the trolley wire. In general, however, for a single messenger
strand carrying a 4/0 copper trolley wire, we would recommend the following :

For spans 125 to 150 feet, 3/8-mch or T7^-inch diameter Extra Galvanized
Siemens-Martin Strand.

For longer spans up to 225 feet, ^3 -inch or T7g-inch Extra Galvanized
High Strength Strand.

These two grades have been found the best for catenary work.

Our i^ -inch or T\-inch diameter Extra Galvanized Siemens-Martin Strand
is usually employed for "pull-off " strands.

Lightning Protection for In erecting high-tension current transmission lines
Transmission Lines on ta}} stee} towers, it is customary to stretch

between the highest points of the towers a ^-inch

diameter Extra Galvanized Siemens-Martin Strand, known as an "overhead
ground wire."

Long Span in High-tension Long spans cannot always be made with
Current Transmission Line copper cables, because hard drawn copper has

a strength of only 65,000 pounds per square

inch. Where it is necessary to cross over rivers, lakes and bays with power
transmission lines, the current may be conducted through an extra galvanized
strand of one of the three special grades of steel above described, of such size
and strength as will show a safety factor of at least five.

168

American Steel and Wire Company

Electric Railway Material

Properties of Special Grades of Extra Galvanized Special Strands

Diameter of
Strand, Inches

Number of
Wires in Strand

Strength
S. M. Strand
Tons

Strength
Crucible Strand
Tons

Strength
Plow Strand
Tons

Approximate
Weight per Foot
Pounds

i y

%
X

61
61
37
37
37
19
19
1!)

55
45.5
38
32.5
25.5
19
14.2
10

91.5
76
63.5
54
43.7
32
23.7
16.5

121
100
85
72
60
45
35
23.5

4.75
3.95
3.30

2^25

1.70
1.25
.81

American Railway Fence

We make a specialty of fence for right-of-way of steam and electric roads,
furnishing designs for this particular purpose. Our woven wire fence has been
adopted as standard by practically every steam and electric road in the United
States. We furnish fence particularly adapted to locality in which it is to be
used, making a close study of conditions and supplying fence, giving the greatest
possible efficiency at minimum cost. Write for descriptive catalogue and prices.

Pole Steps

Plain and Extra Galvanized

For the use of electric light, street railway and telephone companies

Sizes

Approximate Weight per 100 Pole Steps

Sizes

Approximate Weight per 100 Pole Steps

Plain

Galvanized

Plain Galvanized

8
9
10

1<>!/

x y% inch
x % inch
x ^ inch
' x ft inch

73% pounds
78 pounds
85 pounds
89 pounds

75 pounds
81 pounds
88 pounds
93 pounds

8% x t9s inch
9 x T9e inch
10KxT96inch
i 9 x l/2 inch

58 pounds
62 pounds
71 pounds
51 pounds

61 pounds
65 pounds
74 pounds
54 pounds

The above are made with regular spike and button heads. Lengths given are measure-
ments over all. Each step carefully threaded with screw thread. Special shapes or lengths of
heads made to order. A keg of pole steps weighs about 200 pounds. Prices on application.

Rail Bonds and Appliances

169

Electric Railway Material

"Crosby" Wire Rope Clip

Light, durable and convenient. Easily applied. These are galvanized
drop-forged clips that securely hold wire rope or strand.

List Prices

Inch

Price

Inch

Price

Inch

Price

Inch

Price

Inch

Price

Inch

Price

$ .35
.35

.40

$ .45
.45
.55

$ .65
.75

.85

1/8

$ .95
1.10
1.25

15*

V/4.

$1.50
3.50
5.50

2
W

V/2

$ 7.50
9.50
11.50

"Crosby" Wire Rope Clip

Galvanized Three-bolt Strand Clamped

This is known as the standard A. T. &: T. Co. hot galvanized rolled steel
strand clamp or guy clamp, made from open hearth bar steel. Will hold any
size of strand from J^-inch to ^-inch diameter.

Prices on application.

170

American Steel and Wire Company

Electric Railway Material

Round Cotton-covered Magnet Wire
Advances on Coarse Sizes

Single Cotton-covered

Double Cotton-covered

Triple Cotton-
covered

Sizes

Approxi-

American
Standard
(B.&S.)
Gauge

List
Number

Advances
Over
Base per
100

Approxi-
mate
Pounds
per 1000

List
Number

Advances
Over
Base per
100

Approxi-
mate
Pounds
per 1000

List
Number

Advances
Over
Base per
100

mate
Quantity
on
Reels
Pounds

Number
of
Reel

Pounds

Feet

Pounds

Feet

Pounds

5000

Base

321

5100

Base

322

6000

Base

150

321

5001

Base

254

5101

Base

256

6001

Base

150

313

5002

Base

202

5102

Base

203

6002

Base

150

313

5003

Base

160

5103

Base

161

6003

Base

150

813

5004

Base

127

5104

Base

128

6004

Base

150

313

5005

Base

101

5105

Base

101.5

6005

Base

150

313

5006

Base

80.1

5106

Base

80.6

6006

Base

150

313

5007

$0.25

68.6

5107

$0.25

64.1

6007

$0.25

150

313

5008

.50

50.4

5108

.75

50.9

6008

.75

150

313

5009

.75

40.1

5109

1.25

40.4

6009

1.25

150

313

5010

1.00

31.9

5110

1.75

32.1

6010

2.00

150

313

5011

1.50

25.3

5111

2.25

25.5

6011

2.75

150

313

5012

2.00

20.1

5112

2.75

20.3

6012

3.50

150

313

5013

2.50

5113

3.50

16.2

6013

4.75

150

313

5014

3.00

12.7

5114

4.25

12.9

6014

6.00

150

313

5015

3.50

10.1

5115

5.00

10.8

6015

7.25

150

318

5016

4.00

7.99

5116

5.75

8.15

6016

8.60

338

5017

4.50

6.36

5117

6.75

6.51

6017

10.00

838

5018

5.25

5.05

5118

7.75

5.19

6018

11.50

338

5019

6.00

4.04

5119

8.75

4.15

6019

13.00

343

Properties of Coarse Sizes

Sizes
American
Standard
(B.&S.)
Gauge

Diameter
Inches

Allowable
Variation
Either Way
in Per Cent.

Rated Area
in Cir.

Mils.

Single Cotton-covered
Approximate Values

Double Cotton-covered
Approximate Values

Outside
Diameter
Inches

Feet
per Pound

Outside
Diameter
Inches

Feet
per Pound

0.3249

Kofi

105,625

.338

3.1

.339

3.1

.2893

Kofi

83,694

.297

3.9

.308

3.9

.2576

Hot 1

66,358 .266

5.0 .272

4.9

.2294

Kofi

52,624 .237

6.2 .243

6.2

.2043

Kofi

41,738

.212

7.8

.218

7.8

.1819

^ofl

33,088

.190

9.9

.196

9.9

.1620

Kofi

26,244

.170

12.5

.176

12.4

.1443

Kof

20,822

.152

15.7

.158

15.6

.1285

16,512

.186

19.8

.142

19.6

.1144

13,087

.121

24.9

.125

24.7

.1019

10,384

.108

31.4

.113

31.1

.0907

8,226

.097

39.5

.102

39.1

.0808

6,528 .087

49.6

.092

49.2

.0720

5,184 .078

62.5

.083

61.7

.0641

4,108 .070

78.6

.075

77.5

.0571

3,260

.063

98.9

.068

.0508

]!/

2,580

.056

125

.060

122

.0453

2,052 .050

157

.054

153

.0403

1,624 .045

198

.050

192

.0359

1,288 .041

248

.045

240

Rail Bonds and Appliances

171

Electric Railway Material

Asbestos and Single Cotton-covered

Round Asbestos and S. C. C. Magnet Wire

Order by List Numbers

Round

Asbestos and

Sizes
American
Standard
(B.&S.)
Gauge

List
Number
for Asbestos
and Single
Cotton Cover

Approximate Approximate
Pounds ; Diameter
per 1000 i T °ver
Feet Insulation
Inches

Approximate
Quantity
on Reels
Pounds

Single
Cotton-
covered
Advances
Over Base

Double
Cotton-
covered
Advances
Over Base
per

Shipped
on
Reels
Number

100 Pounds

Special

0000

5440

.482

150

Base

321

000

5430

. . .432

150

Base

- 321

5420

.387

150

Base

321

5400

325

.347

150

Base

321

5401

258

.311

150

Base

313

5402

205

.280

150

Base

313

5403

163

.251

150

Base

313

5404

130

.226

150

Base

313

5405

103

.204

150

Base

313

5406

.184

150

Base

313

5407

.166

150

|0.25

$0.25

313

5408

52 .150

150

.75

313

5409

.136

150

1.25

313

A very thin asbestos tape is first applied to the wire. This tape is strong
and flexible and uniform in texture. It serves as an excellent fire protection.
Over this asbestos is wound one or sometimes two covers of cotton. This
magnet wire is used largely for railway motor purposes.

Square or Rectangular Magnet Wire
All Size

Double Cotton-covered

172

American Steel and Wire Company

2 C

ill

= S

5 -

s~i §~"

gs^-^s

l^°11

o o c o o
UOOUtJ

!Sg^

<Da>a>a>a>a>o>a>a>a>i>_^__-_

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K««ffl«pSPQr -

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cc co 07 53 !

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• § o* c5 55 55 55 7? f"1 f1 f> T> 5"' •

" "

;8S<

Rail Bonds aiid Appliances

173

i *

2 ^

"5 ~-

1 I

3 o

ill

•3 a,

•si

<! P5

to o
co 53

it i^t '* j

-:» 7> '»

Sell

i ESS o ^-i.^— ^ *-; .^ ••
'^ Q Q ^°' 0"°"^^

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174

American Steel and Wire Company

Electric Railway Material
Rubber-covered Wires and Cables

We manufacture rubber insulated electrical wires and cables of all
descriptions and for all purposes, leaded or armored. These are fully
described in our recent " Electrical Wires and Cables " catalogue.

Globe rubber insulation wires and cables.
Crown rubber insulation wires and cables.
High grade, 30 per cent para and special
insulated wires and cables.

Telephone wires and cables.
Signal wires and cables.
Car cables.

Mining machine cables.
Packing house cord.
Elevator lighting cables.
Elevator control cables.
Theatre or stage cables.
Border light cables.
Deck cables.

Kinds oi Rubber Insulation

We make three standard grades of rubber compound for rubber-covered
conductors: Globe, or ordinary compound; Crown, or intermediate compound;
and a High Grade Thirty Per Cent Compound. In addition, we insulate wire
to any specifications covering particular requirements such as 20 or 40 per
cent rubber compounds.

Globe Rubber This is regularly furnished on wires and cables for 600-volt
National Electrical Code requirements. It can however be
used for potentials as high as 2500 volts, if the service conditions be favorable
to rubber, or if the conductor be lead encased.

Crown Rubber This rubber has better physical properties than the Globe,
is more durable, stronger and has a higher factor of safety.
It is a high grade compound for all National Electrical Code requirements and
can be recommended for service conditions in which the working pressure is
7000 volts or under.

High Grade Thirty Per
Cent Rubber Compound

Contains only the best grade of pure para rubber,
and is used for high voltage circuits. This makes
an unsurpassed dielectric for all high voltages and

for exacting service conditions ; it has great strength and elasticity, high insu-
lation qualities and long life. All of these compounds make solid black
rubber.

Rail Bonds and Appliances

175

Electric Railway Material
Paper-insulated Lead-sheathed Cables

For many years past we have manufactured large quantities of paper
cables, single and multiple conductor. Our factory equipment is unexcelled
for making this class of material to the most exacting specifications.

Prices quoted on application.

Varnished Cambric Cables

We also manufacture large quantities of varnished cambric cable and
submarine cable of every class, for street railways and electric light and power
plants. Inquiries solicited.

176

American Steel and Wire Company

Engineering Data

T-rail Section and Drilling

Rail Bonds and Appliances

177

Engineering Data
Properties and Dimensions of T-Rails

As made by the Carnegie Steel Company and the Illinois Steel Company
A. S. C. E. Sections

Drilling of Rails in Inches

Ohmic

Weight of
Rail per
Yard
in Pounds

Dimensions of Rail Sections in Inches
STANDARD T-RAILS
(See opposite page)

STANDARD with
Carnegie Steel Co.
and Illinois Steel Co.
as Shown in Their
Rail Catalogue

Section
of
Rail in
Square
Inches

Resistance
of One Rail
per 1000 Feet
Assuming it
to Equal 12
Times that

of Copper

No. Joints

68° F.

0.784

.12454

all

2/8

1.57

.06227

2ft

^•li

2ft

1.96

.049808

3/5

iff

Iff

3/4

2.94

.033212

40
45

iff

If
li

3/2

2/2

5
5

•

3.92
4.42

.024908
.022170

l^s

4.90

.019925

2 i/

/T-

lift

2^2

5.39

.018114

23/6

nit

2/"2

5.88

.016606

65 4yV

2jf

4jV

2/2

1 6.37

.01538

4:ft

2^r-x

2-V

4:ft

6.86

.014233

4il

^rA

4rl 2>^

7.35

.01336

2T3g-

5 2ji

1 7.84

.012454

5 A

Ol 7

5TV 2/2

8.33

.01185

90 5^1

2ft

2y4¥5¥

53/6 ! 2^

1 8.82

.011070

95 5^

2ri

2y5¥5¥

5T»_ 2%

9.31

.01053

100 534:

23^

2T6X-

5% ' 2j4

5 6

9.80

.009963

110

Q/s

21!

6^ 2/2

1 10.80

.009057

Series Type "A"

2J3

~5~%

5.88

.016606

23/8

2i«

2/-2

6.86

.014233

80
90

5/8 2/2

5
5

6
6

1/8

7.84 .012454
8.82 .011070

100

9.80

.009963

Series Type " B "

4T3* '. 2/s
4|f 23/8

«9,

li
If

5
5

1
1

5.88 .016606
6.86 1 .014233

4i| 2T\

y^,

4_7

2%,

1 /$

7.84

.012454

90
100

5f|

2ff

3 2

5
5

6
6

8.02
9.80

.011070
.009963

NOTE — The two tables, Series Type "A" and Series Type " B " represent T-rail sections proposed by the
Committee on Standard Rail and Wheel Sections for adoption as "Recommended Practice of the American
Railway Association."

178

American Steel and \V^ire Company

.-d

,-d

Girder Rail Section and Drilling

Rail Bonds and Appliances

179

Engineering Data

Properties and Dimensions of Girder Rails in Most Common Use

These girder rails are made by the Lorain Steel Company and they are
shown in the Lorain Catalogue No. 16.

Section
No. and
Size of
Rail in
Pounds
per Yards

Dimensions of Girder Rail
Sections in Inches
(See opposite page)

Standard Drilling of Rails in Inches

Sectional
Area of
Rail
in Inches

Section of Rail
in Circular
Mils. Ratio
Steel to
Copper 1:12

Diam.

(d)of
Holes

Upper Row
of Holes

Lower Row
of Holes

8ft

7
7
9

4
5
4
4
5

a' b'

3>2 5

73
90
95
116

129

2X
3
3

B
H
B

6
6

IX
IX

4
5
4
4
5

7.16
8.82
9.31
11.39
12.66

758,864
935,825
987,880
1,206,000
1,341,000

3/^ 5

Rail Joints

It is generally concluded by railway engineers (a) that the spacing of
rails with open joints is unnecessary in paved streets ; (b) that it is best not to
stagger rail joints subjected to heavy traffic ; and (c) that in making a joint,
the parts of rail and splice bar brought into contact should be cleaned of scale
and rust, that the bolts should not be overstrained when fully drawn up, and
sledging should be reduced to a minimum.

MAX.4'51/Z" MIN.4'5%"

M. C. B. Track and Wheel Gauge

180

American Steel and W^ire Company

Engineering Data

To Find the Degree or Radius of Railway Curve

(From the Roadmasters' Assistant)

Stretch taut a 50-foot tape line on the inner side of the rail and measure
the perpendicular distance (which is the "middle ordinate") from the center of
the tape line to the inner edge of the rail.

The radius and degree of the curve corresponding to this middle ordinate
may then be found in the following table :

Degrees

Radius
in Feet

Middle
Ordinate in
Inches

Degrees Radius
in 1'eet

Middle
Ordinate in
Inches

Degrees

Radius
in Feet

Middle
Ordinate in
Inches

30
1°

2°
3°
40

5°
6°

11,490
5,730
2,865
1,910
1,433
1,146
955

.22
.66
1.32
1.97
2.63
3.28
3.94

7° 819
8° 717
9° 637
10° 574
11° 522
12° 478
13° 442

4.57
5.24
5.89
6.54

7.20
7.87
8.51

14°
15°
16°
17°
18°
19°
20°

410
383
359
338
320
303
288

9.17
9.80
10.49
11.11
11.78
12.41
13.06

To Ascertain the Radius Corresponding to any Degree

Divide 5780 (the radius of a 1° curve) by the degree of the curve under consideration.

To Determine the Elevation of the Outer Rail on Curves

Stretch a line between two points 54 feet apart, on the running side of the outer rail,
and the distance from the center of this line to the rail will give the elevation required.

Table of Middle Ordinates for Bending Rails to be Laid on Curves

Deflec-

Length of Rails in Feet

tion
Angle

Radius
Feet

Degrees

Inches

11,460

.120

.096

.072

.060

.048

.036

.024

5,730

.240

.192

.156

.132

.108

.096

.072

.060

.048

1.5

3,820

.348

.312

.252

.216

.192

.156

.120

.096

.072

2,865

.456

.408

.348

.300

.252

.204

.168

.132

.096

2.5

2,292

.588

.516

.444

.372

.324

.264

.216

.168

.120

,910

.696

.612

.528

.444

.372

.312

.264

.204

.144

3.5

,637

.840

.732

.624

.516

.444

.372

.300

.240

.180

,433

.948

.828

.720

.600

.504

.420

.348

.276

.216

4.5

,274

1.056

.924

.804

.672

.564

.468

.384

.312

.240

,146

1.188

1.032

.888

.756

.636

.528

.420

.348

.264

5.5

,042

1.296

1.128

.984

.840

.708

.576

.468

.384

.288

955.4

1.404

1.224

1.056

.912

.768

.624

.504

.408

.312

6.5

882

1.536

1.344

1.164

.984

.828

.684

.552

.444

.336

819

1.644

1.440

1.248

1.056

.888

.732

.588

.468

.360

7.5

764.5

1.752

1.524

1.332

1.128

.948

.780

.636

.504

.384

716.8

1.896

1.644

1.428

1.200

.020

.840

.672

.540

.408

8.5

674.6

1.992

1.740

1.512

1.272

1.080

.888

.720

.576

.432

637.3

2.100

1.836

1.596

1.344

.140

.936

.756

.600

.456

9.5

603.8

2.244

1.956

1.692

1.428

.212

.996

.804

.648

.504

10.

573.7

2.352

2.052

1.776

1.500

.272

.044

.852

.684

.540

11.

521.7

2.592

2.256

1.956

1.668

.404

.152

.936

.756

.568

12.

478.3

2.832

2.472

2.148

1.812

1.536

.260

1.020

.828

.636

13.

441.7

3.048

2.664

2.304

1.956

1.656

.356

1.104

.900

.684

14.

410.3

3.300

2.868

2.484

2.100

1.776

.464

1.188

.960

.782

15.

383.1

3.540

3.084

2.676

2.256

1.908

.572

1.272

1.020

.780

16.

359.3

3.756

3.276

2.832

2.400

2.040

.668

1.356

1.092

.840

17.

338.3

3.996

3.480

3.024

2.556

2.160

.776

1.440

1.152

.888

18.

319.6

4.212

3.672

3.180

2.700

2.280

.872

1.524

1.224

.936

19.

302.9

4.452

3.888

3.360

2.856

2.412

.980

1.608

1.296

.984

20.

287.9

4.704

4.092

3.552

3.000

2.544

2.088

1.692

1.368

1.044

Note — This table is slightly modified in form from that prepared by Mr. John C. Trautwine for his
Engineers' Pocket Book."

Civil

Rail Bonds and Appliances

181

Engineering Data

Table for the Elevation of the Outer Rail on Curves

Rate of vSpeed in Miles per Hour

Degree
of

Curvature

Elevation of Outer Rail in Inches

30'

136

1/8

1°00'

7
16

^/8

IT'S

IISB

1^8

1°30'

13G

1 jag

gl^

2° 00'

.B(

1£

1/8

2/8

2! i

8/^

2° 30'

2/8

2i^

3i6(i

4^5

5^|

3° 00'

J3/

2r7s

3/8

4lfi

3° 30'

V-2.

li'e

2tle

2r«

4:>g

4° 00'

J 1

5 Aj

G/i

4° 30'

5° 00'

4 8

5j|

7.%

~/B

6° 00'

Ii9e

2 /a

4J1

6i5e

8 8

14 1*6

7° 00'

Al/t

9 ^/A.

ll/

16^4

8° 00'
9° 00'
10° 00'

23/1

3^
4^1

7§

nil

18K

13/8

143^
16^8

18%
23^

12° 00'

i-K

zys

41!

15° 00'

3ft

6/8

QI'B

18° 00'

2 IB

4lB

10l96

20° 00'

2JI

51^

8j3g

\\y\

25° 00'

313

6f |

lO^g

15i5s

30° 00'

4/8

' 16

12A

17^

DOUBLE TRACK

Typical Track Sections

182

American Steel and Wire Company

Engineering Data

Power to Propel Cars

Data Based on Paper Read by A. H. Armstrong at Annual Meeting of. A. I. E. E.,

June 30, 1903

Stops per
Mile

Schedule
Speed

W. H. per
Ton M.

Schedule
Speed

W. H. per
Ton M.

Schedule
Speed

W. H.per
Ton M.

Schedule
Speed

W. H.per
Ton M.

30.

140

27.5

110

155

25.

122

170

23.5

133

183

22.5

32 143

196

1.0

21.5

100

29 153

208

1.2

20.5

106

162

27.5

217

1.4

19.5

111

170

1.6

18.5

116

177

1.8

18.8

121

184

2.0

17.

126

190

2.2

16.5

130

196

2.4

16.

135

2.6

15.5

140

2.8

15.0

144

3.0

14.5

Physical Properties of Metals

Metals

Ultimate
TeTisile
Strength
Pounds per
Square
Inch

Melting
Point in
Cent.
Degrees

Specific
Heat

Coefficient
of Linear
Expansion
Below 100
Degrees
Cent.

OhmsRes.
per Mil
Foot, 20
Degrees
Cent.

Temp.
Coefficient
K. Cent.
Degrees

Antimony

440
625
266
1020
1054 to
1200
1093
1046
1220
1620
325
1260
—39.4
1620
1800

0.0508
.2185
.0298
.0939
.0951
.0951

0.00001129
.00002310
.00001755
.00001720
.00001596

230.2
18.21
845.20
45.00
10.35
10.7
126.6
13.28
380.
63.21
126.10
245.
577.6
74.73
56.69
39.6
12.9
10.48
118.
111.
84.57
36.60

0.00389
.00390
.00354

.' 00388
.00388
.000443
.00365
.00453
.0054
.00387
.00122
.0007485
.0041
.0039

.'00377
.0050

! 00365
.00365

Aluminum, annealed . . .
Bismuth

15,000

6,400

18,000
30,000
60,000
87,000

16,500
52,000
3,300

Brass, cast
Copper, annealed ....
Copper, hard drawn ....
German silver wire ....
Gold, annealed
Iron, cast
Iron, wrought
Lead
Manganese steel

.0324
.1298
.1138
.0314

.00001415
.00001001
.000011660

.00002828

Mercury
Nickel
Platinum
Phosphor bronze
Silicon bronze
Silver
Steel, high carbon ....
Solder, tin 1, lead 1 ....
Tin ....

64,700
75,000

100,000
7,500
4,500
7,500

.0333
.1150
.0324

.00006
.00001251
.00000863

950
1410
187
230
416

.0570
.1175

.00001943
.00001240

.0562
.0956

.00002094
.00002532

Zinc

Rail Bonds and Appliances

183

Engineering Data

Weight and Specific Gravity of Various Materials

Weight in Pounds

Name

Specific
Gravity

Name

Specific
Gravity

Per

Cubic

Per

Cubic

Per

Cubic

Per
Cubic

Foot

Inch

Foot

Inch

Water, pure, 60° F

62.3

.036

1.00

Glass, crown

156

.090

2.52

Water, sea

64.3

.037

1.03

Glass, plate .

172

.099

2.76

Glass, flint . .

192

.111

3.07

METALS

Granite .

164

.095

2.63

Iron, cast .

450

.260

7.22

Gypsum .

143

.082

2.28

Iron, wrought

480

.278

7.70

Lime, quick .

.030

0.84

Iron, steel

490

.283

7.85

Limestone . .

168

.100

2.80

Aluminum

166.5

.096

2.67

Marl ....

119

.069

1.90

Brass ....

524

.302

8.40

Masonry, from .

120

.068

1.90

Bronze

552

.320

8.85

Masonry, to

144 .083

2.30

Copper

554

.32

8.89

Mortar, average

109 .063

1.75

Gold ....

1208

.697

19.36

Mud ....

102

.059

1.63

Lead ....

710

.410

11.40

Petroleum .

.032

0.88

Platinum .

1344

.775

21.53

Plumbago

140

.081

2.27

Silver ....

655

.377

10.50

Sand, average .

100

.058

1.61

Tin ....

458

.265

7.35

Sandstone .

144

.083

2.30

Zinc ....

437

.253

7.00

Shale ....

162

.094

2.60

Slate ....

175

.101

0 Of)

MINERALS

& , OU

Asphalt

.050

1.39

Trap ....

170

.098

2.72

Brick, soft . .

100

.058

1.60

WOODS

Brick, hard .

125

.071

2.00

Brick, pressed .

135

.077

2.16

Apple

.028

0.76

Brickwork, or-

112

.064

1.80

Ash ....

.026

0.72

dinary .

Cedar . . .

.022

0.62

Brickwork, fine .

120

.068

2.10

Cherry . . .

.024

0.67

Clay ....

119

.068

1.92

Chestnut

.020

0.56

Coal, anthracite .

.056

1.57

Hemlock

.015

0.38

Coal, bituminous

.048

1.35

Maple . . .

.026

0.68

Coke ....

.036

1.01

Oak, white .

.030

0.77

Concrete cement

130

.075

2.20

Oak, red . . .

.026

0.74

Earth, from .

.052

1.63

Pine, white .

.017

0.45

Earth, to ...

135

.068

1.92

Pine, yellow

.020

0.61

Felspar

162

.094

2.60

Walnut . . .

.020

0.58

Flint ....

164

.095

2.63

184 American Steel and Wire Company

Engineering Data

Linear

1 meter — 39.3704 inches = 3.281 feet = 1.094 yards.

Centimeter (1-100 meter) — 0.3937 inch.

1 millimeter (mm.) = .03937 inch = 39.37 mils.

1 inch = 25.3997 millimeters = .083 foot = 2.54 centimeters.

1 kilometer — 1,000 meters, or 3,281 feet = .6213 mile.

For the purpose of memory, a meter may be considered as 3 feet 3^" inches.

Surface Measures

Centare (1 square meter) = 1,550 square inches = 10.764 square feet.

Are (100 square meters) = 119.6 square yards.

1 square centimeter — 0.155 square inch = 197,300 circular mils.

1 square millimeter = .00155 square inch = 1973 circular mils.

1 square inch = 6.451 square centimeters = .0069 square foot.

1 square foot = 929.03 square centimeters = .0929 square meter.

Weights

Milligram (1-1,000 gram) = 0.0154 grain.

Centigram (1-100 gram) = 0.1543 grain.

Decigram (1-10 gram) = 1.5432 grains.

Gram = 15.432 grains.

Decagram (10 grams) = 0.3527 ounce.

Hectogram (100 grams) = 3.5274 ounces.

Kilogram (1,000 grams) = 2.2046 pounds.

Myriagram (10,000 grams) = 22.046 pounds.

Quintal (100,000 grams) = 220.46 pounds.

Millier or tonne — ton (1,000,000 grams) = 2,204.6 pounds.

Volumes

Milliliter (1-1,000 liter) = 0.061 cubic inch.
Centiliter (1-100 liter) = 0.6102 cubic inch.
Deciliter (1-10 liter) = 6.1023 cubic inches.
Liter =1,000 cu. cm. = 61.023 cubic inches.
Hectoliter (100 liters) = 2.838 bushels.
Kiloliter (1,000 liters) = 1,308 cubic yards.

Liquid Measures

Milliliter (1-1,000 liter) = 0.0338 fluid ounce.
Centiliter (1-100 liter) = 0.338 fluid ounce.
Deciliter (1-10 liter) = 0.845 gill.
Liter = 0.908 quart = 0.2642 gallon.
Decaliter (10 liters) = 2.6418 gallons.
Hectoliter (100 liters) = 26.418 gallons.
Kiloliter (1,000 liters) = 264.18 gallons.

Rail Bonds and Appliances 185

Engineering Data

The C. G. S. electrical units are derived from the following fundamental units :

The centimeter, the union of length.

The gramme, the unit of mass.

The second, the unit of time.

The centimeter equals .3937 of an inch, or one thousand-millionth part of a quadrant of
the earth.

The gramme is equal to 15.432 grains, the mass of a cubic centimeter of water at 4° C.

The second is the time of one swing of the pendulum, making 86,464.09 swings per
day, or the 1-86400 part of a mean solar day.

Mensuration

Circumference of circle whose diameter is 1 = ~ = 3.14159265.

Circumference of any circle — diameter X TT-

Area of any circle = (radius)2 X ~, or (diameter)2 X 0.7854.

Surface of sphere = (diameter)2 X ~, or = circumference X diameter.
Volume of sphere z= (diameter)3 X 0.5236, or = surface X | diameter.

Area of an ellipse = long diameter X short diameter X 0.7854.

TT* = 9.8696; TT-I = 1.772454; ~/4 = 0.7854.

V- = 0.31831 ; log TT — 0.4971499.

Basis of natural log ; f = 2.7183 ; log <-r = 0.43429.

Modulus of natural logarithm M = — — = 2.3026.

f 144 Ib. per sq. foot.

51.7116 mm. of mercury.
1 Ib. per sq. inch = ^ 2.30665 feet of water.

0.072 ton (short) per sq. foot.

0.0680415 atmosphere.

One mile = 320 rods = 1760 yards = 5280 feet = 63,360 inches.
One fathom = 6 feet; I knot = 6080 feet = 1.15 miles.
1 cubic foot = 1728 cubic inches.

1 liquid gallon = 231 cubic inches =r 0.134 cubic foot
1 pound avoirdupois — 7000 grains = 453.6 grammes.
The angle of which the arc is equal to the radius, a Radian = 57.2958°.

Physical Data

The equivalent of one B. t. u. of heat = 778 foot-pounds.

The equivalent of one calorie of heat = 426 kg-m., = 3.968 B. t. u.

One cubic foot of water weighs 62.355 pounds at 62° F.

One cubic foot of air weighs 0.0807 pound at 32° F. and one atmosphere.

One cubic foot of hydrogen weighs 0.00557 pound.

One foot-pound = 1.3562 X 107 ergs.

One horse-power hour — 33,000 X 60 foot-pounds.

186

American Steel and Wire Company

Engineering Data

One horse-power = 33,000 foot-pounds per min. = 550 foot-pounds per second — 746
watts = 2545 B. t. u. per hour

Acceleration of gravity (g) = 32.2 feet per second.
= 980 c. m. per second.

One atmosphere = 14.7 pounds per square inch.
=. 2116 pounds per square foot
— 760 mm. of mercury.
Velocity of sound at 0° cent, in dry air = 332.4 meters per second

~=. 1091 feet per second.

Velocity of light in vacuum = 299,853 km. per second.
= 186,325 miles per second.

Specific heat of air at constant pressure = 0.237.

A column of water 2.3 feet high corresponds to a pressure of 1 pound per square inch.
Coefficient of expansion of gases =z ^i? rrr 0.00367.
Latent heat of water = 79.24 cal.
Latent heat of steam = 535.9 cal

CENTIGRADE DEGREES. To convert into the corresponding one in Fahrenheit degrees
multiply by 9/5 and add 32. To convert it into the one in Reaumur degrees multiply by
4/5. To convert it into the one on the Absolute scale, add 273.

FAHRENHEIT DEGREES. To convert into Centigrade degrees, subtract 32 and then
multiply by 5/9, being careful about the signs when the reading is below the melting point
of ice To convert it into Reaumur degrees, subtract 32 and multiply by 4/9 To convert
it into the Absolute scale, subtract 32, multiply by 5, add 2297, and divide by 9

Decimals of an Inch and Millimeters for each 1-64 Inch

c
-S

£-c
p~

Fraction

«s

Decimal
Inch

E
E

Fraction

«g

d
rtw

Decimal
Inch

mm.

Fraction

-
-----

-5
41)

Decimal
Inch

E
E

.015625

.3968

.265625

6.7467

.515625

13.0966

.765625

19.4465

.03125

.7937

.28125

7.1436

.53125

13.4934

.78125

19.8433

.046875

1.1906

.296875

7.5404

.546875

13.8903

.796875

20.2402

.0625

1.5874

.3125

7.9373

.5625

14.2872

5-2

.8125

20.6371

.078125

1.9843

.328125

8.3342

.578125

14.6841

.828125

21.0339

.09375

2.3812

.34375

8.7310

.59375

15.0809

.84375

21.4308

.109375

2.7780

.359375

9.1279

.609375

15.4778

.859375

21.8277

.125

3.1749

l/s

.375

9.5248

.625

15.8747

-H

51 1

.875

22.2245

.140625

3.5718

.390625

9.9216

.640625

16.2715

.890625

22.6214

. 15625

3.9686

.40625

10.3185

.65625

16.6684

.90625

23.0183

.171875

4.3655

.421875

10.7154

.671875

17.0653

.921875

23.4151

.1875

4.7624

i3,.,

.4375

11.1122

1?B

.6875

17.4621

.9375

23.8120

.203125

5.1592

.453125

11.5091

.703125

17 8590

.953125

24.20S9

.21875

5.5561

.46875

11.9060

.71875

18.2559

.96875

24.6057

.234375

5.9530

.484375

12.3029

.734375

18.6527

.984375

25.0026

.2500

6.3498

.500

12.6997

.75

19.0496

•X

(54

1.0000

25.3995

Rail Bonds and Appliances

187

Engineering Data

Areas and Circumferences of Circles

Diam-
eter

Circum-
ference

Area

Diam-
eter

Circum-
ference

Area

Diam-
eter

Circum-
ference

Area

~7~

.049087 .00019

6.28319

3.1416

15.7080

19.635

312

.098175

.00077

6.47953

3.3410

15.9043

20.129

B34

.147262

.00173

6.67588

3.5466

16.1007

20.629

.196350

.00307

6.87223

3.7583

13B

16.2970

21.135

335

.294524

.00690

7.06858

3.9761

16.4934

21.648

.392699

.01227

I5B

7.26493

4.2000

156

16.6897

22.166

352

.490874

.01917

3/Z

7.46128

4.4301

16.8861

22.691

I3B

.589049

.02761

7.65763

4.6664

17.0824

23.221

373

.687223

.03758

7.85398

4.9087

17.2788

23.758

.785398

.04909

8.05033

5.1572

17.4751

24.301

.883573

.06213

8.24668

5.4119

17.6715

24.850

ise

.981748

.07670

8.44303

5.6727

17.8678

25.406

1.07992

.09281

8.63938

5.9396

18.0642

25.967

3/S

1.17810

.11045

8.83573

6.2126

18.2605

26.535

1.27627

.12962

9.03208

6.4918

18.4569

27.109

1.37445

.15033

9.22843

6.7771

18.6532

27.688

32^
IB

1.47263
1.57080
1.66897
1.76715
1.86532

.17257
.19635
.22166
.24850
.27688

9.42478
9.62113
9.81748
10.0138

7.0686
7.3662
7.6699
7.9798

18.8496
19.2423
19.6350
20.0277

28.274
29.465
30.680
31.919

32
H

1.96350

2.06167
2.15984
2.25802

.30680
.33824
.37122
.40574

-/*

10.2102
10.4065
10.6029
10.7992

8.2958
8.6179
8.9462
9.2806

20.4204
20.8131
21.2058
21.5984

33.183
34.472
35.785
37.122

2.35619

.44179

10.9956

9.6211

7. 21.9911

38.485

2.45437 .47937

11.1919

9.9678

22.3838

39.871

2.55254 .51849

5/8

11.3883

10.321

22.7765

41.282

§1

2.65072

.55914

11.5846

10.680

23.1692

42.718

2.74889

.60132

11.7810

11.045

23.5619

44.179

2.84707

.64504

11.9773

11.416

23.9546

45.664

2.94524

.69029

12.1737

11.793

24.3473

47.173

3.04342

.73708

12.3700

12.177

24.7400

48.707

3.14159

.78540

12.5664

12.566

25.1327

50.265

I3B

3.33794

.88664

12.7627

12.962

25.5254

51.849

3.53429

.99402

12.9591

13.364

25.9181

53.456

3.73064

1.1075

13.1554

13.772

3/8

26.3108

55.088

3.92699

1.2272

13.3518

14.186

26.7035

56.745

15B

4.12334 1.3530

iss

13.5481

14.607

5/8

27.0962

58.426

4.31969 1.4849

13.7445

15.033

27.4889

60.132

4.51601

1.6230

13.9408

15.466

27.8816

61.862

4.71239

1.7671

14.1372

15.904

4.90874

1.9175

14.3335

16.349

28.2743

63.617

5.10509

2.0739

14.5299

16.800

28.6670

65.397

5.30144

2.2365

14.7262

17.257

29.0597

67.201

5.49779

2.4053

3/4

14.9226

17.721

29.4524

69.029

5.69414

2.5802

15.1189

18.190

29.8451

70.882

5.89049

2.7612

15.3153

18.665-

30.2378

72.760

6.08684

2.9483

15.5116

19.147

3/4

30.6305

74.662

Products of the

American Steel & Wire Co.

American Wire Rope

Aeroplane Wire and Strand

Piano Wire

Mattress Wire

Weaving Wire

Broom Wire

Fence Wire

Flat Wire— Flat Cold Rolled Steel

Wire Hoops

Electrical Wires and Cables

Rail Bonds

Bale Ties

Tacks

Nails, Staples, Spikes

Barbed Wire

Woven Wire Fencing

Fence Gates

Steel Fence Posts

Concrete Reinforcement

Springs

Sulphate of Iron

Poultry Netting

Wire Rods

Juniata Horse Shoes and Calks

Shafting, Cold Drawn Steel

Wire of Every Description

We issue separate catalogues for each
of these products. Gladly furnished upon
request.

SALES OFFICES

BOSTON 120 Franklin Street SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH

CINCINNATI . Union Trust Building 736 South 3rd West Street

CLEVELAND, Western Reserve Building SEATTLE, WASH.

DETROIT Ford Building 4th Avenue South and Connecticut Street

LOS ANGELES ST. PAUL-MINNEAPOLIS

Jackson and Central Avenues Pioneer Press Building, St. Paul

P.TTSBURG . Bank °' °E£ B±i:; ST. LOU.S, Thir<J H-taU Bank BuiUtag
PORTLAND, ORE. LONDON, ENG.

Ninth and Irving Streets 36 New Broad Street, E. C.

EXPORT REPRESENTATIVES
United States Steel Products Co., 30 Church Street, New York, N. Y.

Rail Bonds and Appliances

189

Alternating Currents
Alternating Current Heating Effec
Amalgamation of Contact Surfaces
Ampere
Arcing Distance in Air
Area of Contact Surfaces
A. S. & W. Bond Tester .

Blunting Punch No. 11 .
Board of Trade Regulations, Britis
Bond Tester, Crown
Bond Tester, A. S. & W. .
Bond Wire, Galvanized
Bonded Joints, Resistance of
Bonding Appliances
Bonding, Graduated
Bonding Tools
Bonds, Crown . ]

In<3

PAGE
156, 159
ts 158
24
. 146
. 162
. 20-22
41, 136

. 143
,h 43-47
41, 138
41, 136
. 165
34
93
36
93
.3, 60, 86
75

lex

PAGE
Conductors, Parallel .... 156
Conductors, Property of ... 151
Conductors, Rail Bond . . . . 26, 29
Conductors, Series .... 156
Concealed Rail Bonds .... 30
Contact of Stud Terminals . . . 22-25
Contact Surfaces, Amalgamation of . 24
Contact Surfaces, Area of ... 20-22
Contacts, Photo-micrograph of . 25
Contacts, Temperature Effects on . 26
Contents, Table of . . ft

Conversion Tables ....
Copper

186, 187
13

Crosby Wire Clips ....
Cross Bond
Crown Bond Tester
Crown Bonds, Dimensions of
Crown Rail Bonds ....
Crown Rail Bonds, Type C. P. 01
Type C P 02

. 169
55
41, 138
74
13, 60, 86
. 61, 62
64 73

Bonds for T-Rail

Bonds, Soldered Rail
Bonds, Soldered Stud .
Bonds, Styles of ....
Bonds, Twin Terminal .
Bonds, United States
British Board of Trade Regulations

Cables, Paper Insulated
Cambric Cables, Varnished .
Capacity, Electrostatic .
Cars, Power to Propel .
Carrying Capacity of Rail Bonds
Charging Current

. 14, 58
. 14, 56
. 13, 51
. 14, 52
. 14,76
. 43-47

. 175

. 175
. 157
160, 182
. 32-37
157

Type C. P. 03 . . . .
Type C. P. 04 .
Type C. P 06 .

63
65
66

Type C. P. 1
Type C. P 2

67
69

Type C. P. 3 . . . .
Type C P 4

68
70

Type C. S. 01 . . . .
Type C. S 02 .

62
64

Type C S 03

Type C. S. 04 . . . .
Type C. S 06 .

65
66

Type C. S. 1

Chicago Bond
Circles, Functions of ...
Circuits
Circular Mils
Clamp No. 84
Clamp No. 85
Clamp, Three-bolt Stranded
Compressors, Screw
Compressors, Screw Hydraulic .
Compressors, Nos. 40 to 48
No 61

88
. 187
. 147
. 148
. 131
. 131
. 169
. 120
122-127
. 120
122

Tyoe C. S. 2

Type C S 3

Type C S 4

Tvpe C. P. C

Type C P F

. 73 87

Type C. P. G.

Type C. P. M .

Type C. P. N
Type C. P. N. D .
Type C. P. 0
Type C P OF .

90
90
90
71

No. 63-064
No. 68
Conductivity
Conductors, Electric

. 124
. 126
. 148
147, 148

Type C. P. OG .
Type C. P. S
Type C P T. ...

88
86
72

Type C. P. X

190

American Steel and Wire Company

Bonds
& W.

Crown Rail Bonds, Type C. S. F.

Type C. S. G .....

Type C. S. M .....

Type C. S. N .....

Type C. S. O .....

Type C. S. OF . . .

Type C. S. OG .

Type C. S. S .....

Type C. S. X .....
Current, Electric ....
Cutter, Groove No. 14 .
Cutter, Groove No. 16 ..

Degree of Railway Curves .
Dimensions of Crown Bonds
Dimensions of United States
Directions for Operating A. S.

Bond Tester .....

Crown Bond Tester .

Type 20 Drill .....

Type 20- M Drill . . . .

Type 021 Drill . .

Type 21 Drill . . . .

Type 21- M Drill . . . • .
. Type 22 Drill .

Type 22- M Drill .

Type 61 Screw Hydraulic Com-
pressor ......

Type 66 Hydraulic Punch .

Type 68 Screw Hydraulic Com-
pressor .

Type 83 Brazier .
Drift Pins ....
Drill Grinder No. 16
Drilling Machines .
Drilling Machine No. 19

No. 20 . . . .

No. 20-M . . .

No. 021 ...

No. 21 .

No. 21 -M . . .

No. 22 . . . .

No. 22- M .

No. 24- M . .
Drills, Twist
Driver or Set, Tool No. 17

Electric Current
Electric Grinder No. 81

PAGE

146

142

180
74

136

138

107

116

114

119

122
129

PAGE

Electrical Contacts 22-25

Electricity, Notes on ... 146-162
Electromotive Force .... 147
Elevation of Outer Rail on Curve . 181

Energy Loss 35

Expanding Hammer No. 10 . . 143
Exposed Rail Bonds .... 30

Frequency 156

Galvanized Bond Wire . . . . 165

Galvanized Steel Signal Wire . . 165
Galvanized Steel Strand . . 165-167

Galvanized Wire, Telegraph . . 164

Galvanized Wire, Telephone . . 164

Gauges, Wire 149

General Consideration, Bonding . . 12

Graduated Bonding .... 36

Grinder No. 81, Electric . . . 132

Grinder, No. 80, Hand Power . . 132

Grinder, Drill No. 16 . . . . 140

Groove Cutter No. 14 .... 142

Groove Cutter No. 16 .... 142

Grounded Conductors .... 148

Hammer, Expanding No. 10 . . 143

Hand Power Grinder, No. 80 . . 132

Heating Effects, Alternating Current 158

. 126

Hydraulic Punch No. 66

. 128

. 135

140

Induction

. 157

94-119

Impedance

. 157

116

Installation of Rail Bonds .

. 37,38

106-109

106-111

116

Length of Rail Bonds .

112-115

List of Products ....

. 188

. 118

. 94-97

98-101

Magnet Wire

170, 171

102-105

Material for Soldering .

. 131

. 140

Materials, Specific Gravity of

. 183

. 144

Materials, Weight of ...

. 183

Mensuration

. 185

Metric Weights and Measures .

. 184

. 146

Mile-ohm, Weight per .

. 154

132

Mils

148

Rail Bonds and Appliances

191

PAGE

Resistance

PAGE

150

Notes on Electricity
O

. 146-162

Resistance of Bonded Joints
Resistance of Rail Joints
Resistivity .

34
33
150

Ohms
Ohm's Law ....

. . 150
. . 156

Resistivity,Temperature Coefficient of
Rubber-covered Wires ....

154
174

Ohms per mil-foot 151

Oil on Drills 24

Operating Directions for (see Direc-
tions for Operating)
Orders, Regarding 10

Paper Insulated Cables .... 175
Parallel Conductors .... 156
Photo-micrograph of Contacts . . 25
Photo-micrograph of Terminal-con-
ductor Weld 29

Physical Data 185

Pins, Drift 17

Pole Steps 168

Power-factor 157

Power Required by Cars . . . 160

Power to Propel Cars .... 182

Preface 7

Properties of Conductors . . . 151

Punch, Blunting No. 11 ... 143
Punch, Hydraulic No. 66 . . 128, 130
Punches, Taper . . . . 17, 144

Radius of Railway Curve
Rail Bond Conductors .
Rail Bond Specifications
Rail Bonds, Carrying Capacity
Rail Bonds, Concealed .
Rail Bonds, Crown .
Rail Bonds, Exposed
Rail Bonds, Installation of .
Rail Bonds, Length of .
Rail Bonds for Rail Flanges
Rail Bonds for Rail Heads .
Rail Bonds for Rail Webs .
Rail Bonds, Selection of
Rail Bonds, Testing of .
Rail, Data Steel
Rail Flange, Rail Bonds for .
Rail Heads, Rail Bonds for .
Rail Joint Resistances .
Rail WTebs, Rail Bonds for .
Regarding Orders

180
26,29
47

32-37
. . 30
. 13, 60, 86
. . 30
. . 37, 38
. . 31
. . 91, 92
. . 51-59
. . 60-89
. . 30
. . 39-41
33, 177, 179
. . 91, 92
. . 51-59
. . 33
. . 60-89
10

Sales Offices

Screw Compressors

Screw Hydraulic Compressors .

Selection of Rail Bonds

Self-induction

Series Conductors ....
Signal Wire, Galvanized Steel .
Socket Terminals, Type C. P. M.

Type C. S. M

Type C. P. N

Type C. S. N

Type C. P. N. D. .

Type C P. O

Type C. S. O

Soldered Rail Bonds
Soldered Rail Bond, Form 1

Form IB

Form 2

Form Cl

Form C2

Form C3

Form C4

Form CF

Form Ul

Form U2

Form U3

Form U4

Soldered Stud Rail Bonds .
Soldered Stud Rail Bond, Form A

Form B

Form Cl

Form C2

Form C3

Form C4

Form CF

Form Ul

Form U2

Form U3

Form U4

Soldered Stud Terminals
Soldered Terminals
Soldering Clamp, No. 84

. 120

122-127

. 30

157

156

. 165

90
90
90
90
90
90

14,58
58
59
91
67
69
68
70
71
81
83
82
84

14,56
56
57
67
69
68
70
71
81
83
82
84
20
19
131

192

American Steel and Wire Company

Soldering Clamp, No. 85
Soldering Material .
Solid Stud Terminals
Specific Gravity of Materials
Specific Resistance .
Specifications for Rail Bonds

PAGE
131
131

15
183
150

Steel Rail Data . . 33, 75, 177, 179
Strand, Galvanized Steel . . 165-167
Stud Terminals, Contact of . . 22-25
Styles of Bonds 13, 51

T- Rails, Bonds for 75

Taper Punches 17, 144

Telegraph Wire, Galvanized . . 164

Telephone Wire, Galvanized . . 164

Temperature Coefficient of Resistivity 154

Temperature Effects on Contacts . 26

Terminals, Bond 14-20

Terminals, Socket 90

Terminals, Soldered .... 19

Terminals, Soldered Stud ... 20

Terminals, Solid Stud .... 15

Terminals, Tubular 15

Terminals, Twin 18

Testers, Bond 41, 138

Testing of Rail Bonds .... 39-41

Tests, Vibration 27

Three-bolted Stranded Clamp . . 169

Tools and Appliances .... 93

Torch or Brazier No. 83 ... 134

Transformers 158

Trolley \Vire 163

Tubular Terminals 15

Twist Drills, 6-inch Blacksmith's . 140

Twin Terminals 18

Twin Terminal Rail Bonds . . .14, 54

Twin Terminal Rail Bonds, Form A 54

Form B 54

Form C 55

Type B. S. B. Bond (see Soldered

Stud Rail Bonds)

Type C. S. Bonds (see Crown Bonds)
Type C. P. Bond (see Crown Bonds)
Type S. B. Bond (see Soldered Bonds)

PAGE
Type U. P. Bonds (see United States

Bonds)
Type U. S. Bonds (see United States

Bonds)

Union Between Terminal and Con-
ductor 29

United States Bonds . . . . 14, 76

United States Bonds, Dimensions of 85

United States Bond, Type U. P. 01 76

Type U. S. 01 76

Type U. P. 02 78

Type U. S. 02 78

Type U. P. 03 77

Type U. S. 03 77

Type U. P. 04 79

Type U. S. 04 . . . . . 79

Type U. S. 05 80

Type U. P. 06 80

Type U. P. 1 81

Type U. S. 1 81

Type U. P. 2 83

Type U. S. 2 83

Type U. P. 3 82

Type U. S. 3 82

Type U. P. 4 84

Type U. S. 4 84

Type U. S. B 92

Varnished Cambric Cables . . . 175

Vibration Tests 27

Voltage 147

Watts 157

Weatherproof W7ire . . . 172, 173
Weight of Materials .... 183
Weight per Mile-ohm .... 154
Weights and Measures, Metric . . 184
Weld, Terminal-conductor Photo-
micrograph 29

\Veld between Terminal and Conduc-
tor 29

Wire Gauges 149

Wiring Formulae 161

Wiring Tables .... 152-153, 155

American Steel & Wire
Company

II BARS 55 INCH

DISTANCE BETWEEN

BARS-INCHES

American Railway Fence

We manufacture and build railway fences
of varying styles and weights. These fences
meet all requirements and conditions in a sat-
isfactory manner. We guarantee quality, effi-
ciency and durability, and agree to furnish
better right-of-way protection for less money
than can be secured by the use of any other
material or form of fencing.

Prices for fencing or estimates of cost of
building along right-of-way promptly furnished.

Carnegie Steel Company

General Offices - Pittsburg, Pennsylvania

Duquesne Rail Joints

Properly maintained rail bonds are
possible with a rail joint as efficient as
the Duquesne.

Used by the most important trunk
lines.

Carnegie Steel Company

General Offices • Pittsburg, Pennsylvania

Steel Cross Ties

M 26 STEEL Citos.s 7/E.

Eight sections of Steel Cross Ties
which we are now making are used for all
classes of track, from the standard rail-
road down to the light portable track
for construction and mine purposes.

Carnegie Steel Company

General Offices - Pittsburg, Pennsylvania

are now furnishing large quantities of
Steel Cross Ties for city work as
shown below.

These ties are spaced four foot centers
in concrete. Results obtained from this
type of construction are highly satis-
factory.

The
Use of Concrete

for power plants, dams and
foundations is established, and
the superior advantages of concrete
in the design of hydraulic structures
are recognized by all engineers. The
Use of Universal Portland Cement
in concrete work insures the highest grade
of Portland cement possible to make. It
is absolutely uniform in soundness, fine-
ness, strength and setting properties.

Universal

Portland Cement Co.
Chicago - Pittsburg

Annual Outpu
10,000,000 Barrel

Lorain Girder Rails
Tee Rails

Special Track Work

Electrically Welded Joints

The Lorain Steel Company

Johnstown, Pa.

Sales Offices

Atlanta Chicago Cleveland New York

Philadelphia Pittsburgh Portland, Ore.

St. Louis San Francisco

Export Representatives

United States Steel Products Co.

3O Church Street, New York

American Bridge Company

of New York

General Offices : Hudson Terminal Building

3O Chvirch Street

New York City

Branch Offices in all Principal Cities

•

Structural Steel Work for Street Railways

Bridges Viaducts Car Barns Turntables

Power Houses Transformer Stations

Transmission Towers

Structural Steel Work for Every Purpose

Shelby Seamless Cold-drawn
Steel Trolley Poles

Standard "A" Pole (note reinforcement in section)

Standard "B" Pole (note reinforcement in section)
Standard "A" Pole Standard "B" Pole, Reinforced

For ordinary street service

To withstand severe service

Tubular

Plain

Various Shapes
Practically Indestructible

National

General Sales Office
Frick Building

Pittsburgh, Pa.

Steel Poles

Ornamental

All Sizes

Full Details on Request

Tube Company

District Sales Offices

Atlanta, Chicago, Denver, New
Orleans, New York, Philadelphia,
Pittsburgh, Portland, St. Louis, Salt
Lake City, San Francisco, Seattle
Export Representatives
U. S. Steel Products Co., New York City

Always Buy Tested Material

Shelby Seamless Cold-Drawn Steel

Trolley Poles

are tested in a specially
designed machine, one
view of which is here
illustrated.

The machine is so
designed that deflection
and elastic limit are defi-
nitely measured by a
micrometer with an accu-
racy which allows only a
small per cent for error.

Shelby Seamless Cold-Drawn Steel
Trolley Poles

are furnished in two types: Standard "A" Poles, for ordinary
street service ; Standard " B " Poles ( Reinforced ), for extra
severe service.

National Tube Company

General Sales Offices, Frick Building, Pittsburgh, Pa.

District Sales Offices

Atlanta Chicago Denver New Orleans New York

Philadelphia Pittsburgh Portland St. Louis

Salt Lake City San Francisco Seattle

Export Representatives : U. S. Steel Products Co., New York City

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY

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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY

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