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THE
RAJPUTANA GAZETTEER
*n n^
VOLUME II.
CALCUTTA :
OFFICE OF THE SUPERINTENDENT OP GOVEBNMENT PRINTING.
1879.
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T'v^*^ K^HO'S'
•j J: \Tr\
/;^
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CONTENTS.
AJME&MEBWABA.
General Description
The Arrali Bange
The Watershed
Bivers and Streams
Water-snpply for irrigaijion
Old Tank-emhankments
Natural Beserroirs
Cojomnnications—
Boads
Tel^raphs
Post Offices
Minerab
Stone-prddacts
lame
Boad-metal
Forests
Wild Animals and Game
Snh-diyisions
History of Ajmer
History of Merwara
Land-Tennres
Sales and Mortgages
Non-proprietary Cultivators
Population and Castes-
Population and Castes
Land-owning Castes
Merwara Clans
Social and religions cuitoms
Beligions tendency
The Land-
Agriculture
Bevenne Statistics
Trade-
Trades and Manufactures
Towns-
Chief town^ Ajmer
Be&war
Kekri
Pnshkar
Other Towns
Page.
• «•
»••
•«.
1
• ••
• «•
...
2
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M.
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67
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...
71
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Education —
Education .., ... ,., ... ... 71
Literature and the Press ... ..* ... ... ... 74k
Mayo College »»* ... ... ... ... ib.
Dispensaries ... ... ... ,.. ,.. 75
Poorliouses ... ••. ... ••• ... 76
Administration —
Ciril and Criminal ... ... ... ... ... ih.
Police ... ... ... ... ... 78
Jail Statistics ... ... ... .,, ... 79
Military ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Meteorological ... ... ... .„ ,., 85
Climate ... ... ... ,., ,„ 87
Birth and Death Bate ,.« ... ... .«• ••■ 88
Endemic Diseases ... ... ... ,., ,.. *b.
Other Diseases •.• ... ... ,., ,.. ib»
Medicine ... ... ... ... ...*Ill89
Betrospect of British Administration and the Famine of 1869 .„ ^,. ib.
Famine-
Famine of 1888-69 ,M M. ... ... ... 108
Present condition of the people ... ... ... ... ,., 113
Ajpjpendix A ... ,.• ... ... ... 119
fi Jj •.« •«. «*« ... i.( l^SU
ft G ... •«. ... ... ... Iax
n J-) ... .M ... ... .•» 122
M •£' ... .«* ... •*• ... 123
JAIPUR.
Geography-
Boundaries and Area'
General Topography
Sub-surface Water
Soils
Geplogy
Precious Stones
Eivers
Lakes
Climate and Bain&ll
Drouglitt
Forests
History ...
Form of Goremment
Principal Feudatories and Th&kurs
...
r..
-t«*
126
«..
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ih.
...
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126
...
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ThQLand—
Land-Tennres ,.« ..« .1. •«• ... 140
Distribution of the Land ••• ... ... ••. ..« 142
Cultivated Area ... - ... ... ... .,, t5«
Land-Eevenue ... ... ... ... ,.. ib.
Agriculture ' ... ..« ... .., ... 143
Cost of Production ... ... ... , ... ,., ib.
Cultivation ... ... ... ... ... 144
Irrigation ... ... ... ... «.« ib»
Population —
Population ... ... ... ... ... 145
Castes, Clans, and Tribes ... ... ... ... ... 146
Eeligion ... ... ... ... ... 147
State of Society ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Trade —
Manufactures ... ... ... ... ... 148
Commerce ... ... ... ... ... 149
Administration-
Judicial System ... ... ... ... ... 150
Jails ... ... ... ... ... ih.
Police ••• ... ... ... ... 151
Army ... ... ... ... ... ib*
Mint ... ... ... ... ... ib^
Post Offices ... ... ... ... ... 152
Telegraph Offices ... ... ... ... ... t6«
Education ••• ... ... ... ... ib*
Communications ••« ... ... ... ... 153
Trade Routes ... ... ... ... ... 154
Towns —
Principal Towns ... ... ... ... ... f6.
Fairs ... ... ... ... ... 160
Holy-places and Antiquities ... ... ... ... ... tft,
Apjpendix A ... ... ... ... ... 163
» B 164
Q ... ... ... ... ... 165
M 2) ,.. . ... ... «.t ... 166
JESALMEa.
€kograpby—
Boundaries and Area ... ... ... ... ... ^7
Configuration ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Scarcity of Water ... ... ... ... ... 169
Soils ... ... ... ... ... ib,
Bivers and Lakes ... ... ... ... . . . t5.
Climate and Bainf^ ... ... ... ... ... 170
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History ... ... ... ... ... 170
Account of Bulbg Family and dominant Classesi and form of Qovemment ... 172
Mannfactores ,•• ... ... .•• ... 173
The Land-
Principal Crops ,,. M. ..I ... ... ib*
Agriculture ... ... ... ... ... ih.
Irrigation ••» ... i.. ... ... ib,
Land-Bevenue ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Land-Tenures ' ... ... ... ... ... 174
Population —
Proprietary and Cultivating Classes ... ... ... ... 175
Population ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Castes, Clans, and Tribes ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Religion ... ... ... ... ...^ 176
State of Society ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Occupations ... ... ... ... ... 177
Administration —
Judicial System ... •,. ... ... ... ib.
Jails ^ ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Police ... ... ... ... ... 178
Education ..'. ... «,, ... ... ib.
Communications ... ,,, ... ... ... ih.
Towns —
Principal Towns ... ... ... ... ... 180
Fairs and Holy-places ... ... ... ... „. ib.
Antiquities and Bemarkable Places ... ... ... ... 181
JHALAWAR.
Geography—
Boxmdaries and Area
...
...
*#.■
...
Geology
•.«
...
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...
Configuration
t.c
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• •«
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Soil
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Bivers
t.t
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I*.
Climate and Bainfall
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History
l««
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Form of Government
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Account of Euling Family
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The Land-
Principal Crops
...
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Cost of Production
I««
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185
ib.
186
187
ib,
ib,
188
190
191
194
ib.
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Agriculture
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Irrigation
. ***
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Cultiyated Area
...
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195
System of Tenures and Land-Bevennes
• ••
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ib.
Coltiyating Classes
«..
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199
Population —
Population
tt«
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ib.
Castes, Clans, and Tribes
•««
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ib.
Beligion
...
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203
State of Society
•••
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ib.
Occupation
...
...
• ••
...
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ib.
Education
...
...
• ••
«t«
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ib.
Administration —
Admimstrative Sub^visions
...
...
• »•
• *•
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204
Judicial System
**•
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•••
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■ Police
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205
Jails
...
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Communications
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Towns-
Principal Towns and Parganas
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Parganas
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212
Fairs and Holy-places
...
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219
Antiquities and Bemarkable Places
...
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220
JODHPUB.
Geography-
Boundaries and Area
...
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• •*
222
Configuration
...
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Soils
...
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Geology
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Salt-sources
...
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224
Bivers and Lakes
...
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226
Climate and Bainfall
• .«
!••
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228
History
• ••
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230
Form of Government
• ••
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tr«
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236
Administrative Sub-divisions
• •«
• ••
M«
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237
The Land—
Principal Crops
!•«
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Agriculture
!•«
••'
• •«
ttt
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238
Lrigation
• ••
• •«
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ib.
Land-Bevenue
***
• «•
• tt
ttt
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239
Land-Tenures
• •«
• ••
ttt
ttt
•tt
240
Proprietary and Cultivating Classes
• ••
• •«
• tt
• ••
243
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Population—
Population ... ,., ... ... ,,, 244
Castes, Clans, and Tribes ... ... ... ... „. ih,
Religion ... ,., ... ... ,„ 245
State of Society ... ... ... .., „. ib.
Darbar Ceremonies ... ... ... ,.. .,. 246
Ceremony of Installation to the ^adi of Marwar ... ... ,,. 247
Customs of marriage and inheritance ... ... ... ... 251
Occupations ... ... ... ... ... 252
Trade-
Manufactures and Trade ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Administration —
Judicial System ... ... ... ... ... 253
Jails ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Police ... ... ... ... ... 254
Education ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Communications ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Towns —
Principal Towns ... ... ... ... ... 257
Fairs and Holy-places ... ... ... ... ... 258
Antiquities and Bemarkable Places ... ... ... ... 259
Famine —
Famine of 1868-69 ... ... ... ... ... 264
mallAni.
History ... ... ... ... ... 265
Geography —
General Topography ... ... ... ... ... 268
Configuration ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Rivers ... ... ... ... ... 269
Jhfis or Lakes ... ... ... ... ... 270
Mountains or Hill-countries, and Minerals ... ... ... ,,, ib.
Forests ... ... ... ... ... 272
Grasses ... ... ... ... ... ib.
Wild Animals ... ... ... ... ... ib,
Conmiunications ... ... ... ,., ,,. ib.
Climate' ... ... ... ... ... 274
Droughts, Floods, and BLghts ..« m« ..t •.« •*. «*.
Population —
Population ,.• ... ..* ... ... 275
Caste, Sects, and Races ... ... ... ... ... ih.
Religion ... ... ... ... ... 282
Sodal Customs and Usages ... ... ... ... ... 283
State ol Society ,., »., ... ... ... ib.
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•••
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The Land-
Principal Crops • •. .M ...
Agricultnre ... ... •••
Agricultural Tenares • • • • • . ttt ...
Rent-rates •#. ••• ... »..
Mode of collecting reyenne and agricnltoral statistics
Famine •.« ••« ••« ».«
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Commerce and Manufactures •.• •., ••. •••
f airs ••« ... ••• •«.
TheDarMr ... ... ... ...
Aristocracy ... ... ••• ,,,
Tenure by whicli the Jagirdirs of Mall&ni hold their Estates ... ...
Official Classes or Civil Establishment ••• ,•• ..«
Police ,„ M.
Towns and Villages ... ...
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AJMER-MERWARA:
COMPILED MAINLY BY
J. DiGGES La TOTJCHE, Esq., C.S.
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GAZETTEER OF AJMER-MERWARA.'
General Description. — ^Ajmer-Merwara is a district of British
Boundaries India suiTOunded by the Native States in
oim nes. RdjptitAna. Ajmer is bounded on the
north by Kishangarh and Marwar, on the south by Merwara
and Mewar, on the east by Kishangarh and Jaipur, and on the
west by Marwar. It lies between north latitude 26* 41' 0" and
25' 4r 0", and east longitude 75' 27' 0' and 74' 17' O"'; and contains,
according to the topographical survey, an area of 2,069'816
square nules. Its population, according to the census of 1876, is
309,914 souls.
The tract called Merwara is bounded on the north by
Marwar and Ajmer, on the south by Mewar, on the east by Ajmer
and Mewar, and on the west by Marwar. It lies between north
latitude 26' 11' 0" and 25' 23' 30^ and east longitude 73' 47' 30"
and 74' 30' 0". It contains a population of 86,417, with an area,
according to the topographical survey, of 640*864 square miles.
The united district contains an area of 2,710*680 square miles,
with a population of 396,331, or 146* 2 to the square mile.
The two tracts were originally distinct districts, and each
possesses a history of its own. They were united under one
oflBicer in A.D. 1842, and till 1877 formed the charge of the
Deputy Conmiissioner of Ajmer and Merwara. In 1871 a
separate Commissioner was appointed to reside in Ajmer; and
in 1877 the revenue, magisterial, and civil jurisdictions were
again broken up into the two divisions of Ajmer and Mer-
wara, each under an Assistant Commissioner — the Commis-
sioner being the head of the whole. One Assistant Commis-
sioner resides at Ajmer, and the other at Bedwar, which place
is also called Nayanagar ; it is the only town in Merwara. The
* The basis of tliis Gazetteer is the report on the settlement of Ajmer-Merwarafor 1874, much
of which has been bodily transferred to the Gazetteer. Other sources whence information has been
derived are Colonel Hall's "Sketch of Merwara/' 1834; Colonel Dixon's "Sketch of Merwara," 1848;
and Colonel Dixon's report on the settlement of Ajmer-Merwara, 1850. The principal authority
for the article on history is Colonel Tod's Rajasthan. Colonel Briggs' Ferishta, and Sir H*. Elliott's
Musalmdn Historians, have also been consulted. Mr. W. W. Culcheth, Executive Eng^eer, fur-
nished a note on the stone-products of the district ; and Mr. Moir, Assistant Conservator, one on the
forests. The articles on education and administration have been compiled from the Commissioner's
administration report for 1872. Captain Loch, Officiating Commandant, wrote a note on the
Merwara Battalion ; and Dr. Murray, Civil Surgeon, supplieid information relating to the medical
aspect of the district.
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t 2 )
sadr station of Merwara takes its name from that of the pargana in
which it is situated, and is known as Bedwar. The head-quarters
of the Commissioner are at Ajmer, .from which place Bedwar
is 33 miles distant. The united district forms also a Chief Com-
missionership under the Foreign Department of the Government
•of India, the Chief Commissioner being the Agent to the Gover-
nor-General for RdjpTit&na, whose, head-quarters are at Abti.
The controlling authority is vested in a Commissioner with the
powers of a Sessions Judge, and under whose direct management
•are placed the police, registration, Jails, and education of the
province — ^depatrtments which in larger administrations are kept
distinct.
The Arvali Range. — ^The Sanskrit word " meru,'* a hill, is a
component part of the names of both districts, and the dktin-
iguishing feature of the country is the Arvaii range, the "strong
barrier " which divides the plains of Marwar from the high table-
land of Mewarv The range, which commences at the " ridge " at
Delhi, crops out in considerable size near the town of Ajmer,
where it appears in a parallel succession of hills, the highest
being that on which the fort of Taragarh is bmlt immediately
above the city, and which is 2,855 feet above the level of the
:sea, and between 1,300 and 1,400 feet above the Ajmer valley.
The *' Ndgpahdr,^* or Serpent Hill, three nailes west of Ajmer
t^ity, is nearly as high. About ten nodles from Ajmer the hills
disappear for a short distance, but, in the neighbourhood of Bedwar,
form a compact double range by which the pargana of Bedwar is
•enclosed. The two ranges approach each other at Jow^ja, fourteen
miles «outh of Be^war, and finally meet at Kiikrd in the north
-of the Todgarh tahsil, from which village there is a succession of
hills and valleys to the furthest extremity of the Merwara district.
The range on the Marwar side gradually becomes bolder and more
precipitous tlQ it finally meets the Vindhya mountains near the
isolated mount of Abil
The Watershed.— The highest point in the plains of Hindustan
is probably the plateau on which stands the town of Ajmer; and
from the hills which bound the Ajmer valley, the country slopes
to all points of the compass. The range of hills between Ajmer
and Nasirabdd marks the watershed of the continent of India.
The rain which falls on the one side finds its way by the Chambal
into the Bay of Bengal ; that which falls on the other side is
discharged by the Ltini into the Gulf of Kach. Further south
the watershed is still more clearly marked, and* is the Mgh wall
of rock which separates Marwar from Merwara. The portion of
Ajmer east of the range which connects Srmagar with Rajgarh,
including the pargana of Rdmsar and the estates of the talukdars
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generally, is ai^ open country, with a dope to the east, and brokers
only by gentle undulations. West of the NAgpahdr the pargana
of Pushkar stands quite apart from the rest of the district, and
is a sea of sand.
Fosses. — ^Merwara is a narrow strip about seventy miles long,
and with a varying breadth of from fifteen miles to one mile.
There are no important moimtains ; the highest hilL* are to be
met with about Todgarh, where the peaks attain an elevation of
2,855 feet above the level of the sea. The average level of the
valleys fe about 1,800 feet. In Lower Jierwara, corresponding
with the tahsil of Bedwar, there are three well-known passes. The
Barr pass on the west is a portion of the imperial road from Agra
to Ahmadabdd, is metalled throughout, and kept up by imperial
funds. On the eastern side are the Pakharia and Shahpura
ghdts — the first leading ta Masuda, the second to Mewar — and
both are imder the district committee. In Tipper Merwara^
or the Todgarh tahsil, there are the Kachbali, Rpli, umddbArf, and
Dawer passes, leading from Merwara into Marwar. These are
mere mountain-tracks through which the salt of Pachbadra and
the grain of Mewar is carried with diflBculty on banjdrd bullocks.
There aro no passes deserving of the namein Ajmer ; the road ta
Pushkar, six miles east of Ajmer, passes through a dip in the
Ndgpah^r range, and is metalled throughout from local funds.
Rivers and Streams. — As a necessity of its position on the
watershed of the continent, the district is devoid of any
firtream which can be dignified with the name of a river.
The Bands river, which takes its rise in the Arvali, about
forty nailes north-west of Udaipur, touches the south-eastern
frontier without entering the district, and affects only the istimrdr
pargana of Sdwar. This river during the rains is iinfordable for
many days, and as there are no ferries, travellers from Kotah and
DeoU only cross into the Ajmer district by means of floats
extemporised for the occasion. Besides the Bands there are four
streams — ^the Khari Nadi, the Ddi Nadi, the Sdgarmati, and the
Sarasvati. These are mere rivulets in the hot wesU;her, over whidi
the foot-passenger walks unheeding, but become torrents in the
rains: neither they nor the Bands are used for the transport of
produce. The Khari Nadi takes its rise in the State of Udaipur,
and, after forming the boundary between Mewar and Ajmer, falls
into the Bands at the northern extremity of the Sdwar pargana.
The Ddi Nadi is anrested in the early part of its course by the Nedran
embankment, '^ence it flows by Sarwdr (belonging to Kishan-
garh) and Baghera, and, eventually, also empties itseK into the
Bands. The Sdgarmati rises in the Andsdgar lake at Ajmer,
and, after flowing through and fertilizing the Ajmer valley, takes
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a sweep northwards by Bhaonta and PisAngan to Gobindgarh.
Here, it meets with the Sarasvati, which carries the drainage of the
Pushkar valley ; and the united stream, from this point tUl it falls
into the Runn of Kach, is designated the Ltini or Saltl river ;
and it is on this stream that Marwar chiefly depends for what
fertility it has. The aflluents of these streams are many, and
there are some independent streams running northwards into the
Sambhar lake, but none of them have obtained a name, and they
are mere drainage-channels running only in the rainy season.
Water-supply for irrigation. — ^There is no permanent supply
in the wells of the districts ; they all depend upon the rainfall. In
the Ajmer district, where the beds of the nalaa are sandy, a sufficient
amount of water is absorbed during the rains to supply the wells on
either bank ; but wells can only profitably be made within a short
distance from the stream, and beyond that stretches unirrigatedland
to the base of the hills on either side. In Merwara, where the beds
of the drainage-channels are rocky and the slope of the country
greater, the rainfall, if unarrested, rapidly flows off into Marwar
and Mewar, and benefits the country but little, as the soil is shallow
and unretentive of moisture. The configuration of the districts,
with a more or less rapid slope from the 'watershed, rendered it
imperative to provide for the retention of the rainfall by artificial
means ; while the undulations of the ground, and the gorges
through which the hill-streams had worn a passage, rendered it
practicable to retain the rainfall by a system of embankments.
Old Tank-embankments. — ^The idea of such embankments was
one which early presented itself to the minds of those conversant
with the district. The Bisalya tank was made by Bisaldeo
Chohdn about the year 1050 A.D. ; his grandson, And, con-
structed the Andsdgar; and the tank at Kdmsar was built by
Bdmdeo Pramar. In Merwara, the large tanks of Dilwara,
Kffinjar, Jowdja, and old BalAd, date from long before British rule.
They are wide earthen embankments, generally faced on both
sides with flat stones laid horizontally, and closing gorges in the
hiUs. With ordinary care they will last as long as the hills
which they imite, and their construction furnishes a substantial
proof that before British rule the principles of subordination and
co-operation were not unknown in Merwara.
The tank-embankments of the district at present number
^ . ,. ^ ,^ , 419, of which 168 are in Aimer, 183 in the
Descnption of these works. -r\ / j_i»i i/»o«Jimi -i
Beawar tahsil, and 68 m the Todgarh
tahsil. They have been often described ; and Colonel Dixon, in his
*^ Sketch of Merwara," chapter XII et seq.^ has given a very full
account of them. The best site for an embankment is a narrow
gorge where, by uniting the hills on each side, the drainage of the
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valley above can be stopped and the water thrown back to form a
lake which will irrigate direct by a sluice, and feed the wells below
by percolation. Such sites are, however, very limited in number,
and nearly all of them have been already utilized, though in
many cases the embankment is capable of much improvement.
In the open parts of the district, where Colonel Dixon made a
large number of tanks, the embankments run a considerable
distance from one rising ground to the other; some are nearly
two miles in length. The centre portion of the dam arrests the
flow of a drainage-channel, and the water spreads on each side to
the rising ground. Every tank is provided with an escape to
prevent the water topping the embankment during floods. These
tanks are generally very shallow, and seldom have any water in
them after the autumn harvest has been irrigated. Colonel Dixon
attempted at first to form earthen embankments, but the soil is so
devoid of tenacity that the plan was early abandoned. There are
three kinds of embankments in the district : — ^First, a waU of dry
stone backed by an earthen embankment and faced with a coating
of mortar, — there is generally a dry stone retaining. waU in these
embankments : secondly, a masonry wall backed with earth, the
masonry and embankment being of greater or less strength in
proportion to the weight of the watCT to be retained : thirdly,
a wall of masonry without any embankment. This last is the
best, and was adopted in the more hilly parts of the district where
the gorges did not exceed 100 yards in width. Similar to these
are the small masonry- weirs thrown across a nala in its course
through the hills, in order to ensure a supply to the wells on
either bank.
With the exception of the few tanks constructed before 1818,
„. , ,, . , ,. and seven tanks built by Colonel Hall in
History of their construction. -.^ ., • j j i • • j.
•^ Merwara, the remamder owe their existence
to the unaided and untiring energy of one man who ruled
Merwara from 1836 to 1842, and the imited district from 1842
to 1857, when he died at Bedwar. The name of Colonel Dixon
will be remembered in Ajmer and Merwara for many generations.
For years he worked steadily at this single object without help or
sympathy, and without much encouragement; for, until the works
were completed, they attracted but little attention, and the district
was too remote to aUow of the Grovemment of the North-Westem
Provinces taking at first an intelligent interest in the work.
With such help as his tahsilddrs and a few trained chaprdsis
could give. Colonel Dixon constructed aU these works ; and it
was only in 1853, when the tanks had been completed, that the
appointment of an uncovenanted European assistant was sanc-
tioned. Nothing worthy of note was done after Colonel Dixon's
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death till the establishment of the Ajmer Irrigation Division of
Public Works in the beginning of 1869* The tank which has
now been constructed at the jdgir village of Bfr is a fine example
of the best class of tank-embankment. New tanks have also been
constructed within the last few years at Rajaosi, Ladpura, and
Makrera in Ajmer, and at Jalia, and a new tank at Baldd in
Merwara.
Colonel Dixon was of opinion that the tanks had raised the
^_ ^ . ^, ^ , water-level of the country ; and there is no
Effects of the tanks. i i j. j i j i j i j j i •
doubt that, subsequently to their construc-
tion, wells were made in many places where the experiment had
been tried and proved unsuccessful. The opinion of a committee
assembled in 1874 to discuss the subject of water-revenue
assessment, was that about half the wells in the district owed
their supply to filtration from the tanks. Major Lloyd, Deputy
Commissioner, writing in 1860, was of opinion " that from the
moisture preserved in the soil, and the great increase of vegetation
they have helped to create, the reservoirs have been, to some
extent, instrumental in causing the increased supply of rain which
has been measured in the last few years." There has been
another undoubted effect of the reservoirs, and this a deterio-
rating influence. The soil throughout the pargana of Rdmsar is
impregnated with salt, and the effect of the pressure of the head
of water in the tank, and the capillary attraction of the water
used in irrigation, has been to force up impure salts to the
surface. Not much land has been rendered entirely unculturable,
and, if this land gets manure, it yields excellent crops, but without
manure the land yields a very inferior return. The village of
Nedran, where is one of Colonel Dixon's largest reservoirs, is
generally brought forward as an instance of this effect, and here
it has been found necessary to reduce the assessment twice within
the last twenty years.
"Nearly all the tanks are dry by the month of March, and the
beds of the majority are, cultivated for a spring crop. There
is hardly any produce from the reservoirs themselves. Water-nuts
are not grown: fish are caught in the Anasdgar and in the
Rdmsar and Nedran tanks ; but the people do not eat fish, and
it is only in the Andsdgar and the sacred lake of Pushkar that
fi^h permanently exist, while religious prejudice prevents their
being killed in the latter lake.
Natural Reservoirs. — ^Besides the artificial reservoirs, there
are four natural reservoirs in the district, which in less dry
countries would hardly deserve mention. These are the sacred
lake of Pushkar, and the lake known as Old Pushkar near the
former. Both are depressions among sandhills without any
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outlet, but exercise a considerable influence by percolation
tbrougb the sandhills on the low sandy bottoms in their
vicinity. In Merwara there are two natural basins, that of
Sargaon and that of Kardntia, both near Bedwar. A passage
for the escape of the water of the former has been cut through
the encircling sandhills, and the bed is now regularly cultivated
for the spring crop. That of Kardntia lies amongst hills, and is
of no use for irrigation.
Communications : Boads. — ^The famine of 1869 gave a great
stimulus to the construction of metalled roads. Before that,
the only metalled roads in the district were fourteen miles
between Ajmei? and Naslrabdd, and seven miles between Ajmer
and Gangwana on the Agra road. Now, the Agra and Ahmada-
bdd road is metalled throughout, from the border of Kishangarh
territory to the border of Marwar. Prom Nasirabdd a metalled
road extends to the cantonment of Deoli, 66 miles, and another
in the direction of Nimach and Mhow, partly metalled. Merwara
was a country without roads before the famine, but it now
possesses a tolerable road to Todgarh and Dewari, and fair roads
over the Pakhariawas and Shahpura passes into Masuda and
Mewar. Except station roads, and roads to Pushkar, six miles,
and to Srinagar, ten miles, there are no metalled roads under the
district fund committee.
The Rdjptitdna Railway runs from Agra to Ajmer, at which
point there is a branch line to Nasirabdd. The Nimach Railway,
which is intended to connect the Holkar State Railway, from
Khandwa to Indor, with Nasirabdd and the Rdjptitdna line by
way of Nimach, is in course of construction (1878) . The Western
Rdjpiitdna Railway, intended to connect Agra with Bombay vid
Ajmer and Ahmadabdd, was in 1878 opened to Bedwar, and in
progress for a distance of about 200 miles south-westwards. All
these railways are, or are being, constructed on the metre-gauge.
Telegraphs. — There are two telegraph stations in the district —
one at Ajmer and the other at Nasirabdd— besides those at rail-
way stations. The total number of messages sent from the Ajmer
office during 1877-78 was 6,290 ; from the Nasirabdd office, 1,466—
total 7,756. The Ajmer office received 8,165 messages, and that
of Nasirabdd 1,501 — total 9,666. The telegraph receipts for the
year 1877-78 were Rs. 12,050, the disbursements Rs. 9,709.
Post Office. — ^There are four head imperial post-offices in the
district — ^Ajmer, Nasirabdd, Bedwar, and Deoli; with ten sub
or branch offices — ^at Mangliawas, Masuda, Pisdngan, Pushkar,
Srinagar, Taragarh (Ajmer hill-fort), Bhinai, Kekri, Sdwar,
and Todgarh. On the reorganization in 1870-71, a chief inspec-
tor of post-offices was sanctioned for Rdjpiitdna, which had
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previously been under the Post-Master-General, North-Westem
Provinces. The following statement shows the number of covers
sent for delivery through, and received for despatch from, the
imperial and district post-offices of Ajmer and Merwara for the
years 1860-61 to 1877-78. Statistics of the district post are
not procurable for 1860-61 : —
BlGBITBD.
POBIBD.
Letters.
Newspapers.
Parcels.
Books.
Letters.
Newspapers.
Parcels.
Books.
A860.ei
804,860
12,130
3,013
2,129
282,290
6,066
1,256
447
1866-66
364,8»5
26,209
3,753
3,149
366.246
8;864
1,473
621
IicpBMiL Post
-l 1870-71
367,996
31,337
3,633
6,698
672,687
8,980
2,374
2,860
1 1875-76
580,684
61,064
4,108
4.472
U877-78
690,406
Qk668
6,096
4,992
...
...
,..
1-1866-66
21,636
879
238
23,632
34
76
DifltwcT Post
J 1870.71
1l875 7«
16,368
30.580
1,443
140
378
14
"'26
17,388
12,163
60
14
141
31
• M
ll877"78
16,296
300
96
42
11,793
60
20
20
The following abstract shows the number of covers received
at, and despatched from, the several district ddk post-offices during
1874-75 and 1875-76 as compared with 1877-78 :—
Tub.
BBCBlTBDi
ReIUBKBD UKDBLITBBABLl.
POSTBD.
Letters.
Newspapers.
Parcels
and
packets.
Letters.
Newspapers.
Parcels
and
packets.
Letters.
Newspapers.
Parcels
and
packets.
1874-76
1875-76
1877-78
20,409
11,104
16,296
1,177
149
800
196
71
96
1.978
662
1,879
83
6
43
"'46
24,361
12,163
11,793
129
14
60
73
31
40
The decrease of 1875-76 was attributable to the conversion of six
large district post-offices into imperial post-offices during the latter
part of 1874-75.
Minerals. — ^The hills abound in mineral wealth, though for
many years no revenue has been derived from this source. The
Taragarh hill is rich in lead, and copper and iron mines have
been worked but did not pay their expenses. The lead mines of
Taragarh were farmed by the Marathas for Rs. 5,000 a year, the
custom being for the miners to receive three-fourths of the value
of the metal as the wages of their labour and to cover their
expenses in sinking shafts. Mr. Wilder, the first Superintendent
of Ajmer, took the mines xmder direct management, and they
produced annually from 10,000 to 12,000 maimds of lead, which
was sold at Rs. 11 per maund. The Ajmer magazine was the chief
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eilstoni6r, ftnd, dii its ceading to take metal in 1846, the mines were
elosed. The lead is universally allowed to be purer and of a better
quality than Euroipean pig-leadi and it is dhiefly owing to the
tf ant of fueli and df pltoper means of transport, that it has been
driven from the marketi When landed in Agra, which is the
nearest mafket, the lead dost Rs. 16 a maund, or Bo. 1-8 more
than the same quantity df English lead. Perhaps the extension
df a railway to Ajmer may revive this now extinct industry ; the
tniner^, who were the people of the Indiifkot, still live in Ajmer,
but the demand f of the metal, the offspring of the troublous times
In the beginning of the denturj^, no longer exists.
An oMcer of the G^logical Survey visited Ajmer for two
reasons, but as yet no report of the residts of his survey has been
communicated. The folloA^^ng remarks on the geology of the dis-
trict are taken from Dr. Irvine^s " General and Medical Topography
of Ajmer^' (A.D. 1841), pages 68 and 154. The general character
of the district is of plutonic hypogene formation, and no organic re-
mains have as ^et been discovered. The hills are schistose for th©
most part, and m appearance often sermte, and though not volcsmic,
the jagged ridges often give them that appearance. This serrate
aspect seems owing to the hardness of the rock composing the
hUls, the sharp points of wMch have remained iminjured by tho
attrition of Water. A very hard, dark-grey granite appears to
underlie the schistose strata throughout the country. The great
mass of the rocks are of micaceous or homblenoe schist, or of
compact felspar. The cultivated soil is a natural mixture of one-
third stiff yellow loam, and two-thirds sand, consisting of disin-
tegrated mica schist and felspar. Pure silicious sand is rare. No
superficial portion of the soil is absolutely clayey, nor, excepting
in the beds of artificial tanks, is any alluvial soil found in tho
district. In tracts where the euphorWae are most common,
carbonate of lune is found in lai^ quantities ; and barren as the
hills and adjacent stonv tracts appear in the hot weather, both
become covered with a (delicate verdure of grasses and small plants
during the rains.
Stone-prodticts. — Good building materials abound throughout
the district, and stone is largely used for purposes for which wood
is employed elsewhere in India. Door-frames are often made of
stone, and the best roofing is formed of slab-stones resting on
arches or on stone-beams, while thin slabs have lately been used
as slates. Slab-stones are used for roofing, for flag-stones, and for
spanning culverts. The best quarries in the vicinity of Ajmer
are at Sillora (in Kishangarh territory), and at Srinagar, where
slabs 12 or 14 feet long, by 3 or 4 feet, or even more, in width, can
be obtained. At the former place, beams 20 feet or upwards in
B
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length hj 1^ foot in width are procurable. Near Be^war, slabs
not quite so large, and generally too hard to be dressed with a chisel,
are quarried at Atitmand. At Kheta Khera, about six miles north*
east of Beawar, limestone slabs are found which can be dressed.
Near Todgarh, good slabs have not been found, but beams 10 or 12
feet long and uneven in thickness are procurable. Good slab-
stones can be got at Deogarh, about ten miles south-east from
Todgarh, but the roads are not enough to allow of their being
carried any considerable distance.
Suitable clay is not obtainable for bricks ; and bricks are seldom
used, but, for rubble masonry, stone is everywhere to be met with.
The best quarries are in the range of hills running from Kishangarh
between Ajmer and Nasfrabdd, and down to the east side of
Merwara. The stone here is found in slabs of almost any size, both
sides perfectly parallel ; and if it is carefully quarried, one smooth
face can generally be obtained. For ashlar work, limestone, granite,
and marble of a coarse kind are procurable, while sandstone is
brought from a distance in Marwar.
Zime. — ^Lime is burnt from kankar and from limestone ; the
latter description is preferred by the natives* The limestone
generally used in the city of Ajmer is a "grey stone obtained near
the village of Naraili, about six miles from the city. The lime
burned from this stone is not very pure, but is tenacious, and bears
a large admixture of sand. At Makhopura, Kalesra^ Kholia, and
other villages, a pure white limestone is found ; but the stone is
hard, and difficult to bum. limestone is also found in abundance
near Bedwar. Kankar is to be met with in all parts of the district,
but varies considerably in quality as a carbonate of lime. That
which breaks with a blue fracture, and which, when breathed on,
causes the moisture to adhere, is considered fit for lime-burning.
Kankar-lime has higher hydraulic properties than stone-lime, and
is generally used by the Department of Public Works. No material,
however, producing good hydraulic lime, has yet been discovered
in the district. A natural cement called kadi is brought from
Nagor, eighty miles north-west from Ajmer. It has been examine
in Calcutta and pronounced to be **a very valuable and hydraulic
cement " when carefully burnt. It is, however, generally overbumt,
and disintegrates when exposed to water, and is, consequently, only
used by the natives for the interior of their buildings.
Boad -metal. — Materials for road-making are everywhere abun-
dant. For heavy traffic, broken limestone, the refuse of a slabstone
quarry, or granite is more suitable and lasting than kankar, which,
though very generally distributed, is not found in blocks, and
which, though it makes a smooth, even road, does not stand heavy
traffic. For district roads, any coarse brittle stone, if not too
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micaceous, or an inferior kind of gravel called harhay may be
substituted for stone or kankar. Both descriptions of materials are
to be met with in all parts of the district, are easily dug, and
answer the purpose very well when the traffic is light.
Forests. — In former times the hills about Ajmer were probably
covered with scrub- jungle, and where tiie growth has been unmo-
lested, as on the west side of the NAgpahdr hill, there are still some
trees on the hillside. With this exception, however, the Ajmer
district was denuded of trees long before the commencement of
British rule, and the Marathas are generally given the credit of the
denudation. The parts of Merwara adjacent to Ajmer are described
by Mr. Wilder, an eye-witness in 1819, as an "impenetrable jungle,"
though now, except in the extreme south, where there is no local
demand, and whence carriage, till recently, was quite impracti-
cable, Merwara is not much better off in this respect than Ajmer.
The trees which existed could only have been scrub at the best, and
the demand of the town of Bedwar, of the cantonment of Nasirabdd,
and for wood to bum lime for the tank-embankments, added to the
absence of all attempts at replacing what was destroyed, has left but
few trees in any accessible part of the district, and wood of all kinds
is exceedingly scarce and dear.
The indigenous trees are the bdbtil (acacia arabicaj, nfm
(azadirachta indicaj^ and khejrd (^rosopis spiciferajy which are
generally found on the plains and on the low slopes of the hills ;
dhao (conocavpus latifolia) and kher (acacia catechu) are met with
on the intermediate slopes ; and salar (boswellia thuriferaj occupies
the summits. Of these, the bdbiil is the principal tree which fur-
nishes wood useful for other purposes than fuel. The pipdl and bar
tree (fictis religiosa BJidficus indicaj are also found, but only in
favored localities. In place of trees, the hills about Ajmer are covered
with " tor" bush, or euphorbia, which is cut and dried, and used
largely for fuel in the city. The indigenous trees will grow easily
from seed, and, if the rainfall is favorable, planted trees require no
artificial irrigation. The euphorbia is easily transplanted, and if
planted in the early spring strikes root at once. It is used for fences
on the railway and elsewhere, but is with difficulty kept in order.
The exotic kinds of tree are difficult to rear, and will only grow
near wells, or after having been artificially irrigated. They are the
fards (tamarix orientalisj, siris (acacia speciosajy giilar (yictis
glomerataj yi:simB>nnd(tamarindtis indicaj, m.oh.wSk(bassia latifoliaj^
mango (mam,gifera indicaj, jdmtin (eugenia jambolanaj, sisdm
(dalbergia sissuj, the cork-tree (milling tonia hortensisj, and a few
others. None of these will grow on the hillsides, and only thrive
in good soil ; . while the necessity of irrigating the plants when
young renders theiy nurture expensive Colonel Dixon devoted
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much attentioii to the planting of trees and the gardens of Ajmcr,
and the nim trees of Bedwar owe their existence to him. After
his death, however, no attempt was made either to plant in the
plains, or to re-forest the hills as they rapidly became hare. In
1871 Government sanctioned the appointment of an Assistant
Conservator and Sub- Assistant Conservator of Forests, more for
the purpose of creating, than of conserving, forests. Forest
operations in Ajmer are not intended as directly profitable specu-
lations on the part of Government ; their principal aim and object
is an indirect and climatic advantage, to prevent the rainfall
rushing down the bare hillsides, carrying away in its course
what little soil remains, and to cause it to penetrate into the
crevices of the rocks and fill the springs. The roots of the trees
and the vegetation will, it is hoped, retain and create soil on the
steep slopes, while the lowering of the temperature of the hills
may ultimately have the effect of causing the clouds, which now
too often pass over the district, to part with their moistute within
its boundaries.
Apart, however, from the intrinsic difficulty of re-foresting the
arid hills, it was not easy to obtain the land. The waste had been
made over to the vUlage communities by the settlement of 1850,
and it had of old been made use of by the people for grazing
purposes, and as a support to fall back upon in years of distress by
the sale of wood ; and it was naturally the hills where there was
most wood that the forest officer was most anxious to take up, and
the people most loth to part with. It was, therefore, determined to
resume the management of certain chosen tracts, and to take up
the land under an ordinance of the Governor-General in
Council. The main provision of the ordinance was the proprie-
tary right is to vest in Government as long as the land is
required for forest purposes, the villagers being allowed cer-
tain privileges as to cutting wood and grass. A total area of
54,746 acres has been selected — 7,045 acres in Ajmer, 7,516 in
Beawar, and 40,185 acres in Todgarh. It is intended to exclude
all goats and cattle, to prevent fires, and to scatter seed broad-
cast during the rains without going to the expense of artificial
irrigation. Several nurseries have been established in all parts
of the district, especially in the Government gardens near Ajmer,
and land has been taken up and planted in the estates of the
talukdars under the Court of Wards. There are no fruit-gardens
except in the suburbs of Ajmer city, and mangoes, though tolerably
plentiful, are stringy and bad.
Wild Animals and Qame. — ^There is not much cover for large
game in the district ; but leopards are foimd in the western hills
from the Nagpahdr, where they are regularly trapped down to
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Dawer; hyaenas and wolves are rare; tigers are said to stray
upwards now and then from the souther^ portion of the Arrali,
but if they do come, they find no cover or water, and go back again.
Rewards are given for the destruction of wild animals, — ^five rupees
for a female leopard, and two rupees for male leopards, female
wolves, and hysBnas. The males of the last two animals are paid
for at one rupee a head. The total amount expended in 1873 on the
destruction of wild animals was Ks. 43. No rewards are given
for snake-killing. The number of deaths from snake-bite recorded
in 1872 was 30. Wild-pigs are preserved by most of the th4kurs
who have large estates, for pig-shooting is the favorite amusement
of Rijpiits, There is also a Tent Club at Nasfrabdd which
extends its operations beyond British territory, but the pigs like
the shelter of the hills, and in many places the ground is too rough
and stony to ride over. Antelope and ravine-deer are in no great
numbers, and are shy and difficult to approach. Of small game,
the bustard occasionally finds its way in from Marwar, and florikin
are met with when the raios have provided cover for them. Qeese,
duck, and snipe are found about the tanks in the cold weather;
but good snipe-ground is very Kmited, three or four brace being
considered a good day's ba^. The small sandgrouse is found in
abundance; the large sandgrouse is rare. Hares were nearly
annihilated by the famine, and have not yet recovered their
numbers- The quail-shooting is tolerable, and the common useless
grey partridge cries in every direction.
Sub^divisiom^ — The district of Ajmer in Colonel Dixon*s time
contained thuee tahsik — AJmer, Edmsar, and Eajgarh — ^which
were established in order to provide constant supervision of the
tanks. The Rajgarh tahsil was abolished after Colonel Dixon's
death, and the Rdmsar tahsil was abandoned on the reorganization
of the district in 187L Ajmer proper hafi now only one tahsil, at
head-quarters. The owners of the istimrdr estates, which in area
are nearly double the khdlsa, pay their revenue direct into the
sadr treasury without the intervention of a Sub-collector. Merwara
is divided into two tahsils, that of Bedwar and that of Todgarh.
A third tahsil, that of Saroth, was, after Colonol Dixon's death,
amalgamated with Bedwar- Ajmer contains twelve parganas,
of which AjmOT^ Bidmsar, Eajgarh, and Pushkar are chiefly l^Alsa;
Kekri as one khdlsa town, and the remaining parganas — Bhinai,
Masuda, Sdwar, Pisdngan, Kharwd, and Bagherd — ^are held by
istimirdrdars- The military cantonment of Naslrabdd, with the
surrounding viQages, forms a civil sub-division, and Kekri has been
placed under a deputy magisfa'ate residing at Kekri. The tahsil of
Bedwar contains the parganas of Bedwar, Jak, Chang, and Saroth.
Bcdwax is British territory ; Jak also is British territory, but belongs
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cliiefly to the Thdkurs of Masuda and Kharwd ; Chang belongs
to Marwar ; and Saroth belongs to Mewar. The pargana of Beawar
was at various times sub-divided into four parganas, and their
names still occasionally crop up and breed confusion. The distant
villages of Beawar pargana were formed into a separate pargana
of 33 villages, and annexed to the Saroth tahsil under the name
of pargana Jowdja. The pargana of Lotana consists of eight
villages founded by Colonels Hall and Dixon in Mewar waste ; and
the Barkochran pargana has the same origin and contains nine
villages. The tahsil of Todgarh contains four parganas, of which
Bhailan is British territory, Kotkirana belongs to Marwar, and
Dawer and Todgarh belong to Mewar. At the settlement of 1874
the land was divided into assessment circles, and statistics have
been compiled according to circles, and not according to parganas.
Rutory of Ajmer. — The early history of Ajmer is, as might
be expected, legendary in its character.
Legendary history of Aja. ^^^ commcnces with the rulc of the
Chohdns, the last-bom of the Agni-kulas, and the most valiant
of the Rajput races. According to tradition, the fort and city of
Ajmer were founded by Baja Aja, a descendant of Anhal, the
first Chohan, in the year 145 A.D. Aja at first attempted to
build a fort on the Ndgpahar, or Serpent Hill ; and the site chosen
by him is still pointed out. His evil genius, however, destroyed
in the night the walls erected in the day, and Aja determined
to build on the hill now known as Taragarh. Here he constructed
a fort which he called Garh Bitli ; and in the valley known as
Indurkot he built a town which he called after his own name,
and which has become famous as Ajmer. This prince is generally
known by the name of Ajapdl, which Colonel Tod explains was
derived from the fact that he was a goatherd, *' whose piety in
supplying one of the saints of Pushkar witli goat's milk procured
him a territory.'* The name probably suggested the myth, and
it is more reasonable to suppose that the appellation was given to
liim when, at the close of his life, he became a hermit, and ended
his days at the gorge in the hills about ten miles from Ajmer,
which is still venerated as the temple of Ajapdl.
With the next name on the Chohdn genealogy we pass into
the region of history. Dola Bae joined in resisting the Musalmdn
invaders under Muhammad Kasim, and was slain by them in
A.D. 685. His successor, Manika Bae, founded Sdmbhar, and
the Chohdn princes thereafter adopted the title pf Sambri Bao.
From his reign till 1024 A.D. there is a gap in the annals. In
that year. Sultan Mahmtid, on his expedition against the temple
of Somnath, crossed the desert from Multan and presented himself
before the walls of Ajmer, The reigning prince, Bilumdco,
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Vas totally unprepared for resistance, the country Tras ravaged,
and the town, which had been abandoned by its inhabitants, was
plundered. The fort of Taragarh, however, held out, and as
Mahmiid had no leisure to engage in sieges, he proceeded on his
destructive course to Guzerdt. Bilumdeo was succeeded by
BIsaldeo or Vxsaladeva, who is locally remembered by the lako
which he constructed at Ajmer, still called the Blsalsdgar.
Bisaldeo was a renowned prince* He captured Delhi from the
TuArs, and subdued the hill-tribes of Merwara, whom he made
drawers of water in the streets of Ajmer. At the close of his life he
is said to have become a Musalmdn, to have resigned his kingdom,
and to have retired into obscurity at Dhiinddr. His grandson.
And, constructed the embankment which forms the Andsdgar
lake, on which Shahjehan subsequently built a range of marble
pavilions. Someshwar, the third in descent from And, married
the daughter of Anangpdl, the Tudrking of Delhi, and his son was
Prithvi Raja, the last of the Chohdns, who was adopted by
Anangpal, and thus became king of Delhi and Ajmer.*
It is matter of common history how Prithvi Raja opposed
Prith • Ra* cii hdn d Shahdb-ud-diu in his invasion of India
shahkb-ud-din.*'* ^ '^^ *^ jj^ ^jjg ycars 1191 and 1193 A.D., and how
in the latter year he was utterly defeated
and put to death in cold blood. Shahdb-ud-din shortly afterwards
took Ajmer, massacred all the inhabitants who opposed him, and
reserved the rest for slavery. After this execution he made over
the country to a relation of Prithvi Raja under an engagement
for a heavy tribute. In the following year Shahdb-ud-din prose-
cuted his conquests by the destruction of the Rahtor kingdom of
Kanouj — an event of considerable importance in the history of
Ajmer, in that it led to the emigration of the greater part of the
Rahtor clan from Kanouj to Marwar.
The new Raja of Ajmer was soon reduced to perplexities by
a pretender, and Kutb-ud-din Eibak, the
Kutb-ud-din. founder of the slave dynasty at Delhi,
marched to his relief. Hemrdj, the pretender, was defeated, and
Kutb-ud-din, having appointed a governor of his own faith
to control the Raja, proceeded with his expedition to Guzerdt.
A few years afterwards, however, the Raja, uniting with the
* This follows Colonel Tod*s account (volume II, page 416 of the reprint). The subject of
the Chohan dynasty is, however, very confused, and General Cunningham (Archaeological Reports,
volume I, page 157) confesses his inability to make any satisfactory arrangement either of the
names of the princes or of the length of their reigns. General Cunningham fixes the probable
date of the capture of Delhi by the Chohans in A.D. 1151, and Prithvi Raja was the son of
Someshwar and the grandson of Visaladeva according to him. According to Colonel Tod, Prithvi
*Baja was sixth in descent from Visaladeva; and in the genealogical tree in the possession of the
'.Baja of Nimrana in Alwar, the same number of generations intervene between these two princes.
General Cunningham is of opinion that two different princes of the same name have been identified
"^Rs on^ person. — (See Archseological Reports, volume II, page 256.)
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Rahtors and Mef^, attempted mdfependeiice. Kufb-ud-din ntetrctedl
from Delhi in the height of the hot season, and shut up the Raja
in the fort. Here, ftading no meaisst of escape; he ascended the
funeral pile as ib related in the Tajul Madsir. Kutb-ud-din them
marched against the ecmfederated Edjptits and Mers, but wa»
defeated and wounded, and obliged to retreat to Ajm'er,^ where
he was besieged by the confederate army. A strong reinforcement
from Ghaz^m, howerver, caused the enemy to raise the siegi^, and
Kutb'Ud-din annexed the country to the kingdom of Belhi, and
made over the cbar^ of the fort of Taragarb to an officer of
his own^ Sayyid Husain, whose subsequent tragical fate has caused
him to be enrolled in tiie list of niartyrs, and whose shrine isJ
still the njost caospicuous object on the bill-fort be was imable
to defend. On the death of Kutb-ud-din in AJD. 1210, the
Kahtors joined the Choh&ns and made a ni^t-attack upon the
fort. The garrison was taken unprepared, and was massacred to
a man. Their tombs, as well as those of Sayyid Husain and his*
celebrated horse, naay still be seen on T^Kraga^h in the enclosure^
Which bears the name of Gunj Shdhidan, or Treasury of Martyrs.
Sh-ams-ud-din Altanash, the successor of K^tb-u^din, restored
the authority of the kings of Delhi, and it
itoa Eumbho of Mewar. .^^ maintained till the disastrous invasion
of Tamerlancr By that time a number of independent Muhaimmadan
kingdoms had been established, of which the chief were Bijapur,
Golkonda, Quaeriit, and Mai wa. Kana Eoimbho of Mewar profited
by the relaxation of all authority which ensued upon the sack
of Delhi, and the extinction of the house of Tughilak, to take posses*
sion of Ajmer; but, on his assassination, the territory fell into* the
hands of the kings of Malwa, with whom the Eana had been
perpetually at variance and for fifteen yean» had waged war.
The kings of Malwa obtained possession in A.D. 1469, and held
Ajmer tiU the death of Mahmud II in.
Kingsof Maiwiw ^j)^ 15^!^ ^^^ the kingdom of Malwa
was annexed to that of Guzer^. The dome over the shrine of
Khwaja Mueiyyin-ud-din Ohisti was built by these kings, wha
jare known in Ajmer by the name of Nawdb. On the ^th of
Mahmiidll, Maldeo Eahtor, who had just
MaideoBahtor. ^ succecdcd to the throue of Marwar, took
possession of Ajmer among other conquests. He improved the
fortress of Taragarb, and commenced the construction of a liffc
to raise water to the fort from the Ndr Chashma spring at the
foot of the hill. The work still stands as solid as on the day
It was buUt, but the scheme was never carried to completion.
The Rahtors held Ajmer for twenty-f our years, but the country was
one of the earliest acquisitions of Akbar^ and from 1556 A,J).
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to the reign of Muhammad Shah, a period of 194 years, Ajmer
was an integral portion of the Mughal empire.
In the time of Akbar, Ajmer gave its name to a stibah, which
included the whole of Rdjpiitdna. The
Mughal Emperors. distrfct of Ajmer was an appanage of
the royal residence, which was temporarily fixed there in this and
subsequent reigns, both as a pleasant retreat and in order to
maintain the authority of the empire among the surrounding
chiefs. Akbar made a pilgrimage to the tomb of the saint
Khwaja Mueiyyin-ud-din OhLsti, and built a fortified palace just
outside the city. Jehangir and Shahjehan both spent much time
at the " Dar-ul-khair," and it was at Ajmer that Jehangir received
Sir Thomas Boe, the ambassador of James I, who reached the city
on the 23rd December 1615. It was at Ajmer that in A.D. 1659
Aurangzeb crushed the army of the unfortunate Dara, weakened
as it was by the defection of Jaswant Singh of Marwar, and forced
his brother into the flight which was destined to terminate only
by his imprisonment and death. The celebrated traveller Bemier
met and accompanied Dara for three days during this flight, and
has given a graphic description of the miseries and privations of
the march. Bemier left Dara at one day's journey from Ahmadabad,
as neither by threats nor entreaties could a single horse or camel
be procured on which he might cross the desert to Tatta. During
the war with Mewar and Marwar, which was brought about by
the bigotry of Aurangzeb, Ajmer was the head-quarters of that
emperor, who nearly lost his throne here in 1679 by the combination
of prince Akbar with the enemy.
On the death of the Sayyids in 1720 A.D., Ajit Singh, son of
Jaswant Singh of Marwar, found his opportunity in the weakness
consequent on the decline of the Mughal empire to seize on Ajmer,
and killed the imperial governor. He coined money in his own
name, and set up every emblem of sovereign rule. Muhammad
Shah collected a large army and invested Taragarh. The fort
held out for four months, when Ajit Singh
Bahtors of Marwar. agreed to surrender his conquest. Ten
years later, Abhay Singh, the accomplice in the assassination of
his own father Ajit Singh, was appointed by Muhammad Shah
viceroy of Ahmadabdd and Ajmer, and Ajmer became practically
a portion of Marwar. The parricide Bakht Singh obtained Nagor
and Jhalor from his brother Abhay Singh. Abhay Singh was
succeeded by Rd,m Singh, who demanded the surrender of Jhalor
from his uncle Bakht Singh. The demand and the insolence of
Bdm Singh culminated in the battle of Mairta, where Ram Singh
was defeated and forced to fly. He determined on calling in the
aid of the Marathas, and at Ujain found the camp of Jai Appa
c
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Sindia, who readily embraced the opportunity of interference.
Meanwhile the career of Bakht Singh had been terminated by the
poisoned robe, the gift of the Jaipur Rani ; and Bijay Singh, son of
Bakht Singh, opposed the Marathas. He was defeated, and fled to
Nagor, which withstood a year's siege, though meanwhile all the
country submitted to Ram Singh. At the end of this period, two
foot-soldiers, a Bdjpiit and an Afghan, offered to sacrifice them-
selves for the safety of Bijay Singh by the assassination of the
Maratha leader. The offer was accepted; the assassins, feigning a
violent quarrel, procured access to Jai Appa, and stabbed him in
front of his tent. The siege languished for six months more, but
a compromise was eventually agreed on.
Marathas. jgjj^^y gj^^j^ Surrendered to the Marathas in
full sovereignty the fortress and district of Ajmer as mund1cat%
or compensation for the blood of Jai Appa. The Marathas, on
their side, abandoned the cause of Rdm Singh. A fixed triennial
tribute was to be paid to the Marathas by Bijay Singh. The
tomb of Jai Appa is at Pushkar> and, till 1860, three villages of
Ajmer were set apart in jdgir for the expenses of the tomb. Rdm
Singh obtained the Marwar and Jaipur share of the Sambhar
lake, and resided there until his death. These events occurred
inl756A.D.
• Eor thirty-one years the Marathas held undisturbed possession
of Ajmer, till in 1787, on the invasion of Jaipur by Madaji
Sindia, the Jaipur Raja.called on the Rahtors for aid against the
common foe. The call was promptly answered, and at the battle
of Tonga the Marathas suffered a signal defeat. The Rahtors
re-took Ajmer, driving out Mirza Anwar Beg, the Maratha
governor, and annulled their tributary engagements. The success
was, however, transient; for, in three years' time, the Marathas, led
by De Boigne, redeemed the disgrace of Tonga by the battle of
Pdtan, where the Kachhwdhas held aloof and the Rahtors ignomi-
niously fled. General De Boigne then marched on Ajmer. On
the 21st August 1791 he arrived imder the walls : the next day the
town was taken, and the fort was invested. The citadel, however,
had been provisioned for a year, and was defended by a numerous
garrison. After seventeen days' operations, De Boigne, converting
the siege into a blockade, marched with the greater part of his
troops against the Rdjptits, who had assembled on the plains of
Mairta. On the 10th September the Rdjpdt army was surprised
before daybreak ; the unavailing gallantry of the Rahtor cavalry was
broken against the well-served guns of De Boigne and the hollow
squares of his disciplined infantry. The Rahtor army was nearly
annihilated, and by 3 o'clock on the same day the town of Mairta
was taken by assault. The Rahtors now submitted, and agreed to
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pay tribute. Ajmer reverted to the Marathas, and was held by
them tai its cession to the British Government in A.D. 1818.
Singhi DhanrA] was governor of Ajmer during the three
years it was held by the Rahtors. The
ern^enr ^"^^ ^"^'^'^ ^''" ^st kuowu of the Maratha Subahddrs
was Grobind Rao, who appears to have
been a strong and good governor. By the treaty of the 25th
June 1818, Daulat Rao Sindia, after the Pinddri war, ceded the
district of Ajmer, valued in the treaty at Rs. 5,05,484, to the
British Government ; and, on the 28th July 1818, Mr. Wilder,
the first Superintendent of Ajmer, received charge of the district
from Bapti Sindia, the last Maratha Siibahddr.
The history of Ajmer from 1818 is the history of its adminis-
tration. The long roll of battles and sieges is closed. The
district, worn out by the incessant warfare of half a century, at
length enjoys rest, and the massive battlements of Taragarh begin
to crumble in a secure peace. The Mutmy
The Mutiny of 1857. ^f ^857 passcd Kkc a cloud ovcr the
province. On the 28th May, two regiments of Bengal infantry
and a battery of Bengal artillery mutinied at NasirabM. The
European residents, however, were sufficiently protected by a
regiment of Bombay infantry, and the treasury and magazine at
Ajmer were adequately guarded by a detachment of the Merwara
Battalion. There was no interruption of civil government. The
mutinous regiments marched direct to Delhi, and the agricultural
classes did not share in the revolt.
History of Merwara. — ^The history of Merwara before the
occupation of Ajmer by the British authorities in 1818 is practi-
cally a blank. Hardly anything is known of the country
except that it was a difficult hilly tract, inhabited by an inde-
pendent and plundering race, who cared not for agriculture, and
who supplied their wants at the expense of the surrounding
territories. Sawai Jai Singh of Jaipur had penetrated no further
than Jak in an endeavour to subdue the country, and Amir Khdnhad
failed in an attempt to chastise the plunderers of Jak and Chang.
Mr. Wilder, the first Superintendent of Ajmer, entered into
agreements with the villages of Jak, Shdmgarh, Liilua, Kana
Hiera, and Kheta Khera, the nucleus of what is now Ajmer-
Merwara, binding them to abstain from plunder. The pledge,
however, was Kttle respected, or could not really be enforced by
the headmen, and in March 1819 a force was detached from
Nasirabdd for the attack of these places. No opposition was
encountered, the villages were taken one after the other, and all
levelled to the ground. The inhabitants escaped into the adjacent
hills, which Mr. Wilder, who accompanied the force, describes as
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an " impenetrable jungle.'' Strong police-posts were stationed at
Jak, Shdmgarh, and LMua.
In November 1820 a general insurrection broke out. The
police-posts were cut off, and the men
Conquest of the country. composiug them wcrc killed. The thorough
subjugation of the country was then determined on. A force
stronger than the former retook Jak, Liilua, and Shdmgarh, and
after some correspondence with the Governments of Udaipur and
Jodhpur, and promised co-operation on their part, the force
advanced into Mewar and Marwar-Merwara to punish the refugees
of Jak, Liilua, and Shdmgarh, and the men who had given them
an asylum.
Borwa was the first village of which possession was taken, and
the attack was then directed against Hat^m, where, however, a
repulse was sustained with a loss of 3 killed and 23 wounded.
In the night, however, the garrison evacuated the fort. The
troops then marched to Bardr, which after some show of fighting
fell into their hands. The capture of Mandlan and Barsawara
followed, and a strong detachment was then sent against Kot-
kirana and Bagri in Marwar-Merwara. These were taken
possession of and made over to Jodhpur ; and the reverses of the
Mers reached their culminating point in the capture of Rdmgarh,
whither most of the chief men had retreated. These were nearly
all killed or wounded or taken prisoners, and the remaining strong-
holds submitted in rapid succession. A detachment of cavalry
and infantry was left at Jak, and the main body withdrew at the
close of January 1821, the campaign having lasted three months.
Captain Tod, in the name of the Rana, undertook the adminis-
tration of the portion belonging to Mewar.
ist^r"'"''^' ^'' *^' '^^" He appointed a governor, built the fort of
Todgarh in the centre of the tract, raised
a corps of 600 matchlock-men for this special service, and
commenced to collect revenue. A different policy was pursued by
the court of Jodhpur. The villages which had been decided to
belong to Marwar were made over to the adjoining thakurs : there
was no controlling authority, and no unity of administration.
Ajmer brought all its share under direct management, but at first
the Thdkurs of Masuda and Kharwa were held responsible for the
establishment of order under the superintendence of Mr. Wilder.
It soon appeared that this triple government was no government ;
the criminals of one portion found security in another; the
country became infested with murderous gangs, and the state
of Merwara was even worse than before the conquest. Under these
circumstances, it was determined that the three portions should
be brought under the management of one officer, vested with fxill
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autliority in civil and criminal matters, and that a battalion of
eight companies of 70 men each should be enrolled from among
the Mers.
The negotiations with TJdaipTir resulted in the treaty of May
1823, by which the management of Mewar-
joS^!" ""^^ ^^^''" ^'^^ Merwara, consisting of 76 villages, wm
made over to the British Government for
a period of ten years, the Rana agreeing to pay Rs. 15,000 a year
to cover civil and military expenses. In March 1824, a similar
engagement was, after some difftcnlty, concluded by Mr. Wilder
with the Jodhpur Darbdr. It was arranged that the sum of
Rs. 15,000 should be annually paid on accoimt of civil and military
expenses, the Maharana and the Maharaja receiving, in each
case, the revenue of their respective portions. In March 1833,
the arrangement with Mewar was continued for a further period
of eight years, the Eana agreeing to pay Rs. 20,000 Chitori (or
Rs. 16,000 Kalddr) on accoimt of civil and military expenses. On
the 23rd October 1835, the arrangement with Marwar was extended
for a further period of nine years. The transfer of the Jodhpur
territory was only partial ; many villages were left in the haiids
of the bordering thdkurs, though nominally under the poKce super-
intendence of the British authorities. Twenty villages were made
over by the first treaty, and by the second treaty seven villages
were added ; but these latter were returned to Marwar in 1842.
Colonel Hall was the first officer appointed to the charge of the
newly-acquired district, and he ruled Mer-
^Administrafcion of Colonel ^^^ f^j. thirteen ycars. Hc was fettered
by no instructions, and was left to provide
for the due administration of the country. In his report, prepared
in 1834, he describes the system he adopted. Civil and criminal
justice were administered by punchayet or arbitration. In civil
cases the procedure was as follows : — The plaintiff presented his
case in writing, and the defendant, being summoned, was required
to write a counter-statement. An order was then passed for the
parties to name their respective arbitrators, the numbers on each
side being unlimited, but equal. The appointment of an umpire
was found imnecessary. The parties then wrote a bond to forfeit
a certain amoui^t, generally one-fourth or one-third of the amount
at issue, if they should afterwards deviate from this decision of
the pimchayet. The punchayet was then assembled, and an
agreement taken from its members to decide according to equity,
and to pay a fine of a stated amount if they do not. A native func-
tionary then asseml?led the punchayet, summoned the witnesses
and recorded the proceedings to their close. When a decision was
arrived at, the result was made known to the parties, who were,
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entitled to record their assent or dissent. If two-thirds of the
piinchayet agreed, the question was settled. If the losing side
dissented and paid the forfeit, a new punchayet was chosen by
special order of the Superintendent.
Criminal cases, in which the evidence was unsatisfactory, were
also referred to punchayet. Four months' imprisonment in irons
was the usual sentence, on conviction, for minor offences, imless
the crime had been denied. The jail was made self-supporting ;
each prisoner was supplied with one seer of barley-meal daily, and
with nothing else, but, if the prisoner wished, he might furnish his
own flour. On his release he was obKged to pay for his food and
for his share of the jail establishment, as well as for any clothing
which might have been given him ; and this system of recovering
the jail expenses from the prisoners and their relations lasted till
Colonel Dixon's death, when, on the representation of Captain
Brooke, it was abolished in the year 1858. The prisoners worked
from daylight till noon in the hot weather, and from noon till
evening in the cold weather.
The revenue was collected by estimate of the crops — one-third
of the produce being the Grovemment share, except in some
special cases. The estimate was made by a writer on the part of
Government, assisted by the patels, the patwdri, and the respectable
land-owners. If a dispute arose, the worst and best portions
of the field were cut and a mean taken. An appeal against the
estimate was allowed to the Superintendent. The prices current
in the country for ten or twelve miles round were then taken, an
average struck, and this assumed as the rate for calculating the
money-payment to be made. Cultivators who broke up new land,
or made wells, received leases authorizing them to hold at one-sixth
and one-eighth of the produce. The headmen of the villages paid
one-fourth.
The system of administration adopted for Merwara has been
given in some detail, since it possesses an historical value as being
that under which the coimtry throve till 1861, the year of Colonel
Dixon's regular settlement, and which, according to the opinion
of all competent observers, was eminently successful. An account
of this settlement will be found at page 99. Merwara was, no
doubt, fortunate in obtaining rulers like Colonel Hall and Colonel
Dixon, and Government was fortunate in enjoying the services of
such officers. Colonel Hall remained at his post from 1823 to
1836, and his successor Colonel Dixon governed Merwara till
1842. In that year, Ajmer was added to his charge ; but though
Merwara was under an Assistant Commissioner, still. Colonel Dixon,
as Commissioner, lived there the greater portion of every year till
his death at Bedwar in 1867. Both officers devoted their whole time
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and energy to their charge, and to them is due the regeneration
of Merwara, and the reclamation of the Mers from a predatory
life to habits of honest industry.
Nothing can more plainly speak to the great social change which
has been wrought in the inhabitants of Merwara than the deserted
and ruined state of their ancient villages. These were, formerly,
invariably perched upon hills in inaccessible places for the sake of
safety from the attacks of their fellow-men and of wild beasts.
The adoption of habits of industry and agriculture has rendered
the retention of such dwellings alike imnecessary and inconvenient.
The old villages are now nearly deserted, and are fast falling into
decay. New hamlets have sprung up everywhere in the village,
and the tendency to settle near the cultivated land is still on
the increase.
Tenures. — ^The land-tenures of Ajmer are, as might be expected,
entirely analogous to those prevailing in the adjacent Native
States, and though they have been often misunderstood, yet the
vis inertuB of the province has sufficed to prevent their being
interfered with, except in the one instance of the mouzdwar
settlement of 1860. The soil is, broadly, divided into two classes :
khdlsa, or the private domain of the crown ; and zamindari, or land
held in estates or baronies by feudal chiefs, who were originally
under an obligation of military service, but who now hold on
istimr^ tenure. Khdlsa land, again, might be alienated by the
crown either as an endowment of a rehgious institution, or as a
reward for service to an individual and his heirs. Such grants,
when they comprised a whole village or half a village, are termed
jdgirs ; and 61 whole villages and 3 half villages have been alienated
in this way.
The basis of the land system of Rdjptitdna is, that the State is
in its khdlsa lands the immediate andactual
^^^' proprietor, standing in the same relation to
the cultivators of the soil as the feudal chiefs do to the tenants on
their estates. The jdgird^ who are assignees of the rights of the
State, have the same rights as the State itself.
Prom ancient times, however, it has been the custom in the
khdlsa lands of Ajmer that those who permanently improved land
by sinking wells and constructing embankments for the storage
of water, acquired thereby certain rights in the soil so improved.
These rights are summed up and contained in the term " biswd-
dari," a name which is synonymous with the term "bdpota**
in Mewar and Marwar, and with the term " mirds '' in Southern
India, both of the latter words signifying " heritable land." A
cultivator who had thus expended capital was considered protected
from ejectment as long as he paid the customary share of the
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produce of the improved land ; and he had a right to sell, mortgage,
or make gifts of the well or the embankment which had been
created by his capital or labour. The transfer of the well or
the embankment carried with it the transfer of the improved land.
These privileges were hereditary, and the sum of them practically
constitutes proprietary right. Hence the term ** biswMdr " has
come to mean " owner," and a right of ownership gradually grew
up in permanently improved land.
In a district like Ajmer, where the rainfall is extremely
"precarious, unirrigated land was hardly regarded, and possessed
but little value. The State was considered owner of this as well
as of the waste. A cultivator without a well, or at any rate an
embankment, was looked on as, and must always be, a waif, with
no tie to bind him to the village where he may reside. No man,
in fact, cultivated the same unirrigated fields continuously ; the
village boundaries were undefined ; there was always more
unirrigated land around a village than could be cultivated by the
number of ploughs, and the inhabitants of each village cultivated in
each year according to their numerical strength and the character
of the season ; the State exercised the right of locating new hamlets
and new tenants, of giving leases to strangers who were willing
to improve the land, and of collecting dues for the privilege of
grazing over the waste from all tenants, whether biswMArs or not.
Mr. Wilder and Mr. Middleton, the first Superintendents of
Ajmer, have recorded their opinion that waste-lands are the
property of the State. Mr. Cavendish, their successor, whose
experience was gained in the North- Western Provinces, considered
them to belong to the village community. Mr. Edmonstone, who
made a ten years' settlement in 1835, investigated the question,
and was clearly of opinion that the State was the owner. In his
settlement report, dated 12th May 1836, he writes that the
opinion of Sir Thomas Munro, as regards the tenures in Arcot,
seems to him peculiarly adapted to the tenures of Ajmer, and is
entirely consistent with all the information he possessed. " The
Sarkdr possesses by the usage of the country the absolute right
to dispose of the waste in aU villages which are mirds, as well as
in those which are not.'*
When Colonel Dixon commenced the construction of his tank-
embankments in 1842, he acted as a steward to a great estate.
He founded hamlets where he thought fit ; he gave leases at
privileged rates to those who were willing to dig wells, and distri-
buted the lands under the new tanks to strangers whom he located
in hamlets in the waste. In no instance did the old " biswdddrs "
imagine for a moment that their rights were being invaded,
nor did they consider that they were entitled to any rent or
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malikana from the new comers. The new comers had the same
rights as to sale and mortgage of improved land as the old
" biswdddrs."
Such was the tenure of the khdlsa lands of Ajmer till the year
1849, when the village boimdaries were for the first time demar-
cated, and, under the orders of Mr. Thomason, a village settlement
was introduced. This settlement effected a radical change in the
tenure. It transformed the cultivating communities of the khdka
—each member of which possessed certain rights in improved land,
but who as a commtmity possessed no rights at all — ^into " bhya-
chara, " proprietary bodies. The essence of the mouzawdr system
is, that a defined area of land — ^that, namely, which is enclosed
within the village boundaries — ^is declared to be the property of the
village community, and the community consists of all those who
are recorded as owners of land in the village. The change, how-
ever, was unmarked, and even now is hardly understood, and
is not appreciated by the people. Daily petitions are filed by men
anxious to improve the waste, praying that Government will
grisint them leases iq its capacity of landlord. In many cases
where Colonel Dixon established a new hamlet he assessed it
separately from the parent village, i.e.^ the revenue assessed on
each resident of the hamlet was added up and announced to the
headmen of the hamlet. The waste remained the common
property of the parent village and of the hamlets. In 1867 these
hamlets were formed into distinct villages, the waste adjacent
to the hamlet being attached to it. The biswdddrs of the
parent village retained no right over this land, nor do they imagine
that they possess any. In this way there are now 139 klidlsa
villages in Ajmer, against 85 at the time of Golonel Dixon's
settlement.
Until the mouzawdr settlement of 1850 therefore, the tenure
in the khdlsa was ryotwdr. The State owned the land, but allowed
certain rights to tenants who had spent capital on permanent
improvements in the land so improved. TMs bundle of rights
gradually came to be considered proprietary right, and since 1850
the State has abandoned its exclusive and undisputed right of
ownership over unimproved land.
The tenure of the feudal chiefs was originally identical with
istimrdr ^^* ^^ ^^ chicfs in the Native States of
"^ * EdjpiitAna. The estates were jdgfrs held
on condition of military service and liable to various feudal inci-
dents. Colonel Tod, in his Rajasthan, volume I, page 167, thus
sums up the result of his inquiries into the tenure : — " A grant
of an estate is for the life of the holder with inheritance for his
offspring in lineal descent or adoption with the sanction of the
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prince, and resmnable for crime or incapacity; this reversion
and power of resumption being marked by the usual ceremonies
on each lapse of the grantee, of sequestration {zabti)^ of relief,
{nazardna) of homage and investiture of the heir."
Prom all that can be discovered, the original tenure of the
mass of the istimrdr estates in Ajmer is exactly described in the
above quotation. The grants were life-grants, but, like all similar
tenures, they tended to become hereditary.
None of these estates ever paid revenue till the time of
the Marathas in 1755 A.D., but were held on the condition of
military service. To exact this service was for those freebooters as
unnecessary as it would have been impolitic, and, in lieu, they
assessed a sum upon each estate which presumedly bore sonie
relation to the number of horse and foot soldiers which each
chieftain had up to that time been required to furnish. The
assessment, however, was very unequal, and took a much larger
proportion of their income from the lesser chiefs than from tiie
more powerful thdkurs who were likely to resist and whom it might
have been difficult to coerce, and who probably had a voice in set-
tling the contributions of the chiefs subordinate to them. On the
cession of the district in 1818 A.D., the tahikdars were found
paying a certain sum under the denomination of " Mamla *' or
"Aln,'' and a number of extra cesses which amounted on the
whole to half as much again as the Mamla. These extra cesses
were collected till the year 1841, when, on the representation of
Colonel Sutherland, Commissioner of Ajmer, they were abandoned.
In 1830, 1839, and 1841, the Government of India had declared
that the estates were liable to re-assessment, and had given explicit
orders for their re-assessment ; but these orders were not act^ on,
nor apparently communicated to those concerned. The chiefs who,
at a very early period of British rule, perhaps even before it, had
acquired the title of istimrdrddrs, no doubt considered themselves as
holders at a fixed and permanent quit-rent. This belief of theirs
was strengthened by the action of Government in 1841, when all
extra cesses were remitted, avowedly on the ground that they
were ** unhallowed Maratha exactions,*' and the demand of the
State was limited to the amoimt which had been assessed by the
Marathas nearly a century before. The final orders of Government
on this tenure were conveyed in the letter from the Secretary to
the Government of India to the address of the Chief Conmiissioner,
No. 9411., dated 17th June 1873. The Viceroy consented to waive
the right of Government in. the matter of re-assessment, and to
declare the present assessments of the chiefs to be fixedin perpetuity.
This concession was accompanied by a declaration of the Uability
of the estates to pay nazaruna on successions j and the conditions on
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wWch the istimrdrddrs now hold, have been incorporated in the
Banad which has been granted to each of them.
There are in all 06 estates, containing 240 villages^ with an
area of 819,523 acres* The istimrdr revenue is Rs. 1,14,734-9-11,
and the estimated rent-roll of the istimrdrddrs is Bs* 5,60^000.
In 60 estates, all held by Rdjptits, the custom of primogeniture
now obtains. Of these, however, 11 only are original fiefs ; the
remainder have been formed by sub-division in accordance with the
rules of inheritance* Originally the property was, on the death of
the parent, divided equally among the sons, though in some cases
the eldest son, called " Pdtwi," was considered entitled to a larger
share than his younger • brothers. A notable instance of the
operation of this rule is the separation of the Dewalia estate from
Bhinai. In the next stage the successor to the pat or gadi
was, apparently by a fiction of sovereignty, considered entitle! to
succeed to the estate, but provision was made for the yoimger
brothers by the alienation to each of them of one viUage on
girds tenure. The last instance of such an alienation occurred
in the year 1823. In the third stage of the history of inheritance
the estates ceased to be further sub-divided, and the provision for
the younger members of the Agnatic group was limited to the
grant of a well and a few bighas of land for fife. This is the stage
which has now been reached, though in the smaller estates a
fourth stage may perhaps be mark^, in which the younger
brothers have become merely hangers-on at the table in the eldest
brother's mansion. So much remains of the ancient custom that
some provision for younger brothers is considered imperative on
every istimrdrd&r.
There are six estates, each of a single village, the tenure of
which differs from that above described. Pive of these are held
by coparcenary bodies ; succession is regulated by ancestral shares,
and both land and revenue are minutely divided. In one village —
Karel, belonging to a community of Bahtors — -the property of the
two chief men of the village is distributed, on their death, into one
share more than there are sons, and the eldest son takes a double
share. Eajaosi stands apart trora all other istimr&r estates. It
belongs to a Chita, who is sole istinu-drddr; but the land is owned,
not by him, but by the actual cultivators from whom he collects
a fixed share of the produce, and himself pays a fixed revenue to
Government. One of these villages, Kotri, belongs to Chdrans or
Bhdts, and was originally separated from the istimrdr estate of
Bhinai. The other five were stated by the kdniingos in the time
of Mr. Cavendish to be khdlsa villages, and they probably should
not have been included in the istim^ list.
The subordinate rights in the istimrdr estates have never
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formed the subject of judicial investigation, nor liavie the settle-
ment operations of 1874 been extended to the istimr^r area* The
principle followed under British rule has been to leave the istimr^-
ddrs to manage their own affairs, and to interfere with them as
little as possible. This principle has been recognized by the Gov-
ernor-General in Council, who (paragraph 19 of letter No. 377 R.,
dated 28th October 1871) " is clearly of opinion that in no case
should there be any attempt to effect a sub-settlement which is
not apparently needed, and would probably cause dissatisfaction
and alarm." It is well known, however, that in most of the larger
estates there are villages held in j^lr by Chdrans, Jogis, and others,
and villages held by sub-talukdars, relations of the istimrdrd^,
who generally pay an unvarying amount of revenue to the head
of the family, and who are succeeded in the sub-talukas by their
eldset sons. As a general rule, jdgir villages are not resumable,
nor can the sub-talukas be resimied except for valid cause assigned.
To meet these cases it has been proposed to insert a clause to the
following effect in the substantive law of Ajmer : —
** Sub-talukdars and jdgirddrs in the istimrdr estates shall
continue to enjoy the rights of which they are at present possessed,
except where valid reason shall be shown, to the satisfaction of the
Chief Commissioner, for the abrogation of any of them. "
The istimrdrdars have always claimed. to be owners of the soil,
and their claim has been allowed. The prevailing opinion is, that all
cultivators are tenants-at-wiU ; but there are good grounds for
hesitating to adopt this conclusion. Mr. Cavendish's inquiries
extended to 296 villages, and in 158 villages the thdkurs disclaimed
the right of ouster of cultivators from irrigated and improved
land, where the means of irrigated or the improvement had been
provided by the labour or capital of the cultivator. It was generally
admitted that such land could not be mortgaged or sold ; but the
istimr^ddrs allowed that the cultivators had a right of re-entry on
their land, on their return to the village within a reasonable time.
In 161 villages Mr. Cavendish found hereditary cultivators whose
rights were the same as those of the owners of well3. TJnirrigated
and unimproved land was \miversally admitted to be held on a
tenure-at-will from the istimrdrddr. Mr. Cavendish recommended
the extension of the principle thus admitted by most of the
thakurs as to the rights of owners of wells to the estates of
those chiefs who had boldly claimed the right of ouster from all
land. On this subject the opinion of Colonel Dixon, as conveyed
in a memorandunf addressed to Sir Henry Lawrence and dated
28th August 1854, is deserving of attention : " The chiefs of
villages are reckoned as biswdddrs within their own estates. It
is a right which is rarely exercised by them, for all cultivators
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who have sunk wells would, in the eye of the law, be considered
their owmers, and not dispossessed without cause assigned, and
without being remunerated for their outlay. In bardni and
taldbi lands the people cultivate according to the pleasure of the
thdkur." The principle, that those who have expended capital
in the improvement of the soil acquire thereby a right in it,
is perfectly in unison with the land system of the country;
and whenever an inquiry is made into the rights of individual
cultivators and a record is prepared, this principle must form the
basis of adjudication. As a matter of fact, disputes between an
istimrdrddr and the tenants hardly ever come before our courts.
The subject of jdgir estates was investigated by a mixed
Usir committee of Government officials and
jdglrdArs, and the report of the commit-
tee, dated 16th May 1874, contains a history of each estate.
Out of a total area of 160,838 acres, yielding an averagfe
rental of Rs. 91,000, 66,472 acres belong to the endowments
of shrines and sacred institutions, and yield an income of about
Ks. 43,000. The remaining jdglrs are enjoyed by individuals and
certain classes specially designated in the grants. No conditions
of military or other service are attached to the tenure of any jAgir.
In all jdgfr estates the revenue is collected by an estimate of
the produce, and money-assessments are unknown. As was the
case in the khdlsa before Colonel Dixon's settlement, the ideas of
rent and revenue are confounded under the ambiguous term
**Hasil;" and, until the year 1872, the relative status of the
jdgirddrs and cultivators as regards the ownership of the soil was
quite imdefined. On the 13th August 1872 a judicial declaration
was made under Regulation VII of 1822, and the main points are
as follow : — Eirst, all those found in possession of land irrigated or
irrigable from wells or tanks, which wells or tanks were not proved
to be constructed by the jdgfrddr, were declared owners of such
land ; secondly, the jiigirddr was declared owner of irrigated land
in which the meaus of irrigation had been provided by him, of
unirrigated land, and of the waste.
The tenure known as bhdm is peculiar to EAjpiits. The word
Bhdm itself means "the soil," and the name
Bhtimia properly signifies " the allodial
proprietor" as distinguished from the feudal chief and the tenant
of crown-lands. According to Colonel Tod, volume I^ page 168,
the bhtimias in Mewar are the descendants of the earlier princes
who, on the predominance of new clans, ceased to come to court
and to hold the higher grades of rank. They continued, however,
to hold their land, and became an armed husbandry, nominally
paying a small qxiit-rent to the crown, but practically exempt.
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In course of time, various kinds of bhum greW up, wbicli, tinlike
the original allodial holding, were founded on grants, but had this
apparently in common, that a hefeditary, non-resumable, and
inalienable property in the soil was inseparably bound up with a
revenue-free title. Bhdm was given as ** Mundkati,*' or Compen-
sation for bloodshed, (wehrgeld), in order to quell a feud, for
distinguished services in the field, for protection of a border, or for
watch and ward of a village* Whatever the origin of the bhiim
holding, however, the tenure was identical, and so cherished is
the title of Bhiimia, that the greatest cMefs are solicitous to
obtain it, even in villages entirely dependent on their authority*
The Maharaja of Kishangarh, the ThAkur of Fathegarh, the Thdkur
of Juuia, the Thdkur of Bandunwara, and the Thdkur of Tantoti,
are among the bhiimias of Ajmer.
There are 109 bhiim holdings in Ajmer, and, except in those
cases where a raja or an istimr^^ is also a bhtimia, the property
passes to all children equally. It is probable that none of these
holdings are original allods, but belong to the class of assimilated
allods. We should have expected to find aa bhiimias the
representatives of the tribes which ruled in Ajmer in former
days, — Ohohdn, Pramar^ and Gaur Bdjpiits. It is true that nine
holdings are held bv Gaurs ; but the bhtimias are nearly all Rahtors,
the descendants ot the younger branches of the families of the
istimrdrddrs, and none of these can lay claim to an origin ascending
higher than that of the estates from which they sprang.
Whatever the origin of the holdings, however, the rights and duties
of all bhtimias came in course of time to be identical. At first the
land was revenue-free, subsequently a quit-rent was imposed but
irregularly collected, and this quit-rent was abolished in the year
1841 along with the extra cesses from istimrdrddrs. The duties of
the bhtimias were three in number : first, to protect the village in
which the bhiim is, and the village cattle, from dacoits ; secondly,
to protect the property of travellers within their village from
theft and robbery ; and thirdly, to indemnify pecimiarily suflEerers
from a crime which they ought to have prevented.
This last incident was a peculiar feature of the Ajmer tenure,
and grew out of the custom of Bidjptitdna that the Baj should
compensate losses of travellers by theft or robbery committed in
its territory. This custom is still carried out by the International
Court of Vakils. Where the theft or robbery has occurred in a
village belonging to a fief, the chieftain to whom the village
belongs is called on to indemnify the sufferers ; and the istimr^Lrd^
of Ajmer have always been compelled to indemnify sufferers from
thefte and robberies committed on their estates^ Similarly, a
jdgird^ to whom the State has transferred its rights and duties
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is pecuniarily liable. When the theft or robbery is committ<»(l lii
a khdlsa village in which the Raj occupies the position of landlord^
the State itself has to pay compensation. In no case has tho
cultivating community of a khdisa or jdgir village been called on to
pay indemnity. In Ajmer, the State, finding this responsibility
inconvenient, transferred it to a bhdmia as a condition of the
teniure ; but in khdisa villages, where there are no bhtimias, the
State still remains responsible.
However useful the system of pecuniary indemnification may
have been, and howevOT well adapted it was to the times of
anarchy in which it had its birth, there is no doubt that in Ajmer
it has long been moribund, though it still shows spasmodic signs
of existence. When the average rental enjoyed by a bhtimia is
only Rs. 17 a year, it is hopeless to expect that more than a
very few bhdmias could compensate even a very moderate loss.
If the stolen property exceeded a few himdred rupees in value,
none could from the assets of their bhiim indenmify the sufferers.
The progress of civilization, roads and railways, and the freer
intercourse which arises between States, inevitably doom this
device of a rude state of society. The transition commenced some
time ago in Ajmer, when the Thikur of Junia, who is hereditary
bhdmia of the town of Kekri, was permitted to commute his
responsibility for compensating losses with the establishment of
a force of watehmen in the town. As soon as the Native States
adopt a system of regular police, this distinctive feature of the
bhiim tenure must have vanished, and Government in 1874i
sanctioned the proposal to abolish the pecuniary responsibility
and to revert to what seemed to be the original incidents of the
tenure, to hold the bhiimias liable as an armed militia to be
called out to put down riots and pursue dacoits and rebels, and
to take from them a yearly quit-rent under the name of naza-
rana.
The above sketeh wiU have shown that it is probable that the
The state. State stiU posscsscs larger proprietary rights
in the kh^sa villages of Ajmer than it
possesses in most other parts of the Bengal Presidency. In
istimrar estates, on the other hand, the State has few or no rights
beyond that of taking a fixed revenue. In j%fr villages the
State has assigned its rights to others. To the State belong in
sole proprietary right all mines of metals in khdisa villages, while
for its own purposes it can quarry, free of payment, where and
to what extent it pleases. This principle was recognized in the
letter from the Secretary to the Government of India, No. 22611.,
dated 10th November 1873. Two ranges of hills near Ajmer,
that of Taragarh and that of J^agpaliar, have been declared to be
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the property of Government. The tank-embankments of Ajmer
have aMost all been made by the State, and Government is the
owner of the embankment and of all that grows thereon. Under
the forest ordinance (Regulation I of 1874), the State has reserved
to itsdlf the right to resume from the vUlage commimities the
management of any tract of waste or hilly land, the proprietary
right, subject to certain conditions, being vested absolutely in
Government as long as the land is required for forest purposes.
Merwara possessed no settled government till 1822, when it
Merwara, camc Under British management. The
erwara, people found the occupation of plunder
more profitable and congenial than that of agriculture. No
crops were sown except what was actually necessary for the scanty
population. The tanks were constructed and used exclusively for
the purpose of providing water for the cattle. No revenue or rent
was paid. The RAjptits were never able to obtain a firm footing in
the country. Whatever small revenue they could get from it was
obtained at a cost both of life and money far exceeding its value.
Undear such circumstances tenures could not spring up. Colonels
Hall and Dixon, to whom the civilization of the Mers is due,
treated Merwara as a great zamindari, of which they were the
manager's, and Government the owner. Their word was law ; they
f oimded hamlets, gave leases, built tanks, and collected one-third of
the produce of the soil as revenue. At the settlement of 1861 all
cultivators who had recently been settled in the viQages were
recorded as owners of the land in their possession equally with the
old inhabitants.
Sales and Mortgages. — One peculiarity of the land-tenure of
Ajmer-Merwara shoidd not be omitted : it is the entire absence of
the custom of sale, whether voluntary or enforced. Private sales of
land appear to have been practically unknown till about a genera-
tion ago, nor has any land ever been sold for arrears of revenue.
Sale of land in execution of decrees of the civil court has been
prohibited as contrary to ancient custom. Mortgages, however, are
only too common, and many of them differ in no respect from
sales.
Non-proprietary Cultivators. — ^At the settlement of 1874, nearly
all cultivators were recorded as proprietors, and a non-proprietary
cultivating class hardly exists in the khdlsa of either Ajmer or
Merwara. When there are tenants, they pay generally the same
share of produce as the proprietors themselves paid before the
regular settlement. The few mauriisi cultivators recorded by
Colonel Dixon pay distributed shares of the Government revenue.
There is no rent-law in the province. Rents are universally taken
in kind, and suits for arrears hardly ever come before the courts*
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Suits for enhancement are unknown. Custom, and not competi-
tion, regulates the rate of rent. The istimrdrddrs and the jdglr-
dars collect their rents without the intervention of the courts, and
in these estates there are not cultivators for the land that still
remains to be brought under cultivation. The population hitherto
has been periodically decimated by famine ; and as no Rdjptit
will, if he can possibly avoid the necessity, ever touch a plough,
cultivators are still at a premium.
Population and Castes.
JPojpulation and Castes. — The total population of Ajmer-Mer-
wara by the census of 1876 was 396,331,
Census Statistics. exclusivc of Europcaus, of whom 558 were
enumerated in 1872. There were 93,464 houses. Of the popu-
lation, 212,267, or 53'4 per cent., were males, and 184,064, or 46*6
per cent., females. Adults were counted at 270,910, of which
number 143,967 were males and 126,943 females ; children were
counted at 125,421, of which number 68,300 were boys and 57,121
girls. Classed by occupation, 63,537 males over 15 years of age
were agriculturists ; non-agriculturists were 69,996. Hindus,
with whom Sikhs and Jains were classed, were returned as 348,248,
or 87*8 per cent, of the population. Muhanamadans were 11-9
per cent., or 47,310. Native Christians were returned at 715, and
Parsis at 68.
The jaindus, forming the largest portion of the population,
may be thus divided : —
Brdlunans ... ... ... 19,581
Kshatriyas ... ... ... 14,558
Vaisyas (mercantile tribe, &c.) ... ... 38,316
Hindu religious orders ... ... ... 3,252
Sudras (miscellaneous Hindu castes) ... 188,413
Aboriginal tribes (Bhils, Minas, and Mers) ... 60,107
Others (including Sikhs, Marathas, Bengalis,
and unspecified tribes) ... ... 24,021
348,248
The whole census of Ajmer and Merwara, with a third of a
million of inhabitants, cost Rs. 740. Including the khdlsa and
jdgir villages, but excluding the istimrdr villages, there are 190
villages in Ajmer. There are 241 villages in the Bedwar tahsil and
88 in Todgarh; and these numbers must be borne in mind in tracing
the distribution of the castes.
Land-owning Castes. — ^If the account just given of the tenure in
the khdlsa and j^gir portions of Ajmer, has been followed, it will
not be a matter of surprise that Bdjputs own hardly any land except
s
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bhiim and istimrdr, or that 67 castes were found in possession of pro-
prietary rights at the revision of settlement in 1874. As no
Rdjptit will touch a plough unless forced by necessity, none
would hare cared to take land other than on bhtim or talukdari
tenure, and the crown tenants, as well as the tenants of the jAgir
estates, are mainly the descendants of the ancient cultirators of
the soil who hare held their land in all the dynastic changes
through which Ajmer has passed. Where every man who dug a
well became owner of the land irrigated therefrom, and where a
cultivator without a well is considered a waif, with no tie to bind
him to the village where he may reside, the land-owning castes must
be nearly co-extensive with the cultivating castes ; and such is found
to be the case. Of the 190 Ajmer villages, 52 are held by J4ts, 61
belong to Gujars, 61 to Mers, 4 to Rdjpiits, 2 to Deswali Musal-
mdns ; eight castes hold one village each, — Christian, Mdli, Sayyid,
PathAn, Mughal, Banjdrd, Ahfr, and Fakir. In the remaining
22 villages there is no exclusive caste ownership ; the priucipal
castes in these villages are fourteen in number: Mdlis, Telis, Mers,
Merats, Deswalis, Gujars, Brdhmans, Rdjpiits, Mahajans, Kayaths,
Kharols, Ahirs, Rebaris, and Regars. The remaining land-owning
castes have few representatives, and are scattered over many villages.
The four villages belonging to Rdjptits are Arjimpura jdglr,
Arjunpura khdlsa, Gola, and Khori; the two former belonging
to Gaur Rdjptits, the two latter to Rahtors. This exception,
however, only proves the conclusion of the foregoing paragraph.
Arjunpura jdgir was given on condition of protecting the road,
and assimilates to a bMm tenure. The land is sub-divided among
the descendants of the original grantee. Arjunpura khdlsa stands
quite alone by itself as the only zamindari tenure in the district,
with the exception of Muhammadgarh, where the tenure has been
created by the British Government, and narrowly escaped being
classed with the istimrdr estates. Gola was held on istimrdr tenure
till shortly before the establishment of British rule, Khori was
originally a Mer village, but the Rahtors held a large amoimt of
bhiim in it, and gradually turned out the Mers. In short, where
Rdjpiits hold jdgir or khdlsa land, it will generally be found that it
is the relic of a talukdari tenure, or of a jdgfr grant, or an encroach-
ment by bhiimias.
Rdjputs were returned in the census papers of 1876 at 14,558.
j^. ,^g It is a curious fact illustrative of the great
vicissitudes of early times, that, though
Ajmer was held for over a thousand years by Chohdns, there are
now few Chohdns to be met with in the province. They must be
looked for in Hdrdvati, in Alwar, and in the desert of Nagar
Pdrkhar, whither they have been pushed by the Rahtors who
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liave occupied their place as the ruling tribe, and who in numbers,
wealth, and power greatly preponderate over the other Rdjptit
clans who hold land in the district. These are three in number
— Graur, Sesodia, and Kachhwdha ; and it will be convenient to
consider them in the order of their arrival in the province, for
a definite date can be fixed for the arrival of each.
In the time of Prithvi Raja Chohdn, Raja Bachraj and Raja
^^ Bdwan, Gaur Rdjptits from Bengal, came
^' to Ajmer on the customary pilgrimage to
Dwarika. Prithvi Raj engaged the brothers in an expedition
against Daya Singh of Nagor which was successful, and subse-
quently each of them married a daughter of Prithvi Raj. Raja
Bdwan settled at Kuchdman in Marwar ; Raja Bachraj remained
in Ajmer. In course of time, Junia, S^war, Deolia, and the
adjacent country, fell into the hands of the Gaur Rdjptits, and to
the head of the clan Humdyun gave a mansab of 7,000. In the
time of Akbar, Raja Bital DAs founded the town of Rajgarh, and
called it after the name of his grandson. Raj Singh. The son of
the latter took Srinagar from the Powdr Rdjptits, who have now
disappeared from the district. This, however, was the climax of
the prosperity of the Gaur Rdjpiits, for soon afterwards they were
ejected from Rajgarh and aU their territory by Kishan Singh,
Rahtor. After twenty-five years of dispossession Gt)pal Singh
recovered Rajgarh, and the Gaurs were in possession when the
country fell into the hands of the Marathas. The Marathas in
1817 resumed Rajgarh and the twelve villages attached to it, as
the Raja was unable to pay a contribution of Rs. 10,000 Fouj
Kharch. On the establishment of British rule, these villages were
returned on the condition of payment of nazardna ; but, as the
nazardna was not, or could not, be paid, the whole was resumed
with the exception of one small village, Kotdj, and, until
1874, remained khdlsa. In March 1874 the town of Raj-
garh was presented in jdgir to Raja Devi Singh, the repre-
sentative of this ancient but fallen house ; and the graceful gene-
rosity of Government has been thoroughly appreciated by all
classes of the community. The Gaur Rdjpiits hold land in four-
teen villages. The descendants of Bital Dds are jagirddrs of
Rajgarh and Kotaj, and bhiimias of Ddnta and Jdtia. The des-
cendants of Balrdm, a younger brother of Bitdl Dds, are the
istimrdrddr of Manoharpur, and the bhtimias of Sanodh, Ndndla,
Nedran, Lavera, Dudiana, and Jharwdsa. The descendants of
Raja Bdwan are jdgirddrs of Arjunpura jdgir^ are owners and
bhAmias of Arjunpura khdlsa, and hold bhiim in Tubeji.
It is unnecessary in this place to give a detailed history of the
rs Rahtors, the great conquering race which,
^'^^' in the year 1212, abandoned the ruined
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capital of Kanouj and founded a kingdom in the desert of Mar-
war : such an account belongs more properly to the Gazetteer of
Jodhpur. All the talukdars of Ajmer, with the exception of the
Thdkur of Manoharpur, the Thdkur of Sdwar and his relations, and
the Chltas of Merwara descent, who hold four villages on istimrdr
tenure, are Rahtors, and all trace their descent from Seoji, the
founder of the monarchy. Of the 109 bhiim holdings in the dis-
trict, 83 are held by Rahtors, nearly aU the younger sons and bro-
thers of the istimrdrd^. The Rahtors of Ajmer have the same
customs and characteristics as their brethren in Marwar. They
are still warlike and indolent, and great consumers of opium;
Each man carries at least a dagger, and, except imder extreme
pressure, none will touch a plough.
The pargana of SAwar, at the south-eastern extremity of the
Sesodia Ajmcr district, is held on istimr^ tenure
by Sesodia R^jptits, and the estate is a
portion of a grant made by Jehangir to Gk)kal Dds, who is said to
have received eighty-four wounds in the service of the emperor.
The pargana of Phtilia was originally part of the kh^a of Ajmer,
and was given by Shahjehan to the Raja of Shahpura, a scion of
the royal house of Mewar. For many years the Superintendents of
Ajmer continued to exercise interference in the affairs of this par-
gana, but in 1847 it was permanently assessed at Rs. 10,000, and
the Raja of Shahpura is no longer coimted among the istimrdrd^
of Ajmer ; he is considered a tributary prince who holds of the
British Government for Phtilia, and of Mewar for the rest of
his territory. There is a family of Sesodias who are bhtimias in
Nepoli. Besides these there are no other Sesodias in the
district.
The Kachhwdha RAjpiits, like the Sesodias, are to be found in
Kachhwiha. the villages adjoining their respective States
of Jaipur and TJdaipur, and hold bhiim in
five villages. They are settled principally in the villages of Harmdra
and Tilomid, in the extreme north of the Ajmer district. The
most noteworthy family, that of Thdkur Hamdth Singh of Har-
mdra, has had a chequered career. Hamdth Singh, the ancestor
of the family, received a jdgir of six villages from Aurangzeb. The
estate was partially resimied by the Rahtors, and wholly by the
Marathas, and the present representative of the family, Thdkur
Hamdth Singh, who alone of all the bhiimias in the district is
entitled to the appellation of Thdkur, holds now some 800 acres
of bhiim in Harmdra and Tilomid.
The Jdts were numbered at the census of 1876 at 30,486.
j^^g They, with the Gujars, are the original
cultivators of the soil, and considerably
outnumber any other caste. Nearly the whole of the Rdmsar
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pargana belongs to them* They are settled in Kekri^ and in
the best villages of the Ajmer and Rajgarh parganas. Tubeji,
Suradhua, Makrera, Jethdna, BudhwAra, and Pecholean belong
to Jdts. In the Bedwar tahsil they hold seven villages, chiefly
in and about the old town of Bedwar adjoining the Ajmer
district; for they never penetrated far into Merwara, and are
not to be found in the Todgarh tahsil. They are divided into
three main families, — Puniyo, Sishmo, and Harchitrdl ; but their
gdts are more than a hundred. As elsewhere, they are strong
men and hard-working cultivators. They hold no revenue-free
land, nor any bhiim ; they have in Ajmer double as much land as
the Gujars, and pay three times as much revenue, partly no doubt
owing to their having monopolized the best villages, but chiefly
to their greater energy in making weUs and improving their lana.
The Jdts worship a variety of gods, including Mdtd and
d f T • • Mahadeo, but the chief object of vene-
ejaji. ration for all the Jdts of Marwar, Ajmer,
and Kishangarh is Tejaji, whose legend is as foUows. Teja was
a Jdt of Kamdla near Nagor, in Marwar, who lived eight hundred
and sixty years ago, and had been married at Rupnagar, in
Kishangarh. While grazing his cattle, he observed that a cow
belonging to a Brdhman was in the habit of going daily to a
certain place in the jungle where the milk dropped from her
udder. Further observation showed that the Tm'IV feU into a hole
inhabited by a snake. Teja agreed with the snake to supply h\vt\
daily with milk, and thus prevent the Brdhman suffering loss.
Once when he was preparing to visit his father-in-law, he forgot
the compact, and the snake, appearing, declared that it was neces-
sary he should bite Teja. Teja stipiilated for permission to first
visit his father-in-law, to which the snake agreed. Teja proceeded
on his journey, and at Kishangarh rescued the village cattle from
a band of robbers, but was desperately wounded in the encounter.
Mindful of his promise to return, Teja with difficulty reached
home and presented himself to the snake, who, however, could
find no spot to bite — so dreadfully had Teja been cut up by the
robbers. Teja therefore put out his tongue, which the snake bit,
and so he died. The Jdts believe that if they are bitten by a
snake and tie a thread round the right foot while repeating the
name of Tejaji, the poison will prove innocuous. There is a
temple to Tejaji at Sarsara in Kishangarh, and a fair is held in
July. Tejaji is always represented as a man on horseback with
a drawn sword, while a snake is biting his tongue. Nearly all
Jdts wear an amulet of silver with this device round their necks.
Colonel Dixon singled out Tejaji as the patron of the fair he
established in his new town of Nayanagar.
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Some customs of the Jdts deserve mention. Marriage is not
* xu T^^ allowed within the same gdty and takes
Customs of the Jats. , n i a. • tj» i i • tt
place generally later m Me than m Upper
India. A cocoanut and a rupee, emblems of fertility and wealth,
are sent to the house of the bride. There, the brotherhood is
collected, and the contract is concluded by throwing the cocoanut
and the rupee into the lap of the bride. The day is then j&xed by
the bride's parents ; and the " bardt," which consists generally of
twenty-five to thirty men, reaches the village in the evening. At
the appointed time, the bridegroom proceecfi to the bride's house
in red clothes and with a sword in his hand. The village carpen-
ter affixes a frame of wood, called a torun, over the door, and
this the bridegroom strikes with his sword and enters the house.
The torun is a cross-barred frame reseml3ling a wicket, and
the custom is probably a relic of the marriage by conquest. All
castes put up toruna, and, as they are not removed, they may be
seen on haK the houses in the district. When the bridegroom has
entered the house, the Brdhman causes him and the bride to
go round a fire lit in the centre of the room. This is the ceremony
called " Phera," and is the only one used. The second day there is
a feast, and the bridal party then disperses . The bride's father takes
money, Rs. 84 being the fixed amount. The bridegroom's father
spends about Rs. 200, the bride's father nearly as much, and the sub-
sequent gunay when the bride's father gives turbans to his son-
in-law and relatives, costs him about Rs, 150 more.
Among the Jdts, as among the Gujars, Malis, and all the tribes
rt ^ rxT/^v/ of Merwara, widow-marriage is the rule,
Custom of Natha. , . ,, j c, •KVJti.x^jL a k 1
and IS called " Natha. A man cannot
marry hisyoimger brother's widow, but may that of his elder brother.
The younger brother has the first claim on the widow's hand ; but
if he does not marry her, any one in the gdt may do so. No feast to
the brotherhood is given in Ndthd, and consequently this species
of marriage is much less expensive than the other. No disability
of any kind attaches to the children of a Ndthd marriage : young
widows are married off by their husband's relations, who take
about Rs. 100 or Rs. 150 from the second husband. Formerly
the widows were not allowed much choice as to whom they should
marry, and were generally given to the highest bidder; and in the
early accounts of the Mers the custom is stigmatized as revolting
under the name of sale of women. As a matter of fact, grown-up
widows can now choose for themselves, though, when they do,
the punchayet generally orders a certain sum to be paid to the
deceased husband's relations. These orders are often contested, and
are not enforced in the courts. If a widow chooses to remain
so, she is not forced to marry ; and, in all castes, a widow who
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has no sons retains her deceased husband's property till her death
or her re-marriage. She cannot mortgage except in order to pay
her husband's debts or to marry her daughter. The custom of
Ndthd arose out of the right of property supposed to be derived
from the sum paid to the bride's father on the occasion of the
marriage engagement, and the condition of widows is infinitely
preferable under the custom than if they were forced to remain
unmarried all their liyes. Colonel Hall has recorded that, while he
was complaining that women were sold as sheep, the women them-
selves, so far from considering it a grievance, were flattered by the
payment of a high price as a testimony to their beauty and useful-
ness. Rdjptits and Brdhmans are the only castes who do not practise
NdthA ; with the Rdjptits the custom of sati is the alternative. BAj-
piit wives and concubines all long to become satis, and, were the cus-
tom not sternly repressed, it woidd now be flourishing in E;djptitdna.
The chief waste of money among the Jdts and other Hindu
castes is on the occasion of a feast to the
ma. brotherhood on the twelfth day after the
death of a relation. If, however, the feast is not given on the
twelfth day, it may be given at any time, and the mahajans stir
up the people to perform these ceremonies. Jdts, Mdlis, Gujars,
and Mers eat three times a day. The early meal is called sirdman^
and consists of the food remaining over from the preceding day.
The mid-day meal is called hhdt or rota, and consists of barley
or maize bread with greens and buttermilk. The evening meal,
called hydrn, generally consists of soaked maize and buttermilk.
All castes smoke tobacco and present it to strangers, and he who
consumes most is the best man.
The Gujars hold 36 villages in all parts of the Ajmer district
and 3 in Bedwar tahsil, where they are
^^^^* settled in the outlying villages of Jethgarh
and Bhyronkhera, in the Mewar plain. They were returned in the
census of 1876 at 29,345. They are careless cultivators, and
devote their energies to grazing cattle. Those who live near
Ajmer sell milk and butter in the town. Their chief divinity is
Deoji, who was a Gujar of Bednor, in Mewar, some seven hundred
years ago, and worked miracles. Their customs are identical
with those of Jdts ; but the Gujars in Merwara have adopted a
custom of inheritance from the Mers by which the projperty is
divided according to wives, and not according to sons. Gu3ars and
Jdts will eat together. The chief men of the Gujars are called
Mihr ; the chief men of Jdts are called Chowdhry or Patel.
Brdhmans .were counted in the census of 1876 at 19,681. The
Brdhmans Brdhmaus of Mcrwara eat meat, and have
"^^' no dealings with the other Brdhmans*
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Brdhmans are not generally cultivators, but hold revenue-free
land in nearly every village. Of the
*^^^*' Vaisya tribe, the two chief castes are the
Agarwals, who derive their name from Agar Sen, who lived at Ag-
roda, in Hariana ; and the Oswals, who trace their birth-place to
Osanagri in Marwar. These two classes of merchants and traders
are followers of the Jain religion, and are generally well off. Other
Vaisya castes are Maheshwaris, Bijaburjis, Khandelwals, and
Dhiisars.
The Kayaths say they are a caste intermediate between the
^ ^, J . . X Vaisyas and Sudras, and some wear the
Kayatns and mixed castes. ^^ /i • i ii i mi i-i
Brahmamcal thread. There are three
distinct families in Ajmer, known by the names of their parganas
— ^Ajmer, E&msar, and Kekri ; and these acknowledge no relation-
ship. They have been hereditary kdntingos since the time of the
Mughal emperors ; they hold about 1,000 acres of revenue-free
land, and enjoy certain perquisites from j Agfr and istimrdr villages.
Mdlis numbered about 11,638 and are good cultivators, and hold
the greater part of kusba Ajmer. A peculiar caste — Kir — ^very
few in number, devotes its attention to the culture of melons.
The Bebdris, also very few in number, breed camels and cultivate
rice. The menial castes are Bhangis, Bulahis, Thoris, and Regars.
Bulahis are the most numerous, numbering 23,04iO, and consider
themselves superior to the Eegars, who correspond with the
Chamars of the North- Western Provinces. Minas, Sdnsis, and Bhils
are the thievish classes. None of them are numerous in the
district. The Minas are abundant in the pargana of JahAzpur in
Mewar, whence they make their incursions ; and now and then the
district is infested by Baoris, a thievish and robber caste from
Marwar, who, however, have got no settled abode within the limits
of the province. The names of the remaining castes indicate
the occupation of each — ^kilmhdrs (potters) number 8,985 ; ndis
(barbers), khdtis (carpenters), telis (oilmen), chAkars (domestic
servants), sundrs (goldsmiths), lakheras (dealers in lac), lohirs
(blacksmiths), dhobis (washermen), are below 5,000; darzis (tailors),
kuldls (liquor-sellers), chlpis (cluntz painters), kah4rs (bearers),
ghosis (mUk and butter sellers), are below 2,000 ; kdmbis, tambolis
(betel sellers), sikalgirs (steel sharpeners), belddrs (diggers),
bharbiijas (grain-parchers), thateras (braziers), bhdts (bards), raj
(masons), are all imder 500.
Of the Muhammadans (47,310 by the census of 1876), 20,034
Muhammadans ^^® classcd as Sheikh, Sayyids are 3,219,
Mughals 686 ; Afghans are numbered at
7,441, and of other classes there are 15,930. Deswalis hold two
.villages in the north of the district, and say they are Rdjptits who
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were converted in the time of Shahdb-ud-din. One village,
Muhammadgarh, belongs in zamindari tenure to a Pathdn.
The banjdrds who live in Ghegnl are Musalm^s, and were,
they say, converted at the same time as the Deswalis. The
Musalm^iiis in the district are chiefly the attendants on the
Muhammadan shrines, and most of them hold reVenue-free land
in the j^glr villages attached to these institutions. They are poor
and idle.
Native Christians are returned as 715. The United Presby-
^ . ^. ^ „ . terian Mission has occupied this field for
Cnnstians and Parsis. , -,•■■. i •!
many years ; and a short account of its
establishment, and of what has been done, will be found in the
article on Education. Parsis are only 58 in number, and are
Bombay shop-keepers in the cantonment of Nasirabdd.
Merwara Clans. — The tribes which at present inhabit Merwara
do not claim to be, nor do they appear to have been, the original
inhabitants. Of these last, however, but little is known. The
country must have been an impenetrable jungle, and the majority
of the sparse inhabitants were probably outlaws or fugitives from
the surrounding States. The caste of Chandela Gujars is said to
have dwelt on the hills about Chang ; the hills in the neighbour-
hood of Kalinjar, Saroth, and Bhaelan are assigned by tradition
to Brdhmans. On the east side, on the Borwa hills, the caste of
Bhatti Bdjptits is said to have been located, while the southern
portion of the Todgarh tahsil was occupied by Minas. There ia
a tradition that a Bhatti RAjpiit, Ajit Singh, bore the title of King
of Merwara.
The present inhabitants of Merwara are all promiscuously
designated Mers, a name which is derived from " mer," a hill, and
signifies " hillmen.'' The name is not that of any caste or tribe,
and is only a correct designation in so far as it is understood to
mean the dwellers on this portion of the Arvali range. The two
main tribes of Merwara are those known by the appellation of Chita
and Bardr, each clan being traditionally divided into twenty-four
gdts; but new gdta are constantly formed which take the name of
their immediate ancestor, and there are now about forty gdts in each
tribe.
Colonel Tod (Rajasthan, vol. I, p. 680) asserts that the tribes
of Chita and Bardr are Minas, and the traditions of the people
themselves point to a Mina ancestry. Both tribes claim a common
descent from Prithvi Raj, the last Chohdn king of Ajmer ; and the
story is that Jodh Mkhun, the son of Prithvi Baj, married a girl of
the Mina caste (who had been seized in a marauding expedition near
Btindi), supposing her to be a Bdjputni. When he discovered his
mistake, he turned away the mother and her two sons, Anhal and
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Anup. The exUes wandered to Chang in Bedwar, where they were
hospitably entertained by the Gujars of that place. Anhal and Anup
rested one day under a bar or fig-tree, and prayed that if it was
destined that their race should continue, the trunk of the tree
might be split in twain. The instant occurrence of the miracle
raised them from their despondency, and the splitting of the fig-tree
is a cardinal event in the history of the race, according to the follow-
ing distich :—
Charar se Chita bhayo, aur Bar&r bhavo bar-ghat,
Shakh ek se do bhaye ; jagat bakh&ni j&t.*
In following the distribution of the clans, it is necessary again
to bear in mind that there are 51 Mer villages in Ajmer, and that
there are 241 villages in the BeAwar, and 88 in the Todgarh,
tahsils.
Anhal settled at Chang in the north-west of Merwara, and his
^^ descendants in course of time exterminated
the Gujars who had given an asylimi
to him and his mother. The clan multipKed, and gradually
occupied all the strong places of Merwara, where they founded
the villages of Jak, Shdmgarh, Ltilua, Hattin, Ktikrd, Kotkirana,
Naf, and othCTS. They appear to have held the remaining
Mers in subjection, for they enumerate sixteen castes of Mers
who, they say, used to pay them one-fourth the produce of
the soil and of aU plundering expeditions. The clan now holds
117 entire villages in Bedwar, besides portions of 53 and 16 entire
villages in Todgarh to the north of that tahsil, and including the
pargana of Kotkirana. In Ajmer there are 21 entire khdlsa and
3dgir villages belonging to Chltas, and they are to be found in all
the Ajmer Mer villages, except four.
Of the sub-divisions of this clan, by far the most numerous
and important is that of the Merdts, a term which is generally
used as synonymous with a Muhammadan Mer, but which is a
patronymic derived from Mera, the common ancestor of the
Kdtdts and Gordts. Hardj, grandson of Mera, a Chita in the
reign of Aurangzeb, took service under the emperor at Delhi,
During a night of terrific rain he remained firm at his post as
sentry, with his shield over his head. The emperor, to whom
the matter was reported, is related to have said : " In the
Marwar tongue they call a brave soldier Kdtd ; let this man be
henceforth called Kdtd.'' Hardj soon after became a convert to
Islam, and is the progenitor of all the Kdtdt Merdts, a very large
family, who hold 78 villages in Beawar, including all the prin-
* " From the sound * charar ' (the noise which is supposed to have reached Anhal from the
splitting tree) the Chltas are called, and the clan Bar&r from the splitting of the fig-tree. Both are
descended from one stock. The world has made this tribe famous."
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cipal places in the north and east of the tahsU. Gora wm brother
of Hard], and his descendants are Hindus, and hold 21 villages
in the centre and south-west of Bedwar, of which Kalinjar and
Kabra are the chief. The Gordts spread southwards, and have
occupied 13 villages in the north of Todgarh, 1 village in Ajmer ;
Makhopura belongs to them. The Kdtdts, the most pushing of
aU the Chitas, spread northwards, and hold 9 of the 21 Chita
villages in Ajmer. There they formed new gdts^ of which the
BahMur Khdni, generally called par excellence Chitas, is the
principal. Besides the khdlsa and jdgir villages, four villages in
Ajmer proper are held by Kdtdts on istimrdr tenure, viz.^ Nausar,
Bajaosi, Ajaysar, and Kharekhre. The villages were given them
by the Mughal emperors for the protection of the city of Ajmer and
the adjacent passes. Shamsher Khdn, the istimrdrddr of Bajaosi,
is the head of the BahAdur Khdni family, and is styled Tikdi.
The chief men of Kdtdts and Gtordts caU themselves Thdkurs ; but
in Bedwar the chiefs of Hatiin, Chang, and Jak, who are Kdtdts,
are called Khdns.
Of the remaining sub-divisions of Chitas, the most important
are — ^the Laget, who hold six villages in Bedwar ; and the Nanset,
who own the villages of Bargaon, Pdlrdn, Phdrkia, Mdnpura, and
Hdthibata in Ajmer, besides portions of several others. The
other gdts which may be mentioned are the Bajoriya and Bedari-
ydt — ^the former holding three villages in Bedwar, the latter hold-
ing three villages in Ajmer — ^and the Bajriydt Borwdra, BUddiya,
Pithrot, Bdlot, and Nddot, who possess a village, or parts of seve-
ral. The other gdts live scattered throughout Merwara.
Anup, the brother of Anhal, settled in Todgarh and founded
the Bardr clan. His descendants, less en-
^^^' terprizing than the Chitas, have remained
in Merwara and are not to be found in Ajmer. They hold eleven
villages in Bedwar, the most important of which are Kdlikdnkar,
Saindra, Bhaelan, and Khera Sangnotan ; they occupy the whole of
the south of the Todgarh tahsil, and own forty-eight entire villages.
They are more unsophisticated, honest, and straightforward than
the Chitas. They call themselves Bdwat — a petty title of
nobility ; and would be insulted by being called Mers. The chief
men are called Bao, and they have a multitude of Tikdfs, of
whom the principal are the Bao of Ktikrd and the Bao of Bardr.
All these Chohdn-Minas, with the exception of the Kdtdts,
are nominally Hindus. Kdtdts and Grordts eat together, and
nothing is forbidden food to either. A Chita will not marry a
Chita, nor a Bardr a Bardr; but a Chita seeks a Bardr wife, and a
Bardr seeks a Chita wife. A Bardr woman who marries a Kdtdt
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or Musalmdn Chita is buried on her death ; a Kdtdt woman who
marries a Bardr is burned on her death. The marriage ceremony
in either case is performed by " Phera," the officiating Brdhman
leading the bride and bridegroom seven times round a fire. The
Kdtdts of Ajmer are beginnnig to understand that they are Mu-
hammadans, and have partially adopted some Musalmdn customs.
Thus, they have discarded the dhotiy which is universally worn by
their brethren in Merwara.. They sometimes iatermarry with
other Chitas ; but it is not the custom, nor looked on as the proper
thing to do. The custom of " Phera" under the guidance of a
Brdhman is being abandoned in favor of the Nikd ceremony in
their marriages, and, under the influence of the Khddims and
other Muhammadans with whom they intermarry, they have
begun to think they ought to keep their women secluded, though
in Merwara the women work in the fields.
The customs of the two clans, whether calling themselves
Muhammadans or Hindus, are identical ; a sonless widow retains
possession of her husband's property till she marries again, or till
her death. She can mortgage in order to pay her husband's debts,
to discharge arrears of Government revenue, or to obtain funds
for the expenses of marrying her daughters. Daughters do not
inherit when there are sons alive. All sons inherit equally ; but,
in the event of there being sons from two or more wives, the
property is divided^^r capita of the wives, and not per capita of the
sons. This custom called Chtinda-Bat, as opposed to Pagriwand
or Bhai-Bat, is universal among all the Merwara clans. There
is no distinction between ancestral and acquired property. A
relation of any age may be adopted ; the nearest relation has the
first claim, and his children bom before his adoption succeed in
the adopted family. Sons by slave-girls, who are numerous
under the name of Dharmputr, get land to cultivate, but obtain
no share in the inheritance, and cannot transfer the land. The
custom of Ndthd,or widow-marriage, prevails, and has been already
described. Much money is spent on funeral feasts.
Among the tribes which boast other than a Chohdn-Mina
ancestor, the most important are the two
Pramar clans. ^j^j^j^ ^^:^ deSCCUt from Dh^dndth
Powdr or Pramar, who founded the city of Dhardndgar (said to
have been 24kos in circumference), inMarwar, before the Pramar
B/djputs were obliged to give way before the Ghelots and Bahtors.
Tradition says that Bao Bohar, a descendant of Dh^dndth, came
and settled at Budh^na in the extreme south of the Bedwar
pargana. Prom this place his descendants spread and founded the
adjacent villages of Bilidwas, Jowaja, Bahdr, Barkochrdn, Bdwat
Mdl, Lusdni, now in the Bedwar tahsil, and Akayjitgarh Naloi
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and others in the Todgarh tahsil. The tribe is divided into six
g6t8^ — ^Deldt, Kaldt, Doding, Boya, Kheydt, Pokhariya. Of these,
the Deldt is the most numerous, and holds fourteen whole villages
in Bedwar and five in Todgarh ; the Kaldt clean holds only one
village — Kalath^ Khera, in Bedwar; and the others hold no
entire village in Merwara, The Deldts appear to have pushed the
other members of the tribe out of Merwara, who thereupon settled
near Ajmer, and especially in the pargana of Pushkar. There are
eleven villages in Ajmer held by this tribe, and they hold parts of
eight others. The Dodings own Barla, Maddrpura, and Gwari ;
to the Boya clan belong the villages of Hokrdn and Gudli ;
Khwdjpura and Kanakhera belong to Kheydts ; and the Pokhariya
clan hold the villages of Pushkar, Ganahira, Naidla, and Naulakha.
The men of this tribe like to be called Bdwats, but are generally
called Mers ; the chief men are called Gdmeti. They are an
industrious race, generally taller and better built than the Chohdn-
Minas. Kdtdts will not give their daughters in marriage to this
tribe, but will take wives from them ; and they intermarry freely
with Hindu Chitas and Bardrs, and the other Mer clans. Their
customs are the same as those of the Chohdn-Minas.
The second tribe which claims descent from Dhdrdndth is that
" ^ of the Motl Rdwats, who inhabit the par-
gana of Bhaelan, where they hold fourteen
villages. They own two villages — ^Fathpur 1st, and Bhojpur in
Bedwar — and only scattered representatives of the tribe are met
with in Ajmer. The pargana of Bhaelan is supposed to have been
originally inhabited by Brdhmans. A descendant of Dhdrdndth,
BiOhitas by name, came and lived at Bdgmdl as an ascetic in a
cave in the hill now caUed Mdkutji. A banjdrd who was passing
through the hills with his wife, deserted her at this spot ; she lived
some time with the Jogi, and then, descending the hiQ, sought the
protection of Khemchand Brdhman in Bamunhera, and in his
house was delivered of twin sons, of whom one remained in
Bhaelan, the other in Marwar. In the fifth generation, one
Mdkut was bom who expelled the Brdhmans from Bhaelan. The
hill which was the cradle of the race was named after him, and
he is still venerated by the Motis. A fair is held on the hill in
September, at which time the hero is believed to traverse the
twelve villages of Bhaelan in the twinkling of an eye.
After the sack of Chitor by Ald-ud-din Ghori, two brothers,
Gheiot Bdjptits of the Ghelot clan, fled to Borwa
in the Saroth pargana, where they inter-
married with Minas. This tribe is divided into sixteen clans, of
which the most important are the Goddt, Medrat, Kdchhi, Pinga,
Baniydt, Lahr, Bdlot, and Dhdnkal. They hold eleven entire vil-
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iages in all parts of BeAwar, one village (Ktikar-khera) in Todgarh,
and are found in twenty-three other villages in Merwara. In
Ajmer they own six villages, — Purbutpnra, Ansari, Maydpur,
Lachhmipur, Boraj, and Amba Massena. They consider them-
selves Surajbansi Bdjpiits, and call themselves Rdwats. like the
tribes of PuAr origin, they intermarry with Hindu ChohAn-Minas.
Merits will take wives from them, but will not give them their
daughters in marriage.
The Buldhi caste holds four villages in Bedwar, Jdts and
other tribes Gujars hold ten, and Narsingpura and
Diingar-khera belong to Mahajans. The
remaining inhabitants of Merwara belong to a few scattered clans
who pass under the general designation of Mer, and who, as usual,
claim to be descended from Bdjptits, but who have no jdgd and
no history. The Fatally dt clan claims to be of the stock of the
Bhatti E/djptits of Jesalmer, and holds one village, Baria Naga.
The Chaurot claim the same descent, and own one village, E^ali*
kankar Kishanpura. They are also found in Mohanpura in Ajmer.
The Bharaal dan live in the village of Ekmkhera Dhan&p, and
are to be met with in Kotra, Saidaria, Bhowani-khera, and Kishan-
pura of Ajmer. The Buch Mers inhabit Bajpur Biichdn, and are
found in a couple of villages in Ajmer. The Kharwdl Mers live
in Nayanagar and Fathpur 2nd ; and the headman of the town of
Bedwar is of this caste. Mamnot^ Selot^ Bandt^ and Bana live
scattered in a few villages.
Social and relipious customs. — ^Although the Mers consider them-
selves Hindus, and are generally classed as such, yet they are little
fettered with Brdhmanical rites and ceremonies. They eat three
times a day, maize and barley bread being their principal food ; but
they will eat the flesh of sheep, goats, cows, and buffaloes when it
is procurable. Even the Brdhmans of Merwara will eat flesh ; they
observe no forms in the preparation of their food, and no prohibi-
tion exists as to the use of spirituous liquors. There is a proverb
" Mer aur Mor unch6 par rdzi hain" — Mers and peafowl love the
heights, — ^and probably from this habit of Kving in high places they
are exceedingly indifferent about washing. They are, in short,
a very dirty race. In matters of religion they do not trouble
themselves much with the orthodox divinities of Brdhmanism.
Small-pox is a great scourge of the country, and the chief deity
worshipped is Mdtd, to whom a stone called sitla^ daubed with
red paint, is consecrated; and these stones are to be met with on
all sides, chiefly under Jchejra trees, which are sacred to Mdtd.
Aldji is a common deity ; and the deified heroes Deoji and
Bdmdeoji also find worshippers. Deoji's temple is at Barsawara
or Todg£^rh. Bdmdeo is a Buldhi hero who worked miracles,
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and his priest is a Buldhi. The hills of Mdkutji and Goramji, the
highest in Merwara, share in the veneration by the people, and this
is probably a relic of a pristine fetish worship, though now the
Mils have modem hero legends attached to them. The only
important religious festival of Merwara is the annual fair held at
Todgarh in the month of September in honor of Mdtd, called,
from the name of the place, " PipMj MAtd/' Tradition says that
the Mers used to sacrifice their first-bom sons to this goddess ;
and it is still customary for those who have had a first son bom
to them during the year, to bring a buffalo to the sacrifice. The
animals, after the touch of consecration by the priest before the
shrine, used to be let loose, and the people, each armed with
a knife or a sword, cut them alive into piec^. This barbarity
continued till 1865, when, on the representation of Mr. Bobb, the
missionary at Todgarh, it was put a stop to, and orders were
issued that the animals should be first killed with a sword*
Before the famine there were some forty or fifty animals yearly
sacrificed, and in 1874 there were eighteen buffaloes thus offered to
the goddess. The officiating priest first strikes the animal on the
neck with a long sword ; it is then dragged away and cut into little
pieces in a few minutes. The festivals of the Holi and Dewali are
kept in Merwara. The chief national peculiarity of the celebration
of the Holi is the game called " Ahera'* on the first and last day
of the festival. The whole village turns out into the jungle, each
man armed with two sticks, about a yard long, called pokhri;
opium and tobacco are provided by the headmen ; and, having
formed a line, the people commence beating for hares and deer,
knocking them over by a general discharge of sticks as they start
up. A number of hares are killed in this way. If the mahajans
will pay — and the mahajans of Ajmerand Merwara, being Jains,
are exceedingly tender of life — ^the people will not kill on the
second day. The festival of the Holi concludes with a game like
" touch in the ring.'* The people consume a good deal of tobaccOi
but very little opitim. Tobacco they carry in an oval wooden box
called ghata^ and the principal men append a long wooden
handle to this box, which they always carry about with them. The
handle signifies that all who ask will get tobacco.
Religious tendency. — It has been already mentioned that there
is a distinctly visible tendency among the Merdts socially to
assimilate with the orthodox followers of Islam, and to abandon
their ancient customs common to them with their non-Muham-
madan brethren. They have abjured the flesh of the wild-boar.
They have begun to adopt "Nikd,** instead of the custom of
**Phera,'' in their marriages. They have begun to keep their
women secluded, and to intermarry with persons within degrees
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( 48 )
prohibited by the ancient customs. The tendency is without
doubt destined to further development till the old customs fall
into entire disuse. Among the Rdwats of Todgarh also the
tendency to adopt the social rules of Brdhmanism as prevailing
among surrounding E/djpiits is clearly discernible, though the
assimilation has not gone so far in this case as in the other.
In neither case are there any religious feelings concerned ;
the question is simply one of greater respectability. Under the
influence of the headmen of Todgarh, the Rdwats in 1874
entered into an agreement to abstain from the flesh of kine and
buffaloes, and to excommunicate all transgressors. In that year for
the first time they took no part in the dismemberment of the
buffaloes sacrified to Mdtd, leaving the work to be done by Bhfls
and Buldhis. It is safe to predict that, in course of time, the
whole of -Merwara will become either Brdhmanized or absorbed in
the orthodox religion of Islam. Beyond this tendency to social
assimilation, there is hardly any religious movement visible:
Representatives of many curious Hindu sects are found in the
district ; but the head- quarters of these sects are not in Ajmer
itself.
The Land.
Agriculture. — ^The agricultural statistics here given are taken
from the settlement report of 1874, and the statement on next
page shows the acreage in the khdlsa villages of the various crops
on the ground during the year 1872-73 when the district was
under settlement. The chief crops are barley and jowdr, which
occupy respectively 20 and 17 per cent, of the crop area. Tfl
and bdjrd occupy 9 and 8 per cent, respectively ; and after these,
at that considerable interval, come cotton with 8,219 acres, and
gram with 9,543. The cultivation of sugarcane is confined in
Ajmer to the Pushkar valley, where it is grown without irrigation,
and where a crop is taken for three consecutive years without
re-sowing. In the j^gir villages of this circle Rs. 10 per acre is the
regular rent paid for sugarcane land. The cultivation of melons
is almost exclusively the occupation of a particular caste called
Kirs, and is chiefly carried on in the sandy beds of nalas. The
Kirs do not pay more than Rs. 2 a bigha, or Rs. 5 per acre ; and
in Bedwar the rate is generally E/e. 1 per bigha. Poppy is not
made into opium in the Ajmer district, but sold in the form of
poppy-heads. In Bedwar and Todgarh the juice is extracted in
the usual toilsome manner by a number of incisions on the head
of the plant. The raw juice, called dudh (literally, " milk'*),
is either sold on the spot to banyas, or carried by the people
themselves to Pdli, where it is manufactured into opium. Nearly
the whole of the opium produce may be considered an export
trade.
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( 49 )
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Jow^ is grown almost entirely on bardni land, and is a very-
different crop from the jow^ of the North- Western Provinces,
where it is often grown on manured land. Here, it is stunted,
being seldom more than five feet in height, the stalks thin, and
the heads small. Bdjrd in Ajmer gives much the same outturn
as jowdr, and is very inferior to the bdjrd of Marwar. Maize is
grown in land irrigated from wells and tanks, and under the tanks
is a very precarious crop, as in years of heavy rain it is often
entirely drowned. Barley is grown in chAhi, talAbi, and Abi lands,
and the produce varies considerably, from twenty maunds an acre
to two or three. The value of straw and bhtisa in the district is
almost nominal. There are no large towns to cause a demand
for this produce, and what is sold in the towns is brought in on
men's heads from the adjacent villages and sold at about four annas
a bundle, without being weighed, and the rate does not more than
cover the wages of the carriers. In the villages, straw and bhiisa
are wasted ; grass-lands are abundant in every village, and grass
is regularly cut in most villages. The cattle thrive better on it
than on the less nutritious bhiisa, and, as long as the people have
grass, they do not wse bhtisa at all.
The following table shows the classified cultivated and
uncultivated area of thekhdlsa villages of Ajmer and of the jdgir
estates and of Merwara, according to the settlement survey
of 1874 :—
— s—
a
" ■ — -
UlTASSSSSABLB.
AS8S88ABLB.
BuB-Binsioir.
1
1
^
CulUvated.
9
1
1
i
1
1
1
1
Ajmer
359,424
31,480
111,303
142,783
18,663
8,366
7,746
74,266
108,920
107,721
216,641
Betfwar
Todgarh
209,692
223,297
891
479
146,234
191,212
146,626
191,691
6,466
fi,469
7,690
2,406
7,770
922
19,840
8,938
41,766
20,730
21,801
10,876
68,067
81,606
Total Merwara ...
432,989
870
32,360
837,446
838,316
14,935
10,096
8,692
28,773
62,496
82,177
94,673
Total kh^Ua
792,413
448,749
481,099
83,488
18,461
16,488
103,029
171,416
139,898
811,314
3&eiT
160,838
12,888
60,266
68,148
10,166
1,642
8,869
29,806
44,462
43,228
87,690
The area of the istimrdr estates is 1,271'469 square miles ac-
cording to the topographical survey completed in 1875 ; the culti-
vated area of these estates by same measurement was 643 square
miles. No detail is available of the cultivated area, as these
estates were not measured in the revenue settlement of 1874 ; so
that the statistics as far as the whole district is concerned are
defective. It will be observed that the cultivated area of the
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khdlsa is classified into — chahi, or land irrigated from wells;
taldbi, or land irrigated from tanks; dbi, or land in the beds
of tanks ; and bardni, or unirrigated land. The classification of
soils is unknown to the people. In the dbi area is also included
the fields known in Merwara as " pdraband." These are terraced
fields in the hilly portion of the district which are supported by a
wall of dry stones. In some cases the wall is substantial, and
retains water to moisten the soU, but in general it merely prevents
the field being washed away. Where it is substantial and acts
as a dam, the fields under it have been classified as dbi. The
cultivated area of Ajmer and of Bedwar is practically stationary
since last settlement, in the year 1849-50, nor has there been
more than a nominal increase in irrigation. The irrigated area of
Ajmer was formerly 28 per cent, of the cultivated area ; it is now
25 : the irrigated area of Bedwar was formerly 34 per cent. ; it is
now 33. In Todgarh there is a slight increase in the irrigated
area. It was formerly 50 per cent. ; it is now 52. Ajmer has 25
per cent, of irrigation, Merwara 40 per cent. The manured area
of Ajmer is 11 per cent., of Merwara 16 per cent., of the
cultivated area. In Ajmer there is 26 per cent, of rabi crops ; in
Merwara, 49. Twenty-five cart-loads, or 200 maunds of manure,
is the regular amount put on taMbi land. Chdhi land is a little
more highly manured when possible. Abi and bardni lands are
not manured. In Ajmer the deposit in the beds of tanks is used
as manure.
The domestic animals in the district are small and weak. In
the khdlsa villages of Ajmer there were in 1874 18,320 plough-
buUocks, 108,370 cattle of all other sorts, including sheep and
goats, and 8,420 ploughs. In Merwara 19,752 plough-bullocks,
148,641 cattle of other sorts, and 9,833 ploughs. In spite of the
famine, cattle have considerably increased since 1850, especially
in Merwara, where, at the settlement of 1851, there were 16,571
plough-bullocks, 73,857 cattle of other kinds, and 8,361 ploughs ;
in A]mer there were 14,243 ploughs. But these statistics were
taken after the disastrous year 1848, in which it was calculated
that two-fifths of the cattle perished. There are 4,283 wells
worked in the Ajmer district, as against 4,042 in 1849. The
average amount irrigated is 4| acres per well. In Bedwar there
are 1,995 wells worMng, as against 1,467 at the time of Colonel
Pixon's settlement, giving an average of 3|- acres per well. In
Todgarh there are 5,771 wells in use, as against 4,062 at last
settlement, giving an average of only 1^ acre per well. It may
be interesting to compare the statistics of agricultural wealth in
Ajmer with those collected at the settlements of Mr. Middleton
in 1826, and of Mr. Edmonstone in 1836. In Mr. Middleton's
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time, 1,860 wells were recorded, and 3,678 ploughs. Ten years
later, and after the famine of 1833-34, Mr. Edmonstone found
3,185 ploughs and 1,575 wells.
Revenue Siatistics. — The following statement shows the number
of estates upon the rent-roll of the district, their total land-revenue,
and the total number of registered co-parceners according to the
settlement records of 1874. The number of proprietors is not given
in Colonel Dixon's records.
{ Tstimr&r
1822-23.
1886^.
186(M»1.
m^79.
70
70
70
70
Number of estates ...
Ajmer khdlsa ...
Merwara
81
81
86
139
132
267
303
329
Number x)f co-parceners
Ajmer kh41sa ...
Merwara
...
...
18,639
27,380
Rs.
R^.
iu.
Rs.
C Istimr^r
1,67,288
1,67,288
1,14,734
1,14,734
Total land-revenue ...
< Aimer khalsa ...
(Merwara
1,59,746
1,29.872
1,71,762
1,42,896
43,764
1,09,842
1,72,662
1,18,661
A«^erage land-revenue paid l)y
each estate
( Istimr^r
< Aimer kbdlsa ...
1^ Merwara ...
2,389
1,972
331
2,389
1,601
427
1,637
2,021
670,
1,637
1,028
361
Average land-revenue ^laid by
each eo-parcener ...
( lstimr4r
< Aimer khalsa ...
{merwara ...
...
-..
• *.
7-10
4r6
The number of istimrdr estates recorded by Mr. Cavendish is 70.
Nominally there are 76, but in reality, counting the estates
which belong to a single owner as one, there are 66 estates paying
revenue to Grovemment. Besides these, 27 separate estates do
not pay revenue direct to Grovemment, but pay through the estates
to which they are subordinate. The large increase in the number
of kh^lsa estates since last Hsettlement is owing to the separation
of hamlets from their parent villages ; only five villages — ^those
received from Gwalior in 1860 — have been added to the district
since the commencement of British rule.
The land-revenue of Ajmer-Merwara after the settlement
of 1874 stands as follows : —
Rs. A. P.
Istimrfir
Ajmer kMlsa
Merwara kMlsa
... 1,14,734 9 11
... 1,42,896
62,885
Marwar-Merwara
Mewar-Merwara
3,20,615 9 11
5,154
50,622
3,76,291 9 11
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In the istimrdr revenue is not included Rs. 10,000 paid by the
Raja of Shahpura, who is considered a tributary prince. Of the
remaining revenue, Rs. 55,432 is water-revenue of the tanks, and
will not be collected in years when the tanks remain empty. The
land-revenue collected from the villages of Marwar and Mewar-
Merwara is not borne on the rent-roll. The receipts are paid into
the personal ledger, and credited periodically to the estates con-
cerned, subject to deduction on account of costs of manage-
ment.
One of the main characteristics of the revision of settlement
in 1874 is the division of the land-revenue assessable on lands irri-
gated from tanks, into two parts — soil-revenue and water-revenue.
The soil-revenue wiU be paid each year, but the water-revenue is
dependent on actual irrigation from the tank. The question of
assessment of water-revenue is one which abounds in difficulties
owing to the varying capacity of the tanks. The largest tanks,
when full, will irrigate both harvests, and the people can obtain
from them as much water as they like. The smallest tanks in
the most favorable years contain water sufficient only for a very
inadequate irrigation of the kharif , and if the rains are too heavy,
the kharif is drowned. No single rate can be found which wiU be
an equitable assessment on aU the land measured as taldbi. The
settlement officer, therefore, first classified the tanks themselves
and fixed rates for each class. The question then arose as to the
system under which the water-revenue, amounting in the whole
district to Rs. 55,432, should be collected. It had been proposed
to contour the tanks and fix a gauge which would show the supply
of each season, and to charge for the water by the cubic foot,
leaving the distribution to the village community. This would
perhaps be the most perfect system; but the task of contouring
all the tanks in the district would require a staflF of engineers for
several years. It had been suggested to form the tanks into zones
of rainfall, and to give the Chief Conmiissioner authority to allow
remissions of water-revenue when the rainfall of any zone, as
measured at an appointed station within it, fell below a certain
number of inches. But the extreme partiality of the rainfall
frustrated this scheme ; it will often be raining heavily on one
side of a hiU, while the other will be perfectly dry : and when the
rainfall depends, now on the eastern and now on the western
monsoon, no zones can be formed ; besides which; the filling of the
tanks depends on a burst of rain of three or four inches at a time :
when the rains are light, no water finds its way into the tanks,
though the rain-gauges may indicate an average fall. Moreover,
much depends on the time of the fall. If the faU is early in the
year, the water may evaporate before it is required for rabi
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irrigation. There seemed no alternative, therefore, except that of
annually examining the area irrigated from each tank.
The syjstem adopted is to assess a lump sum founded on the
capacity of the tank. This lump sum is to be made good from
the fields actually irrigated each year, unless its incidence on the
irrigated area exceeds a certain nxed maximum or falls below a
certain fixed minimum. Thus, in the case of Dilwara tank, there
were 244 acres measured as taMbi. The water-revenue of the
village was assessed at Rs. 1,068, being at the rate of Rs. 4-6 per
acre on the irrigated area, as this area appeared to represent the
full capacity of the tank as it now exists, and the rate and the
resulting assessment seemed fair and reasonable. It was provided
in the village engagement that this sum, Rs. 1,068, should be
made good yearly by the irrigated fields, except when its incidence
on the irrigated area exceeded Rs. 5, when the actual irrigated area
should be assessed at Rs. 5, and the balance remitted.
It was provided further that, when the incidence of the
assessed water-revenue fell below Rs. 3-12, the actually irrigated
area should be assessed at Rs. 3-12, and the excess credited to
Grovemment. As long as the irrigated area fluctuates between
213 and 289 acres, the revenue is unchanged, though the water-
rate varies each year. As soon as the incidence of the assessment
shows pressure, the pressure is relieved, and if the existing tank is
extended, or by greater economy in the use of water the irri-
gated area is enlarged. Government will reap a benefit during the
term of settlement. The advantages of the system seem to be—
Pirst. — ^A certain amount of stability is secured for the water-
revenue, for, in all ordinary years, there wiU be neither remissions
nor enhancements. Secondly. — When water is scarce, it may
safely be presumed that those who get it can make larger profits
out of it than they can when it is plentiful. In such years they
pay a higher price for the water. On the other hand, when water
is plentiful and cheap, those who get it pay less than the assessed
rate. In no case does any man who does not get water, pay any-
thing. Thirdly. — It is the interest of the headmen and of each
land-owner within the minimum, that is, in all ordinary years, to
economize and spread the water, for each man's revenue is lightened
thereby ; while, for the same reason, it is the interest of each to
bring within the irrigated area all land actually irrigated, and to
prevent any one gf their number from defrauding Government.
The other sources of imperial revenue are excise on spirits and
drugs, assessed taxes, stamps, and law and jujstice. The customs
duties, as has been already mentioned, were abolished in A.D. 1869,
and no local revenue is derived from salt, as its manufacture in
pans has been discontinued by order.
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The abkdri revenue produced in 1877-78 Rs. 44,599. The
farm of drugs, including opium, produced Rs. 5,416 ; and the
farm of the excise on spirits Rs. 38,887, the balance being fines
and forfeitures. There were in 1877-78 168 shops for the retail
sale of liquor in the district, and the number of sanctioned
stills was 154. The talukdars who are entitled to precedence
among their brethren, fourteen in number, are allowed the
privilege of keeping private stills. The receipts under the head
of stamps include non-judicial stamps, judicial stamps, duty on
tinstamped paper, deficit duty, and fines and penalties connected
with non-judicial stamps. In 1871-72 the proceeds were
Rs. 84,786, in 1872-73 Rs. 1,16,834, in 1873-74 Rs. 1,35,419.
Law and justice include fines, the net proceeds of jail manu-
factures, and registration-fees. In 1873-74 they amounted to
Rs. 25,776. The receipts in 1877-78 under the head of stamps
were Rs. 1,44,292, and of law and justice Rs. 23,136.
The normal expenditure on civil administration is about two
and a quarter lakhs less than the net revenue of the district. The
statement on next page shows the details of revenue and expendi-
ture for the year 1877-78.
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Trade.
Trades and Manufactures. — ^The city of Ajmer was in ancient
times an entrep6t for the trade between Bombay and Upper
India, and a factory was established here in the early years
of the East India Company, subordinate to that of Snrat. The
position of the district must always render it a mart for Rdjpiitdna
for the produce of Upper India and of the Bombay Presidency,
including European goods ; but the province itself has no manu-
factures, and produces but little in excess of its own consump-
tion. What import and export trade there is, is almost entirely a
transit trade, and an import trade can only exist in proportion
as the province has something to offer in exchange.
The transit trade of the district is carried by camels and
banjdrd bullocks, and, till the year 1869, was much hampered by
customs and duties. There were, a transit duty, an export duty,
town-duties, and a tax called Mdpd. During the last years of the
Maratha rule the customs were farmed for Rs. 31,000, and the
taxes were retained in their integrity by Mr. Wilder. Mdpd was
the most vexatious tax, and was a duty levied on the sale of every
article in every village. Originally it was levied at the rate of
Re. 1-6 per cent, from persons not residing in the place in which
the articles were sold, so that the every-day transactions between
the inhabitants of the same place were exempt, and the burden
fell on what may be called the external trade of the village. The
chief innovation introduced by Mr. Wilder was to levy the transit
duty on the maund, instead of on the bullock or camel load as
had before been customary; but his successor, Mr. Cavendish,
introduced other provisions which still further fettered trade. He
extended the MdpA tax to all towns as well as villages, and to the
transactions between the inhabitants of the same place, and raised
the rate to Rs. 2-6 per cent. He established a new duty in the
towns of Ajmer and Kekri on the sale of sugar, tobacco, rice, and
ghf, and for the transit trade introduced a system of rawdnaa
whidhfell withimmitigatedseverity on all but the richer merchants.
No goods were allowed to enter the district without a pass,
and all merchants were required to file a petition to take out
the pass, and again, on the arrival of the goods within the
precincts of the district, or at the city of Ajmer, to subject them to
examination and weighment, and thus prove their exact identity
with the species and quantity mentioned in the rauxina. In order
to prevent their goods being stopped on the frontier, the mercantile
firms at Ajmer were obliged to obtain from their correspondents
previous information of any despatches of goods, particularizing
every article, and then a pass had to bo procured and sent to
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meet the goods on the frontier. On the recommendation of a
committee in 1836, Government abolished this system, and
restricted the customs taxes to a teansit duty to be levied once for
all on the import of foreign goods into the district, whether
intended for domestic consumption or re-exportation. To avoid
vexatious inquiries, the tax was directed to be taken on the bullock
or camel load at a fixed sum.
These orders do not appear to have been acted on, for many of
the old abuses seem to have been as rife as ever in 1859, when the
Deputy Commissioner complained that, if a cultivator in a village
a mile from Ajmer wished to sell a seer of ghi in the city, he had
to procure a pass from the customs agent in his village, stating
his name and abode, and specifying the goods taken for sale. On
arrival at the town, he was obliged to have his goods examined
again to see if they agreed with the pass, and export duty was still
levied. In 1860 Government sanctioned other reforms, all in the
direction of the orders of 1836. Export duties were abolished and
the customs-tax remitted on eighteen articles, while the duty on
seventeen articles was considerably reduced. The whole district
was consolidated into one circle, whereby the separate duties
formerly levied in Merwara and the pargana of Sdwar ceased. By
these reforms the dutiable articles were reduced to thirty-seven,
of which the duties on cotton, ghi, salt, tobacco, cloths, blankets,
and opium chiefly affected the produce of the district. The revenue
from the customs before 1860 averaged about one lakh, and from
that year till 1868 averaged about Rs. 1,12,000. In 1869
customs were entirely abolished, and all trade is now free as far as
Ajmer is concerned.
There is a suitable bonded warehouse in Ajmer at the
railway stg^tion. In Bedwar also there is a good bonded ware-
house.
The import trade of Ajmer city was estimated for the
year 1877-78 at Rs. 27,80,911, of which sugar and cloth of all
kinds were the chief items. European cloth was estimated at
Bs. 5,62,000, of which about half was re-exported. Country cloth
and sugar were estimated at Bs. 1,24,705 and Bs. 5,52,837 respect-
ively. Much of the sugar is re-exported to Marwar and Mewar. It
comes almost entirely from Bohilkhand and the Punjab. Hardly
any sugar was grown in Bdjpiitdna, and this trade before the open-
ing of the railway employed large droves of camels which returned
empty to Sambhar, about fifty miles, and thence took return-loads
of salt for Upper India. A large portion of the Mewar trade is
now carried direct to Bedwar, and the goods are not unloaded
at Ajmer. The export trade of Ajmer city was estimated for
1877-78 at Bs. 2,89,593.
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The new town of Bed war is rapidly absorbing the greater part
of the trade of the district, and is becoming the exclusive entre-
p6t of the cotton trade. The camels which brought down sugar
from Hissar for Mewar were laden with cotton at Bedwar and des-
patched to Ahmadabdd, whence they returned withEuropean cloth,
cocoanuts, and other articles of minor importance. The cotton
is packed in loose bales of about three maunds weight each, and
two of these form a camel-load. It apparently does not pay to
press the cotton, for, though there are two presses in Bedwar (one
belonging to the municipality), they are hardly, if ever, used. The
value of the cotton exported in 1877-78, as nearly as can be ascer-
tained from the merchants, was about Rs. 6,71,520, and, of this
amoimt, a large portion is stated to be the produce of Mewar.
There is also an export trade of grain in most years from Mewar to
Marwar which passes through Bedwar. Marwar, however, is too
poor to import according to its needs, and, in years of famine, the
people have no other resource but to emigrate to more favored
countries. The exports of Bedwar were estimated at Rs. 16,13,407,
the imports at Rs. 22,02,040.
It is difficult to form even an approximate estimate of the
value of the exports from the district itself. The istimrdr estates
have only been measured by the Topographical Survey, and there
are no reliable returns of the crops grown in this portion of the
Ajmer district. The exports consist of grain, cotton, and opium.
Without returns of the area under grain-crops in the istimrdr
estates, which in area exceed one-half of the Ajmer district, it is
impossible to calculate how much more grain is produced in aver-
age years than is necessary to supply local consuimption. In
the longitude of Ajmer the harvests are so precarious that the
grain-trade observes no fixed route. Some estimate, how^ever,
may be given for cotton and opium. The area measured under
cotton at the settlement of 1874 in the khdlsa villages of Ajmer-
Merwara was 8,219 acres, and the estimated produce of the crop
was 31,665 maimds of uncleaned cotton. Allowing 2 seers per
head for local consumption, the annual amount retained at home
by the inhabitants of the khdlsa villages was 6,785 maunds, leav-
ing a surplus to be exported of 26,576 maunds, the value of which
was Rs. 1,29,400. Cotton is largely grown in the istimrdr estates,
the soil of which is much more suited for it than that of the
khdlsa ; and adding the jdglr villages, the value of the export
trade of this staple may be set down at upwards of 3^ lakhs, or the
amount at which it was estimated in the trade returns of Bedwar.
The area measured under poppy in the khdlsa villages of Ajmer-
Merwara was 2,849 acres, and the crop valued at Rs. 1,39,283.
Almost the whole of this was formerly exported to Pdli in Marwar,
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but since opium scales were started in 1877 in Ajmer, it has gone
to Bedwar to be exported to Bombay and China. Of the whole
area imder crop, 2,229 acres were in the Todgarh tahsil. There
is cwnparatively little opium grown in the istimrdr estates, and
the value of the export may be assumed at a lakh and a haJi .
Ajmer possesses no manufactures deserving of special mention,
^, ^ ^ with the exception of the (nowimused) salt-
Manufactures. £ -njt nvi ij -1 • -I
pan of Bamsar pargana. The salt, which
in years of heavy rain exudes abundantly from the soil, was scraped
up and thrown into large pans, where it was dissolved in water. The
water was allowed to run off into a lower pan, where it evaporated.
There is a separate caste called Kharol who were engaged in this
manufacture : but during the dry years of famine of 1868-69 the
salt did not exude ; the Kharols, who have no land, nearly all
died ; and the manufacture was ordered to be stopped under the
impression that it deteriorated the soil.
Towns.
Chief toion, Ajmer. — ^Ajmer had a population of 31,683 accord-
ing to the census of 1876, and is the largest town in the district.
It is built on the lower slope of the Taragarh hill, is surrounded
by a stone wall, and possesses five gateways. The town is well
built, with some wide and open streets, and several fine houses.
About one-third of the population is Muhammadan — ^nearly all
Khadims of the shrine of Mueiyyin-ud-din Chisti. The town
was formed into a municipality under Act VI of 1868, and the
income in 1876 was Rs. 57,966 ; of this sum, Rs. 61,712 were
due to octroi, and Rs. 6,254 to minor sources, tiz., nazul
gardens, &c.
Ajmer is the residence of the heads of several important firms
^ of Seths who have establishments through-
out Rdjpiitdna and in other parts of India
where they carry on a trade in grain, cotton, and opium. In
Ajmer, their chief, almost their sole, occupation is that of banking
business proper, and is confined to the sale and purchase of
htindls, especiaUy hundls for the payment of tribute due by
Native States. Their money-lending business has much diminished
within the last few years, owing to the istimrdrddrs, who were
their principal constituents, having been prevented from borrowing,
and to the action of the courts in giving decrees with protracted
instalments. The Seths complain that. this procedure of the
courts has rendered the village banyas indiflPerent about paying
their debts when due, and the Seths find the return of their
money so slow as to render it no longer profitable to lend.
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The origmal town of Ajmer was bmlt inside the valley through
which the road leads to Taragarh, and
" ^ * this place, known ad Indurkot, is still the
residence of a number of MusalmAn families — Sheikhs, Pathdns,
and Sayyids. These people state that they are the descendants of
the soldiers who came to Ajmer in the time of Shahdb-ud-din, and
are a peculiarly dark race ; they own no land, and get a livelihood
chiefly by farming the gardens around Ajmer. The old baoris^
or reservoirs, and the temple to be hereafter described, are almost
the sole relics of the ancient town.
The city is for the most part dependent for its waterjsupply
^^ . , on the Andsdgar lake, from which two
Water-supply. , ^ , . . , ' . j. • ±
masonry channels, with opemngs at mter-
vals, pass underground — one through the city, and the other just
outside it. The latter fills a handsome reservoir built by Colonel
Dixon and called the "Maddr Kund.'* No attempt has as yet
been made to filter the water of the lake, which is often in a very
impure state. The people on the south side of the city generally
use the water of the Jhalrdy which is a deep cleft in the rocks at
the base of the Taragarh hill, and filled by a never-failing spring,
though surface-water is also conducted into it. There is a similar
natural spring on the Nasirabdd side of the city which was opened
out by Colonel Dixon, and is known as the digi. The water in both
these reservoirs is said by the people to possess a high specific
gravity owing to the strata of lead through which it passes. There
are very few good wells about the town, and there are none within
the waUs. What wells there are, are fed by percolation from the lake.
The chief objects of interest are the dargdh, the Arhdi-din-ka'
Masjidy the fort of Taragarh, and the fort of Ajmer.
The dargdh is an object of veneration and pilgrimage to all
religions and sects. The emperor Akbar
^ ^^^ ' made a pilgrimage on foot to this tomb,
and the banyas of the dargdh bdzdr daSy lay their keys on the
steps of the shrine before opening their shops. Khwaja Mueiyyin-
ud-din Chisti, the saint known as Khwaja Sahib, is said to
have died in the year 1236 A.D., at the age of ninety-seven,
and to have come to Ajmer at the age of fifty-two, shortly
before the invasion of India by Shahdb-ud-din. Many marvels
are related of him in the Akhbdr-uUAkhydr and other works,
and it is difficult to extract the historical facts of his career
from the mass of romantic legends which have gathered round his
name. It was at Medina that a voice came from the tomb of the
Prophet calling for Mueiyyin-ud-din, and directing him to go to
Ajmer and convert the infidels. He obeyed the call ; and, on his
arrival at Ajmer, rested on the spot now known as the Kangara
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Masjidy in the dargdh, where at the time the king's camels were
tethered. From this he was ejected, and went and took up his
abode on the hill which overlooks the Andsdgar, the margin of which
lake he found covered with idol temples. The idolaters, enraged
at the slaughter of kids by the Musalmdns, conspired to massacre
them; but on coming in sight of the Khwaja, they remained rooted
to the spot, and though they tried to ejaculate Bdm! Rdm! could
only articulate .SaA/m / Bahim ! In vain did the idolaters, led by
the great sorcerer Ajipdl,andthe<^^o^a Shadideo, renew their attacks.
They were defeated on every occasion, and finally begged forgiveness
of the Khwaja, and invited him to come and take up his abode in
the town. He consequently chose the site of the present dargdh.
Shadideo and Ajip^ became Muslims ; but the Raja refused to be
persuaded in spite of the miracles, and it was owing to a dream in
Khoras^, in which he saw the Khwaja calling to him to come
over to India and help him, that Shahab-ud-din was induced to
march into Hindustdn and complete the ruin of the infidel king.
The Khwaja was twice married ; his eldest lineal descendant,
called the Dewanji, is the spiritual head of the shrine. All
descendants of the KJiwaja enjoy great consideration throughout
India. The Nizdm of Haidardbdd, they say, will not sit in their
presence, and the Maharajas of Jaipur, Gwalior, and Jodhpur place
them on a seat with themselves.
The dargah is built on the southern side of the city adjoining
the city-wall which nms at the foot of the Taragarh hill. The
residence of the dewdn is to the east of the shrine, and west of it
is a quarter of the city appropriated to the Khadims or servitors of
the dargdh. The first object on entering at the main gate is the
^a^^6a^-A?Aa/^a, containing two huge drums which were presented by
Akbar after the capture of Chitor; and just beyond this, is a high
arched gateway tastelessly decorated that flaring colors, and with
stairs to the top. Here is treasured a gong, also portion of the
spoils of Chitor, which is beaten sixty-four times in the twenty-four
hours. To the right of this arch is a spacious courtyard where the
Mahfil is held, and fm'ther on, a large mosque built by Akbar, now
partially in ruins. Proceeding towards the holier part of the shrine,
called the Bhitar-ka'dstdnd^ the visitor sees, on the right, a white
marble mosque built by Shahjehan, stiU as perfect and fresh as on
the day it was finished. On the left is the tomb of the saint, with
the tombs of his two wives on the north side, and the tombs of his
daughter, Hafiz Jamdl, and of Chimni Begum, said to have been a
daughter of Shahjehan, on the south. The tomb of the Khwaja is a
square-domed buUding with two entrances, one closed by a pair of
sandalwood doors, part of the spoils of Chitor, and the other spanned
by a silver arch presented by Siwai Jai Singh of Jaipur.
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From the first to the sixth day of the month of Rajab in each"
year, a religious festival called TIrs MSla is held at the dargdh. The
festival lasts six days, for it is micertain on what day the saint died.
The proceedings consist for the most part of recitations of Persian
poetry of the Sufi school, at an assembly called the Mahfil. These
recitations are kept up till 3 o'clock in the morning, by which time
many pilgrims are in the ecstatic devotional state technically known
as Hdlat. One peculiar custom of this festival may be mentioned.
There are two large chaldrons inside the dargdh enclosure, one twice
the size of the other, which are known as the great and little deg.
Pilgrims to the shrine according to their ability or generosity propose
to offer a deg. The smallest amount which can be givenf or the large
deg is 80 maunds of rice, 28 maunds of ghl, 36 of sugar, and 15 of
almonds and raisins, besides saffron and other spices ; and the mini-
mum cost is Rs. 1,000. The larger the proportion of spices, sugar,
and fruit, the greater is the glory of the donor. About 1840
the Nazir Ilmds of Jodhpur offered a deg which cost Rs. 2,500,
and its sweet savour is still redolent in the precincts of the dargdh.
The donor of the large deg^ besides the actual cost of its contents,
has to pay about Rs. 200 as presents to the officials of the shrine,
and as offerings at the tomb. The small deg costs exactly half the
large one.
When this gigantic rice-pudding is cooked, it is " looted " in a
state of boiling heat. Eight earthen pots of the mixture are first
set apart for the foreign pilgrims, and it is the hereditary privilege
of the people of Indurkot and of the menials of the dargdh to
despoil the chaldron of the remainder of its contents. After the
recitation of the Fdthia, one Indurkoti seizes a large iron ladle,
and, mounting the platform of the deg^ ladles away vigorously.
All the men who take part in this hereditary privilege are swad-
dled up to the eyes in cloths to avoid the effect of the scalding
fluid. Each takes a-ladleful of the stuff in the skirt of his coat,
and not uncommonly finds the heat so overpowering that he is
obliged to drop it. When the chaldron is nearly empty, all the
Indurkotis tumble in together and scrape it clean. There is a
story that Imddd Khan, a Resald^r of Jodhpur, wished on one
occasion to make a fair and equable division to all, and partially
accomplished his object ; but, on his return from the festival, he was
stricken by a bullet directed by an unseen, if not supernatural,
hand, and died. There is no doubt that the custom of " looting '*
the deg is very ancient, though no account of its origin can be
given. It is generally cotmted among the miracles of the saint
that no lives have ever been lost on these occasions, though bums
are frequent. The rice is bought by mahajans and others, and
most castes will eat it. The number of pilgrims at this festival
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is estimated at 20,000, but no buying or selling is done except
that of pedlars' wares.
From an antiquarian point of view, the most interesting sight
The « ArUi-din-ka-Jhofi- in Ajmer is the masjid in the old town which
P™" is known as the " Arh^-din-ka- Jhofipra,"
or the shed of two and a half days. Various accounts of the
origin of this nanie have been given ; the most probable perhaps,
or at least the only one which does not rest on a supernatural
basis, is that Kutb-ud-din or Altamsh, on visiting Ajmer,
passed the temple on his way to Taragarh and enjoined that, by
his return in two and a half days, it should be ready as a place for
his devotions. Accordingly, by the appointed time it was trans-
formed into a Muhammadan mosque. Gteneral Cunningham, in
the second volume of the reports of the Arehseological Survey,
pages 258 to 263, has described this building in detail, and
the following remarks are taken from his report: — ^like the
great Kutb Masjid at Delhi, the Ajmer mosque was built of the
spoils of many Hindu temples which were thrown down by the
bigotry of the conquerors. The signs of rearrangement in the
piUars are not so striking as in those of the Kutb mosque, but they
are equally numerous and conclusive, and it is certain that the
pillars did not belong to a Jain temple, as there are many four-
armed figures sculptured on them.
The Ajmer mosque is the finest and largest specimen of the
early Muhammadan mosque that now exists. It consists of a
quadrangle cloistered on aU four sides with a lofty screen-wall of
seven pointed arches, forming a magnificent front to the western
side. The side-cloisters are mostly ruined, but the whole of the
seven noble arches of the screen- wall, and the greater part of the
pillared cloisters behind them, are still standmg. The name of
Altamsh may be read on the lower belt of writing on one of the
minarets which surmount the screen- wall, and this is sufficient to
show that the mosque must have been completed during the reign
of Altamsh, or between A.D. 1211 and 1236. It is thus of the
same age as the Kutb mosque at Delhi, and General Cunningham
is inclined to believe that the two mosques were designed by the
same architect, and that even the same mas6ns may possibly have
been employed in the decoration of each. Externally, the Ajmer
mosque is a square of 269 feet, whereas the Delhi mosque is a
square of 147^ feet only. The screen-wall of the Ajmer mosque
is 200 feet long, that at Delhi is 136 feet.*
In the Kutb mosque, the Mazind^ or Muazzin*s tower for
calling the Faithful to prayer, is a distinct and separate building,
* This interestiDg building was restored at a cost of Bs. 14,000 in the year 1875-76, unsafe
portions having been ^ken down and rendered safe.
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known as the celebrated Kutb Mindr. But in the Ajmer mosque
we have the earKest example of a pair of Muazzin's towers in two
small min^ which are placed on the top of the screen-wall over
the great centre aaxjh. This arrangement was impracticable in the
Delhi mosque, as the screen-wall is only 8 feet thick ; but in the
Ajmer mosque, with its massive screen-waH 11^ feet thick, the
architect found it possible to erect two^ small miners, 10^ feet in
diameter, for the use of the Muazzin. The tops of both of
these min&rs are now ruiued, but enough stiU remains to show thsA
they were sloping hollow towers with twenty-four faces or flutes
alternately angijlar and circular, just like those of the Kutb
Mindr. like their great prototype also, they were divided into
separate stages or storeys by horizontal bdts of writing.
In the masjid proper, and in the cloisters, there were originally
344 pillars ; but as each of these represented at least two of the
original pilhbrs, the actual number of Hindu columns could not
have been less than TOO, which is equivalent to the spoils of from
twenty to thirty temples. General Cunningham attributes the
grandeur of conception and boldness of design exhibited in these
two great mosques to the genius of the Islamite architect ; but
the gorgeous prodigality of ornament, the delicate sharpness of
finish,^ and the laborious accuracy of workmanship which are conspi-
cuous in the execution, he considers due to theskillof Hindumasons.
The hill-fort of Taragarh, which has played so prominent a part
Tara h Port ^ history of the proviucc, is a circum-
aragar . vallatiou of the crcst of the hill which
overhangs the city of Ajmer and commands it at every point. The
walls of the battlements, where they have not been built on the
edge of an inaccessible precipicCj are composed of huge blocks of
stone cut and squared, so as to make a dry wall of some 20 feet
thick and as many high. The space within the walls is 80 acres^
and is much longer than broad, with an acute sali^it angle ta the
south. There are several tanks inside the fort which are filled dur-
ing the rains, and generally contam water throughout the year.
From 1818 to 1832 the fort was occupied by a company of Native
Infantry, but, on the visit of Lord William Bentinck in 1832, it
was dismantled. Since 1860 it has been used as a sanatarium tor
the European troops at Nasfrabdd, and the accommodation was
increased in 1873 so as to allow of the residence of one himdred
men. The summit is crowned by the shrine of Mir&n Husain,
whose history has been related already. The shrine is endowed
with three Plages, the average annual revenue of which is
Rs. 4,367. Immediately around the shrine are tiie residences of
the Khadims, or servitors. Jab^ Elhan, chamberlaui in the time
of Akbar, built the mosque; and the present conspicuous gateway,
I
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from which there is a magnificent view of the surrounding coun-
try, was built by Gumanji Bao Sindia.
There is a massive, square, fortified palace built by Akbar on
. the north side of the city, which from
arsenal, but has now been converted into a tahsil and treasury.
It is a prominent object in the landscape from all parts of the
valley, but has no great pretensions to architectural beauty. This
was the residence of Jehangir when at Ajmer. Shahjehan built
a row of marble pavilions on the embankment of the Andsdgar,
and turned into a residence what was a pleasure-gai^en in the
time of Jehangir.
The city of Ajmer is in latitude 26° 26' 30", and longitude
74r 39' 31". It is 677 miles from Bombay and 232 by railway
from Agra.
Bemoar. — ^The thriving town of Bedwar or Nayanagar next
claims notice as the chief mart of the cotton trade, and the only
other municipality in the district. Its position between Mewar
and Marwar gives it commercial advantages. The income of the
municipality in 1876 was Bs. 18,788, of which sum Bs. 16,366
were contributed by octroi. The incidence of taxation per head of
population was Be. 1-5-3, while in Ajmer in the same year it
was Bs. 1-10-2.
Bedwar is the only town in Merwara, and is the creation of
Colonel Dixon. Before 1835 there was only a small village of some
thirty or forty houses, close to the cantonment of Bedwar, on the
site of the present town. Colonel Dixon issued notifications of his
intention to build a town, and in due course candidates for forty
shops appeared. The work was then conmienced; the streets
were marked off at right-angles, the main streets having a breadth
of 72 feet, and being planted on each side with trees. Mohullas
were allotted to the different castes ; and as the town grew and
prospered. Government sanctioned the building of a town-waH of
stone set in mud and plastered outside, which cost Bs. 23,840, and
which has lasted exceedingly well. Colonel Dixon estimated the
population in 1848 at 9,000 souls, but at that time it was probably
not so large. The town contains a population, according to the
census of 1876, of 12,038 souls. The houses are generally of
masonry with slab roofs. There is a colony of smiths, whose
iron-work is exported to Ajmer, Mewar, and Marwar ; and also
a colony of dyers.
Kekri.-^With the exception of the town of Nasirabdd, which
has grown up with the cantonment, there are no other towns in
the district with a population above 5,000. Kekri has about 5,000.
The town is fifty miles from Ajmer, and, in the early yearsof British
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rule, bade fair to rival Ajmer as a trading mart. It has, however,
been long in a declining state. Except its position as regards native
territory, the town possesses no advantages in itself ; water of any
kind is scarce, and sweet water can omy be obtained from wells
sunk in the bed of the tank adjoining the town. Kekri has a wall,
and is the residence of a deputy magistrate, whose duties, since
the istimr^ddrs of the adjoining parganas have been invested
with magisterial and civil powers, have been much diminished.
Pmhkar. — ^Pushkarisa celebrated place of pilgrimage, and the
great sanctity of its lake, equalled, according to Colonel Tod, only
by that of Manusarowar in Tibet, is due to the belief that here
Brahma performed the yajna, and that the Sarasvati here re-ap-
pears in five streams. The legends connected with these two beliefs
may be found in the Prnhhar Mahdtmy of the JPadma Purana,
Brahma was perplexed as to where he should perform the sacrifice
according to the Vedas, as he had no temple on earth like other
deities. As he reflected, the lotus fell from his hand, and he
determined to perform his sacrifice wherever it fell. THie lotus,
rebounding, struck the earth in three places ; water issued from all
three, and Brahma, descending, called the name of the place
Pushkar, after the lotus.* Brahma then collected all the gods,
and on the 11th day of the bright half of Kdrtik, everything was
ready. Each god and rishi had his own special duty assigned to
him, and Brahma stood with a jar of amrit on his head. The
sacrifice, however, could not begin until Sdvitri appeared, and
she refused to come without Lakshmi, Parvati, and Indrdni, whom
Pavan had been sent to summon. On hearing of her refusal,
Brahma became enraged and said to Indra : " Search me out a
girl that I may marry her and commence the sacrifice, for the jar
of amrit weighs heavy on my head.'* Indra accordingly went, but
found none except a Gujar's daughter whom he purified by passing
her through the body of a cow, and then, bringing her to Brahma,
told what he had done. Vishnu observed — " Brdhmans and cows
are in reality identical ; you have taken her from the womb of a cow,
and this may be considered a second birth.'* Shiva added that, as
she had passed through a cow, she should be called Gdyatri.t The
Brdhmans agreed that the sacrifice might now proceed, and
Brahma, having married Gdyatri and having enjoined silence
on her, placed on her head the jar of amrit, and the t/ajna com-
menced.
* The holy ground extends for one ^ojan round the largest lake, called Jyesht Pushkar, The
second lake is the Madhya Pushkar, near the tank now called Svda Bai, The third lake is the
Kanisht Pushka/r, which is now generally called Burha Pushkar. The middle lake is very small,
and there are no buildings round it or round the third lake.
t The image of Gayatri may be seen in the temple of Brahma, close to that of Brahma himtelf .
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The sacrifice, however, was soon interrupted by a naked
man who appeared crying ** Atmat ! Atmat 1" and who, at the
instigation of Shiva, threw a skull into the sacrificial ground. When
it was attempted to remove the skull, two appeared in its place,
and the whole ground gradually became covered with skulls ; till
Shiva, at Brahma's request, finally agreed to remove them on
condition that he should have a temple at Pushkar, there to be
worshipped under the name of Atmateswar. Meanwhile a number
of Brdhmans, all u^y men, arrived from the Dakhln. As they
bathed in the lake, their forms changed into those of handsome
men; and the ghdt at which they bathed, <^ed Surdp Ghdt, is the
resort of pilgrims on the 11th day of K^ik.
On the morning of the 12th day the Brdhmans came to
Brahma aaid asked where they were to bathe. He directed
them to bathe in the Prdchi Sarasvati, the stream which passes
by the village of Holopan; and it is explained how the Sarasvati,
after disappearing imderground to escape the heat of the fire
which she is cjmying to the sea, re-appears in five channels,* in
the sacred soQ of Bushkar ; how two of these meet at Nand, five
miles from Pushkar; and how, from the junction, the river,
thereafter called the Ltini, proceeds to the sea. The sacrifice was
disturbed this day by Batu Brdhman, who let loose a snake
among the Brdhmans. The reptile coiled itself round Bhrigu
Bishi, whose son imprecated a curse against Batu that he might
become a snake. Batu, going to his grandfather Brahma, was
consoled by the promise that he should be the founder of the
ninth order of snakes, and was directed to go to the Ndgpahdr,
where he should receive worship on the 5th day of the dark half
of Sdwan at the place called the NAg-kund.
The sacrifice proceeded till the 15th, each day having its
appointed duties; for this day the Brdhmans were directed to
make a circuit of the lakes and to bathe in Gayakup . t Shortly after
their return, Sdvitri appeared, greatly incensed at the disregard
which had been shown to her. Brahma sought to pacify her, but to
no purpose, and she went away in a rage to the hill north of the
lake where is her temple.
After the y<yna performed by Brahma, Pushkar became so
holy that the greatest sinner, by merely bathing in it, went to
heaven. Heaven became inconveniently crowded, and the gods
complained that no man any longer regarded them or his duty,
* The five streams are enumerated as Swprahha, wMch falls into Jyesht Pushkar ; Sudha,
which falls into Madhya Pushkar; Kdnka, which falls into Kanisht Pushkar; Nanda, which flows
past Nand ; and Prdchi, which passes hy Hokran,
t It is the duty of pilgrims on the 15th day of Kdrtik to perform the circuit {Parihramd) of
the lakes and to hathe in Gayakup, the tank now known hy the name of Suda Bai. The virtues
of the tirth of Gaya are said to reside in this place, whence the name.
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SO easy was it to get to heaven. Brahma agreed accordingly that
the tirth should only be on earth from the 11th day of Kdrtik to
the full moon, and for the remainder of the year he promised to
remove the tirth to the air (anfarikhsha).^ Such is the legend
given in the Pushkar Mahdtmya.
The legends conoeming Pushkar after the yajna of Brahma are
rather confusing. The virtue of the lake is said to have been
forgotten till it was re-discovered by Raja Nahar Rao Purihdr of
Mandor, who followed a white boar to the margin of the lake,
and then, dismoimting to quench his thirst, found, on touching
the water, that he was cured of a sMn-disease. He is accordingly
said to have had the lake excavated, and to have built ghdts.
Pushkar, after this, appears to have come into the possession of
Chechi Gujars, for there is a legend that some seven hundred
years ago a large body of Sanyasis came to bathe in Pushkar ;
they disapproved of the Gujars being in possession of the ghdts,
killed them all on the night of the Dewali, and turning out the
Kdnphatd Jogis, who had becoma priests of the temples, them-
selves left a representative at each temple.
There are five principal temples in Pushkar — ^those dedicated to
Brahma, Sdvitri, Badri Narayana, Vdr^a, and Shiva Atmateswara.
They are all of comparatively modem construction, for the old
temples suffered much at the hands of the Mughals, and
Aurangzeb, as elsewhere in India, enjoys the reputation of having
destroyed all thetemples. A masjid, which is stillkept up, was built
by him on the site of a temple to Kesho Rae. The temple of
Brahma was built by Gokul-Pdrak, an Oswdl mahajan of GwaUor,
and is the only temple dedicated to Brahma in India." The
attendants at the temple are Pun Gusdens. The temple of Sdvitri
is built on the north of the lake, and was constructed by the Purohit
of Ajit Singh of Marwar, The temple to Badri Narayana was
rebuilt by the Thdkur of Kharwa about 1800 A.D. That of
VArdha, or the boar, was demolished by Jehangir, and the present
temple was built by Bakht Singh of Jodhpur. Goma Rao, Stibahddr
of the Marathas, re-built the temple of Shiva Atmateswara.
The town is picturesquely situated on the lake, with hills on
three sides : on the fourth side, the sands, drifted from the plains
of Marwar, have formed a complete bar to the waters of the lake,
which has no outlet, though the filtration through the sandhills
is considerable. Bathing-ghdts have been constructed nearly
round the lake, and most of the princely and wealthy families of
• Rdjpiitdna have houses round the margin. The principal ones
* The tirth can be made to descend by the recitation of a mantra commencing " Apo hishta
mayobhuvas" — " Ye waters are the source of all good things." For Sudras, the recitation of the
eight-syllabled mantra, " om namo Narayanaya," is sufficient.
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are those built by Raja Mdn of Jaipur, Ahelya Bai, the queen
of Holkar, Jawdhar Mai of Bhartpur, and Raja Bijay Singh of
Marwar. According to ancient charters, no living thing is allowed
to be put to death within the limits of Pushkar. A short time
ago an English officer fired a rifle at an alligator in the lake ; the
whole population immediately became much excited, petitions
were poured in, and it was with difficulty that the Brdhmans
could be pacified. The uproar was probably owinff as much to
jealousy of their invaded privileges as to any feelmg connected
with the sanctity of animal life ; but the latter feeling is not
confined to the Brdhmans at Pushkar, and all the mercantile
classes of the district, being of the Jain persuasion, are exceedingly
tender of life. In the municipalities of Ajmer and Bedwar it
is necessary, for sanitary reasons, to keep down the multitude of
dogs which swarm in every Indian town, but none 'are allowed to
be killed. The mahajans in both towns subscribe and keep up a
staff of sweepers to catch the dogs, and a " dharmsala,'* a place
where vagrant dogs are imprisoned and fed, till an opportunity
arises for transporting them by batches into foreign States. As a
matter of fact, the dogs generally succeed in returning to their
native town in the rear of the cart on which they have been
expatriated, and the process recommences de novo.
The population of Pushkar is about 3,750, and consists almost
entirely of Brdhmans ; of these, there are two divisions — those of
the Bara Bds and those of the Chhota Bds — and these two have been
perpetually at variance. The Brdhmans of the Bara Bds are
undoubtedly the older inhabitants, and they have held the lands of
PushTiar in jdglr since long before the Mughal empire. They
say they are descended from Pardsar, the father of the Veda
Vydsa, and that, like the Mathura Chdubes, their names were
omitted when the list of the ten Brdhmanical tribes was drawn up.
They trace their descent, however, through one Bhopat, and the
general belief is that this Bhopat was a Mer, Brdhmans will not
eat with these men, who are found only in Pushkar and in a few
of the neighbouring towns of Marwar. They are generally called
" Bhojak'^ in the papers which have been given by the Rajas on
the appointment of Purohits, and they intermarry with Sevaks, the
Brdhman attendants at Jain temples.
The Brdhmans.of the Chhota Bds cannot say when they first
came to Pushkar, but there is a charter of Jehangir extant
providing that, of the offerings to the Brdhmans, two-thirds should
be allotted to the Bara Bds and one-third to the Chhota Bds;»
and this is still the rule of division. These last Brdhmans are
divided into four classes, — Gaur, Sunddh,Gujrdti, and Raj Purohit;
and are the Purohits of the Rajas of Jaipur, Bikanir, Bhartpur,
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and Dholpur. There is a story that Siwai Jai Singh came to
bathe in the lake, and gave his clothes to the Furohit, a Brdhman of
the Bara Bds. He was afterwards surprised to see his clothes
worn by a Sevak in a procession at a Jain funeral at Jaipur. On
enquiry, he found that the Sevak was a son-in-law of the Purohit,
and he then took away the office from the Brdhmans of the Bara
Bds and conferred it on those of the Chhota Bds.
The fair at Pushkar takes place in October or November, and,
like other religious fairs, is used as an opportimity for trade. It
is attended by about one hundred thousand pilgrims, who bathe
in the sacred lake. In 1877 the quantity of merchandise and the
number of animals brought for sale were below the average — ^there
were about 401 horses, 1,496 camels, and 1,986 bullocks. The
horses are chiefly Marwari and Katiawar, and the native cavalry
regiments serving in Bdjpiltdnd generally send parties to purchase
remounts.
Other Toums. — ^The remaining towns in the district may be
more briefly dismissed. Bhinai, Masuda, Sdwar, Baghera, and
Pisdngan are the chief towns of their respective thdkurs. There is
an old Jain temple at PisAngan which derives its name from its being
situated near the Priyasangama or junction of the Sarasvati
and Sagarmati streams. Khurwa is celebrated for its tank.
Deolia, Bundunwara, and Gobindgarh have each a population of
about 3,000. Among the khalsa villages, Rdmsar boasts of a large
taldo from which it derives its name. Srfnagar is famous as
the seat of the former power of the Pudr Rdjpiits. who were
dispossessed by the Gaurs, and whose representative is now
Thdkur of Bandsar in Bikanir. Rajgarh was held by the Gaur
Ei,]ptits before the ascendency of the Rahtors, and was given in
jdglr in 1874 to the descendant of its original rulers.
Education.
JEducation. — As regards education the province is in a very
backward state. There is no literary cla^ in Ajmer, and the
agricultural classes are quite apathetic on the subject. Of a
total number of 1,143 headmen of villages appointed at the
settlement of 1874, only 64 could write their names.
With the exception of a monthly subsidy of E«. 300, which was
jj^ ^ given to an English missionary who had
jmer o ege. established a school at Ajmer, no attempt
was made by Government to provide for the education of the
people, till the year 1861, when a school was opened at Ajmer.
The school was affiliated to the Calcutta University in 1861, and
since that time 37 pupils have passed the Entrance Examination,
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and 8 of this number the Pirst Arts Examination. In 1868 the
school was raised to the position of a college, but with a staff of
teachers limited to the requirements of the First Arts Examination
of the Calcutta University.
The college at Ajmer is a conmiodious building, situated about
a mile from the city. The present staff consists of a principal, a
head-master, a teacher of mathematics, an assistant teacher of
mathematics, and seventeen assistant-masters ; the principal, the
head-master, and the teacher of mathematics are Englishmen^ The
number of pupils on the rolls at the close of 1877-78 was 190, of
whom 164 were Hindus, 24 Muhammadans, and 2 others.
Of these, 4 studied English alone, 121 studied English, Urdu, and
Persian, and 66 studied English with Hindi and Sanskrit. The
total income of the college was Bs. 28,964, including a Gtovemment
grant of Rs. 27,166 ; and the expenditure was Rs. 29,230.
Attached to the college is a boarding-house for the acconuno-
dation of boys from the village schools who have obtained scholar-
ships ; and 20 boys resided here in 1877-78.
There is also a city branch school established in the city of
Ajmer with a view to provide education for the poor boys of the
city, and for such of the children as from their tender age or
other causes could not attend the Government college situated on
the Bedwar road, a mile distant from the heart of the town. The
number of boys on the rolls at the close of 1877-78 was 284, of
whom 223 were Hindus and 61 Muhammadans. The total in-
come of the school was Rs. 3,900, of which about half is provid-
ed out of the imperial revenues and the rest by the Ajmer
municipality, fees and fines, &c. This school is intended to be
a preparatory school for the college, and is placed under the direct
supervision of the principal of the college.
A somewhat similar school has been started at Bedwar to
provide primary education for the children of the town. There
were 162 boys in this school at the end of the year, most of them
being Hindus.
During the year 1876-77 the district schools were reorganized
-„ ^ .„ , , with a view to extending the range of ele-
Elementary village schools. . iT-jf^ mi i
mentary pubhc mstruction. The number
of the existing tahsili schools was reduced, and a larger number of
halkabandi or elementary schools established. There are now
68 vernacular schools established, 50 in the Ajmer district and
18 in Merwara. Of these, 19 are supported by Government, and
the rest from the educational share (one per cent.) of the S^ per
cent. cess. Of 1,770, the total number of boys attending these
schools in 1877-78, 1,346 belonged to Ajmer and 426 to Merwara.
Of this number, 1,669 were Hindus, and only 101 Muhanmiadans ;
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of the Hindus, 1,271 were recorded as sons of agriculturists, and
the rest were non-agriculturists, consisting of mahajans, artizans,
&c. The total cost of these schools during 1877-78 amounted to
Rs, 15,367, of which Rs. 9,484 were a Government grant. The
average daily attendance was 1,234*03.
Besides these, there is one grant-in-aid mission school at Bedwar,
one male normal school, one female normal school, five girls'
schools in the Ajmer district, and one jail school at Ajmer —
educating a total numher of 376 pupils, of whom 65 were girls.
During the year 1877-78 a grant-in-aid of E/S. 100 per men-
sem was sanctioned for a school to be established at Ajmer for the
education of European and Eurasian children.
No arrangements were made at Colonel Dixon's settlement in
1850 for the levy of a school-cess ; but shortly after the announce-
ment of the assessment, 75 schools were established in Ajmer-
Merwara, and Colonel Dixon possessed sufficient influence to
induce the people to defray a large portion of their cost. The
number was subsequently reduced to 57, and the contributions
were continued as long as Colonel Dixon lived. After his death,
however, the clamours of the people against the cess became so
violent, that Government authorized the cessation of the contribu-
tion, and all schools except those supported by Government were
closed. The intensity of the unpopularity of the cess may be
gathered from the fact that, when the sister-in-law of the Bhinal
Eaja performed sati in 1857, the last request of the Brdhmans who
surrounded the pile was that she might use her influence for the
abolition of the cess for village schools.
On this subject the labours of the B;djptitdna branch of the
United Presbyterian Mission deserve notice. The Mission, whose
head-quarters are at Edinburgh, collects between £30,000 and
£40,000 a year for foreign missions alone, and has eight stations
in Bdjpiitdna. The first, Bedwar, was founded in xl.D. 1860 by
the Rev. Mr. Shoolbred. Nasirabdd was founded the following
year. The Ajmer station was established in 1862, and that of
Todgarh in 1863. Deoli received a missionary in 1871, and Jaipur
in 1872. The whole cost of the schools established by the Mission
is borne by the Mission Board, and grants-in-aid have been to a
small extent received. The Mission has established five Anglo-
Vernacular schools — at Ajmer, Bedwar, Nasirabdd, Deoli, and
Todgarh; besides 68 vernacular boys' schools and 8 vernacular girls'
schools. The numbers in the Anglo- Vernacular schools are 721,
and average attendance 561. There are 1,564 boys in the verna-
cular schools, and 243 girls, with an average attendance together
of 1,284. The total of boys and girls in all the Mission schools in
the district amoimts to 2,518, and the average attendance was
K
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1,8'45, or, including Native States, 3,453 on the roll, and average
attendance 2,597. The Mission has also established four orphan-
ages — in Bedwar, Ajmer, Nasirabdd, and Todgarh — ^in which 220
orphans of both sexes are fed, clothed, and educated. Some of
the Beawar orphans have been settled on land secured for them
near the villages of BaUd and Nundri.
Thereare four thoroughly qualified practitioners — at Ajmer,
NasirabM, Bedwar, and UdaipuT — ^who superintend dispensaries
where medicine and advice are given gratis.
The following statement shows in a synoptical form the
statistics of the schools above mentioned -: —
<Ol.ASS 07 BCHOOI..
o
si
■i
1.
It
5^
1^
Bbicabks.
Oovernmeni Schools.
Bs.
Bs.
Bs.
Ajmer GoTernment College
1
190
27,166
28,964
29,230
181^08
Ajmer City Branch fiidhool
1.
284
1,562
8,900
3,900
240-7
Seiwar „ „
1
162
75
1,075
940
71-
Tahsili and Halkabandi Sclioc^s ...
68
1,770
9,484
18,653
16,367
1,23403
tGirls' Schools
6
69
1,018
1,498
602
48*10
Male Normal School
1
20
1,410
1,416
1,116
16-64
female „ „
1
6
417
1,051
690
4-71
trail School
1
90
291
361
275
79-89
kJrant-in-aid Mission School, Betfwar
1
200
1,036
3,423
3,347
150-
Total GoTemment
80
2.771
4S,458
60,025
55,357
2,02515
Mission Sehoois.
Anglo- Vemacnlar ... ...
6
2,276
243
'.. ••••
•
Elementary, Boys*
„ Girls*
68,
8
....
1,845-
( The cost of the Mission
\ schools is not known.
Total Mission
81
2,518
...
1,846-
Gbakd Totai.
161
6,289
42,468
60,025
66,357
3,870-16
Literatwe and the Press, — There is no indigenous literary-
class, nor was there any printing press in Ajmer till 1871. Prom
this press the Bajputdna Official Gazette issues in English,
Hindi, and Urdu ; and the publisher is allowed to add a supple-
ment, which is an ordinary newspaper.
Mayo College. — In the latter part of the year 1870 the late
Earl of Mayo visited Rdjpiltdna, and, in a darbdr held at Ajmer,
suggested to the princes and chiefs there present that a college
should be founded at Ajmer, where the future rulers and nobles
of Bdjputdna might receive such an education as would fit them
for their high position and important duties. He proposed that
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an aristocratic college should be established at the joint expense
of Government and its feudatories, and invited subscriptions
from the chiefs. They responded by promises of sums amount*-
ing to nearly six lakhs. The interest on this sum, added to a
fixed annual subsidy from the Government of India, forms the
income of the college, ta be devoted to the salaries of the educa-
tional and subordinate staff, and the maintenance of the grounds.
With regard to the buildings, it was arranged that the college
itself, with residences for the principal and head-master, should
be provided by Government, and that each State should build
boarding-houses^ for the accommodation of its own pupils within
the college precincts,, the residence for the Ajmer boys being
built at the expense of the British Government.
A space of about 150 acres, including the site of the old
Ajmer Residency, was taken up at the end of 1871 for the college
grounds. But, at this pointy operations languished for somo.
timCy owing to indecision on, the subject of a. design for the main
building, and the work, did not begin actively until towards tho
close of 1873^ Boarding-houses for Ajmer, Udaipur, Jodhpur,
Jaipur (twelve pupils each), Bhartpur and Bikanir (two pupils
each), are finished, as well as houses for the principal and head-
master. Houses for boys from Alwar, Tonk,. Kotah, and Jhald-
war complete the list*^ All the houses, with the exception of the
Jaipur residence, built by that State, have been constructed by
the Department of Public Works* The designs are principally in
the Hindu-Saracenic style,, and stone masonry of a high class
has alone been used in their ccmstruction.
The main college building was commenced in 1877. The first
stone was laid by A.. C. Lyall, Esq., Agent to the Governor-General
and Chief Commissioner of Ajmer, on the 5th January 1878.
The building was designed by Major Mant, r.e., and is being
constructed by J. W. Brassington, Esq., C.E., of white marble
from the local quarries. It cannot be finished until 1880. But
the opening of the college was not delayed till its completion.
The first principal was Ma3or St. John, r.e. On his departure to
Kabul, he was succeeded by Captain Loch. In 1877-78 there
were 39 pupils at the college.
Dispensaries. — ^Ajmer-Merwara contains six dispensaries : the
branch dispensary at Todgarh was closed on 1st May 1877, and
a grant-in-aid allowed to the missionaries at Todgarh ; the sadr
dispensary at Ajmer, and the dispensaries at Kekri, Masuda,
Pisdngan, and Bdmsar, being under the charge of the civil
surgeon. The other dispensary is at Bedwar in Merwara, and is
under the charge of the assistant surgeon at Beawar, who is
a native of Bengal. The income of the dispensaries during
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the year 1877-78 was Rs. 11,480, of which Rs. 3,322 was an im-
perial charge; the expenditure was Rs. 6,200, of which Es. 4,353
was the cost of estahlishment. The numher of in-patients was 4,561 ;
of out-patients, 25,970. In 1859 the revenue of the dispensaries
was Rs. 1,751, of which Rs. 1,460 was a Government grant ; the
number of in-door patients was 119 and out-door 5,158* The
great want of the district in respect of the dispensaries is that of
competent native doctors, and it was proposed to establish a
medical school at Ajmer, as it has been found that foreigners from
Bengal proper do not make these institutions popular with the
people. It may be added that a small enclosure adjoining the
Ajmer dispensary has been set apart for lunatics, but there is na
lunatic asylum in the province.
Poorhouses. — In this place may be given an account of the
institution attached to the Dargdh Khwaja Sahib, which is known
as the "Langar Khana,'' and is the only institution resembling a
poorhouse in the district. The custom of giving a daily dole is as
ancient as the shrine itself, and is alluded to in all the old grants.
Two maunds of barley are daily cooked in a chaldron with salt and
distributed at daybreak to all who come. The average daily attend-
ance in 1874 was about 400. No inquiry is made as to recipients.
Besides the 730 maimds of grain which are thus yearly consumed,
604 maunds are annually distributed to infirm women, widows, and
other deserving persons at their own houses. The whole charity is
in charge of two darogas who receive pay from the funds of the
institution. The cook, water-carrier, and other servants are paid in
grain. In times of scarcity a second dole is issued in the evening.
The normal cost of the charity in 1874 was about Rs. 3,000 per
annum, of which Rs. 666 — a large percentage — was the cost of
supervision.
Administration.
Administration : Civil and Criminal. — The following statement
shows the number of courts and of covenanted ofiGlcers in Ajmer-
Merwara at different periods :—
1823-24.
186a-61.
1860.81.
1872-73.
1877-78.
Kumber i^ maaisteriail courts .,. „. ,„
M civil courts, including reyenue oowrtB
„ covenanted oflficers ftt work throughowfc tlw year
8
8
8
8
6
8
8
f
11
8
20
18
8
In the year 1823-24, when Merwara came under British
management, the civil and criminal and revenue administrations
were placed in the hands of one officer, Captain Hall ; and civil and
criminal cases were decided by punchayet. At this time in Ajmer
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there was a Superintendent who was also Political Agent for
Jodhpnr, Jesalmer, and Kishangarh; and an Assistant who did the
mass of the criminal work. The civil work was done by a Sadr
Amin, the heavy cases being taken up by the Superintendent.
In 1850-51 Colonel Dixon was Superintendent of both districts
with civil and criminal powers, and had an Assistant in Merwara
and another in Ajmer. Besides these covenanted officers there
were two Sadr Amlns in Ajmer, who did both civil and criminal
work. By the Ajmer Courts Regulation dated 8th March 1872,
published under section 1 of the Statute 33 Vic, chapter 3, the
whole judicial system was reorganized. Subsequently in 1877
another Courts Eegulation was passed. By this Regulation
there are five grades of courts, viz. — (1) the court of the Chief
Commissioner ; (2) the court of the Commissioner ; (3) courts of
Subordinate Judges of 1st class; (4) courts of Subordinate
Judges of 2nd class; (5) courts of Munsifs. Each of these
courts has, ordinarily, both civil and criminal jurisdiction. It
was provided that, if a court of first appeal confirms a decision
of a court of first instance on a matter of fact, such decision shall
be fijial. In the year 1877-78 there were twenty magisterial
courts. The Commissioner exercises the powers of a Sessions
Judge, and the Chief Commissioner those of a High Court. In
the same year there were seventeen civil courts, exclusive of
the court of the Chief Commissioner. The magistrate of the
district has been invested with the powers described in
section 36 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, and hears ap-
peals from the decisions of officers exercising the powers of a
subordinate magistrate. He is invested with the powers of
a civil court in all suits, whatever be the value or amount of the
subject-matter; and with power to hear appeals from decisions
of any civil court of the first four grades. The aggregate value
of suits in 1877-78 was Rs. 8,01,116, being an average of Rs. 11381.
The civil courts do not sit during the months of August and
September.
In Merwara, till the introduction of Act VIII of 1859, aU civil
cases were decided by punchayet. In Ajmer a custom obtained
from 1818 to 1843 for the Superintendent to " countersign all
agreements presented by all classes of ^people desirous of entering
into pecuniary engagements with mahajans or others. The
contracting parties, either in person or by vakfl, appeared before
the signing authority to vouch to the correctness of the document.
The purport of the writing, whether giving a whole estate in
mortgage or pledging property to a smaller extent, was not noticed.
It was considered sufficient that the parties concerned verbally
certified to the correctness of the instrument. The paper thus
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signed was considered of equal legal force with a decree of
court, and, as such, it has been acted on to the present day.
The production of the dast-khati ikrdrnama, with the request
on the part of the plaintiff that the engagement be carried
through, has met with a prompt compliance. Upon a requisition
on plain paper, the same process has issued as if the case had
been decided in the civil court after the payment of all legal ex-
penses. In this manner has a large portion of the Ajmer land
become impledged to the monied interests. On the calls of the
tahsildar, on the istimrdrddrs becoming pressing, the agent, with
the friendly money-lender, appeared before authority, when the
proceeds arising from some of the villages for a term^ of years were
signed away to the money-lender." Such is Colonel Dixon's
account of the custom which he was the first to discontinue. In
lieu of it, a system similar to that prevailing in the Regulation
Provinces prior to the passing of the Code of Civil Procedure was
established. On receiving the plaint, a notice was issued to the
defendant directing his attendance by vakil or in person within
fifteen days. Should he not have attended within that term,
proclamation was made that, if he should not answer within
another term of fifteen days, the case would be decided ex-parte.
" Should he file his answer, the reply and replication are called
for, the issues to be tried are then determined, and a period of six
weeks is allowed to the plaintiff to produce his proof. Thus it
may happen that three months have elapsed before the case is ready
for trial. After this there is often most unnecessary delay in
deciding the points at issue j one party applies for the postpone-
ment of the trial, or for more time ; then the opposite party
follows suit. The papers are often absurdly lengthy, and filled
with nice arguments on points quite immaterial to the real issue .'^
Such is the description of Major Lloyd, writing in I860,
Folice. — The following figures show the strength of the
jegular and municipal police in the district in the year 1877 : —
^ f European district superintendent and inspectors, &c. ... 3
\ Native inspectors, sub-inspectors, and bead constables 93
IVTi^v (Mounted ... ... ... ... 4a
Total ...582
Police stations are divided into first-class, second-class, and
outpost. In Ajmer there ara six first-class stations, six second-
class, and nine outposts ; in Merwara, three first-class stations,
two second-class, and seven outposts — total nine first-class, eight
second-class, and sixteen outposts. One of the chief difiiculties
with which the police of the district have to contend is the
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cammission of dacoities by large bodies of mounted men, and
there is reason to believe that gangs often pass through British
territory, especially the narrow strip of Merwara, in going to or
returning from the scene of their depredations.
Jail Statistics. — There is now only one jail in the district,
that of Bedwar having been tjlosed. Till the year 1860, the
Ajmer jail was in an old native building near the city, and, owing
to the unhealthiness of the site, the mortality was very great. In
1854, out of 188 prisoners, 12 died ; in 1865, 18 out of 166 ; in 1856,
20 out of 122 ; in 1857, 25 out of 138. In 1859 the daily average
of prisoners was 169, and *the mortality amounted to 34, or 20 per
cent. A new jail was commenced in 1858 on one of the healthiest
sites in Ajmer, and the mortaKty is now reduced to under 1 per
cent. Before the new jail was buiit, no indoor work was done
by the prisoners. No regular statistics of the Ajmer jail are
procurable before the year 1864-65, when it was placed under the
Inspector-General of Prisons. The following statement shows the
comparative statistics of the Ajmer jail for the years 1864-65
and 1877-78:—
1864-65.
1877-78.
Total nmnber of prisoners admittedf during the year
y, „ discharged daring the year
Average number sick m hospital
Total number of deatiis during the year
Percentage of deaths to total population
251i
638
629
1076
6
•78
424-00
753
671
11-30
4
0-26
Total cost per prisoner for rations ...
,f tt clothing
9, „ jail establishment, including fixed establishment, pdice,
and extra guards ...
t$ »» hospital chaises
*» »» contingencies
Total cost per prisoner, including all charges
Total value of jail manufactures
Average amount earned by each prisoner employed on manufactures ...
Bs. A. P.
80 6 m
4 8 1|
21 2 6
19 3
2 16 3
66 1 0^
995 6 6
15 6 11
Bs. A. P.
19 3 619
3 12 3-90
20 2 6-37
13 3-58
3 12 1 86
54 4 689
7,822
23 12 1
Military. — There are three military stations in the district—
NaslrahM, Deoli, and Ajmer ; the two latter being garrisoned by
local corps, the Deoli Irregular Porce and the Merwara
Battalion. At Deoli a regiment of Bengal cavaliy is also can*
toned. At Beawar there is a detachment of the Merwara
Battalion.
The cantonment of Naslrabdd is situated on a bleak bare plain
Nasirab^ which slopcs castwards from the furthest
range of the Arvali hills in this direction.
The drainage is good, but there is a great lack of sweet water. All
the wells in the cantonment are brackish, and many are quite bitter.
Drinking-water for the troops has hitherto been carried a distance of
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about three miles. Many schemes have been proposed for supply-
ing the cantonment with water by forming a tank-embankment
in the nearest range of hills, and one of these, by which water
will be brought a distance of five miles from a village called Danta,
has been carried out.
The lines of Nasirabdd were laid out in 1818 by Sir David
Ochterlony, who, early in that year, had marched into Rdjpii-
tdna with a force of eight regiments of infantry, one of cavalry,
and a proportionate amount of artillery, with a view of effecting the
dispossession of Amir KhAn's forces, and confirming the newly-
formed and renewed treaties of alliance and protection with the
States of Bdjpiitdna. Two accoimts are given of the origin of
the name. According to one, it was after a fakir, Nasir Shdh,
whom the general foimd living in the place. According to the
other, the name is derived from the title of Nasir-ud-daula which
Shah Alam conferred on Sir David Ochterlony for his defence of
Delhi against Holkar in 1804. The cantonment is laid out in a
continuous stretch of over a mile in length, the lines of the troops
being to the windward of the officers' bungalows, to the leeward
of which is a large, irregularly-built, open town with about 18,000
inhabitants. The garrison consists of a battery of royal artillery,
a regiment of European infantry, short of a detachment left at
Nimach, a regiment of Bombay infantry, and a squadron of
Bombay cavalry from the regiment at Nimach. It is commanded
by a brigadier-general with the usual staff, but forms part of the
Mhow Division of the Bombay Army, and is generally visited once
a year by the major-general of the division. Though Ajmer
has always belonged to the Bengal Presidency, and has always
been administered by Bengal officers, NaslrabM is under the
Commander-in-Chief of Bombay and is garrisoned by Bombay
troops.
The cantonment is administered by a cantonment committee ;
and the cantonment magistrate exercises civil and crimiQal juris-
diction within four miles radius of the cantonment. NaslrabM
possesses a chaplara of the Church of England appointed by the
Bishop of Bombay, and a Roman CathoKc chaplain. With the
exception of the United Presbyterian missionaries, and a
chaplain at Ajmer who visits Jaipur periodically, there are no
other ecclesiastics in the district ; the chaplain at Nasirabdd, who
belongs to the Bombay diocese, being supposed to minister to
the spiritual requirements of the European inhabitants of
Bedwar and Deoli. Extracts from the registers of births, deaths,
^Tid marriages in Ajmer are forwarded to the Registrar of the
Calcutta diocese ; and the Administrator-General of Bengal takes
charge of the estates of persons dying intestate.
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Wie (^ntonment of Deoli is about seventy miles fi-om Ajmel?
in the midst of native territory, but the
DeolL cantonment itself is considered part of the
Ajmer district. It is garrisoned by an
irregular cavalry l^ghneut from the Bengal Presidency, and a local
corps called the Deoli Irregular Force. This latter consists of
both cavalry and infantry, the cavalry being mostly Sikhs> while
the infantry are Minas, a predatory tribe who have been enlisted
as soldiers with a view of weaning them from unlawful pui^uits*
The commandant of the force has been gazetted as cantonment
magistrate, and disposes of the few magisterial cases which arise
here from time to time.
This Battalion, whose head-quarters were l^emoved from
BeAwar to Ajmer in 1871, demands more
eirwara on. notice, as it was largely instrumental in
the pacification and civilization of Merwara ; and the B/Csolution
of the Governor-General in Council, dated 20th June 1822,
which directed the formation of a local corps in Merwara^
yields to none in importance among the measures adopted to
reclaim the Mers from their predatory habits** The nucleus
of the regiment then raised was composed of drafts from
the Udmpura local battalion, which in its turn had been formed
from the remnants of the army of the notorious Amir Khdn.
The total strength of the new Battalion was fixed at 680 of
all ranks, divided into eight companies. Vacancies for 340 Mers
as sepoys were reserved, and a certain proportion of the commis-
sioned and non-commissioned posts were set apart for those Mers
who should soonest qualify themselves to hold them. The corps
was cantoned near the old town of Bedwar, about thirty miles
south-west of Ajmer, then in the midst of a waste and uncultivated
tract of country. At first there was considerable difficulty in
obtaining recruits, but 100 Mers of all ages from fifty to fourteen
years were induced to enlist by a boimty of five rupees and the
favorable influence of a general feast. Not only was it difficult
to enlist men, but it was still more difficult to retain them after
they had enlisted. Many returned to their villages, being unable
to brook the restraints of military service. The regiment, how-
ever, soon found no difficulty in attracting men to its standards :
some of the most smart and deserving recruits were rapidly
promoted ; the first feeling of mistrust soon gave way to one of
attachment to the service; and while the Battalion gained in
popularity, it also attained a creditable standard of efficiency from
a military point of view.
* The following account of tho regiment has been taken chiefly from Colonel Dixon' ■ ** Sketch
•f Merwara."
L
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During the fearly years of the existence of the Battalion, many
Mer sepoys used to take their discharge on the completion of
three years* service, by which time they had generally managed to
save sufficient money to purchase a pair of bullocks. They then
TOtumed to their villages and took to agriculture. In this way the
number of those who in the new regiment had learnt what duty
was, and who had acquired habits of discipline, obedience, clean*
liness, and good faith, was sufficiently great to influence the inhabi-
tants of Merwara in the direction of industry and order. In 1835
a system of agricultural advances was estabfished, and, from that
date, discharges, though still numerous, were much less frequent.
In 1823 the cantonments were moved four miles south, adjacent
to what was subsequently the site of the town of Nayanagar.
In 1825 the Battalion was augmented by the addition of ten
men per company, thus raising its strength to 760 of all ranks.
The immediate cause of augmentation was severe detachment
duty on the outposts in the Merwara hills. This did not, however,
prevent two companies being detached to Ajmer in 1832 — one as
the escort of the Agent to the Governor-General, the other as a
city-guard.
It was not till the year 1839 that the Battalion saw any active
service. In that year it was foimd necessary to despatch a force,
composed of the Merwara Battalion and the Jodhpur Legion,
against several outlawed thdkurs of Marwar, who, under the
leadership of one Chiman Singh, Champdwat, had for several years
devoted memselves to pillage and highway robbery, and whom the
Maharaja of Jodhpur was unable to subdue. The outlaws had
established their head-quarters in the wild country near the town
of Kot in Merwara at the entrance of the Dawer pass. The two
regiments, under the command of Captain Dixon, moved on the
enemy from different directions, and, after a sharp struggle, suc-
ceeded in completely dislodging the outlaws and breaking up the
band, many of whom were killed, with their leader Chiman Singh, in
the action. The loss of the regiments was only eight men killed and
woimded ; and the thanks of the Governor-General were accorded
to Captain Dixon, while the conduct of the BattaKon met with
high commendation. In the autunm of the same year the services
of the regiment were again put into requisition for the expedition
against Jodhpur; but as Maharaja M^ Singh submitted to all
demands, no hostilities occurred, and the force was marched
back to its quarters at Bedwar. With this event ends all that need
be said of the Merwara local Battalion till the Mutiny of 1857.
The troops in NasirabM mutinied on the 28th May 1857. Early
notice having been conveyed to Colonel Dixon, commanding the
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Battalion at Bedwar, lie immediately ordered a company to move on
Ajmer. By a forced march of thirty-three miles during the night,
lieutenant W. Camell, commanding the detachment, was enabled
to occupy the magazine at Ajmer before information of the
occurrences at NasirabM had reached the company of the 15th
Native Infantry then garrisoning the niagazine. It consequently
permitted itself to be reheved and marched to NasirabM, and
by this prompt measure the safety of Ajmer was secured. The
detachment was subsequently strengthened by further reinforce-
ments from Bedwar. During the course of the Mutiny, a detach-
ment of the Battalion was employed with the Rdjpiitdna field force
under Major-General Sir G. St.Patrick Lawrence, and moved
against the mutineers of the Jodhpur Legion, who had established
themselves in the walled town of Aiwa in Marwar. Por its services,
and for the unshaken fidelity and loyalty displayed by the corps,
all men serving with the Battalion on the 1st July 1857 were
rewarded with the grant of the pay, and privileges as regards
pension, of soldiers of the line.
In December 1857 the Government of India authorized the
formation of a second Mer regiment under the command of lieu-
tenant W. Camell, to be stationed at Ajmer. On its formation,
the Merwara local Battalion was reduced by two companies, which
were drafted into the new regiment ; the strength of the united
corps was 1,500 men. The new Battalion, however, enjoyed but a
short existence. In 1861, financial reasons rendered its reduction
necessary, and in October of that year it was amalgamated with
the old Merwara local Battalion, which was then raised to the
strength of 1,000 of all ranks, and was placed under the
Inspector General of Police. By this measure, the Battalion, with
the exception of the men on whom special privileges had been
conferred as a reward for loyalty during the Mutiny, was deprived
of the advantages, in respect of pay and pension, which were
afterwards conferred on the other local military corps of Rdjptitdna,
and the men were consequently discontented, while the regiment
was practically useless for purposes of police. These, among other
cogent reasons, induced Lord Mayo, after his visit to Ajmer in
1870, to reorganize the Battalion into a purely military corps.
Accordingly, by the Resolution in Council dated 20th November
1870, the numbers were reduced to a total strength of 712 of all
ranks, divided into eight companies. The pay of the men was raised
from Es. 5-8 to Bs. 7 a month, and they were granted the same
privileges as regards pension and allowances as the other local
mf antry corps ia Rdjptitdna. At the same time, the head-quarters
were transferred from BeAwar to Ajmer.
There are no regulations fixing the proportions of the castes to
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be enlisted, but the variations are slight, and the tendency is towards
reduction of the foreign element. The composition in 1874 of the
force, consisting of 710 men, was as follows : — ^Mers, 351 ; Merats^
232 ; Muhammadans, chiefly belonging to the Ajmer district, 32 ;
Brdhmans, 19 ; Rdjptits, 19 ; Jdts, 6 ; Gujars, 3 ; other castes, 48,
chiefly fromRdjptitdna, though a few come fromOudh and Benares.
In Colonel Dixon's " Sketch of Merwara '' the constitution of the
corps about the year 1848 is given as 299 Purabis (men from the
North-Westem Provinces) or of other castes than Mers, and 461
Mers and Merats — total 760. It will thus be seen that the corps
is more local now than in 1848. The regiment has recently been
armed with the Enfield rifle. When there is promise of an
abundant harvest, recruits are scarce ; but when distress threatens
Merwara, candidates flock for enlistment. Apart, therefore, from
the political advantages of a regiment which has no sympathies in
common with Rdjpiits, there is reason to believe that the existence
of the regiment is a real boon to the district of Merwara, affording
employment to many who would otherwise be without a livelihood,
and, by means of the savings which are annually accumulated,
contributing to the wealth of the people. The regiment, however,
has ceased to be what it was ia former days — a school through
which the greater part of the youth of the country passed ; and
more especially since the removal of the head-quarters to Ajmer,
its influence on what may be called the home aspects of the corps
has been much diminished. While the Battalion was at Bedwar,
the soldiers who enlisted, for the most part from the villages
immediately adjacent, were allowed to go after parade in the
morning to their homes ; they worked all day in their fields, and
were back to cantonments by night. Leave was often applied for
by those who lived at a greater distance, and freely granted.
The men, therefore, continued practically to form a part of the
agricultural population : they met their relations frequently, and
their pay went often to the common stock.
Soldiering has now become a profession. Men who enlist do
so for their life-time, and take their discharge only when invalided
or entitled to full pension. After their term of service is over,
they invariably settle down on their ancestral land, having probably
saved enough to dig a well for its improvement. Here they spend
the remainder of. their days; and generally have considerable
influence in the village, especially those who had attained to the
rank of subadd,r or jamad^ in the Battalion.
In 1878 the regiment volunteered for service in Afghanistan,
where they acquired an excellent reputation and proved the
use of their mountain homes in training hardy and active
soldiers.
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Meteorological. — ^The following statement shows the rainfall
measured at the stations of Ajmer, Bedwar, and Todgarh from the
year 1860 to 1878. Since 1863 the rain-gauge at Ajmer has been
placed in charge of the Meteorological Department, which is
superintended by the civil surgeon. The registers of BeAwar and
Todgarh are in charge of the tahsUddrs : —
Yeak.
Ajmeb.
»
Beawab.
TODGABH.
Bemaeks.
Inches.
cents.
Inches.
cents.
Inches, cents.
1860
10
77
6
69
13 36
Scai'city.
1861
25
50
19
40
13 60
1862
43
40
42
70
23 18
1863
27
34
22
90
21 6
1864
17
64
20
70
21 8
1865
16
47
19
30
26 9
1866
26
16
14
60
24
20 inches in Augt.
1867
27
27
16
90
81 7
14 inches in Augt.
1868
9
28
5
50
8 3
Famine.
1869
23
92
17
60
21 4
15 inches in Sept.
1870
16
97
13
11 90
1871
,21
70
23
50
10 60
1872
32
20
50
80 30
1873
21
27
29
80
26 10
1874
17
75
15
60
*>
1875
86
37
28
80
1876
23
73
22
40
> Not avail-
1877
11
76
15
20
able.
1878
81
05
21
70
J
Average
21
07
19
83
20 10
This tahle, which is not, perhaps, quite trustworthy, gives an
idea of the precariousness and partiality of the rainfall. The pro-
yince is on the horder of what may fairly be called the " arid zone,'*
and is the debateable land between the north-east and south-
west monsoons, and beyond the full influence of either. The
south-west monsoon sweeps up the Narbada valley from Bombay,
and, crossing the table-land at Nimach, gives copious supplies
to Malwa, Jhaldw^, and Kotah, and the countries which Ke in the
course of the Chambal river. The clouds which strike Katiawar
and Kachh are deprived of a great deal of their moisture by the
influence of the hills in those countries, and the greater part
of the remaugider is deposited on Abii and the higher slopes of the
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ArvaU, leaving but little for Merwara, where the hills are lower,
and still less for Ajmer. It is only when this monsoon is in
considerable force that Merwara gets a plentiful supply from it,
and it is only the heaviest storms which get as far as Jodhpur,
where the average rainfall does not exceed four or five inches, while
beyond this is the rainless land of Sind. The north-east
monsoon sweeps up the valley of the Ganges from the Bay of
Bengal and waters the northern part of Rdjpiitdna, but hardly
penetrates farther west than the longitude of Ajmer. On the
conflicting strength of these two monsoons the rainfall of the
district depends.
The prevailing wind during the rainy season is a south-westerly
one, but there is but Uttle rain which comes from this direction.
The south-west monsoon is exhausted before it reaches even
Merwara ; and, if this monsoon is in the ascendant, the weather
will be cloudy, and there will be light and partial showers, but no
heavy rain. When the wind veers roimd to the west, as it often
does, there will be no rain. It is from the north-east that Ajmer,
Bedwar, and Todgarh obtain their heaviest rainfalls, though the
south-west monsoon has naturally more effect at Todgarh than
at Ajmer. The central portions of the province often receive
heavy falls from the north-west ; the north-east monsoon being
apparently diverted from its course by the winds from the desert.
The direction of the wind is most changeable, and the rainfall is
exceedingly partial.
Not only, however, is the rainfall most precarious and partial,
varying in total amount very much from year to year, and from
place to place, and falling with fury upon one side of a hill while
the other side is perfectly dry, but it is most irregularly distributed
over the rainy season, and most uncertain as to the intensity of
the fall. This last question is a most important one with reference
to the filling of the reservoirs. If the rain fall in light showers,
even though it be on the whole an average fall, the soil will
absorb it, the nalas will not run, and the tanks will remain empty.
If the fall is sudden and heavy, and at the same time general
within the catchment-area of a tank, the chances are that the
embankment will be damaged. The best rainy season is one which
includes a fall of three or four inches in twenty-four hours in June,
and a similar fall in September, with intermediate showers. Then
the tanks fill and are replenished for the rabi harvest, and the
kharif crop is not drowned with excessive rain.
These peculiarities may be illustrated from the history of the
years for which the rainfall has been given. The years immediately
before 1860 were years of heavy rain, averaging in Ajmer over
30 inches j but the rainy season of 1860 was a very bad one.
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What rain there was, fell in showers insufficient to fill the tanks j
and there was no rain in September. The kharif harvest failed ;
and, but that Marwar had fortunately good rains and furnished
supplies of both grain and grass, the scarcity which ensued would
have amounted to a famine. The north-east monsoon failed over
the North-Western Provinces this year, but Marwar got more
than its usual supply from the south-west. In 1861, the north-
east monsoon appears to have been in the ascendant, but hardly
reached to Todgarh ; 1862 was a year of extraordinarily heavy
rain ; the fall was spread over a long time, and was not violent
enough to damage the tanks. The kharff failed, however, from
excess of moisture, but the rabi was splendid. In 1864 there
was an average fall, but it all fell before the second week in
August. In 1865 there was no rain till the second week in August,
and it ceased entirely in the second week of September, only 1
inch 8 cents, having been registered in Ajmer in that month. There
were some heavy showers, however, which filled the tanks. In
1866 the rains began in the second week of August, and fell
continuously till the end of the month. In some places the tanks
were not filled, in others there were very heavy falls. But for the
tanks, each of these three seasons would have been one of very
severe distress. The year 1867 was favorable ; but the following
year was one of famine, the average fall of all the stations having
been only 7 '41 inches. The rains of 1869 were not unfavorable as
regards the amount of the fall, but no rain fell till the middle
of July, and there was no rain again for nearly two months. The
rainfall of 1870 was below the average, but was pretty well distri-
buted. The years 1871, 1872, and 1873 were average years, but
the fall was irregularly distributed : in Ajmer, in 1871 there were
8 inches during the month of June and ^ inch in August ; in 1872
there was 1 inch in June and 18 inches fell in August — ^the rainfall
of July and September was nearly equal in both years ; in 1873
the greater portion of the rain fell in July.
Climate. — ^The climate of the district is dry and healthy, and
there are but few days on which a strong wind does not prevail. In
the hot weather, strong easterly breezes alternate with hot west winds
and keep the atmosphere cool. During the rainy season, a south-
westerly or north-easterly wind is nearly always blowing according
aa either monsoon is in the ascendant. The cold weather commences
later than in the North- Western Provinces, but the cold in the
months of December, January, and February may be called
severe. There is often hoar-frost on the ground in the early
morning. The statement on next page shows the mean highest
and lowest temperature for each month of 1871, 1872, and 1873
according to the standard thermometer at the Ajmer jail.
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1871.
1872.
1873.
Months.
1
M
M
i
1
J
s*
»
a
a
a
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
604
69-7
80-4
89-2
90-9
88-6
82-7
81-6
86-2
83-1
73-6
64-6
71-6
82-3
91-6
1000
99-0
96-1
91-8
920
930
91-3
820
73-8
60-6
67-5
66-6
800
78-6
76-0
71-6
74-8
763
76-5
62-8
65-6
61-3
67-0
80-7
88-6
93-0
93*8
84-1
79-6
81-6
78-3
71-7
64-2
70-8
83-8
92-8
99-6
103-7
104-6
91-6
86-1
89-9
86-1
80-2
74-3
63-6
638
68-6
78-3
810
81-7
76-7
83-6
71-1
71-2
61-4
64-8
601
60-6
78-9
88-4
90-4
94-2
831
82-0
83-6
78-9
696
611
72-6
81-2
91-7
96-5
104-7
102-1
92-2
92-3
89-6
87-6
77-6
70-8
47-6
67-9
66-9
79-1
76-2
77-2
76-2
760
74-8
72-3
631
62-6
JBirth and Death Bate. — There are no trustworthy statistics
as to the annual birth-rate and death-rate throughout the district.
Births are not reported at all, but deaths are reported. The
information is collected by the police from the village headmen,
who, in their turn, rely on the reports of the chaukid^, a
body of men who are very insufficiently organized in Ajmer.
The four months from November to February seem to be the
most fatal season, the hot season comes next, and the rainy
season from July to October seems to be the most healthy.
In the towns, the statistics are perhaps more reliable. In 1872,
the death-rate of Ajmer city was 64i*65 per mille; of Kekri,
35-67 ; of Bedwar, 41-69 ; of NaslrabM, 22-03.
Endemic Diseases. — Dr. Murray, the civil surgeon, whose
experience of the district dates from the year of the Mutiny, reports
that there are no diseases endemic in the district, unless the fevers
generally prevalent in Ajmer city in the months of October and
November, and which were very fatal in 1872, can be classedas such.
These are believed to be due to the very defective drainage to the
valley, and various drainage schemes have been proposed since 1869.
The work was commenced in 1874, and has been completed.
Other Diseases. — In the eighteen years from 1866 to 1874
there were five outbreaks of cholera in Ajmer, namely, in 1861,
1862, 1865, 1867 j and 1869 ; the first and the last year being those in
which the disease was worst. Cholera usufdly appears in the rainy
season. The cause of malignant cholera is believed to be a
peculiar poison in the atmosphere^ while non-malignant cholera
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may arise from sudden transitions from heat to cold, from impure
water, indigestible food, bad meat, stale vegetables, or intemperance.
Dysentery and diarrhoea are very prevalent during the rains, as also
is rheumatism. Cases of ophthalmia are frequently met with.
Diseases of the skin are very common ; they assume various types
and characters from a common herpetic eruption to the most
inveterate form of lepra. Pleurisy and pneumonia carry off a great
many people in the cold weather. Boils and abscesses are very
prevalent during the rains, and scurvy is common at this season.
Guinea- worm is almost always more or less- prevalent, and in some
years hundreds of people are attacked by this malady. Unless the
worm is extracted at an early stage, considerable irritation and
inflammation supervene, and it may be weeks or months before
the patient recovers. Europeans are seldom attacked by guinea-
worm ; this immunity is attributed to Europeans drinking well-
water, and having it properly strained. No cattle epidemics have
been recorded of late years, nor have there ever been any epidemic
attacks during the gatherings of pilgrims at the Pushkar fair or
the festival of the Khwaja Sahib.
Medicine. — There are said to be some three thousand different
kinds of physic to be obtained from the shops of the pansdris, or
native druggists ; but, of these, only three hundred are believed in ;
nearly all are imported from other parts of India. Most of the
drugs of real efficacy used by native practitioners are to be found
in our own pharmacopoeia,
Itetrospect of British Administration and the Famine of
1869, — ^The territory of the Ajmer district that is now under direct
British administration has been practically identical since the
cession of the district in 1818 to the present time. The only
change of importance has been the addition of five villages in
accordance with a treaty with Sindia in 1860. The directly-
administered villages of Merwara have been identical since the
conquest and cession in 1823. The temporary arrangement under
which seven Marwar villages were for a few years placed under
British management, will not vitiate a comparison of different
periods. The administration of the istimrdr estates of Ajmer has
been confined to collecting from them a fixed assessment ; the
thdkurs and jdgirdArs were left to manage their own affairs. The
following retrospect, therefore, will be restricted to the adminis-
tration of the khdlsa or Government villages, and chiefly of Ajmer.
The following statement shows the demand and collections on
account of land-revenue of the khdlsa of Ajmer proper for each
year from 1818 to 1874. The prices of the chief grains grown
in the district are also given for each year.
M
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Statement of Demand and Collections in tie Khiha Fillaget of Ajmer from
1817-18 to 1873-74.
Sbbbs pbb bupbb.
TlAl.
Demand.
Collections.
Bbkuucs.
Wheat.
Barley.
Maize.
Mot.
Be.
Bs.
1818
14
22
22
13
1,28,978
1.15,060
Collected by the Marathas.
1819
16
26
27
24
1.59.746
Mr. Wilder-B direct collections at half
produce.
Mr. Wilder'B three years' progresslTe
1820
13
21
24
21
1,79,467
1,40.034
settlement.
1821
16
22
28
23
1,64,700
1,64,700
1822
21
30
36
26
1,64,700
1,64,700
1823
21
38
46
36
1,64,700
1,62,670
►Mr. wader's five years' settlement.
1824
20
36
36
30
1,64,700
1,59,279
1826
17
21
21
21
1,64,700
31,920
) Berenne collected khtfm at half pro-
duce.
1826
21
29
29
29
1,37,630
Collected at half produce by Mr. Mid-
dleton.
1827
25
42
40
36
1,44,072
1,44,072
1828
27
62
69
37
1,44,072
1,42,760
1829
26
46
61
42
1,44,072
1,26,646
Mr. Middleton's five years' settlement
1830
26
39
44
39
1,44,072
1,24,956
• continued for two years.
1881
26
88
89
40
1,44,072
1,23,350
1833
32
66
68
47
1,44,072
1,22,873
'
1833
25
88
35
27
1.44,072
1,24,629
1834
12
18
19
14
80,343
Mr. Edmonstone's summary coUeo*
tion.
1886
17
29
33
80
1,19,302
1,18,792
.
ment.
1836
1837
22
22
83
29
83
32
30
28
1,29,872
1,27,513
, "- ^10
172
"iO
116
47
Mr. Edmonstone's ten years' settle-
1838
18
24
^
19
...
ments; but, after the first year, half
1839
17
23.
21
...
- the Tillages gave up then- leases.
1840
11
20
22
21
...
J and the revenue was collected direct
1841
16
26
26
20
H at half produce.
18ia
S^
26
30
22
...
198
•\ Colonel Dixon's collections partly on
1843
20
28
28
24
...
137
1 Mr. Edmonstone's settlement, but
1844
1846
ir
28
28
28
28
21
24
07
'87
1 ' chiefly direct at two-thirds the pro-
) duce.
1846
19
28
30
28
167
\
1847
19
26
30
28
m
f Colonel Dixon's duwt collections at
1848
1849
14
14
• 19
19
22
23
16
16
•••
!37
162
r two-thirds of the produce.
1860
18
22
28
22
1,71^219
00
4
1861
21
29
29
22
1,71,762
i36
1852
22
33
34
27
1,73,822
117
1863
24
33
83
26
1,73,658
;58
1854
27
^
81
24
1,73,690
(65
1866
24
^
35
80
1,75,010
119
1866
24
2®
88
36
1,74,022
'34
1867
26
89
20
37
1,75,240
183
1858
27
42
38
86
1,74,173
S90
1869
24
34
83
26
1,73,797
'39
1860
18
«8
25
25
1,83,095
*,_.J16
1861
17
21
21
27
1,73,386
1,61,259
tlement, exclusive of collections for
1862
14
23
20
16
1,74,084
1,74,064
road fund, Bs. 1,763, and taliCofund,
1863
14
20
17
19
1,72,834
1,72,834
- Bs. 6,126, which were collected each
1864
1865
1866
14
11
12
22
19
15
1,72,844
1,72,844
year, the deficiencies being shown
19
17
18
16
13
15
1.72,853
1,73,347
1,72,853
1,73,047
1867
13
20
18
16
2,11,340«
2,10,336
1868
13
18
16
16
1,80,765
1,80,591
1869
1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
1876
6
9
13
16
14
13
8
6
6
1,81,844
1,02,928
Bs. 42,406 remitted.
16
15
12
2,02,073
1,82.495
„ 6,249 „
21
20
18
2,17,644
2,13,150t
„ 1.980 .«
25
26
21
1,88,435
1,86,216
,* 366 „
22
22
20
1,81,506
1,80,023
u 863 „
17
16
17
1,80,313
1,80,313
l,4a.896t
/
ledger^fw^^y^re!'^'''"*''^"'^'"'^^^ ^'^^ ^^ ^ "^«^P*« ""^^^ ^ personal
t In this are included the arrears paid up by the farmers.
X Assessment net, with cesses, Bs. 1,66,362,
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Mr. Wilder, Assistant to the Resident at Delhi, was, as stated
above, the first Siiperinttendent appointed to Ajmer. He received
charge from Sindia's officers on the 26th July 1818, and found the
city almost deserted, and the people, though peaceable and indus-
trious, much reduced by oppression. On the 27th September
he reported on the newly-acquired province. Neither Tantia
nor Bapu Sindia had ever collects more than Rs. 3,76,740 from
the district, and, of this sum, Rs. 31,000 represented the amount
at which the customs had been farmed; the remainder was
land-revenue.* Of the land-revenue, amounting to Rs. 3,45,740,
the assessment of the istimrdr tenures was Rs. 2,16,762, that of the
khdlsa Rs. 1,28,978. The system of Maratha administration was
practically to exact all that could be paid ; but about nine years
before the cession, a kind of settlement had been concluded in
the istimrdr and khdlsa lands, in accordance with which it had been
arranged that, instead of the recent arbitrary enhancements of
the istimrdr revenue, all future augmentations should take the
form of taxes or levies, and the land-revenue of the khdlsa was
shown as a fixed sum, Rs. 87,689, while the remainder was
to be collected in the shape of a number of extra cesses. The
object of this arrangement was twofold. The istimrdrddrs were
anxious that the arbitrary exactions should not be consolidated
with the original revenue, lest, on a change of rulers, it might
be difficult to procure their remission, and the governor of Ajmer
only sent to Gwalior the land-revenue proper, and appropriated
to himself the extra collections. The khdlsa villages were farmed
for the amount of the Ain, and the extra cesses were levied
under forty-four heads. Of these, a tax called Naudraky equal
to 2 per cent, over and above the Ain, was the perquisite of Sindia's
wives. A similar tax was denominated Bhent Bai Sahiba, and
was an offering to his sister ; and his daughter and his^/r (spiritual
director) received respectively Rs. 2 and Re. 1 from each village.
The produce of these four cesses was sent to Gwalior, and the
governor appropriated the produce of the remaining forty exac-
tions. The chief was -Fb^*-Sryiar(? A, levied on account of the expenses
of maintaining troops for the protection of the villages. This was
uncertain in amount, and varied with the ability of the people to
pay and the power of the governor to compel payment. Patel
JBdb and Bhum Bdb were percentages levied from patels and
bhtimias. There were numerous offerings at all the Hindu festivals,
charges on account of every act of civil government, and sundry
* In the treaty- of cession with Sindia, the reyenue of Ajmer was valued at 5,05,484 Sri-
■hahi, or 4,50,986 Parakhab^, rupees. It was admitted, however, by the Resident at Gwalior
that the revenue wag much exaggerated.
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arbitrary cesses uncertain in amount. Tiie actual collections from
tlie khdlsa in the year before the cession amounted to Rs. 1,15,060.
The question of the currency was one which caused Mr.
Wilder some difficulty. None of the Company's coins were current
further south than Jaipur, but there were six principal mints
whose coin was current in Ajmer, and for all of whom the chief
source of supply of bullion for coinage were dollars imported
from Bombay or Surat, via Pdli. No bullion was ujsed. The
Ajmer mint had been established since the time of the emperor
Akbar, and turned out yearly about a lakh and a half of rupees
called Srishahi. The Kishangarh rupee was struck at Kishangarh,
and the mint had been established about fifty years, though it
had frequently been suppressed by the rulers of Ajmer. The
Kuchdwan rupee was struck by theThdkur of Kuchdwan inMarwar
without the permission of the Maharaja, who was too weak to
assert his rights. The thdkur was supposed to clear 6 per cent,
by bringing the dollars to his melting-pot. The Shahpura mint
had been established for some seventy years in spite of the attempts
of the Rana of Udaipur to suppress it. The Chitori rupee was
the standard coin of Mewar, and the Jhdrshahi rupee was struck
at Jaipur. Mr. Wilder cut the knot of the coinage difficulty by
concluding all transactions on the part of Government in Parakha^
bdd rupees, and receiving them alone in payment of Government
revenue. The fixed revenue of the istimrdr estates he converted
from Srishahi into Parakhabdd currency by allowing a deduction
of 9 per cent. ; and it is on this account that the present istimrdr
revenue of each'thdkur consists of rupees, annas, and pies.
Mr. Wilder proposed to abolish what he calls " the very
objectionable and disgusting system heretofore practised," and to
take the revenue in the khdlsa by reverting to the ancient custom
of estimating the crop and dividing its value. The people willingly
agreed to pay one-half the estimated value of the crop, this
being the old rate of assessment, and that customary in the
adjacent States. The collections for the year were Rs. 1,59,746 ;
and Mr. Wilder writes that the measure of an equal division of the
crop had been productive of all the benefits he had anticipated.
The people had acquired confidence in the moderation and justice of
their new government, and, though it would not be advisable for
the next two years to demand any great addition to the increase
that had already taken place, yet he was confident that on the
third year ih^jama might be raised to double what it had reached
under any preceding government without at all pressing on the
inhabitants. Accordingly, Mr. Wilder proposed a three years'
progressive settlement, — in the first year Rs. 1,79,437, in the
second Rs. 2,01,691, in the third Rs. 2,49,303. He was of
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opinion that " if the jama is so apportioned that half of the
produce be found sufficient, one year with another, to meet the
Government demand, the remaining share is quite enough to
provide every necessary comfort for the husbandman/* This way
of putting the case sounds peculiar, but is quite in accordance
with Mr. Wilder's views, whose dominant, il not sole, anxiety
Was to increase the Government revenue. Mr. Wilder furnished
no information of the principle on which the demand had been
fixed, nor of the grounds on which a progressive assessment had
been resolved on ; and the settlement was confirmed with some
hesitation by Government, who remarked on the proved disad-
vantages of an assessment framed on anticipated improvement,
which checks the rising spirit of industry and the accumulation
of capital.
The settlement, however, was not destined to run its course,
but broke down the first year. The kharif was injured from
excessive rain, and in February there were successive frosts
which so destroyed the rabi that the straw even was not fit for
use. Mr. Wilder proposed to relinquish the balance, and to
make a settlement on a fixed annual yama of Rs. 1,64,700. Both
these proposals were sanctioned by Government, the term of
the ^ttlement being fixed for five years. The assessment was
faMy collected for the first four years, though in the fourth year
the people were obHged to borrow to pay their revenue ; but
the fifth was a year of famine. There were occasional showers
till tbe 10th of June, but from that date there were only two
showers — one on the 12th, the other on the 20th August. A
hot westerly wind prevailed, the tanks dried up, the weUs began
to fail, and the kharif was lost. Porage was as scarce as grain;
many of the cattle died by August, and most of the remainder
were driven off to Malwa. Grass was selling at 20 seers a,
rupee. Two severe frosts in March almost entirely destroyed the
indifferent rabi ; recourse was had to collecting one-half the pro-
duce : the amount realized was Rs. 31,920. The next year was a
good one ; but the people objected to pay according to Mr. Wilder's
settlement, and the revenue was again collected khdm.
In December 1824 — the middle of the famine year — Mr.
Wilder was promoted to the charge of the Sdgar and Narbada
territories. His six years' administration had not been productive
of any great results. He made no radical inquiry into any of
the institutions of the province. He continued many old abuses
both in the customs and revenue departments, simply because
they brought in money. It cannot be said that he took much
pains to ascertain the value of the land he assessed or the condition
of the people; and the era of material improvement had not yet
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dawned. He united in his person the offices of Superintendent
of Ajmer and of Political Agent for Jodhpur, Jesalmer, and Ki-
shangarh, and kept up a semi-regal state with elephants, horsemen,
and chohddrs. On the other hand, his administration was rather
starved. The whole cost of the revenue and police estahlishment of
the district was Rs. 1,374 a month, or less than half of Mr.
Wilder's salary, which was Rs. 3,000. There was not a copy of
any Regulation in the office in 1823, and a copy of the Calcutta
Gazette was refused. After a time, a European assistant was
appointed. The great solicitude of Mr. Wilder was to develop the
trade of Ajmer, and he invited merchants from all quarters to
come and settle in the city. One curious feature of his corre-
spondence is the number of letters of recommendation he gave these
merchants and bankers. Many of these letters were written to
judges and magistrates, requesting them to assist in collecting
money due to the merchants.
Mr. Henry Middleton, also a North-West civilian, succeeded
Mr. Wilder in December 1824. He was of opinion that Mr. Wilder's
assessment was very high, that fixed assessments of any kind were
unpalatable to the people, and, if confidence could be reposed in
the subordinate of&cers, the system of taking in kind would be
best. The experience, however, of the year 1825-26 rendered
Mr. Middleton loth to adopt this system ; accordingly he proposed
a five years* settlement, and reported its completion on the 26th
November 1826. He had rough measurement-rolls prepared, but
he chiefly relied on the collections of the previous year as a
criterion of resources. He remarks upon the poverty of the people
and the extortions of the money-lenders. Many cultivators who
had come to the district in the first years of the British rule, had
been driven away again by bad harvests and high assessment. The
wells were falling into disrepair, and the people had no money
to repair them. Mr. Middleton's settlement was sanctioned at
Rs. 1,44,072 for five years.
The assessment, however, was collected only in the first of the -
years the settlement had to run, and that with considerable
difficulty. The rains commenced favorably, but from the middle
of July till the first week of September there was no rain. The
bdjrd and jowdr all came to nothing. The rains of September,
however, were plentiful ; the people who had begun to drive their
cattle to Mewar and Marwar for pasturage, returned, and the
rabi harvest was good. Mr. Middleton did not remain long enough
in the district to collect the next year's revenue, and made over
charge to Mr. Cavendish in October 1827. He was an officer of
mediocre ability, and initiated no useful measures.
Mr. Cavendish, his successor, was a great reformer, and left
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the impress of his energy on every department of administration.
To him the district is indebted for a very valuable collection of
statistics regarding istimr^, hhtim, and j^gir tenures. He carried
out, however, little of what he took in hand ; and the sanction
which had been accorded to Mr. Middleton's settlement prevented
his interference in the assessment of the khdlsa. In forwarding
the accounts for the year 1828, he explains the method of collec-
tion, and gives a long account of the circumstances of the district
and of his own views as to the weight of the assessment. The
custom of collection as handed down from the Marathas, was for
the patel with the patwdri, where there was one, to estimate the
crop ; one-half the estimate was the Government revenue. Almost
always, a loss, or inability to pay the assessed revenue from the pro-
duce of the land, was the result of the estimate, and then followed
an annually varying contribution from all village residents to make
up this real or supposed loss. The contributors were not permitted
to interfere in the valuation, and the tahsildar enforced payment.
Mr. Cavendish considered that Mr. Middleton's assessment
was high, for several reasons : " because the cultivated area has
remained stationary since the time of the Marathas, who only
collected Rs. 87,689 ; because the rate of assessment exceeds
one-half the produce ; because no cultivator in the soil of Ajmer,
which requires much labor and expense, can afford to pay one-half
the produce ; because the assessment is collected, not from the
produce of the soil, but by a fluctuating and arbitrary tax ; and
because the assessment has been made on the basis of a favorable
year's collections when com was dear.'* Mr. Cavendish applied
the rates to which he had been accustomed in Saharanpur, to
Mr. Middleton's areas, and calculated that the assessment ought
to be Rs. 87,645 instead of Rs. 1,44,072. He gives three main
causes of the original over-assessment of the district, all of which,
no doubt, worked to that end : first, the strength of the Maratha
Government, who took all that the people could give, and who were
unfettered by any prescriptive rights ; secondly, the exaggeration
of the revenue by Sindia at the time of transfer, which made Mr.
Wilder endeavour to work up to an impossible standard ; and,
thirdly, that the year 1818-19 was a very good year in Ajmer, while,
owing to the devastations of Amir Kh6n in the territory of Mewar,
Marwar, and Jodhpur, there was a large demand on all sides for
grain, and prices were very high. This last is a most important
poiat, and seems to be the real key to the over-assessment of the
district. Indeed, the first assessments made by British revenue
officers in a newly-acquired district, almost invariably broke down
through the error of over-estimating com prices. They used to
take the old war prices that prevailed during the anarchy preceding
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annexation; and they forgot that with peace and order came plenty
and open markets. Mr. Cavendish proposed a revision of settlement ;
bnt in the event of this not being sanctioned, he recommended that
the people should not be pressed for their revenue in bad seasons.
He also introduced partially a khewdt, or assessment of individual
holdings, — a, measure unknown to Mr. Middleton's settlement.
He lays stress on the point that remissions granted in a lump sum
benefit, not the real sufferers, but the tahsildars, kdniingos,
patwdris, and patels. He introduced, for the first time, patwAris*
accounts, and appointed patwdris for many villages where there
were none, and directed every patwdri to give a receipt. Govern-
ment approved of Mr. Cavendish's innovations generally, but,
with regard to the weight of the assessment, decided that a more
detailed investigation must precede a general revision; and directed
that the unexpired period of the settlement should be diligently
employed in ascertaining the capabilities of each village. It is
certainly a matter of regret that the settlement of Ajmer did not
fall into Mr. Cavendish's hands rather than into those of Mr.
Middleton.
Holding these views as to the weight of the assessment, it was
not to be expected that Mr. Cavendish should press the people
to pay where he found there was a difficulty in paying. As a
matter of fact, remissions were regularly applied for and granted,
and the settlement was not worked up to in any one year. In
only one of the four years that Mr. Cavendish was in the district
were there any rains in December and January. He left the
district at the end of 1831, the year of the expiry of the settlement.
He writes that he had intended to make the settlement with
patels, and to give to each tenant a statement showing the
amount for which he should be individually responsible. He
adds that he had never been stationed in a district where the
seasons were so uncertain, the soil so poor, and which was so
highly, nay oppressively, over-assessed.
There was no rain in 1831 till the 7th August, but the rabi
crop was good. Mr. Moore, the Assistant Superintendent, to
whom Mr. Cavendish had made over charge, collected the revenue
on the principle established by Mr. Cavendish. The year 1832 was
marked by destructive flights of locusts in September and October;
and Major Speirs, who succeeded Mr. Cavendish, found himself
obliged to allow the kharlf hsts to lie over till March. Major
Speirs did not attempt a settlement ; he collected all he could,
and the remainder was remitted by Government. In the year
1833-34, however, even the pretence of working on the settlement
was abandoned. The year was one to be marked with a black
cross in the calendar of Ajmer. It commenced with a cattle
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epidemic in April, which carried off one-half or two-thirds of the
cattle* There were only two hours* good rain from June to Sep-
teiuher; there was no forage and no kharlf, for the locusts in
September devoured nearly every green thing. Major Speirs col-
lected the kharif instalments by an equal division of the scanty
produce, and proposed to give the rabi revenue to the people to
enable them somewhat to recoup their losses. In December 1833,
Major Speirs was promoted to the post of Officiating Commis-
sioner, and made over charge to Mr. Edmonstone, who collected
the rabi instalments by " taking, from such of the village commu-
nities as would consent on any reasonable terms, engagements
to pay revenue for their villages according to a fair and just
estimate of their resources calculated with reference to the deterio-
rated state of the country from the drought." In the following
year he made a summary settlement on the same principle,
the demand of which was Rs. 1,19,302. If the villagers did not
consent to his terms,, the revenue was collected khdm at half
produce.
In the cold weather of 1835-36, Mr. Edmonstone proceeded to
make a regular settlement, which, as it Was subsequently sanc-
tioned for ten years, is generally known by the name of the decen-
nial settlement. His settlement report is dated the 26th May 1836.
Mr. Edmonstone gives a rapid sketch of the previous administra-
tion of the land, in order to prove that " the district, instead of
advancing, had receded, and that, independently of drought and
failure of seasons, in no one year had a fair assessment been fixed
on the land." His endeavour had been to avoid the custom which
had hitherto prevailed, of fixing the jama at the highest amount
which could be collected in any year, and then each year remit-
ting, generally indiscriminately, all sums about which there was
a difficulty. Mr. Edmonstone did not assume rates as Mr. Caven-
dish had proposed to do, but adopted a method of his own for
assessment. The villages were measured, and the cultivated area,
amounting in all to 36,257 acres, classed into chdhi (8,989 acres),
taldbi (2,180 acres), and barAni (25,088 acres) . He then assessed the
cash-paying produce (Indian-corn and cotton) or the do-fasli area
at the current money rates during khdm tahsil; and estimated the
average produce per blgha of other crops. The Government
share, one-half, except in the case of patels and mahajans, he con-
verted into money by the average price current of the previous
five years. He thus obtained a rough jamabandi amounting to
Bs. 1,57,151, and then visited each village, and fixed his demand
with reference to the past fiscal history, present circumstances,
and future capabilities of each estate. No villages were given in
farm. Two small ones were held khdm, as they could not be
N
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l)rotighl up to his standard; the rest accepted his terinS. (Ths
Amount finally assessed was Rs. 1>27,&25, or, including the khdm
Villages, Rs. 1,29,872. .
Mr. Edmonstone describes thfe people as reckless, improvident,
poverty-stricken, and mUch in debt. The Bohras wete maste:i^
in the villages ; they weighed the grain, helped themselves, and
allotted the remainder ; they advanced the Government revenue,
and gave advances of «eed-grain and for the purchase of battle ;
they regulated the expenditure of the (Community, even to the
sums employed on marriages and othel* festivals. Their right was
hereditary ; they furnished no accounts, and thfe debt to them ran
on from generation to generation. Mr. Edmdnstone settled with
the headmen of each village, who, he believed, acted generally in
accordance with the wishes of the village community. The inci-
dence of his assessment amounted to Es. 3-9 an acre, while the
tinirrigated area was nearly 69 per cent, of the cultivated. Ther
settlement returns show 5,621 cultivatoa^, 2,676 non-cultivatorg,
3,185 ploughs, and 1,575 wells.
The decennial settlement was th^ first whic^h Was based On the
cultivated area and p^sonal inquiry, and the assessment of indi-
vidual villSbges seems to have been very fairly and judiciously
carried out. The great defect of the settlement was the very
imperfect and inequitable manner in Which the village assessment
was distributed over the holdings. Hitherto the people had paid
one-half of the estimated produce to the patels, and the deficien-
cies were levied from the non-agricultural residents. Mr. Caven-
dish had partially introduced a khewdt ; but the principle of the
joint responsibility of all khewAtddrs was practically unknown in
the district, and was introduced for the first time by Mr^ Edmon-
stone. It is evident that a cultivator assessed at one-half the
produce of his fields, and obliged to pay in good and bad years,
cannot pay for other cultivators who migrate in years of difficulty,
or who, being left without resources, turn for a livelihood to
manual labour. These two classes are still well known in the
district as the Jirar and nadar asami. In the first year of the
settlement the distribution over the holdings was proved to
be quite inequitable, and the people began to clamour for a return
to the practice of collections from the afctual produce. Mr.
Edmonstone had left Ajmer in the end of 1836, and lieutenant
Macnaghten, his successor, proposed to make a fresh distribution
of the revenue, and "to give to each cultivator a separate lease,
specifying the quality and quantity of land in his possession,
and the rent which Government will expect to receive from him.'*
In sending up this proposal. Colonel Alves, the Commissioner,
remarked that it wa^ tantamount to a proposal to change the
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settlement from monzdwdr into ryotwdr ; and Government, adopts
ing this view, decided that the change was undesirable, and
disallowed the proposed measure. Though, however, a re-distri-
bution of the revenue was refused, yet the villages were offered the
option of returning to direct management, or of retaining their
leases; and 41 out of 81 villages preferred the iwrnev alter-
native-
During this <5orrespondence> Colonel Sutherland succeeded
Colonel Alves as Commissioner. He took very great pains ta
make himself thoroughly acquainted with everything conceming^
Ajmer, and his reports on the khdlsa administration and on the
istimrdrd^s are standard papers of reference. Aft^ Skn exhaujstive
retrospect of the previous administration, from which a good deal
of the preceding sketch has been taken, he ijame to the conclusion
that "the system of village assessments is quite inapplicable
to Ajmer; that they have produced extensive injury to the
Government revenue and to the condition of the people^ and in a
few more years they will leave us hardly any revenue^ and reduce
them to utter poverty.'* He looked for a remedy to the repair-
and construction of tanks^ which render the country almost proof
against famine, and advocates the mode of assessment which had
been carried out by Captain Dixon in Merwara as that suited ta
the country and consonant with the wishes of the people**
The four years from 1837-38 ta 1840-41 were years of severe
distress, and at the time of Colonel Sutherland's report, which ia
dated 26th January 1841, the khdlsa villages had reached the
lowest depths of poverty. The Superintendent reported that five
hundred families had left the district owing to the pressure of the
revenue which they were unable to pay. Half the tanks, had been
broken for years, and many of the wells were out of repair* The
people were too demoralized to permit of grants of advances for
a/griculturalimprovements. They preferred paying half the produce
to accepting the reduced assessment of Mr. Edmonstone. The
houses were generally dilapidated, and the whole khdlsa in the
eyes of the Commissioner bore a poverty-stricken look which was
a painful contrast to the condition of the talukdars' estates.
Here, then, we may pause — ^f or a new era openjs for the district
* Colonel nixon'3 mode of a&sessmeiit was as follovs : —
1st. — Lands under cotton, maize, sugar, and opium to be charged with a money-rate.
2nd.-rOther rabi and kharif crops to be estimated or measured, and one-third of the produce
to be taken as the Government share by a money^asessmei^t fix^ According to the average yearly
value of produce in the principal neighbouring markets.
3rd.^ — Land newly broken up to pay one-sixth the produce for the first year, one-fifth for th©
second, and one-fourth for the third and fourth years. In the fifth year, and thereafter, the f uU
rate of one-third to be charged.
4th, — A remission in the amount of share to be given to those who construct embaDfkments or
dig new wells. .
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with the hegmning of the year 184il — ^and briefly gather the lessons
to be derived from the foregoing acconnt. The collections had
dwindled down to less than they were in the time of the Marathas.
The initial over-estimate by Mr. Wilder of the resources of
the district had extended its baneful effects over the whole period.
The settlements of Mr. Wilder and Mr. Middleton exceeded the
collections of the good years on which they were founded, and
were far too oppressive to be paid. Mr. Edmonstone^s settlement,
the lowest of the three, was founded on an estimate of half the
actual produce ; and, as an equal average assessment to include
good and bad seasons, was a complete failure. Its incidence was
Bs. 3-9 an acre on 31 per cent, of irrigation, or about twice as heavy
as the settlements made in the North-Westem Provinces under
Regulation IX of 1833. With the experience gained in these
settlements the Government of the North- West might have con-
cluded that its ** trust that the settlement would prove moderate,
and be realized without distress to the people,'* was fallacious. The
decennial settlement, however, broke down, chiefly because no
proper arrangements were made for the collection of the individual
quotas. The old order under which the headmen and patw^is
had collected one-half the produce from each cultivator, had given
way to the principle of joint responsibility ; but this latter was an
impossible system where each cultivator held a defined amount
of land and was assessed for it at a sum which left him merely the
means of subsistence.
The success of Major Dixon's administration of Merwara had
for some time attracted the attention of Government and the
Commissioner, and, at the end of 1840, the Superintendent of
Merwara was instructed to proceed into the Ajmer district and
report on the local facilities for the construction of tank-embank-
ments in the khdlsa villages. In February 1842, on the depar-
ture, on furlough, of Lieutenant Macnaghten, Major Dixon was
appointed Superintendent of Ajmer in addition to his other duties
as Superintendent of Merwara and Commandant of the Merwara
Battalion. From the date of his assuming charge a new era
commences in the history of the administration of the country.
Within the next six years, Rs. 4,52,707 were expended on the
construction and repair of embankments; advances were made for
agricultural improvements, and the Superintendent succeeded
in infusing a good deal of his personal energy into the people. To
enable Government to reap a benefit from the new works, sanction
was procured to allow such villages as desired it to abandon their
engagements. All were invited to return to khdm management,
and when a tank was made or repaired in one of the few villages
which insisted on retaining their leases, a percentage of the cost was
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levied in addition to the assessment. The rate of collection at the
same time was reduced from one-half to two-fifths ; and the zahti^
or cash rates, also lowered. Colonel Sutherland and Major Dixon
were both anxious that the rate of collection should be reduced
to one-third; but this was not sanctioned by Govemment. On the
expiry of the ten years* settlement, the whole district was held khdm
and managed as Major Dixon had managed Merwara.
In 1846, Mr. Thomason, the Lieutenant-Governor of the
North- Western Provinces, visited this outlying portion of the
territory under his charge. His visit to the district confirmed the
opinion which he had previously formed of the expediency of
returning as soon as possible to the system of village settlements.
He remarks that a mode of administration which depends upon the
experience and energy of one man is not fitted for general adoption.
The people had learned fully to recognize the principle of
joint responsibility, and their land, from the means of irrigation
with wMch it had been provided, possessed a higher and more
uniform value than was formerly the case. Arrangements were
therefore made for a revenue survey, and instructions were
issued to TMajor Dixon for the formation of a village settlement.
Moderation was inculcated, and the standard to be aimed at was
the punctual realization of ^ jama equal to Mr. Edmonstone's
assessment, and yielding, over and above that amount, a moderate
profit on the money invested in tanks and reservoirs. This
moderate profit was afterwards put at 5 or 6 per cent.
The season of 1848-49 was a year of very severe drought, which
wholly eclipsed in severity the calamitous season of 1833-34. Of
the many taldos in Ajmer and Merwara, only one had the benefit
of a good shower. The drought was equally severe in the whole
country from Marwar to Biindi. No crops were produced except
in well-land and in the beds of tanks. There was an utter
failure of forage ; and one-third of the cattle, by Colonel Dixon^s
estimate, died. At one time it was doubtful whether engage-
ments for a fixed assessment could be entered into. The succeed-
ing year, however, was favorable, and the settlement commenced
from the kharif harvest of 1849.
In making his assessment. Colonel Dixon was guided chiefly by
the experience he had gained of the capabilities of each village while
it was held under direct management. His method of assessment
was as follows : He took Mr. Edmonstone's assessment and added
to it 8 per cent, of the sum expended on tanks in that village.
This was the standard. If the past history of the village or its
" latent capabilities " warranted Colonel Dixon in believing that
this amount could be paid, he assessed the village at this amount.
If he thought it^could pay more, he assessed it at more. If ho
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thought it could by no possibility pay this amount, he reduced the
standard. No rates were worked out until after the assessment,
nor was any attempt made to compare the incidence of the
revenue in different villages, or to explain its variations. The
inequality of the assessment was, no doubt, tempered by Colonel
Dixon's intimate knowledge of the district, but the system neces-
sarily produced inequality. For all practical purposes of assess-
ment the measurement of the villages in Colonel Dixon's time
was superfluous. If 6 per cent, of the outlay on the tanks be
added to the assessment of Mr. Edmonstone, the amount will be
Rs. 1,58,273, and this was the sum proposed by the lieutenant*
Governor as a fair amoimt to distribute. The highest amoimt
which had ever been collected was in 1847-48, when, at two-thirds
the produce, the revenue stood at Rs. 1,67,237, and this included all
cesses. Colonel Dixon's actual assessment, excluding the 1 per
cent, road cess, but inclusive of the tank cess of 1 per cent, on the
outlay, which was merely a deduction from theGbvemment revenue
set apart for a particular purpose, was Rs. 1,75,756, or, adding the
assessment which was subsequently made on Nearan and Kerani-
pura, Rs. 1,85,161. The assessment was lighter than Mr. Edmon-
stone's, but the unirrigated area had increased in greater propor-
tion than the irrigated, and the rate of assessment was Rs. 2-0-3
on 28 per cent, of irrigation. The best description of the settle-
ment is that given by Colonel Dixon himself in a demi-official letter
to Sir Henry Lawrence, dated 25th January 1856 : " If the season
be moderately favorable, and the taldos be replenished, the rents
will be paid with ease and cheerfulness by the people. If drought
ensues, we have been prepared to make such a remission that dis-
tress in paying the revenue shall not reach the people. It is neces-
sary to bear in mind that we have given the profits to the people,
ourselves bearing the onus of loss. In a country like Ajmer-
Merwara, where the seasons are so extremely irregular, to burden
the zamindars with arrears of rent on account of what was not
produced, would check the energies of the people and render them
less industrious than they now are, when they know we shaU only
claim the rent, or a portion of it, when it has been assured to
them by Providence. To have made the jama less, would have
been to have left the zamindars only partially employed, while in
a season of scarcity we must still have relaxed the demand.*' This
extract clearly sets forth the nature of the settlement. It was
not intended to be an equal annual jama to be collected in all
years except what in other parts of India would be called famine
years ; but the assessment was pitched at the highest amount that
Colonel Dixon believed should be collected in good years, and he
was prepared to apply for remissions whenever they were required.
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The people accepted the settlement with reluctance. Colonel
t)ixon (paragraph 14 o£his report), in speaking of Ajmer parganjt.
Bays : " Our labors to convince the people that their weKare and
benefit had been mainly studied in the proposed arrangements,
were unheeded. As all the patels and headmen were of one
mind, it was evident they had been instructed by some evil-dis-
posed people who loiter in the vicinity of the courts to reject our
offers." Rajgarh pal'gana assented more readily; Edmsar, the
most heavily assessed) was reluctant ; but the persuasions and
influence of Colonel Dixon eventually induced all to accept the
terms. In sanctioning the settlement, the Lieutenant-Governor
expressed a fear that the assessment would be found in some degree
higher than the country could easily pay, but trusted to Colonel
Dixon's local experience and intimate knowledge of the country,
tind was ready to beheve that the assessment has been so fixed as
to draw forth rather than discourage the exertions of the people.
The Court of Directors shared the apprehensions of the Lieute-
nant-Governor, but the settlement as proposed was sanctioned
for twenty-one years. The Lieutenant-Governor, however, desired
it to be understood " that, except after report to Government and
special sanction, no other penalty was to be attached to the
non-fulfilment of the settlement contract than annulment of the
lease and return to khdm management."
The settlement thus sanctioned was a mouzdwdr settlement only
"in name, and the system of collection adopted by Colonel Dixon
rendered it practically a ryotwari one. Before the instalments
were due, the villages were divided into circles, and a chaprdsi
was appointed for each circle. It was the duty of this official, in
•company with the patel and patwS,ri, to collect from each individual
tenant the sum recorded against his name in the patwdri's
register. If the cultivator himself could not pay, the bianya with
whom he kept his accounts was called up, and the money generally
produced. When the revenue could not be collected, ColonelDixon
made up his mind as to how much should be remitted about the
month of May, and applied for sanction for the remission of the
amount proposed. Thus, in May 1854 he applied for leave to remit
Rs. 16,825, and his request was at once granted. It is a matter
of common tradition in the district that, when the revenue of any
village was found to come in with difficulty, the deputy collector
was sent out and arranged for a fresh re-distribution of the
assessment. Such a mode of administration, though the best
suited to the district and perfectly consonant with the wishes of
the people, differs very considerably from the mouzdwdr system,
and could only succeed where the collector was intimately
acquamted with the resources of each village.
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Having completed the settlement of Ajmer, Colonel Dixon
took the assessment of Merwara in hand. As regards Merwara,
thq Lieutenant-Governor had no desire to embarrass him with any
instructions. He remarks that the district had been raised to
its present state so entirely by Colonel Dixon's exertions and
arrangements, that he alone was the best judge of what should
be done. Colonel Dixon, therefore, marched into Merwara in the
cold weather of 1849-50, and reported his settlement of the district
on the 27th September 1850. It was sanctioned for twenty years
at a net demand of Rs. 1,81,751 and a gross demand of Rs. 1,88,742.
The incidence of the assessment was B/S. 2-11-2 on 38 per cent,
of irrigation.
For several years after the settlement, there was a succession
of favorable seasons, and the remissions for which Colonel Dixon
found it necessary to apply were but small in amount. He
continued to impress upon the people the advantages of wells and
tanks; many were made by the people themselves, and the
country was prosperous and contented. Colonel Dixon adminis-
tered the districts of Ajmer and Merwara, to which duties was
added the command of the Merwara Battalion, till June 1857.
He was at Bedwar, where he generally lived during the hot weather
and rains, when he heard the first news of the mutinies ; and when
the news of the mutiny of the troops at Nasirabdd arrived, he laid
himself down and died. His tomb is in the Bedwar churchyard,
and is still an object of veneijttion to the Mers, who kept a lamp
burning at the tomb, and made vqws there, until the lamp-
burning was a few years ago forbidden by a Deputy Commissioner
at the suggestion of orthodox Englishmen ; but his memory will
take long to extinguish. The walled town of Bedwar is wholly
his work, and he is probably the latest Englishman who has
built a ^ fenced city.' Colonel Dixon had lived in the district
for thirty-seven years, originally belonging to the cantonment
of Nasirabdd. He, as an officer of the Bengal artillery, had
taken part in the subjugation of Merwara in 1821. In 1836 he
became Superintendent of Merwara, and in 1842 he became Super-
intendent of both districts.
With the death of Colonel Dixon closes what may be called
the second period of the history, the era of material improvement ;
and the era of inflexible realization of the revenue commenced.
The principle of Colonel Dixon's settlement was forgotten, and
the idea gradually gained ground that the assessment was an
equal annual demand to be collected in full each year. In the
year 1853 Colonel Dixon had been appointed a Commissioner, and
corresponded direct with the Government of the North- Western
Provinces, in whose administration Ajmer had been placed in
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1832, and Merwam in 1846. Before 1853 the oflSce^s in charge
of Ajmer and Merwara had been styled Superintendents, and
corresponded, first with the Resident at Delhi, subsequently with
the Resident in Malwa and R^piitana, and after 1832 with the
Commissioner^ Prom 1858 the united districts remained a Deputy
Commissionership under the Agent to the Governor-General and
Conmiissioner> who, in his latter Capacity, was subordinate to the
Government of the North>- Western Provinces^ till 187l> when the
province was formed into a Chief Commissionership under the
Foreign Department of the Government of India^ and was given a
Commissioner of its own, the Chief Commissioner being the Agent
to the Governor-General for Rdjpiitdna*
Captain J. C. Brooke^ the first Deputy Commissioner, submitted,
On the 24ith July 1858, a long and interesting report on the
condition of the country^ which has been printed in volume III
(new series) of Selections from the Records of Government, l^orth-
Westem ProviQces. He found the cultivators in the Ajmer and
Bajgarh parganas better off than those in Rdmsar, who were
generally very poor. He remarks on the great want of cattle*
The country had suffered very severely from the famine of 1848 ;
the cattle had died in thousandi^, both in the district and in the
countries where they had been taken to graze, and the country had
not recoveredw Almost the only manure available consisted of
the deposit in the beds of tanks* Merwara was better off in this
respect ; and the cultivation of poppy had advanced with rapid
strides in the pargana of Todgarh since the settlement* The cul-
tivators about th^ town of Nayanagar were poorer. The patwdris'
papers he found were merely transcripts of the settlement record.
Each cultivator had been led to consider his revenue as a fixed
sum, and that it was a great injustice to demand more from him
to make up the deficiencies of defaulters. In Merwara, the
sepoys of the Battalion were regularly defaulters, and, where the
settlement was not light, took no trouble to make any arrangements
for the cultivation of their fields. Colonel Dixon, who was both
Commandant of the force and Superintendent of the district, had
been in the habit of deducting the amount of land-revenue due
from the men's pay ; but this anomalous procedure was impossible
when the offices of Superintendent and Con^andant had been
separated. Each cultivator whose crop had failed was obliged to
pay his own quota by borrowing. There had been no bdch^ or
distribution of the deficiencies caused by defaulters over the
village community since the settlement. No account had been
kept of the profits of common land, and any remissions received
from the State were appropriated by the whole village, giving^ a
very small modicum of relief to those really requiring it. The
o
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patwdris were miserably paid, and generally acted as money-lenders
to the people. Captain Brooke revised the patwdris' establishment,
and doubled up the smaller villages, so as to enable him to give a
more fitting remuneration to those who undertook the duties.
He called attention to the manner in which land submerged in
the bed of tanks had been assessed at high rates, and proposed to
strike out of the settlement all lands liable to constant submersion,
and to take revenue from them only when they should be
cultivated. He was of opinion that the settlement had pressed
heavily, and showed that the prices of wheat and barley had fallen
50 per cent, below what they were for the three years preceding
the settlement. He discussed the question of tanks at some length,
and, to remedy the silting-up of weirs and tanks, proposed to
construct sluices one-third the ordinary width of the river-bed
and level with the floor of the bed. Many of Captain Brooke's
suggestions were valuable, but the principle of laissez /aire was
now in the ascendant, and nothing was done.
In 1868 the whole of the annual rainfall took place between
the 16th July and 1st August. The rain fell in a deluge in Ajmer
and Bedwar. All the tanks were filled suddenly, and many burst.
The streams flowed with such violence, that acres of land in many
places were washed away. The Rdmsar lake, which had never
been known to have filled before, overflow^; the Andsdgar
lake rose 5 feet in as many hours, and the water flowed over the
embankment, which was considerably injured : the houses on the
ba^ were all under water. The kharif crop rotted in the ground,
and when, after the waters had subsided, a re-sowing took place,
the seed, for want of further rain, failed to germinate. Though
the rain was so heavy in Ajmer and Bedwar, the parganas of
Todgarh and Saroth were parched with drought. As usual in
Ajmer in years when the kharif crop is drowned, the rabi crop
was very good, and the revenue of the year hardly suffered.
In May 1860, after a lengthened tour through the district. Major
Lloyd, Deputy Commissioner, submitted a long and interesting
report on its general condition and the measures he had adopted for
its improvement. In comparing his recollection of the district from
1849 to 1853, with its state in 1860, Major Lloyd was struck with
the signs of increai^g prosperity which were discernible. Lands
which he remembered covered with scrub and low jungle, presented
sheets of luxuriant cultivation ; new houses were springing up,
and the carefulness of the^^^i^^ culture in Upper Merwara excited
his admiration. He formed the patwdris into circles — Bi measure
commenced by Captain Brooke ; and arranged for a systematic
revision of the seltlement records, and a fresh distribution of
the revenue. He proposed to remedy the silting-up of the veils
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by two or ttree times ploughing deeply the dry beds of the streams
during the hot winds. Five Tillages had come under khdm manage-
ment in Ajmer and seyen in Bedwar. The history of one of these
khdm villages may be given as a forcible example of the evil effects
which sometimes followed Colonel Dixon^s method of assessment.
The village of Akhri, in the Ajmer pargana, had been assessed
by Mr. Edmonstone at Rs. 608. Colonel Dixon constructed a
tank in the village which cost Rs. 10,813. The tank had been
in full working order for several years before the twenty-one
years' settlement, and the highest collections ever obtained were
Rs. 1,226. Colonel Dixon added 8 per cent, on the outlay of
the tank to Mr. Edmonstone's assessment, which gave a standard
assessment of Rs. 1,515. The -actual assessment was Rs. 1,530.
As long as Colonel Dixon lived, remissions were yearly granted,
amounting in 1854 to Rs. 450, and in 1856 to Rs. 570. In 1857,
the year of Colonel Dixon's death, the village became kham, and
Rs. 889 were collected. Khdm management was continued till
1871, the average collections of the ten years from 1857 to 1866
being Rs. 1,230, at two-thirds of the produce. In 1871 a farm
was given of the village for Rs. 1,530, the old assessment. The
farming lease has utterly ruined the village. The average gross
collections of the farmer for two years were Rs. 1,285, and
this he only obtained by screwing the last anna out of the people.
In the year 1873-74 the people practically refused to cultivate.
The earthworks on the railway had been started, and the villagers
preferred gaining a subsistence on them to working the soil for
the benefit of the farmer. The village has now been assessed
at Rs. 858, including Rs. 150 water-revenue.
The rainy season of 1860 was a bad one ; what rain fell, fell in
showers insufficient to fill the tanks; this supply ceased before
the end of August, and there was no rain in September. The
kharlf failed, and, but for the favorable season in Marwar,
the district would have suffered as much as the greater part
of the North-Westem Provinces. The work of re-distribution of
the revenue was held in abeyance, and never re-commenced.
Major Lloyd made an estimate of the probable outturn in each
estate, and fixed the amount to be collected, the balance to be
suspended, and the simi to be remitted. Subscriptions for the
relief of the distress were collected in Ajmer to the amount
of Rs. 6,000, and charity was distributed through the principal
Seths. The year 1862 was one of extraordinary rain, averaging
4i5 inches ; the rain was spread over a long time, and was not violent
enougjh to damage the tanks. The kharif failed ; but the rabi was
magnificent. The revenue was collected in full, and the scarcity
which prevailed in the adjoining States kept prices very high.
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The rainy seasons of 1864, 1865, and 1866 were remarkable
illustrations of the great value of the tanks, for, -without the
tanks, each of these years would have been one of considerable
distress. In 1864 there was an average fall, but all the rain fell
before the second week of August. In 1866 there was no rain until
the second week in August, and it stopped in the second week of
September ; a few heavy showers, however, generally filled the
tanks. In 1866 the raios began in the second week of August, and
fell continuously and lightly till the end of the month. In some
parts the tanks were not filled, in others there were very heavy falls.
There was a violent hail-storm in March 1867 which destroyed the
crops about Bedwar, and many of the wells dried up owing to the
deficient rain for three years. The revenue, however, was collected
in full.
The season of 1867 was a favorable one : the average fall at
fifteen stations was 21*5 inches. In the previous year the deputy
commissioner had, unnoticed, introduced a most important change
into the system of collecting the revenue. The whole revenue
was ordered to be collected foom the headmen alone. Hitherto
the revenue had been collected from each individual tenant,
through the lambarddr indeed, but by means of a tahsil chapr^i,
who assisted the lambarddr in summarily collecting the sums
due. The system was a rough-and-ready one, but was suited
to the tenure, and had worked well.
Famine.
Famine 0^1868-69. — The following year will long be memorable
in Bdjpiitdna as the commencement of the most disastrous famine
which, within the memory of the existing generation, had visited
the country. Scarcity is seldom absent from some part of lldj-
putdna, and is chronic in the western part of Marwar and in
Bikanir. In ordinary years of scarcity the people in the afflicted
tracts, taught patience by constant adversity, emigrate with their
families and cattle to more favored regions, and return to their
homes in time for the sowings of the succeeding year. It is only
when both the south-west and north-east monsoons fail that a
general and disastrous famine is experienced. Then, Rdjpiitdna
has hitherto been destined to the miseries of a terrible famine
of the three great necessaries of life — grain, grass, and water-
called in the country a tirkdl^ or treble famine. The first famine in
Bdjputdna, an account of which has been handed down in writing,
occurred in the year 1661 A.D. The memorial of it is preserved
in the beautiful marble bund erected at Kankratili in Mewar at
the expense of a million sterling by MaharanaB^aj Singh of Udai-
pur to save his people during the dire calamity^ . Other faminea^
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occurred in 1746 and in 1789, the latter of which is supposed tS
hare exceeded in intensity even the terrible one of 1812, which ia
said to have lasted five years, and has gained the name of panch*
Ml. Three-fourths of the cattle died, and, as stated in the record
of the famine of 1661, man ate man. Large tracts of country
were depopulated by this famine, and traces of the devastation
caused by it were visible in Ajmer at the beginning of British rule*
Since the famine of 1812, no general famine had occurred in
B/djpiitdna. There had been a continuance of local scarcity, and,
as has been already related, there was severe scarcity in Ajmer in
1819, 1824, 1833, and 1848. The famine of 1861 which was
60 severe over the North- Western Provinces, only affected the
eastern portions of Edjpiit^a, including Jaipur and Alwar; and
the countries dependent on the south-west monsoon, including
Marwar, were blessed with a plentiful harvest.
Por some years previous to 1868 the seasons had been irregular,
and, as we have seen, the rainfall of 1864, 1865, and 1866 was
very deficient in Ajmer. ^ In 1864 the rains broke up very early,
and the kharif was only half an average crop ; in 1865 the rains
commenced very late, so that all the early crops were lost, and
only half the later crops were saved ; in 1866, the rains were late
and light ; 1867 had been better than its predecessors, but the
country entered on the famine with its stocks of grain exhausted.
The rainfall of 1868 was unfavorable from the commence-
ment. The early rains of June were not sufficiently heavy to
allow the cultivators to plough the land and put in the seed.
From the Ist June 1868 to 1st June 1869 the average fall for all
the stations of Ajmer-Merwara was only 7*4 inches, or about one-
third of an average fall. The State of Jaipur was as bad ; and, at
Jodhpur, no rain whatever fell during the rainy season, or at
least not enough to be measured by a rain-gauge. West of the
Arvali the south-west monsoon failed entirely. East of the Arvali
the rains fell only over the Indore districts, but did not extend over
Central India and Bundelkhund, the starving population of which
provinces flecked into Malwa. In Guzerdt a terrible flood in the
early part of August swept all before it. The people saved them-
selves by getting on eminences and climbing trees, and the country-
was under water for days. Cattle and stocks of grain and fodder
were swept away, and the element searched out and destroyed the
stores of grain below ground. ' No rain fell subsequently, and
Guzerdt itself had to undergo the hardships of scarcity. The
north-east monsoon had equally failed, and great scarcity over-
shadowed the North- Western Provinces. Ajmer was thus isolated
in the midst of afamine tract; it had no supplies of its own,
and, owing to the utter failure of forage, the price of which. was
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in many places actually dearer than grain, no carts could travel^
nor could the pack-bullock of the banjdr^, of which there are
hundreds of thousands in Rdjpiitdna and Central India, traverse
the country. The only means of transport which were ayailahle
consisted of camels ; all the kdfilas employed by traders, however,
cease travelling in the rains, partly because no return-loads of salt
can be carried during that season, and partly because, agreeably to
the time-honored custom of the country, camels are then turned
out to graze. No regular organization for the supply of grain by
camels was attempted by the local administration.
Towards the end of August 1868, emigration commenced from
Ajmer-Merwara. Wheat at this time was selling inAjmer at ten
seers ; barley, jowdr, and grass were twelve seers per rupee. Such
was the scarcity of fodder that cows were offered for sale at Re. 1
each, and good plough-cattle at Rs. 10 a pair. No grass could be
procured by the cantonment of Nasirabdd. The horses of the
artillery battery were sent away altogether, and the BmsJl cavalry
detachment which remained had to fetch forage from Nimach,
a distance of 150 miles. Relief-works were commenced ; and in
November 1868, the deputy commissioner, who had, either per-
sonally or through his subordinates, visited every portion of the
district, reported on the coiidition of the country. Half the
cattle had been driven to Malwa owing to absence of fodder.
The kharif had practically been a total failure. The water in the
wells was scanty, and had become so brackish that it was imfit for
purposes of irrigation. In some places where the crops had
sprouted, no grain, owing to lack of moisture, had been formed,
and the stalks had been cut to feed the cattle. The people were
apathetic, and entirely in the hands of the money-lenders, who
would make no advances. In January, February, and March
1869, 1*2 inch of rain fell, but there was no cultivation on
imirrigated land, and the area under crop in the rabi was confined
to those localities where well-irrigation was procurable, for none
of the tanks had any water. Mildew and hail-storms attacked the
scanty crop, and there was to all intents a total loss of both crops.
The distress was intensified by the crowds of emigrants from Mar-
war who, coming with their herds in search of food and pasture,
trenched considerably on the scanty supplies of food remaining,
and consumed the little grass in the district. Emigration from
Ajmer-Merwara now went on with.redoubled speed, and the people
were reduced to the necessity of supporting themselves on the bark
of the khejra tree and roots which they mixed with grain and
ground up* to make bread. Poor-houses were now established, and
the country waited in eager expectation for the rains of 1869.
The hot B<)ason of 1869 was unusually protracted, and it waa
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not till the middle of July that the long-looked-f or rains set in
and the people were enabled to plough their fields. In many
places, when there were no cattle, the men, making small plougli^
for the purpose, yoked themselves in place of their oxen and
laboriously turned up a furrow, while the women dropped in the
grain. There was hardly any rain, however, in August (only
14 inch was measured in Ajmer), and the distress now began
to reach its culminating point as the prospects of a kharff harvest
gradually disappeared. Barks and roots even were scarce, and
the mortality was frightful. A copious rainfall in September to
some extent revived the hopes of the people, but these were soon
destined to be dashed. Swarms of locusts, hatched in Jesalmer
and Bikanir, invaded Marwar, Ajmer, Tonk, and the northern
parts of Mewar, and devoured every green thing. The estimated
loss was, of maize 46 per cent., of jowdr 56, of bajrd 67, of cotton
68, of til 73, of pulses 82 per cent. Grain was literally not now
procurable, — ^barley was selling during the month of September^
according to the price-lists of Ajmer, at 6^ seers ; the highest
price it reached was 3 seers, but men with money in their hands
could not get food in the city of Ajmer. Importation fron^i
Bhawdni and Rewdri now commenced, and convoys of camels^
coming for the Sambhar salt daily, brought large supplies. In
August 1869 an application was made to the Government of the
North- Western Provinces to despatch grain from Agra, but the
consignment arrived after grain had become cheap. At the close
of the famine, the deputy conmiissioner estimated the losses at
25 per cent, of the population of 426,000, at 33 per cent, of the
cattle, and 50 per cent, of ploughs. Government had spent
altogether B/S. 15,20,074, of which amount it is calculated that
B/S. 2,30,000 were given in gratuitous relief.
Into the vexed question of the adequacy of the relief
administration it is no part of a Gazetteer to enter. A full
account of what was done will be found in Colonel Brooke's
account of the " Famine in Rajptitdna," which was published in
the Gazette of India of the 26th Eebruary 1871. The district
officers did all that men could do ; but no addition whatever was
ma/de to the ordinary district staff, and in August 1869 there was
no grain in the country wherewith to feed the people, who neces-
sarily died. The rains of 1870 were rather below the average.
Ajmer got 21 inches, Bedwar 10*7, Todgarh 10* 8 ; but no rain fell
after August. The deputy commissioner reported that the state
of apathy and demoralization of the people, owing to the misery
of the last two years, was such that nothing availed for the collec-
tion of the revenue save active coercive measures ; and these, except
in two instances^ had been effectual* In Bedwar in 187^^ s^^-
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trheat Vrks selling at 5 to 6 seers per rupefe, barley at 7 Se^rSi
gram at 4 seers ; and was generally repayable with 100 per cent*
interest. In Todgarh, seed*whe2tt was selling at 2^ to 3 seersj
barley at 3^ to 6 seers ; repayable at 12 seers, and 18 seers^
respectively.
In Merwara it was found utterly impossible to collect the
revenue during the famine years, and eventually the Arrears were
remitted^ A summary settlement was made for Merwara from
the year 1872-73, which was at a reduction Of 32 pef Cent, on the
settlement demand. The collections from Merwara during the
period of settlement are shown in the following table for periods
of five years : —
TfthfU.
CiroU.
III
IS
1
III
11
3©&war ... 1
Beawar
Chnng
Sbamgarli
Total ...
Bbaelan
Dewair
Todgarh
Total ...
Es.
65,679
10,164
25,279
61,686
10,241
24,489
66,387
10,689
26,132
Rs.
34,935
6,256
15,871
^^
91,022
86,416
S2,208
57,062
'Todgarh ... |
12,816
28,9^6
35,270
12,816
28,697
35,112
12,817
28,816
35,108
8,457
21,083
22,498
77,022
76,625
76,741
52,038
Grand Total,
Merwara ...
1,68,044
1,63,041
1,68,949
1,09,100
This table is instructive. The first period shows the favorable
years after the settlement ; during the second, remissions were
allowed ; the revenue during the third period was rigorously
collected; and the fourth period, which includes one year of
the summary . settlement, shows the average paid by Merwara
during the famine and subsequent years.
The foregoing retrospect has suflB.ciently demonstrated, what
was already abundatntly clear from a
Kemarkg on tb<j village sys- . consideration of the tenure, that.the village
tern as applicable to Aimer- . i» xi. twt __j.i ttt ± t» • ■
Merwara. systcm of the North- Westem Provmces
is not self-acting beyond a certain point,
and that a mouzdwdr settlement cannot succeed in Ajmer-
Merwara. By the term **mouzdwdr'* is meant a settlement
where the assessment is based on the average of good and bad
seasons, and where the priaciple of joint responsibility is enforced
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in the collection of the revenue. The seasons present too great
vicissitudes to allow of an equal annual demand being assessed,
but this difficulty has been partially surmounted in the recent
revision by the assessment of water-revenue, amounting in
Ajmer-Merwara to Rs. 55,432 out of Rs. 2,61,557, separately
from the land-revenue on the unirrigated aspect. The assessment
on the dry aspect includes the full assessment of well-land, but,
in each village where the tanks fail to fill, the water-revenue will
be remitted each year. The principle of joint responsibility has
not been formally abolished, for cases may arise (though the
cultivated area cannot be largely increased in any village) in
which it would be just to enforce it. One of the main objects of
the recent settlement, however, has been to reduce its evils to
a minimum. All well-known and recognized divisions of a
village have been allowed to choose a headman, and to each
cultivator has been permitted the option of deciding through
which of the headmen he will pay his revenue. The total amount
payable through each patel has been added up, and a list of each
headman^s constituents given to the headman, and filed with the
settlement record. Thus, in a village paying Rs. 1,000, there
may be five patels, two responsible for Rs. 250 each, one for
Rs. 200, one for Rs. 125, and one for Rs. 75. Under the old
system, the tahsildar demanded the revenue from those among
the headmen whom he considered the most substantial in the
village. Now, he can tell exactly how much he should collect
from each patel ; and if the representative of any thok or pati
cannot be made to pay, very valid reasons indeed should be
adduced before the representative of the other divisions of the.
village are called on to make good the deficiency. Frimd fcwie^
in such a case the simi should be remitted. In short, the old
thok and pati of the mouzdwAr system has been entirely aban-
doned. No real thoha and patis exist in Ajmer-Merwara, and for
a number of more or less arbitrary sub-divisions of the land has
been substituted an agglomeration of holdings, bound together by
the fact that the owners have selected one of the headmen sanc-
tioned for the village as the representative through whom they
will pay their revenue. In this way, the headmen of the villages
have become a strictly representative body, as they ought to be.
JPresent condition of the people. — ^The result of the famine has
Besuit of the f ine ^^^^ ^ throw the district into a state of
e amine. indebtedness from which it is doubtful if
it wiU ever recover. The assessment of the khdlsa has never been
light, and the people have always been a cultivating tenantry
living from hand to mouth, and with no resources beyond those
of the current harvest. One effect which follows on every year
p
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of scarcity was especiaUy observable during the famine, and this
is the opportunity which is given to the grain-dealers to secure
what wotdd otherwise be bad debts. There is always a large
amount of unsecured debt which has descended from father to
son, or consists of extortions of the grain-dealers which they could
not recover in a civil court. A starving man is not over-cautious
regarding the obligations he undertakes, and the grain-dealers found
their opportunity in the necessity of the cultivators, who, if they
required food, were obliged to sign bonds or mortgage their land
for the full amount which the grain-dealers stated was due to
them. This process was very extensively carried out in Merwara,
and especially in the Todgarh tahsil. A new species of debt has
been incurred since the famine, owing to the system introduced
in 1866 of not collecting revenue except from the headmen. The
headmen, or rather the most substantial headman in the village,
when pressed, borrowed money to pay, and wrote bonds for the
amount in their own names, and not as representatives of the
village community. The village commimities have, as a rule,
repudiated their share in these debts, and the courts have given
decrees for large sums against the headman personally, though
the debt was really due from the village.
The amoimt of mortgage debt which has been found existing
at the recent revision of settlement in the
ortgage. khdlsa villages is Rs. 11,55,437. Many
mortgages have, no doubt, escaped record, and many of them are
of old standing and cannot be laid to the account of the famine,
but the indebtedness on mortgage debts alone is suffici^itly appal-
ling. The mortgages of the district are almost all of the usufruc-
tuary kind, but it is only in rare cases that the mortgagee takes
possession of the land. The custom is for the mortgagor, at the
date of writing the mortgage-bond, to write what is called a
Gugri khat stipulating to pay the mortgagee as rent yearly eithw
so many maunds of grain per 100 rupees of the mortgage-debt,
or so much per cent, interest. The rent of the land bears generally
no relation whatever to the value of the produce, but only to the
aniount of the mortgage-debt. In Merwara a kind of metayer
. system has been established between the mortgagor and mortgagee :
the grain-dealer gives half the seed- grain and takes half the pro-
duce, the cultivator having to pay the Government revenue out
of his share.
Owing to the fact that sales of land in execution of decrees
are forbidden, and to the peculiarities of
cJr'"''^*^"'^'''''^"^'^^^^ ^^^ tenures of the district, the money-
lending classes have never become actual
owners of the soil as they have in other p£),rts of the Bengal Presi-
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dency. It is calculated by the settlement officer, however, that
a sum equal to more than the revised Government demand annu-
ally passes into their pockets as interest on mortgages, so that in
reality they draw more than the landlord's share from the produce
of the soil. The policy of our rule has been everywhere favor-
able to the monied class, and this is especially true of Ajmer and
Merwara. Mr. Wilder encouraged by every means in his power
the settling of Seths in Ajmer ; and m chapter X of his " Sketch
of Merwara,^ Colonel Dixon writes : ** After water, the desidera-
tum next in importance to ensure the prosperity of Merwara was
the location of people of the mahajan class. It is an established
fact that agriculture cannot prosper without the intervention of
mahajans.** The presence of a m.onied class has, no doubt, alle*
viated the scarcity of many unpropitious seasons^ but the fatal
facility of borrowing has plunged all classes into debt^ The diffi-
culty of rescuing the people from the load which now weighs them
down is enormous. In the case of the istimrdrddrs, Grovemment
has cut the Gordian knot by itself liquidating the debts and taking,
a moderate interest from the indebted thdkurs ; but this remedy
could not be proposed in the case of the petty owners of the
khdlsa.
Loans to agriculturists are generally transacted by village^
^ ^ . . , ^ shopkeepers, who, in their turn, borrow
Kates of interest. « ^ j i ^ « j i n a • mi. j •
from the Seths of Ajmer. The ordmary
rate of interest on small transactions where an article is given in
pawn as security, is 12 per cent, per annum ; where a mortgage is
given on movable property, but possession is not given of the
property mortgaged, the rate is 24 per cent. In mortgages on
immovable property the rate varies considerably, from 12 per cent,
to what is called sakh siwaya^ or 48 per cent. ;, but the usual
rate is 24 per cent. Where the interest i& paid in grain, from 9 to
12 maunds per hundred rupees is the rate of interest. In petty
agricultural advances on personal security, 24 per cent, is the usual
rate, and where an advance of grain is given, it is repayable with
interest, called bddhi^ at the rate of 5 to 10 seers per maund per
harvest. The rate of Rs. 4-8 to Rs 6 per cent, is considered a fair re-
turn for money invested in buying land. Assuming,. then, a rate of
24 per cent, as the int^est on the mortgage-debt of the khdlsa, the
figures go to prove that an annual sum of E^. 2,77,328, or more
than the net Qt)vemment revenue, passes into the hands of the
money-lenders. Besides the debts secured on land, there are large
sums due on unexecuted decrees by agriculturists in the Ajmer,
Bedwar, and Nasirabdd small cause courts, and an unknown
amount is secured by bonds. The value of the whole produce of
the district, exclusive of istimrdr and jdglr, has been estimated by
the settlement officer at between 15 and 16 lakhs ; and, of tliis.
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amount, 6 lakhs is absorbed by the Grovemment revenue and cesses,
arid interest on debt.
The income of istimrdrddrs of the district has been estimated
«... .1.,^ .^. ^ ^. by recent enquiries in the court of the
Position of the istimrardar. ^ • . i t% k Krw -irwo x j.i_
Commissioner at Rs. 5,59,198. In the
year 1872 a Regulation was passed for the relief of embarrassed
thdkurs and jdglrddrs. Their estimated debts amounted to
seven lakhs, and the Government of India sanctioned a grant
of the sum. Their debts have now been nearly all paid or
compromised, and interest on the advance at 6 "per cent, is paid
from the profits of the estate to Government. The revenue
paid by the istimr^ estates amounts to Rs. 1,14,734-9-11, or
about one-fifth of the assets. The smaller estates are compara-
tively very heavily assessed, some at nearly one-half the rental ;
the larger estates, whose owners were powerful and could resist
oppression, are lightly assessed : the Thdkur of Masuda has an
income of over Rs. 70,000, and pays Rs. 8,565-6 ; the Raja of
Bhinai pays Rs. 7,717-7-11, out of a rental of Rs. 55,000 ; and
the assets of the larger estates are capable of a very considerable
increase with proper management. In a few years it is hoped
that nearly all these estates will be freed from debt, and the chiefs
will be able to hand down an unencumbered estate to their
descendants.
The wages of the labouring classes have risen considerably
since 1850 ; the ordinary wages at present
for cooues are 3 annas per man, 2 annas per
woman, and 1 to 1^ anna for children according to size. The
Department of Public Works pays generally 3^ annas to men.
In 1850 wages were paid in Srishahi coinage, and were equivalent
to 1 anna 9 pie, 1 anna 2 pie, and 9 pie, respectively. Agricultural
labourers in and about Ajmer city, employed in weeding crops and
working wells, receive — men 3 annas a day or Rs. 5 a month, or
Rs. 2 to Rs. 2-8 with food and clothing ; women 2 annas a day, and
they are scarcely ever employed by the month ; children up to 2
annas a day. The old rates did not exceed 2 annas a day or Rs. 4
per month, and women and children were paid proportionately less
when employed in cutting crops. The labourers receive about half
a seer of grain called karpi in addition. A plough with a pair of
bullocks and a driver costs 8 annas a day. In villages, agricul-
tural labourers receive generally 2 seers a day ; when employed by
the year, they generally receive a pair of shoes, a blanket, and a
rupee for tobacco, in addition.
Smiths are paid from 6 to 8 annas a day by the Department
Skilled artizans ^^ Public Works, carpcntcrs from 5 to 7
annas, masons from 5 to 6 annas, or, when
employed by the month, from 10 to 15 rupees. About tl^ year
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1850 the rate of wages for all was about 4 annas Srishahi a day, or
Rs. 7-8 a month. Colonel Dixon built all his tanks at the rate of
E;e. 1 per cubic yard ; at present masonry cannot be built for less
than from Rs. 3-8 to Rs. 4 per cubic yard. Not only has the rate
of wages increased, but the hours of labour haye diminished.
Eight hours are now considered a good day's work, while formerly
all labourers worked about ten hours.
No statistics exist for the comparison of prices of ordi-
^ , . nary articles of consumption, except food-
Present prices. T 'Ji J.1 • • • I" J •
grams, with then* prices in past times.
The following were the prices current in Ajmer city in the year
1873, — sugar, Rs. 11-4 per maund ; gtir, Rs. 5-10-8 per maund ;
ghi, Rs. 26 per maund ; Sambhar salt, Re. 1 per maund ; khari
salt, 1 maund 15 seers per rupee ; tobacco, Rs. 10-4-8 per maund ;
dried fruits, Rs. 18 per maund ; fuel, 2 maunds 30 seers per
rupee ; distilled liquors sell at 4 annas, 8 annas, and Re. 1 per
bottle ; the best rice is 4 seers per rupee ; common rice, 7 seers
12 chittacks ; barley, 19 seers 12 chittacks ; Indian-corn, 14 seers .
8 chittacks ; wheat, 14 seers 14 chittacks ; indigo, Rs. 76 a
maund. The prices of all these articles have, no doubt, risen
considerably since 1850.
- , . , ^ , The gold and silver weight table used
Local weights and measures. • p 11 ^
is as follows : —
4 Mungs = 1 Rati.
8 Batis = 1 Masha.
12 Mashas = 1 Tola or a Rupee.
The weights used in the city of Ajmer are the Government
chittack, seer, and maund of 80 pounds ; in the district the
following table of weights is in use : —
18 Mashas = 1 Pukkapais.
2i Pukkapais = 1 Kacha chittack.
4 Chittacks = 1 Pao.
2 Paos = I Adhsera.
2 Adhseras = 1 Seer.
5 Seers = 1 Pansera or Dhari.
8 Panseris s= 1 Maund (kacha) = 27 seers of
80 tolas.
^Time is measured as follows : —
1 Breath = 4 Seconds.
6 Breaths = 1 Pal = 24 Seconds.
10 Pals = 1 Kshan = 4 Minutes.
6 Kshan = 1 Ghari = 24 Minutes.
7i Gharis =? 1 Pahar = 3 Hour&.
8 Pahars =1 Day and night = 24 Hours.
Cloth measure: —
Diameter of a Pukkapaia = 1 Ungli.
28 Unglis = 1 Hath,
li Hatfi = 1 Giij = i yard of 36
inches.
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(118 )
Measure of distance :—
28 Unglis = 1 Hatb.
84 Haths = 1 Jarib of 20 Ghatas.
50 Jaribs = 1 Kos = 2^450 yards.
The Ajmer bfgha is a square of 44 yards, and 2^ bfghas are
exactly equal to an acre : —
1 Square Ghata 6 feet 7 inches = 1 Biswaiisi»
20 Biswansis = 1 Biswa.
20 Biswas = 1 B%ha = 1,936 square
yards^
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< 119 )
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( 120 )
APPENDIX B.
Statement showing the Prices of Produce in Ajmer during the Famine of 1868-69.
Ye«r.
1868
1860
1870
Month.
June
July
AugOBt
September
October
November
December
Jamisry
Febroary
March
April
May
Jane
July
August
September
October
November
December
Janutfy
February
March
April
May
June
Wheat.
Barley.
Srs. Ch.
16 11
16 4
16 6
10
7 Iff
7 4
7
7
7 12
7
6 14
6 12
6 7
6 8
(> 12
4 9
6 12
6
6 9
6 14
7 12
7 4
9
9 14
9
Srs. Ch.
23 1
21 8
22 6
12 6
9 1
8 6
8 7
8 9
8 13
8 16
8 16
8 4
8 8
9
Srs. Ch.
Maize.
Srs. Ch.
6
6
6 6
6 12
4 12
6 6
9 4
10 11
llr— 6
13
13 11
16 12
16 8
13 8
Mot.
6 11
6 8
6 4
4 14
4 12
6 7
4 14
6
8 6
10 8
11 8
14
12 4
10 8
B^r£.
Srs. Ch.
20 10
19 8
16 14
10 9
7 13
7 14
7 2
7 4
7 4
7 1
7
6 12
6 12
6 2
4 4
7 4
9 8
10 2
11 13
12 12
13 10
16 11
14 6
13 4
Jowlb*.
Srs. Ch,
20 6
20
17 8
10
8 7
8
7 8
7 6
7 11
7 7
Srs. Ch.
6 1
6
4 14
6 8
8 11
10 12
12
12 14
14 11
17 6
16
14 7
Grass.
Srs. Ch.
1$
11 2
11 9
12 8
13
12 4
13 12
14 14
14 4
14 4
40
Bhtisa.
40
30
...
..
26
12
16
18
24
16
..
...
11
8
11
8
...
...
14 10
14
17 6
17 14
17 8
26 10
40
60
70
70 .0
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( 121 )
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( 123 )
APPENDIX E.
Sir Thomas Rob, Ambassador of James I, arrived at Ajmer on 23rd
December 1615, and, on the 10th January 1616, presented himself at Jehangir's
court and delivered his credentials. The following passages are extracted
from Sir Thomas Roe^s Journal, as they possess a local interest : —
Jehangir at the time lived in the fort now called the Magazine, and the
attendants on his court seemed to have lived in extemporised houses outside
the city- wall in the space between the Daulat Bigh and the Madar Hill.
When Jehangir left Ajmer fof Mandar, he gave orders to set fire to all
the Lashhar at Ajmer^ to compel the people to follow ; and the order was duly
executed,
'^ The king comes every morning to a window looking into a plain before
his gate, and shows himself to the common people. One day I went to attend
him. I found him at the window, and went up on the scaffold under him. On
two tressels stood two eunuchs with long poles headed with feathers, fanning
him. He gave many favors and received many presents ; what he bestowed
was let down by a silk rolled on a turning instrument ; what was given him, a
venerable, fat, deformed old matron, hung with gymbals like an image,
plucked up at a hole. With such another clue at one side in a window were his
two principal wives, whose curiosity made them break little holes in a grate of
reed that hung before it to gaze on me. On Tuesday at this window the
king sits in judgment, never refusing the poorest man^s complaint : he hears
with patience both parties, and sometimes sees with too much delight in blood
the execution done by his elephants. Illi meruerey sed quid tu ut adessea, "
This gate is probably the principal entrance to the magazine on the city
side, where there is a window on each side, such as Sir Thomas Roe describes.
The next description is of a place generally called the Nur cAasAma at the
back of the Taragarh hill. The fountains and tanks are in a ruinous state^
and the place can only be reached with difficulty as of yore.
^' The 1st of March I rode to see a house of pleasure of the king's, given him
by Asaf Khan, two miles from Ajmer, but between two mighty rocks, so defended
from the sun that it scarce any way sees it ; the foundation cut out of them and
some rooms, the rest of free stone : a handsome little garden with fine foun-
tains, two great tanks, one thirty steps above the other. The way to it is inac-
cessible but for one or two in front, and that very steep and stony : a place of
much melancholy delight and security, only being accompanied with wild pea-
cocks, turtles, fowl, and monkeys that inhabit the rocks hanging every way
over it.''
Sir Thomas Roe also visited the Daulat Bdgh, whither he had been invited
to supper by Jamdl-ud-din Hasan, a man whom he describes as possessed of
more courtesy and understanding than all his coimtrymen.
^^ Jamal-ud-din had borrowed of the king his house and garden of plea-
sure, Hauz Jamal, a mile out of the town, to feast me in; and, overnight
earnestly inviting me, I promised to come. At midnight he went himself and
carried his tents and all furniture, and fitted up a place by the tank-side very
handsomely. In the morning I went : at my coming he came to meet me,
and, with extraordinary civility, carried me into his room prepared, where he
had some company and one hundred servants attending. He entertained me with
showing me the king's little closets and retiring-rooms, which were painted
with antiques, and, in some panes, copies of the French kings and other Chris-
tian princes. In this time came in dinner ; so, sitting on carpeting, a cloth was
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( 124 )
laid, and divers banquetting set before us, and the like a little apart for
the gentlemen that accompanied him, to whom he went to eat, they holding
it a kind of uncleanness to mingle with us ; whereat I told him he promised
we should eat bread and salt together ; that without his company I had but little
appetite ; so he rose and sat by me, and we fell roundly to our victuals. The
substance was made-dishes of divers sorts, — ^raisins, almonds, pistaches, and
fruit. Dinner ended, he played at chess, and I walked. Returning, after
some discourse I offered to take my leave ; he answered he had entreated me
to come to eat ; that what was passed was but a collation ; that I must not
depart till I had supped, which I readily granted. After a time our supper
came, two cloths being spread as in the morning, and before me and my
chaplain and one merchant were set divers dishes of sallets and meat roast>
fried and boiled, and divers rices. He desired to be excused ; that it was their
manner to eat among themselves; his countrymen would tak^itill if he ate not
with them; so he and his guests, I and my company, solaced ourselves with a
good refreshing. The meat was not amiss, but the attendance and order much
better, his servants being very diligent and respectful. He gave me for a
present, as is the manner when one is invited, five cases of sugarcandy dressed
with musk, and one loaf of most fine sugar white as snow, about fifty
pound weight, desiring me to accept one hundred such against my going,
^ which,^ said he, ' you refuse of me thinking I am poor, but it costs me nothing ;
it is made in my government and comes gratis to me.^ Thus professing
himself my father, and I his son, with compliments I took my leave.^^
The last extract is an account of a violent storm of rain which fell on the
20th August 1616 :--
" The twentieth day and the night past fell a storm of rain called the ele-
phant, usual at going out of the rains, but for the greatness very extraordinary,
whereby there ran such streams into the tank, whose head is made of stone, in
show exceeding strong, but the water was so grown that it brake over in one
place, and there came an alarm and sudden fear that it would give way and drown
all that part of the town where I dwelt, insomuch that Prince Khurram and
all his women forsook their house ; my next neighbour carried away his goods
and his wife on his elephants and camels to fly to the hillside. All men had their
horses ready at their doors to save their lives, so that we were much frighted
and sat up till midnight, for that we had no help but to flee ourselves and
lose all our goods ; for it was reported that it would run higher than the top
of my house by 3 feet and carry all away, being poor muddy buildings ; fourteen
years past a terrible experience having showed the violence, the foot of the tank
being level with our dwelling, and the water extremely great and deep, so that
the top was much higher than any house which stood at the bottom in the
course of the water, every ordinary rain making such a current at my door
that it run not swifter in the arches of London Bridge, and is for some hours
impassable by horse or man. But God otherwise disposed it in His mercy ;
the king caused a sluice to be cut in the night to ease the water another way,
yet the very rain had washed down a great part of the walls of my house, and
so weakened it in divers places that I feared the fall more than the flood, and
was so moiled with dirt and water that I could scarce lie dry or safe ; for that
I must be enforced to be at new charge in reparation. Thus were we every
way afflicted : fires, smokes, floods, storms, heat, dust, flies, and no temperate
or quiet season.^'
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JAIPUR:
COMPILED BY
JiAJOR 0. A. BAYLAY,
POLITICAL AGENT.
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GAZETTEER OF JAIPUR.*
Geography.
Boundaries and Area. — The State of Jaipur, including Shekd*
wati, is bounded on the north by Bikanir, Lohdri, Jhagdr, and
Patiala; on the south by Gwalior, Biindi, Tonk, Mewar,
and Ajmer; on the east by Alwar, Bhartpur, and Karauli;
and on the west by Kishangarh, Marwar, and Bikanir. It lies
between north latitude 25° 43' and 28° 30', and east longitude
74° 50' and 77° 18'; and contains an area of 14,465 square miles.
General Topography. — The general character of the country
is tolerably level and open, though it is continually crossed
and diversified by hills in groups and ranges, and by isolated
eminences. The centre of the State is an elevated tableland of
triangular form from 1,400 to 1,600 feet above sea-level,
bounded on the south by a base line running west from the city of
Jaipur : the eastern boundary consists of ranges of hills running
north and south along the Alwar border; towards the north
and west this triangular plateau is bounded by a broken chain
of hills, a portion of the Arvali range, which forms the apex
of the triangle by intersecting the eastern range near Khetri in
Shekdwati. The hills here rise to a considerable height with a
bold outline ; this range of hills on the north-west forms a natural
boundary between the sandy and desert tracts of Shekdwati (or
the country of the Shekdwat clan in the extreme north of the
Jaipur State), and Bikanir on the one side, and the more fertile
soils of Jaipur on the other. To the east of Jaipur, beyond the
range of hills close to the city, there is a rapid fall of some three
or four hundred feet in the first two or three miles, after which
there is a gradual fall along the valley of the Bdnganga river to
the Bhartpur border, and the country becomes gradually more
open, with a less interrupted plain as it spreads out towards the
alluvial flats of the Jumna. The eastern portion of Jaipur has
many ranges of low hills in it, and near the Karauli border is
* Principally written by Major C. A. Baylay, Political Agent.
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( 126 )
much cut up with ravines. From the base of the central plateau
above described, the country slopes gradually to the south-east
towards the Ban^ river, only a few isolated hills appearing above
the plain ; but in the extreme south the hill-ranges re-appear and
in the neighbourhood of E/djmahdl, where the Bands river has
forced itself through the range, the scenery is markedly beautiful.
Westward from Jaipur the country rises gradually towards the
Kishangarh border, and consists, in a great measure, of broad,
open, treeless plains, dotted with occasional hills.
Sub-surface Water. — The depth and character of the sub-sur-
face water in Jaipur varies considerably. Southward of the range
which marks off the Shekdwati districts from the rest of Jaipur,
water is everywhere fairly near the surface, varying from a few
feet in low-lying groimd to 30 or 40 feet ; but in Shekdwati,
north of the range, water is always at a great depth, averaging
from 80 to 100 feet. It is brackish in many parts where the soil
is much impregnated with salt ; but generally the water may be
found sweet to the east and south. To the north, in Shekdwati
and in the neighbourhood of Jaipur, it varies considerably, being
sometimes brackish and sometimes sweet ; while westward of
Jaipur it is more constantly brackish.
Soils. — The soil of Jaipur, in the immediate neighbourhood
of the city to the west and north, is generally sandy ; in some
•places are tracts of mere barren sand ; underneath this sandy
surface, clay and stiff soil, mixed with kankar, is often met with.
Eastward, along the Bdnganga valley, the soil is generally a rich
firm loam ; and in the extreme east, towards Hindaun, it is still
sandy, though not unproductive. Southward from Jaipur the
soil is mostly rich and fertile ; and the tract to the extreme south,
enclosed by the bend of the Bands river, consists of a rich allu-
vial loam, and is the most fertile portion of the State ; whereas
Shekdwati, to the north of the intersecting range, consists almost
entirely of shifting sands.
Geology. — There has not as yet been any regular geological
survey of the hill-ranges in Jaipur, so that but little information
can be given on this head.
The principal hill-ranges in Jaipur have been noted under
the head of " General Topography." They consist chiefly of granite
and sandstone, mixed sometimes with white and black marble,
and occasionally with mica. They are said to be primitive rocks
belonging to the transitionary series, as they do not contain any
fossil remains. The hills to the south and east are formed princi-
pally of sandstone, while those to the north . contain more
granite. The hills for the most part rise very abruptly from the
plains, and many of them are peaked j others being flat at the top
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with the edges steeply scarped for some way down the hillside,
thus forming natural fortifications.
To the north, where the Khetri hills meet the Alwar range,
there has heen a great geological disturbance ; the granite of the
Arvalis bursting through and upheaving the sandstone of the
Alwar hills, thus exposing alum shales and rich veins of copper
ores, cobalts, and nickels. Copper mines are worked to some extent
in the neighbourhood of Khetri ; but, owing to the want of proper
appliances for keeping down the water, the richest veins, which
are lowest, cannot be reached, and the outturn is very small, for
lack of scientific management. The water in many of the mines
is rich in sulphate of copper and alimi, and cobalt is found in
thin layers between the veins of copper ore. This latter mineral
is much used at Jaipur for enamellmg, and is also exported to
Delhi and Haidardbad in the Dakhan for that purpose. In addition
to the mineral substances above noted, salt is extensively manu-
factured and exported from the Sambhar Lake, an account of
which will be found under its proper head.
Good building-stone is plentiful in many parts of Jaipur.
Beneath the Amargarh fort, on the hilly range east of the city,
a greyish metamorphic quartzose sandstone is quarried which is
miuch used for building and paving in Jaipur.
From Dando, 24 nnles from Jaipur, a coarse grey sandstone
is procured, which is used for door-frames, pillars, &c.
At BAnkri, 36 miles east from Jaipur and near the Deosa
railway-station, huge slabs of a foliated mica schist are quarried,
which are very valuable for roofing, some of them being 30 feet
long. From near Karauli, 82 miles from Jaipur, and from Basi, 92
miles distant, red and cream colored sandstone of very fine qua-
lity is procured, and is much used in ornamental work. The best
marble comes &om Makrdna in Marwar, 20 miles west from the
Sambhar Lake, whence it is brought to Jaipur to be sculptured.
But a coarser marble of a greyish-white color is procured from
R^ttwdla in Jaipur near the Alwar border ; it, however, does not
keep its color well, but turns yellow with age. Northward, from
Baisl&ia, in Kot PutK, a black marble is obtained, which is much
used by statuaries and for inlaying- work. There is abundance of
good limestone, a very good quality being procured from near the
Kdnauta railway-station ; and kankar is found almost everywhere,
generally in flat beds instead of in nodules.
!Preciou8 Stones. — ^As regards precious stones, carbuncles are
procured in large quantities to the south near Rdjmahdl; and
turquoises are said to have been formerly found in numbers in
that neighbourhood at Toda.
Bivera^ — ^The general drainage of the country, from the table*
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land wliich forms the centre of the Jaipur territory, is to the east
and the south-east ; though a few streams follow the slope to '
the north-west, and carry the rainfall from the northern hill*
into the sandy plains northward, where the water is soon lost.
The Bands, which crosses a comer of Jaipur on the south,
receives most of the Jaipur watershed hy several tributaries, of
which but one or two are perennial. The Bdnganga reaches the
Jumna du-ect, flowing eastward ; but in the hot season its surface-
bed is often dry here and there. The Amdn-i-Shdh, which sup-
plies Jaipur city with water, has a slight flow throughout the
year. Almost all the other rivers mentioned below are flooded
in the rains, and dry in the hot months.
The Bands is the largest river in the State. It rises in the-
The Bands ^® ^®^ Saimar in the Arvali range, ta
the west of Udaipur, and, flowing east-
ward after a course of more than 100 miles, enters the Jaipur
State near Deoli, about 10 miles west of Bisalpur, as if, by a freak
of nature, instead of flanking the Toda range of hills, it forced ai
jiarrow way for itself through the hills perpendicular to tha
direction of the range, entering it at Bisalpur and leaving it at
B/djmahdl. At both places the torrent in flood has scoured deep
holes ; and in these and the other pools in the bed of the stream^
trout, mahsir, and other kind of fish are always to be found.
The scenery here is exceedingly wild and beautiful. The river is
impassable in flood ; but there is a ferry at Bdjmahdl, and also
at Tonk ; these are required for about five months in the year.
In the hot months the bed is dry, excepting where there are pools.
The bed is heavy sand, in places very treacherous after the rains,,
and should not be crossed by a stranger without a guide. Tha
banks are well-defined, and, on an average, 30 feet deep. Tha
width at Bisalpur is about 600 feet, but at Tonk 2,000 feet. It
is joined by the Mdshi, Dhil, and Morel rivers, and, following an
easterly course after passing through the wild hills of Rantham-
bor and Kandahdr — ^two of the ancient forts of the Jaipur Stal^—
it falls into the Ohambal, about 86 miles below Tonk.
This river rises in hills near Manoharpur, about 25 miles due
Bimramra north of Jaipur, and flows in a south-east
anganga. direction for about 26 miles, until it
reaches a range of hills near Rdrngarh. It has iipparently forced
its way through these hills in a deep gorge about one mile in
length, 360 to 600 feet wide, and 400 feet deep. After emerg-
ing from the range of hiUs, it continues its course due east
for about 66 nailes, when it enters the Bhartpur State near Mowd,
at a point about 26 miles east of the range of hills above
mentioned. It is crossed by the Edjpt^tdna State Eailway
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bridge ; and, about 10 miles beyond, is joined by the Shilas,
a rapid stream in flood, from the north. The stream in the gorge
near R^mgarh is perennial — at the hottest season it flows here
about 8 cubic feet per second ; but below this it is dry, except in
the rains. The banks are generally about 20 feet in height, clearly
defined. In floods^ which last for a few hours, it is impassa-
ble, and in the gorge near Edmgarh it rises sometimes to a
height of 23 feet. Some interest attaches to this river, as regards
the Jaipur State, from the fact that Rdmgarh was once a capital
of the State and known as Mdshi ; and a temple, in the gorge above
alluded to, is still called Jumna-ki-dair. Hitherto, every Raja,
on accession to the gadi of Jaipur, has come to this place to be
shaved ; this bemg considered part of the ceremony necessary.
The Gambhir rises in the hills south of Hindaun, in the eastern
— ^ ^, , border of Jaipur, flows in a north and
The Gtunbmr. . , j i • j • ■% ni
north-east direction, and, after a course
of about 25 miles in the Jaipur State, enters the Bhartpur State ;
eventually it joins the Bdnganga, near Rupas, and flows on with
it to the Jumna, Its banks are clearly defined in clay and kankar
soil, generally from 30 to 50 feet deep, and much cut up with
nalas. It is impassable in floods. The whole of the dminage
area of the hills to the west of Hindaun, from Toda Bhim as far
as Khera, falls into this river.
This river rises in the hills near Sdmod and Amloda, 20 miles
The Bdndi ^^^ uorth of Jaipur, It flows in a south-
south-west direction, until it meets with
ranges of rocky hills near Kalwdr and Kalegh, which cause it to
take a westerly direction. Passing through these obstructions,
it joins the Mdshi, after a course of about 100 miles. It is
crossed by the R^jptitdna State Railway below Kalegh, near the
Asalpur station, and crosses the Ajmer and Agra road at 25 miles
from Jaipur. Its breadth here is 800 feet. It is impassable in
floods, which last a few hours. The bed here is sandy ; the banks
about 10 to 15 feet in height, and well-defined.
This rises in the hills immediately to the north of Jaipur city,
fru K A ' 01,^1. 9'iid flows southwards past the old town of
The Amin-i-Shih, >^ -i nj -^ - i. i j
Sanganer, and, after a course of about
22 miles, it falls into the Dhtind river. It is a perennial stream,
excepting at the foot of the hills from which it rises. The Rdjpii-
tdna State Railway crosses over the Amdn-i-Shdh, one mile west
of the Jaipur station, on an iron girder bridge. The town of
Jaipur is supplied with drinking-water from this river. The
water is pumped up by steam-pumps about 104 feet into service
reservoirs, which command the city, through which water is deli-
vered in iron pipes under 60 feet pressure.
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The Morel is a tributary of the Ban^s. It rises in the hills
The Mwei ^®^ Dhuli, ahoutS miles north of Banskho
and 20 east of Jaipur. It flows in a
direction due south ; passes under the Agra and Ajmer road by a
bridge of three spans of 20 feet ; also under the Rdjpiitdna Ste^te
Railway, near the Jatwdra station; and continues its course
south. At a point about 35 miles from its source, it is joined
by the Dhiind, which comes from a distance of 50 miles ; the two,
thus united, flow on under the name of the Morel, in a south-east
direction, for about 40 miles. Here, it is added to by the water
of the Khdri river ; and, after following a winding course, with
deep, well-defined banks, through stiflE soil intersected with nalas,
it falls into the £ands#
A tributary of the £an^ : this river rises in the Kishangarh
The Mdshi. State ; enters the Jaipur border 10 miles
west of Pachewar, and flows in an easterly
direction for 50 miles, where it unites with the Bandf .
The Dhtind rises on the hills near Achrol, about 15 miles due
The Dhtind. uorth of Jaipur, and falls into the Morel.
It flows due south, passes about two miles
east of Amber, the old capital of the Jaipur State, and crosses
the Agra and Ajmer road at the eighth mile-stone, at the village
of Kdnauta. It is impassable here in floods for a few hours.
This rises in the Toda Bhlm and Ldlsot range of hills, about
The KhAri ^^ milcs uorth of Bdumiawds. It flows
south through rich soil, with well-defined
banks, about 20 feet deep ; passes about 5^ miles east of Bdmnia-
wds ; and, after a course of about 35 miles, falls into the Morel
river.
The Mendha rises in the hills near Jetgarh, north of Jaipur.
The Mendha. ^^ flows in a Westerly direction, and falls
into the Sambhar Lake.
This river rises in hills near Jetgarh and Manoharpur, about
The 8khi ^^ milcs duc north of Jaipur. It runs in
a north-east direction towards Giirgaon ;
is subjectjto heavy floods ; the banks much cut up in parts with
ravines ; and, after skirting Alwar, passes out of tfaipur into the
Nabha State.
The Sota rises in hills near Jharli and Jetgarh, about 40 miles
The'Sota. ^^® uorth of JaipuT. It flows in a north-
east direction, and, after a course of about
40 miles, falls into the Sdbi.
This river rises in the hills near Khandela, about 45 miles
The KiutM, uorth-north-wcst of Jaipur; flows north-
north-west ; passes about 10 nules east of
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Jhtinjlinu ; and, after a course of about 60 .miles, through the
length of Shekdwati, it loses itseU in the sand at Sankh^in, just
as it enters the Bikanir territory.
Lakes. — ^The only lake of any importance in the Jaipur
State is the Sambhar Lake, situated in latitude 26"" 68^ and long*
itude 75"* 5', on the joint border of the Jaipur and Jodhpur States,
and to the east of the Arvali range of hills which run in a north-
westerly direction through Bdjpdtdnd. The character of the
surrounding country is arid and sterile. When full, the lake forms
a sheet of water measuring about 20 miles in length, 1^ to 7^
miles in breadth, and from 1 to 4 feet in depth. With the
exception of a period of ten years (from 1835 to 1844) when
it was worked by the Gk)Temment of India to repay it for
expenses, &c., incurred in repelling the predatory incursions
of the Rdjptits in British India, the lake was owned and worked
jointly by the Jaipur and Jodhpur Darbdrs uninterruptedly
from the reign of Ahmed Shdh, one of the successors of
Akbar, to the year 1870, when the British Ctovemment became
lessees under separate treaties concluded with the Jaipur and
Jodhpur chiefs. The process by which this salt accumulates in
the lake is not well understood.* Some ascribe it to the presence
of brine springs or rock salt ; but the most feasible theory attributes
it to the mineral properties of the surrounding hills (in which
limestone and salt are known to abound) being washed into the
lake from the watershed which flows into it. The supply of salt
varies according to the rainfall and other local contingencies ;
but the average yearly outturn is 9,00,000 maunds,t and the
cost of storage and extraction about 6 pies per maund. The
selling price of the salt at the lake fluctuates with the demand,
the quality, and the quantity produced. The salt is of three
difiEerent colors — ^blue, white, and red ; but, of these, a bluish-grey
of several tints is the most prevalent and esteemed ; more particu-
larly in the North-Western Provinces, whither it is largely exported.
The white salt, again (distinguishable by its opaqueness from
the transparent salts of other parts), is most valued in the States
of Rdjptitdnd, particularly Jaipur, where it is almost exclusively
used ; while in and about the Muhammadan State of Tonk, the red,
the shades of which vary from tints of a delicate roseate to a deep
* Tradition accounts for the formation of tlie lake in tlie following manner : About the year
A.I). 551, the goddess Sambra, the tutelary divinity of the Chohin Bdjpdts, in return for some
religious service on their part, converted a dense forest into a plain of gold and silver. That the
people of Sambhar, dreading the cupidity and strife which this possession would excite, begged of
the goddess to retract her g^t, when the plain of gold and silver was transformed into the present
Bait lake.
t It is said to baye been as much m 90,00,000 maimds in A.D. 1839, which is the largest
quantity on reeonL
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claret, is the favorite color. The cause of this peculiarity of
variegation of shades is much disputed. Some attribute it to the
presence of microscopic algae, some to animalculse, and others to
mineral agents ; while one or more of the tints — the bluish-grey
particularly — is known to be due to the penetration of the fine silt
of the lake into the interspaces of the crystals, the formation of
which is that of a truncated pyramid, the sides of the cubes measur-
ing sometimes as much as 1^ inches. The lake supplies nearly
the whole of the chief salt marts of the Panjdb, North-Western
Provinces, and Central India, which are reached by six main
arteries or routes, namely : towards the north to Rewdri ; north-
east, to Alwar and Ferozpur ; east, to Agra ; south-east, to Elarauli
and Jhansi; and towards the south and east to Tonk. The
principal caste employed on the salt-works is the " Bardr," at one
time a much more numerous class than now, and, until about the
thirteenth century, when the greater portion of them were Muham-
madanizedby Ala-ud-din Ghazi, consisting exclusively of Hin-
dus. The depopulation of the Bardrs through famine and disease
has, of late years, brought other castes to the works ; but, singular
to say, although the pay is more than is ordinarily obtainable
elsewhere, there is scarcely a single foreigner among them. This
monopoly is understood to be due to the superstitious local belief,
propagated presumably to exclude foreign labour, that were out-
siders to attempt the work, the festering sores which the flesh
wounds, received from contact with the sharp angles of the
crystals when wading in the pans, invariably superinduce after
their exposure to the brine and foetid mud of the lake, would most
assuredly cause their death*
Climate and Rainfall. — The cKmate of Jaipur is dry and
healthy, and, the country being elevated and sandy, malarious
fevers are but little prevalent. In the cold season the climate is
very agreeable, but in Shekdwati it is often unpleasantly cold,
and hoarfrost frequently remains in the shade till long after
sunrise. During the hot season, the hot winds from the west blow
with great force m Shek^wati and the northern portions of Jaipur ;
but the sand soon parts with its heat, so that the nights are
generally pleasant and the mornings very cool. Towards the
south and east the hot winds are not so strong, but, owing to
the soil not being sandy, the nights and mornings are not
so cool.
There is generally a fair amount of rain throughout the terri-
tory, except in Shekdwati, where the fall is more precarious ; but
Jaipur proper- is seldom afflicted with the periodical famines
which visit the neighbouring territories ; for, being on the verge of
the south-west and south-east monsoons, it receives rain from
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both. During the great famine of 1868, Jaipur suffered less
than some other portions of Rdjpiitana. As a rule, the rainfall is
greatest in the southern and eastern portions of the State.
The rainfall at Jaipur for the eight years from 1868 to 1875 is
given below, the maximum being 42*6 inches in 1870, the mini
mum 126 inches in 1868, and the average rather over
inches :
Year. Inches.
25i
1868
1869
1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
1875
12-67
18-60
42-50
28-38
30-19
17^20
20-24
36-82
Most of the rain falls in the months of July and August;
but about the end and commencement of the year there are
usually heavy showers. During the remainder of the year the
air is exceedingly dry. The average temperature at Jaipur of
each month for the five years 1871 to 1876 is given
below : —
Months.
Degrees,?.
January
63-64
February
67-89
March
75-41
April
89-16
May
94-01
June
96-13
July
88-20
August
87-05
September
85-59
October
84-85
November
77-69
December
Mean of five years .
••
65-59
81-27
The maximnm temperature of 1876 was 106°F. and the mini-
mum 38°, the amplitude of yearly fluctuations being therefore
68**. May and June are generally the hottest months, and Janu-
ary and February the coldest.
Droughts. — ^As before observed, Jaipur has generally a fair
rainfall, and is not often subject to droughts (the most severe sea-
son of drought on record is that which occurred in the great famine
year of 1868) ; neither is the country subject to floods. As in
other parts of India, the crops in Jaipur are more or less subject
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to bKghts, but not to any remarkable extent. The two principal
kinds of blight are " Ratra," which means nipping, and affects
the rain-crops; and "Role " (the name of a r^ powder), which
is apt to attack the wheat and barley crops, turning them of a
reddish-brown color, if cloudy weather prevails at the time when
the crops are near maturity.
Forests. — ^There are no forests of any extent in Jaipur. The
hills in the immediate neighbourhood of the city, and in the
southern portions of the State, are more or less covered with
the dhdo \Anogeissus pendula) and other jungle-trees of little
or no value except for fueL The bdbdl {Acacia arahica)
and the nlm {Melia indica) may be considered as the pre-
vailing trees of the country; the former grows extensively in
many portions of the State, and is most valuable to the country
people, as its wood can be used for a great variety of purposes.
In the neighbourhood of the towns and villages the usual
Indian trees are to be found, such as —
The Am or Mango {Mangifera indica).
„ Imli or Tamarind {Tamarindus indica).
„ Bm {Fictis indica) .
„ Pipdl {Fictis reliffioaa).
„ Sirnis .(Albizzia odoratissima) .
„ Sissu {palbergia aism).
„ Jamun (JEugeniajambolana).
Also the nlm, bdbtil, and numerous other trees, all of which will
grow well and flourish if protected from cattle and watered for
the first two or three years. Shekdwati, owing to its sandy soil
and the great depth of sub-surface water, is, on the whole, very
deficient in trees ; but there is a considerable amount of the khejra
(Acacia letccophlcea) ; the wood is of inferior quality, but the pods
are very useful as food for cattle. The phog, a succulent plant
without leaves, and growing to 3 or 4 feet in height, is also
worthy of mention, being very plentiful and useful ; the flowers
are eaten by the people, the stalks form good forage for camels,
and the roots furnish a constant supply of fuel.
Grasses. — ^There are a good many different kinds of grasses in
Jaipur used as forage for cattle and for thatching ; among the
latter may be mentioned the pani, a tall coarse grass growing in
huge tufts very similar to the Pampas-grass, the tall flower-stalks
of which form hard reeds when dry, and are tied together and
much used, in place of split bamboos, as the foundation for grass
screens and thatches. In Shekdwati the bhurat grass is very plen-
tiful : its seeds form food for cattle, and are much eaten by the
poorer classes j but its prickly-seed vessels annoy pedestrians.
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HiSTOET.
Sistory. — ^The early chronicles of the Jaipur chiefship are,
as usual, the genealogy of the predominant family of a clan, giving
the present chief's lineage, and the deeds of his ancestors. The
accepted legend traces back this lineage to Kash, the second son
of Rdma, who ruled at Ajodhya, and who is said to have migrated
thence to Rhotas on the Sone river, whence, after several genera-
tions, a second inamigration brought Raja Nal westward across
the Jumna to Narwar. And at Narwar the family, or the sept,
estabKshed itself, until one Dhola Rao founded the parent city of
the present Jaipur State at .Amber in A.D. 967. At that time
the country round is said to have been parcelled out among many
petty chiefs, Rdjptit and Mina, all subject to the great Tu4r dynasty
of Rdjptits which reigned at Delhi. After years of warfare and fluc-
tuation of power, Dhola Rao and his Kachhwdhas are said to have
absorbed or driven out the petty chiefs, and to have at last founded
a solid dominion, with a substantial territory. The tribal sove-
reignty thus set up was originally known by the name of Dhiindar,
from a celebrated sacred mount of that name somewhere on what
is now the State's western frontier. Half a century later, another
chief, Hanuji, wrested Amber from the Minas, and consolidated
his power, placing his head-quarters at Amber, which gave its name
to the chiefship thenceforward until 1728 A.D., when the second,
Jai Singh, deserted it for Jaipur. The ninth chief in succession
from Hanuji was Udikara, the grandfather of Shekji, who con-
quered for himself on his own private venture the districts now
held by the Shekdwat sept of the Kachhwdhas, of whom he is the
eponymous ancestor. Allowing for considerable uncertainty about
dates and names, this outline probably represents very fairly the
course of growth and settlement of a successful clan fighting its way
upward to territorial dominion, and retaining always as its chief
the descendant of the most ancient family of the founder's kin.
The Amber chiefship of the Kachhwdhas is little mentioned in the
annals of Musalmdn empire until the Mughal came in; and it is
probable that the clan had not much political importance before
the sixteenth century ; nor is it possible to suppose that, up to that
date, they had not been more or less in submission to the Musal-
mdns, from the time when a powerful government had become
firmly established at Delhi, Agra, and Ajmer. For the Kachhwdha
coimtry lay at an easy distance from these three great garrison
towns, and was easily accessible from all three points ; while the
road to Ajmer passed right through that country. In the sixteenth
century the cluef of .Amber seems to have attached himself to the
side of Bdber and of Humdyun ; and Raja Bihdri Ldl was engaged
in the affairs of Bher Shdh. The importance of the ruling house in
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the annals of the empire dates from Bihdri lAl, who ingratiated
himself with some influential adherents of the emperor Akhar, and
in the first year of Akhar^s reign was presented at court. Five years
afterwards, when Akhar made a pilgrimage to A;]mer, this chief,
with his whole family, had an honourahle reception from him at
Sanganer, close to Amher ; Bihdri lAl gave his daughter to the
emperor, and entered his service with three sons, one of whom,
Bhagw^ Dds, hecame a man of some distinction as a governor and
commander. The daughter of Bhagwdn Dds was the mother of
Prince Khusrti (Akhar's grandson), whose intrigues and ill-fate are
well known ; and Mdn Singh, the adopted son of Bhagwdn Dd,s,
was one of the most renowned imperial generals of his time.
He fought in Orissa and in Assam ; and at a critical period, under
great difELculties, he maintained his authority as governor of
Kahul, and held his own on that remote and perilous frontier.
He was rewarded with the governments of Bengal, Behar, and the
Pakhan.
The next chief of note is Jai Singh, the third in succession
from Mdn Singh, who was commonly known hy his imperial
title of Mirza Baja. His name appears in all the wars of
Aurangzeh in theDakhan, where it is still rememhered as well hy
tradition as hy some huildings which he erected. The hest proof
of his influence and ahility is that Aurangzeh thought it neces-
sary to instigate one of the chief's sons, and an aspirant to his
succession, to poison him ; hut even the support of the empire
could not ohtain the chief ship for the murderer against the una-
nimous dissent of the clan.
After an interval of three chiefs we come to Jai Singh II,
commonly known as Siwai Jai Singh, a title given hy the
emperors, which his descendants adopt to this day. The word
means 1^, and is supposed to measure the superiority of the
bearer to all cotemporaries, whom the unit signifies. Jai Singh
was in every way a remarkable man ; but mainly for his scientific
aptitude and industry, his skill as an engineer and architect, his
liberal support of science and art, and his own personal accom-
plishment as a mathematician and an astronomer. He construct-
ed, upon his own invention, observatories at Jaipur, Delhi,
Benares, and Ujain, with which he was able to correct the astro-
nomical tables of De La Hire, and to leave as a monument of
his skill the tables of stars collated by himself and called the
" Tij Muhammad Shdhi." He laid out and built the present
city of Jaipur in A.D. 1728, to which he transferred his
seat of government from Amber. As a politician, however, he
is partly responsible for the treaty which was made by Jaipur,
Jodbpur^ and Udaipur to resist the Musahndn power, then
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decaying under the incipient break-up of the Mughal empire*
The intention of this treaty was good, but its base was
unsound. The Kachhwdha clan had, with the Rahtor clan,
been excluded from intermarriage with the Sesodias of Udaipur
by reason of having given daughters to the Mughal; and
by this treaty the Sesodias agreed to re*admit the two clans upon
condition that in both clans a son by a Sesodia mother
should be entitled to succeed to the chief ship in supersession of
elder sons by wives from other clans* Of course, this clause gave
rise to fierce disputes over the succession; for primogeniture
could not be so easily set aside, and it did much to weaken
the clans by feuds and factions. Nevertheless^ Jai Singh, who
was the imperial lieutenant at Agra, managed considerably to
augment his domains as the empire fell into confusion.
After his death the political confusion spread wider. The Jdts
about Bhartpur were rising into power, and fought the Jaipur
chief with success, eventually annexing to the Bhartpur Sfeate
lands originally belonging to Jaipur. A chief of one of the
Kachhwdha septs founded the present Alwar State, partly at the
expense of Jaipur, which thus lost a large piece of territory about
the middle of the eighteenth century ; and later in the century
came in the Marathas, attracted by the quarrels which had been
engendered by that unlucky treaty clause about the succession. By
the end of the century the State was in great confusion, distracted
by internal broils, and impoverished by Maratha exactions. In
1803beganthe political relations of Jaipur with the British Govern-
ment, the object.being to form a league against the Marathas ;
but the alliance was dissolved by Lord Comwallis. Meantime
the dispute between the chiefs of Jaipur and Jodhpur for the
daughter of the Udaipur chief had brought both States to the
verge of ruin, and Amir Khan with the Pindaris was exhausting
the country. In 1817 negotiations began again, when Amir
Khdn was living at free quarters in Jaipur territory ; and in 1818
a treaty was at last made by which the protection of the British
Government was extended to Jaipur, and an annual tribute fixed.
Two successive minorities, which followed the death of Jagat
Singh in 1818, gave opportunities for strife over the succession,
and for much misgovemment ; in 1835, on the succession of the
present Maharaja, then two years old, there was a serious dis-
turbance in the city. The British Government took measures to
insist upon order, to reform the administration, and to support
its effective action; and the State has gradually become
well-governed and prosperous. In 1857 the chief of Jaipur
rendered good service to the British, which was rewarded by a
grant of the pargana of Kot K^im.
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t 138 )
Form of GovERNMisNT.
The Maharaja of Jaipur, in common with the rest of the chiefs
of Rdjpiitdna, exercises supreme civil and criminal authority
within the limits of his territories, and has the power of life and
death in respect of his own subjects. The admmistration of the
State is nominally carried on at the capital by a Council composed
of eight members, witli the Maharaja as president ; there is also a
secretary, who acts as an ex-officio member. The business of the
Council is divided into four departments, viz. — Judicial, Revenue,
Military, and External ; each department being in charge of two
of the members of Council*
Principal Feudatories and Thdkurs. — ^The principal feuda-
tories of the Jaipur State (Khetri, Sfkar^ and iJniard), together
with the numerous chiefs and thdkurs of Shekdwati, the
principal among whom are Baswa, Nawalgarh, Manddwar, Sd-
rajgarh, &c,, are all descended from Shekji, the grandson
of Udikara, one of the former rulers of Jaipur, who f oimded
the numerous Shekdwati commimities which now cover the
extensive tract termed Shekdwati, tJnidrd being an exception
(this chief belongs to the Naruka clan), in that the estates of
the chief ship are in Jaipur proper, and to the extreme south of
the State.
In addition to the above-mentioned feudatories, there is
also the chief ship of Pdtan, in Torawdti, the head of which is
descended from the ancient Tu4r kings of Delhi, Subsequent to
the time of Shekji, the Shekdwats increased greatly in number
and power ; and, in order to break their strength, the Jaipur Gov-
ernment, about a century ago, took advantage of some dispute
among them to encourage and establish the custom of an equal
division of real estate amongst the male children on the death of
a parent. Sikar and Khetri are the only estates which have
escaped this ruinous sub-division: the first by the destruction of
the minor branches who sought to enforce partition ; and the
latter by the want of issue beyond a single son in each generation.
This system of sub-division has been very damaging to the
prosperity of the Shekdwatis, and is the cause of great poverty
in some of the chiefships.
The principal nobles and thdkurs of Jaipur belong to what are
Jai ur Kotris caUcd " the twclvc Kotrls," founded by
^^^^'^ ^ -' Pirthi Raj, a former ruler of Jaipur, who
gave estates to each of his twelve sons ; and also to other Kotris
founded by previous rulers. Three of the twelve Kotris are
extinct. A list of the Kotris is given on next page.
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Yearly
Tbial
Na.
KOTBfS.
Names of
Fiefs.
revenue o*
pcinoinal
Piefe..
Sab>fiefs
in&milj.
amount
held by
EEHA.BE8.
family.
Bk
Bs.
1
Paruuraulot ...
Nfmera...
10,000
1
10,000^
2
Bhimpota
(Extinct.)
1
8
N£tMwat ...
Churnu . . .
70.,000
10
2,20,000
4
Puchaenot
S&Btbra . . .
17,700
»
24t,70O
5
Sultanot
Surat ...
22:,000
• »•
6
Kdngarot
Digi ...
50,000
22
6,00,000
The twelve
7
Rajawat
Chandlai
ao,ooo
16
1,98,137
^ IVOtriB lOUUlKJVL
bj Pirthi fUy.
8
Perfcdbji
(Extract.)
9
Bulbudherot ...
Achrol ...
28,850
2
1,30,000
10
Sheod&sji
fExtincty.
11
KalMnot
Kalwir ...
25,000
19
2,45,000
n
Chatierbkojot
Bagm ...
4,0,000
6
1,00,000.
Gugawat
DllTlf ...
70,000
13
1,67,9001
Khumbanl ..»
Bansklio
21,000
2
23,787
Khumb^wat .►.
M&hfo ...
27,538
6
40,738
Seobarupota ...
Nindhir...
10,000
3
49,500
^Kotrls held by
descendants of
Banbfrpota ..,
B&lkoh ...
19s,000
8
26,575
other rulers.
Naruka
TJni^rd ...
2,00,000
6
3,00,000
BMnkdwat ...
liohwfin...
15,000
4
34,600
The following are more details regarding the Shekdwat and
other feudatories and chief ships above noted : —
This is a Shekdwati chief ship belonging to Baja Ajit Singh,
comprising the parganas of Khetri, Bibai,
Singhdnd, and Jhunjhnu, yielding an
annual revenue of about Rs. 3,50,000, and paying a tribute of
E/S. 80,000 a year to the Jaipur Darbdr. The chief holds, besides,
the pargana of Kot Putli, yielding about Rs. 1,00,000 a year — a
possession which was bestowed in perpetuity upon his ancestor.
Raja Abhi Singh, by the British Government, for services
rendered to Lord Lake in his military operations against the
Marathas in the early part of the present centuiy, but notably
in an important and successful engagement by British troops
under Colonel Monson, with Sindia's army on the banks of the
Chambal at that period.
Another of the Shekdwati tribute-paying dependencies of the
g^^^ Jaipur Darbdx, Sikar, which in former
years was inhabited by perhaps the most
lawless of the Shekdwati races, is now a well-governed, peaceful,
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and prosperous chiefship* The-present chief, Rao Uaja Madho
Singh^ being a minor, the estate is administered by managers,
tmder the d&ect supervision of the Jaipur Government. The
annual revenues are estimated at about Rs. 4,00,000, and the
tribute paid to the Darbdr is Rs. 40,000 a year.
Pdtan is a small tributary chief ship situated north of Jaipur,
between Kot Putli and Khetri in the hilly
^ district termed TordwAti. This chief ship
is interesting from the fact of its rulers having sprung from a
very ancient house, the Rao of PAtan being the direct lineal
descendant of the Tu4r kings of Delhi, who were expelled that
place, about eight hundred years ago, on its capture by the Ghor
dynasty. The family settled at Pdtan, and have since ruled there
undisturbed by the political commotions which have from time to
time disquieted and disunited the neighbouring estates in and
around the province of Tordwdti. The chief ship possesses many
fertile and well- watered plains, capable of producing the richest
crops. The lands are divided amongst the brotherhood, the holdings
being so very small that it can scarcely support its population.
This is a chief ship belonging to Jaipur proper, situated to the
^ extreme south and in one of the richest
^ ' portions of the State. The tJnidrd chief
belongs to the Nartikd clan of RAjptits, forming one of the addi-
tional Kotris or houses of Kachhwdha thdkurs. Prom the extra-
vagance and misrule, however, of the present Rao Raja, the
estate is hopelessly involved in debt, and, in consequence, its
affairs since the past few years have been directly administered
by the Jaipur Darbdr. The revenues of the chief ship are estimated
at Rs. 1,75,000 per annum, and the yearly tribute which it pays
to the Darbdr Rs. 45,000.
The four leading tribute-paying thdkurs of the Shekdwat
province of the Jaipur State are — ^Baswa, Nawalgarh, Manddwdr,
and Stirajgarh. Their incomes are variously estimated, but that
of Baswa may be safely put down at Rs. 70,000 per annum, and
that of the tluree others at Rs. 50,000 each ; one-fiith of which is
paid to the Jaipur Darbdr as tribute.
With regard to the petty chief ships and thdkurs of the State
generally, the estates are, excepting in one or two instances, pros-
perous and fairly administered, the people contented and happy,
whUe the relations subsisting between them and the Darb^ are^
without exception, of a cordial and happy character.
The Land.
Zand Tenures. — The following classification of the free-hold
tenures (as distinguished &om mere cultivating holdings) is
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taken (with some sKght alteration) from Colonel Brooke's PoKti*
cal History of Jaipur : —
I. — Grants for which no feudal service is performed, but only
a quit-rent paid ; and which are held principally by members of
the Rajawat clan, being branches of the Maharaja's own family,
and partaking of the nature of appanages.
II. — ^Estates either conquered or possessed by the ancestors of
the present holders prior to the conquest of Jaipur by the reign-
ing family, including such chief ships as Slkar, BLhetrf , tJnikrd, and
others. These pay a tribute to the Jaipur Darbdr of about one-
fourth of their estimated revenue.
III. — Estates upon which no rent is paid, but service is per-
formed. The contingents they supply were originally calculated
at one horseman per thousand rupees of rent; but this is not
now in all cases either provided or exacted.
IV. — Religious endowments and rent-free personal holdings,
including grants and gifts to temples, to civil and military offi-
cers, coiirt favorites, &c., &c.
The tenure of the three first classes seems to be fundamentally
the same, with the slight differences of origin and some variety
as to the duty or payment upon which •it is held. All three
classes include numbers of the clan fraternity who hold their
lands, not originally by grant from the sovereign or upon a
feudal system, but by right of kinship with, and descent from,
the original stock or stocks which first conquered and settled as
a dominant clan in the country. The third class, that of jdglr-
dArs, may include some real grantees who originally obtained
assignments of land on the system by which the revenue was
given for maintenance of troops or other distinctly valuable
considerations. The tenures in the Shekdwat country have
this peculiarity, that, excepting two or three great estates, all
holdings are regularly divided among all the sons on the death
of the father, the rule of primogeniture which prevails in
nearly all estates of Bdjptitdna not having been admitted here.
But they are all free-holders, paying a fixed customary
quit-rent.
In most villages there are what are termed "biswdddrs**;
but they are mere middlemen between the State and the culti-
vator, and arrange for the collection of the revenue from the
latter, receiving a percentage for so doing. The cultivators are
mere tenants-at-will, and have no hereditary rights ; but, owing to
the scarcity of the class, they are, as a rule, treated as hereditary,
being seldom interfered with so long as they pay the revenue.
The principal cultivating classes are Minas, B^l^ra BrdhmaoSj
GujarSi Malis^ and J&ts. B/djptits do not cultivate much.
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Distribution of the Land. — ^There is no trustworthy information
to be obtained regarding the proportion the khalsa land bears
to that held by the tributary chiefs, grantees, fief -holders, &c.; but
from the estimates formed by officers having long experience of
Jaipur, it would appear that the khdlsa or crown lands are
somewhat less than a half of the total area, say three-eighths,
leaving five-eighths, of which some three-eighths may be put down
to the estates on tributary or service tenure, and the remaining
one-fourth to military, religious, and other grants.
Cultivated Area. — It is impossible to give any accurate infor-
mation under this head, and the Darbdr seem to have no such
records as would enable one to form a fair estimate ; but officers
of experience in Jaipur have estimated the cultivated area under
irrigation at ten per cent, of the whole. In addition to this there
is a large area placed under temporary cultivation during the
rainy season, which varies very considerably from year to year,
and which may, perhaps, be put down at about double the irri-
gated area.
Land Revenue. — In the Jaipur State, the land-revenue is
collected partly in cash, but principally in kind ; the custom
of a rate on ploughs does not prevail. The Raj share of the crop
is calculated either on the system of " Kunkut '* or "Batdi " :
the former is an estimate of the outturn of the standing crops
formed just before the crops ripen, and is principally used in
regard to the rain-crops, which ripen in the autumn ; the second
is a division of the grain after threshing, and is generally applied
to the cold- weather crops ripening in the spring, such as wheat,
barley, &c. The Raj share varies from one-sixth to half of the
outturn, according to the quality of the land and other circum-
stances — a common average being one-quarter or three-eighths
for the spring-crop, and rather more for the autumn crop.
The village officials are the patel, the patwdri, and the kd-
ntingo ; they are to a great extent paid by shares of the grains called
JiakSy or rights, which are deducted previous to the division
between the Raj and the cultivator. Under the Batdi system,
the grain is formed into heaps, according to the shares, after thresh-
ing, the straw being retained by the cultivator, in Jaipur these
village officers have no hereditary rights ; and, indeed, their whole
status is low and precarious, being mainly dependent upon the
arbitrary pleasure of the revenue collectors or the great land-
holders. The patel is the headman of the village : he settles petty
disputes and quarrels, reports crime to the tahsildar, and assists in
the collection of the land-revenue, &c. The patwdri is the village
joccoimtant, both for the land-revenue and customs dues. The
kdntingo i^, in Jaipur, a more assistant to the patwari, as there is
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no record of vfllage rights such as is kept by the kdmingos in
villages in British territory.
Agriculture. — The crops raised in different parts of the
Jaipur territory vary considerably with the different nature of the
soil. In Shekdwati, where there is a deep sandy soil, and where
water is at too great a depth to admit of irrigation to any extent,
there is, in the. main, but one crop a year, raised during the rainy
season and ripening in October and November. This crop consists
principally of bdjrd, as a cereal, and miing and mot as pulses ;
the latter taking the place of the grain grown in firmer soils.
With regard to Jaipur proper, in the immediate neighbour-
hood of the capital, and to the north, the rain-crop is the same as
in Shekdwati, and but little wheat and barley is grown in the
cold season towards the south and east. As the soil becomes richer
and firmer, jowdr and makai (Indian com) take the place of
bdjrd, and cotton and til (sesamam) are also sown during the
rains ; while, in the cold season, wheat, barley, gram, sugarcane,
opium, tobacco, dAl, linseed, and kiistimber (safflower) are exten-
sively grown ; and in the eastern districts rice of a coarse quality
is grown to a limited extent.
Cost of Production. — It is difficult to obtain such information
as will enable a fair average of the cost of production for the country
generally to bo struck ; but the following calculation gives an
approximation of the same in regard to some of the main crops : —
Cold Wbathbb Ceop, Bablby and Wheat.
Rain Cbop, BIjtbX.
Ploughing once '
Seed
Reaping
Threshing and winnowing
Per Bigha.
Rs. A. P.
2
3
3
3 6
Total ...
11 6
Average outturn perbigha, say
3 maunds.
Cost of pi-oduction per maund,
excluding Raj tax, &o.
3 10
Value of 3 maunds at Rs. 1-8 .^
RS.A.P.
4 8
Deduct Raj share and village
haks (say half outturn)
leaves 1^ maunds, value ...
Deduct cost of cultivation
2 4
11 6
Balance as profit of cultivator,
perbigha
s
18 6
JPer Bigha,
Rs. A. P.
Ploughing 4 times
...080
Manuring
...10
Seed 10 to 20 seers
...080
Irrigation from well
...400
Reaping
...0 3
Threshing, Ac.
... 3 6
Total
6 6 6
Average outturn per bigha, say
6 maunds.
Cost of production per maund,
exclusive of Raj tax ,.,111
Maunds.
Outturn, say ... 6
Deduct Raj share and village haks 8
Balance
Value at Rs. 2-4 per maund
Deduct cost of cultivation
Rs.A.
6 12
6 6
P.
6
Balance of profit to cultivator ... 5
6
mm-
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This calculation is made on rather a low average of outturn^
and pre-supposes a certain amount of hired labor ; but it bears out
the statement of the villagers, that, unless they carry out the
cultivation by means of themselves and their families, and with-
out hired labor, but little margin of profit is left to them from the
cold- weather crop. In lands irrigated from some of the new tanks,
only 8 annas per bigha is chained for watering for each crop,
which would give the cultivator a much greater margin of profit.
Cultivation. — ^The mode of cultivation is of the very rudest
description: for the rain-crop the ground is scratched with a
plough as . soon as the fi^t showers fall ; in the case of
bdjrd the furrows being often some distance apart, so that the
plough may cover as much ground as possible in a short space
of time. The seed is generally sown at the time of ploughing, by
means of a long funnel attached to the plough. In the sandy
tracts of Shekdwati, camels are yoked to the ploughs, instead of
bullocks. For the cold- weather crops which are irrigated (with the
exception of gram), the ground is generally ploughed four times,
the first ploughings being done in September, and the seed sown
in October, either with the funnel above noted or broadcast. A
rough implement, composed of a flattened log of wood, is then
drawn over the ground, so as to cover over the seeds and com-
press the earth.
The field is next divided into small square beds, by means
of a large wooden scraper called datdli, water-courses being
made between the beds at intervals to enable the crop to be irri-
gated. Except in places where the land can be irrigated by water-
courses from tanks, this operation is carried on by drawing water
from wells by means of a large leather bag called charas,
attached to a rope running over a wheel supported over the well
on wooden pillars, the rope being drawn by bullocks. In some low-
lying lands where water is very near the surface, small fields and
garden-crops are irrigated by means of a small leather bucket
raised by a long wooden lever. The grain is reaped with a small
sickle cialled dantli; and the ancient custom of treading out
the com by means of cattle still obtains. Rotation of crops
seems to be but little regarded, as, owing to the quantity of
uncultivated groimd, it is easy to let fields lie fallow for a
time. The principal vegetables grown are — ^a large kind of white
radish, onions, chillies, spinach, cucimibers and gourds of kiiids,
egg-plants, &c. ; and in the spring large quantities of melons are
grown in the sandy beds of nalaa.
Irrigation.— -Wi^ the exception of a few simple irrigation-
cuts from perennial streams and the remains of some earthen
village bunds, no traces of irrigation-works of any importance
are found. Since 1868| howeveri the Eaj has spent Bs. 50|000
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annually in develbping the irrigation capabilities of the State :
56 works have been completed up to date, and 24 are in progress.
These comprise repairs to existing broken village-tanks and some
new projects; a few of some importance, such as Mora Sagar, Rae-
sar Lake, Khoa irrigation-cut, &c. The water-rate has been fixed
at 8 annas per bigha for each crop, which usually receives three
waterings. In cases when a field is higher than the level of the
water, and a bucket is required to raise the water, 4 annas are
charged. That irrigation is profitable when the works are carried
out under favorable circumstances, is proved beyond doubt — about
6 per cent, having been gained in the return on most of the works
hitherto carried out ; but it is necessary to see that there is good
storage, good land to receive the water^ men to cultivate it, and
that there is not too large an outlay in the first instance, whether
from expensive supervision, unnecessary work, or any other cause.
Population.
Population. — ^Without a census (which has never yet been
taken), the population of the Jaipur State can only be very
roughly calculated. It has been estimated by those who have
experience of this part of the country, that the density of the
population of Shekdwati, which has an area of about 5,000 square
mQes, and where the towns are comparatively far apart, will
average about 50 to the square mile ; and if Jaipur proper,
which has an area of about 9,465 square miles, is taken at 150
to the square mile (a very moderate estimate), the population of
Jaipur proper will be about 1| million, or a total of about If
million for the whole territory. With regard to the capital itself,
a regular census was taken in 1870, since when, it is believed,
there has not been any considerable increase. The result of the
census was as follows :—
Men ... ... 54,^^16
Women ... ... 50,620
Boys ... ..• 19,45a
Girls ... ... 13,059
Total ... 187,847
The proportions of the different classes have been estimated as
follows : —
B&jputs ... ... i
Other Hindus ... ... i
Muhammadans ... ... i^V
Jains ... ..' -A"
As regards other Hindus, the Minas, perhaps, equal the Mjpiits
T
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in numbers ; next in numerical order come the Brdhmans, a great
proportion of whom are Bagra Brdhmans, a lower order of the
class, who cultivate the soil; then Banyas, Gujars, Jdts; after which
come the numerous Hindu castes comprising the artizan and menial
<3lasses. With regard to the distribution of the different classes,
Minas are most numerous along the eastern border, and in the
south-east; Rdjptits and Banyas are more evenly distributed;
Brdhmans and Gujars are most numerous in the southern and
central districts ; and J^ts in the north, in the neighbourhood of
■the capital, and to the west. There Is a considerable number of
Muhammadans, and the Kdim Khdnis form a large class in
^hekdwatl.
Castes, Clans, and Tribes. — The following are some of the
j)rincipal castes in the Jaipur State : —
The higher class of Brdhmans are in service or officiate in
temples, &c. ; but there is a lower class
BjAhmans. called Bdgra Brdhmans who are very
numerous, and who form one of the principalclasses<rf cultivators
in the Jaipur State.
The greater portion of the R^jpdts in Jaipur belong to the,
Kachhwdha clan ; they are of three classes :
BAjpiits. — ^^^^ those who hold estates ; 2nd, those
in service ; 3rd, those who till the soil. The third class are not very
numerous. R^ijptits will not work as cultivators unless pfressed
l)y poverty. The Shekdwat E/^jpiits are noticed Hinder Itie head
^* Principal Thdkurs '' at page 138.
A very numerous ^class, consisting of a great many xdans : the
Banyas, and Mah^ans. or banking class are principally Jains ; and
^asikers. the bauyas, or traders, Blndus.
An aboriginal race who held the country previous to the ad-
vent of the Rdjptits ; they are very nimie-
rous in Jaipur and Shekdwati; they are
^f two classes — ^Ist, chaukiddrs or watchmen, also professional
robbers; 2nd, zamindari Minas, who have settled down to
cultivation.
^ ,.^ Both gain their living by cultivation :
-Gmars and Jats. j.x. i* • x •
^ the former are very numerous m Jaipur.
3 „ ^ . These are two principal castes of those
JUuTS and Babans. , , *i., • ii j. j -i
commonly met vrith m all towns and vil-
lages. They are herdsmen, also cultivators.
The proportion of Muhammadans in Jaipur is very small ; but
•r t. J TTA- Tn.- - i^i Shekdwati there is a very numerous
Muhammadans :KaimKii«nis. , . i-rr>»» -m i > i • •
class termed Kaim Khams, who were origi-
nally Chohdn B/djputs, but were converted to Islam. They are
said to have formerly owned the tract of country now called
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Shekdwati, but were afterwards dispossessed^ by SKeEji, iRer
founder of the Shekdwat clan of Rdjputs.
Religion. — The mass of the population consists of Hindus, fol-
lowers of Vishnu or Shiva, the former predominating, and attached
mainly to the specific adoration of Krishna. Gtanesh, too, is very
generally worshipped, as also Itevi or Kali, and Sitala Mdta,
the latter two especially by the Minas. Mahddeo or Shiva, under
its numerous forms,, is worshipped to a considerable extent ; the
Maharaja himself being a follower of this sect, his tutelary deity
being Rdj Rdjeshwdr, one of the forms of Mahadeo. Of
the Hindu in^pendent sects who have a peculiar doctrine
and worship, the most notable is the Dddu Panth, which had its
origin, and still has its head-quarters, at Barahana (near the Sam-
bhar Lake), within Jaipur territory. Here is a shrine and monas- •
tery, built near the spot where, the founder of the faith (Dadu),.,
who lived about the time of Akbar^ or in the sixteenth century,
vanished.. His book is in great vogue,, and many still follow his
doctrme as therein expounded, and as interpreted by his successors,,
the religious superiors at the shrine. The devotees shave the head,,
adore only the book, and preach mysticism, and. morality, travers-
ing the land on regular circuit to spread the word and commune
with disciples. The Ndgas of Jaipur are a sect of militant devotees
belonging ta the BMu Panthi sect, who are enrolled in regiments
to serve the State ; they are vowed to celibacy and to arms, and
constitute a sort of military order in the sect.
State of Society. — Some of the chief s and principal thdkursor
Rdjptit aristocracy are wealthy land-owners ; but many are poor
and in debt. As regards the mahajans, or banking classy
many of them are very rich, and they are, as a rule-, well-to-do*
The petty traders> the artizan clasSj heads of villages, and a
certain proportion of agriculturists-, may be said to enjoy a certain
degree of prosperity, on the whole ; but the peasant cultivators are'
generally in debt to the Borahs, or money-lenders, and the mass
of them live from hand to mouth. The Jdts are generally the
most prosperous ; next come the Gujars and Brdhmans ; but the-
Minas are almost always poor.
The aristocracy and the richer classes live ininasonry houses ;
the subordinate chiefs and great kinsmen of the ruling chief
usually have their houses well fortified, sometimes living in castles-
upon hills, sometimes in houses in the village at the foot of the
hill, which is surrounded by the fort as a citadel of refuge. The
leading nobles keep up much rude state, and desire to be as inde-
pendent as possible of the court at Jaipur ; their success varies
according to the relative forces of the nobles and the administra^-
tion. They are obliged to attend court on certain periods and.
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occasions, when they are usually in opposition to the official
bureaucratic element. In Shekdwati the towns present a very
fine appearance from the houses being built of blocks of white stiff
clay, cut from the kankar beds and allowed to dry in the villages ;
by far the greater number of petty dwelling-houses are built of
stone or brick and mud, or of mud only, and roofed with tiles or
thatch. The villages are almost invariably surrounded with a
high fence of dried thorns. In the Shekdwati districts, more remote
from head-quarters, the people have always been more turbulent
and less inclined to obey the head-quarters administration than
elsewhere. They belong to a separate sept of the Kachhwahas;
and their chiefs rule their own estates with little interference
from, and great jealousy of, the chief of the State. The dress
of the people seems to be much the same as in other parts
of Rdjputdna; but the Pheta turban — that is, a turban formed
with narrow and twisted, instead of broad, flat, bands — seems very
generally worn. The inhabitants follow the usual Hindu and
Muhammadan customs. The greater proportion of the men go
about armed ; the richer classes keep bailis (carriages drawn by
bullocks), saddle-horses, and riding-camels.
The food of the inhabitants is much the same as in other parts
of Northern India. Rajputs, and many other classes of Hindus
and Muhammadans, eat meat ; in Shekawati bdjrd forms the staple
article of food.
Trade.
Manufactures. — Although the Jaipur State can perhaps
scarcely be called a manufacturing country, still, some of its pro-
ductions have acquired a wide notoriety for their great excellence
in design, texture, and finish. Amongst these may be mentioned,
marble-sculpture, enamel- work, woollen cloths and fabrics. An
extensive trade is also carried on in dyeing, which is confined prin-
cipally to the ancient town of Sanganer ; the waters of the Amdn-i-
Shdh river, on whose banks it is situated, being said to possess
some peculiar properties favorable to the dyeing process.
The materials for this branch of industry are procured from
„ , , , . the marble quarries at Makrdna,* in Mar-
Marble sculpture. i.«i.«ij i«j. ii p
war, which yield a white marble of very
fine quality, and from Baisldnd, in Jaipur territory, where a
black marble is obtained. The principal articles manufactured are
images and ornamental figures, for which there is a large and
steadily-increasing demand. The trade is carried on almost
exclusively by a class of Brahmans called SiUwats.
* Makrdiia is about 20 miles from the Sambhar Salt Lake, on the Jaipur border.
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In this work, originally imported from Benares, Jaipur stands
justly pre-eminent. The enamelling is
^^' done on gold, and is beautifully and taste-
fully executed in various colors, the ruby being the most prized.
Specimens of Jaipur enamel- work were exhibited at the late Inter-
national Exhibitions at Paris, London, and Vienna, and also form-
ed part of the presents lately taken to England by His Royal
Highness the Prince of Wales, and were specially admired. Some
of the principal mineral agents employed by the trade, such as
cobalt and sulphate of copper, are obtainable in the hills near
Khetrl, in the Jaipur State. In connection with enameDing,
Jaipur carries on a brisk trade, both locally and with other parts
of India, in the setting of precious stones in ornamental jewellery.
The more important products under this head are the chakmds
(floor-cloths) and ghogis (felt- wrappers)
00 en a ncs. manufactured at Mdlpura, about 60 miles
/south from Jaipur ; a class of goods wMch are extensively
used in E;djpiitdna, and for which M^pura enjoys considerable
notoriety. The other but less important manufactures are gold
and silver lace, celebrated for its purity, delicacy of texture, and
durability ; ornamental shoes and shellac bracelets {churls), some
of the latter articles being beautifully and expensively colored and
gilt, and much worn by the upper class of native women through-
out the country. A coarse cotton cloth for local consumption is
also very generally manufactured in the villages.
Commerce. — The principal articles of export and import of
the Jaipur State are as follows : —
Cotton, grain, oil-seeds, sugar, printed cloths, hides, wool
^ _, from Shekdwati, marble images, churls.
Exports. ^
Grain and sugar from the North-West, English piece-
j^ ^ goods, hardware, spices, and miscella-
^ * neous.
The annual value of the external trade of the State about
1874i-75 may be fairly estimated at — exports, 35 to 40 lakhs of
rupees ; imports, 66 to 70 lakhs of rupees.'
The above figures are exclusive of the large export of salt from
the Sambhar Lake to the North- West by rail, which, now that the
lake is worked by the British Government, and the transit-duties
on the salt have been relinquished by the Jaipur State, does not
in any way affect, financially, the trade of the territory. But
what gives importance to the commerce of the State is the large
banking and exchange business carried on at the capital, and in
the larger towns in Shekdwati, where it may be said to be out of
all proportion to the legitimate operations of trade. At the
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capital of Jaipur, which is the money market for all Rdj-
ptitdna, there are as many as seven banking firms, doing an
aggregate business of about two and a half crores of rupees,
and possessing a capital of upwards of six millions sterling.
In addition to these, there are several minor houses whose
collective business may be estimated at half a crore of rupees
a year. The large apparent excess in the amount of the imports
over the exports is accounted for chiefly by the large trade that
is carried on in precious stones and metals, which is not
included in the returns of the Darbdr. These are imported in the
rough and less valuable state, and sent out, manufactured, to the
houses of the wealthy Marwaris in Shekdwati, Bikanir, &c. An-
other cause of the excess in question is, that the Jaipur bankers,
having, as a rule, branch firms at all the chief marts in British
India with which trade is carried on by the State, a large share of
the imports is paid for by drafts on these places. The importation
of gold to Jaipur (another item excluded from the returns of the
Darbdr) is not less than 25 lakhs of rupees a year. Much of this
finds its way to the mint for coinage into the celebrated Jaipur
gold-mohur, of which not less than 100,000 are yearly exported
to the large trading and banking cities in British India.
Administkation.
Judicial St/stem. — ^The general Nizdmat^, or administrative
sub-divisions, are under officials termed Nazims, who are district
magistrates or civil judges. All original suits in the districts are
filed in their courts. At the capital, all civil suits below Rs. 300
are filed in the subordinate civil courts, termed munsif s' courts ;
and suits above that amount come before the chief civil court,
termed the sadr diwdni addlat, which also hears appeals from
the nazims' and munsifs' court. With the exception of petty
criminal cases, which go before the dty k6tw41, all original
criminal cases at the capital are tried in the court of the city
magistrate, termed the faujddri addlat. There is also an appel-
late court at the capital, which hears appeals from the sadr
diwdni and faujddri addlats. In all civil suits below Rs. 500, the
appellate court's decision is final. All civil suits above that
amount, and all criminal cases, are appealable to the Council,
which, being the highest tribimal in the State, is the final court
of appeal. It may be here remarked that in Jaipur a suitor's
difficulties are by no means ended when he has passed all Courts
and obtained his final decree.
Jails. — ^There is only one jail in Jaipur, which is situated at
the capital, outside the city-walls^ It is very well conducted^ and
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is a great credit to the State. The average number of prisoners,
male and female, is over a thousand — a large number by compa-
rison with the State's population. They are employed outside
the walls, but a system of intramural labor has been introduced
which promises well.
Police. — ^The police of the State, which was formerly
undivided, is now composed of two distinct and separate
bodies : one, which may be called the "rural" police, consisting
of chaukiddrs and tahsil sepoys in the different towns and
villages, and acting under the orders of the magisterial authorities
of their respective districts ; the other being the general police,
who exercise independent powers in all police matters within
their respective jurisdictions, and are directly subordinate to the
Darbdr and its advisers. The police arrangements at the capital
consist of a number of police and watchmen located at the
k6twdli, and in different parts of the city, who are inmiediately
under the k6twal of the city.
Army. — There are in the State 38 forts, and other defensible
places, mounting some 200 pieces of ordnance of all calibres. The
Ndgas — a military order of the Dddu Panthi sect, which has been
already mentioned — number between 4,000 and 5,000, and are
reputed to be faithful and daring, and, as such, are more feared
than other troops of the State. They will not undergo^^ny disci-
pline, wear no uniform, and are armed with sword, spear, match-
lock, and shield. During the general mutinies of 1857, these
were the only body of men really true to the chief, and, but
for them, the so-called regular army would have rebelled. The
maintenance of the army costs the Darbdr about Rs. 6,20,000
annually.
There is a gun-factory at the capital; but the manufacture
of ordnance, especially of larger calibre, is extremely limited.
Mint.— The only mint now existing in the Jaipur State is
the one at the capital, which is celebrated for the purity of its
gold and silver coinage. The coins struck are gold-mohurs, rupees,
and copper pieces. The process (which is of the most primitive
description) of hammering, purifying, and cutting and clipping
the blanks to the proper size, occupies from ten to fifteen days ;
then follows the stamping, which is done by hand, and with dies
made by engravers on the premises. The institution is capable of
turning out as many as ten or twelve thousand gold, and as many
silver, coins per diem ; and the average yearly coinage value is in
gold* twenty lakhs of rupees and silver ten lakhs of rupees. By a
system of depreciation which takes place in the value of the Jaipur
gold and silver coinage, at the rate of 1 per cent, triennially,
• Owing to the high price of gold, the gold coinage has fallen off considerably since 1872.
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during the reign of the issuing chief, and a further annual frac-
tional reduction on the accession of a successor, very few old gold
or silver coins are to be found, the circulating medium either
finding its way back to the mint for re-coinage, or being broken
up into jewellery and personal ornaments, for which the purity
of the metals renders them so very suitable. The copper money
of which formerly 35 pieces, or 17 1 takhds (subject to fluctuation
of exchange), went to the rupee, has lately been assimilated with
the copper currency of British India, both with regard to weight
and uniformity of value, the old device being alone retained. The
Jaipur coinage is distinguished from that of other native inde-
pendent States by the thar (sprig) which is borne on the reverse,
the English translaition of the inscription written in the Persian
character being as follows : —
{Obverse.y
{Severte.)
The gold-mohur weighs 167-8 grains, the metal being absolute-
ly pure ; and the rupee, which is alloyed with 4^ grains troy of
copper, weighs 175 grains, the alloy being added after assay.
The market value of the gold and silver coinage depends on the
fluctuation of exchange ; but the par value of the mohur at Jaipur
is 16 rupees, and of the rupee 17 annas of our currency.
Post Offices. — There are, in all, 38 imperial post-offices in the
Jaipur State, supplemented by the local postal service of the State,
which extends throughout the territory ; and although its primary
object is the transmission of official orders and reports, it is of consi-
derable use to the public at large. The State issues no postage
stamps ; the postage, the rates of which are much the same as those
in British India, being realized by a money payment.
Telegraph Offices. — ^The telegmph-line from the North-Western
Provinces to Bombay runs through the Jaipur State, with an
office at the capital .
Education. — In Jaipur, public instruction has made greater
progress than in any other State of Rajputana, during the admin-
istration of the present Maharaja Edm Singh, who maintains
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the traditional taste of his house for the encouragement of letters
and learning. The college at the capital, which was opened in
1844 with about 40 pupils, had in 1875 a daily class attendance of
800,* and could compare fevorably with similar institutions of its
kind and status in British India. The college staff consisted of
15 English teachers, 12 moulvi8(or Persian teachers), and 4 pan-
dits (or Hindi teachers) ; and the annual cost of nciaintenance,
borne exclusively by the Maharaja, was then about Rs. 24,000.
Here, the students receive a well-grounded English and vernacular
education, and are prepared for the Matriculation and Fine Arts
examinations of the Calcutta University, with which the college was
affiliated in 1873. There is also at the capital a well-attended school
for the instruction of the sons of the tbiJcurs and higher officials
of the State. There is also a Sanskrit college, attended by about
250 pupils; and a school with several local branches for the edu-
cation of girls and young women, which has an attendance of 600
pupils, mcHstly of the Brdhman and Banya classes. There is,
besides, a School of Industrial Art established at the capital by the
Maharaja in A.D. 1866. In the districts there are 33 elementary
schools, wholly supported by the State, and 379 indigenous ones,
all more or less so supported, with an aggregate class attendance
of nearly 8,000. These schools impart elementary instruction in
Hindi and Urdu. Gi^ere are also ten patwdri schools in the
different districts, attended mostly by sons of patwdris, who are
taught surveying and keying of village accounts. The whole of
the district schools are periodically inspected by two officials
appointed for that purpose by the State.
Communications. — ^The Agra and Ajmer road is a first-class
^ , metalled road, 127i miles in length,
Agra and Aimer Boad. i-i-j* x j j ^
general direction east and west, run-
ning across the Jaipur territory from east to west, and touch-
ing the capital about midway. The road, together with
staging-bungalows throughout at convenient mtervals, was con-
structed by the Maharaja, the British Government contributing
one-fifth of the cost. It is much less used since the railway to Ajmer
opened, and the staging-bungalows are not now kept up by the
State. With the exception of the rivers Dhtind and Bdndl, and a
few nalaSy it is bridged and metalled throughout.
This is a second-class metalled road, length from Jaipur to Tonk
• . . m 1. T> ^ 60 miles, of which the 4S milesin the Jaipur
Jaipur and Tonk Boad. i-j-i •• ixjtj. i
territory have been completed. Its general
direction is due south from Jaipur, passing close to the Jaipur
towns^ of Sanganer, Chdtsii, and Newai. There is a staging-
* TWichoiUuet bdng for thfliinost pffft Hindus^ onlj abou^ one-sixth being llnhammadani.
U
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bungalow at Ch&tsti maintained by the Jaipur Darb^r, aiid a
ferry at the point where the road crosses the river Bands, near
Deoli.
A toetd^Ued road, under eonstruction in 1875 from the Mandd-
mr ^^_/ A^ ,. T> J "w^ station of the Rdjptitdna State Eail-
Mandawar and Karauli Boad. . ., i j ^ •'a ji -rr^ i» j.
way to the bord^ of the Karaun ter-
ritory, passes the large towns of Mowd and Hindaun in the
Jaipur State. Length of road, 49 miles.
Trade Routes. — ^The principal trade-route of Jaipur now, is
the Edjpiitdna State Railway line from Agra to Ajmeir, run-
ning east and west through the capital and the centre of the State,
by which nearly the whole of the Sambhar salt finds its way to
the North- Western Provinces and the Panjdb, and by which near-
ly the whole of the imports, such as English piece-goods, hard-
ware, spices, grain, and EohUkhand sugar for the south-west por*
tions of the State, are carried. Some of the other main articles of
export, such as cotton, grain, oil-seeds, coarse cloth, Sanganer
chintz, &c., are also carried by therailway . There is but little teaffic
northward from the capital, as the trade of Shekdwati travels, prin-
cipally, either north-east to the great mart of BhawAni, in Hisar,
or south-west to Ajmer. The principal export from SheMwatiis
wool ; and the imports are Bohilkhand sugar, English piece-goods,
hardware, spices, tobacco, &c. Owing to the sandy nature of
the soil, camels are used almost entirely in the ShekdWati trade.
The ManddwAr and Karauli road, noticed under the head of
" Communications,'* is now becoming an important trade-route
since the opening of the railway, Hindaun being the principal mart
for all the cotton, grain, oil-seeds, raw sugar, tobacco, &c., grown in
the south and east of the Jaipur State. Salt for the south-eastern
portions of the State, and for the Jhansi salt-marts, also passes by
this route, which is superseding the former route vid Bhartpur
and Eatehpur-Sikri. There is also a considerable trade in
copper and brass vessels from the town of Siwai Mddhoptir, in
the south-east comer of the estate where these articles are largely
manufactured, and exported southward, vid Indargarh, into the
Hardoti State ; the return trade being grain from Kotah, &c.
Bullocks and donkeys are the chief mode of transport on
this route. There is but little salt-trade now from Sambhar and
Nawah, south-east through the Jaipur State to Hardoti, as the
banjd/rda go principally vid Marwar and Ajmer*
Towns.
Frincvpal Totvm. — ^ijtnber, a very ancient city now crum-
, bling to ruins, was formerly the capital of
"^ '• the Jaipur State. Nothing is known in
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regard to the earlier history of Amber; but, in A.D. 1037, the
Kaehhwdha Rdjptits, shortly after obtaining a footing in this part
of the country, conquered Amber from the king of the Susawat
Minas, the head of the Mina confederation, after a long and
protracted struggle. The seat of Rdjpiit power was thereupon
transferred from Kho to Amber, which became the capital of the
coimtry, and gaine the name to the State. ]VIany concessions
were made to the Susawat Minas : villages in the immediate
neighbourhood were given to them, and they only were to guard
the Rdjp^t citadel and treasury, &c., — ^rights which they still
enjoy. Amber continued to be the capital of the State tUl A.D.
1728, when the seat of power was transferred by the celebrated
Siwai Jai Singh II, who foimded the present capital, called
Jaipur after him.
■Amber is situated in a valley of the range, about five miles
north of the present capital, and is almost entirely surrounded
by hills. The site was well chosen by the Minas as a safe ^and
secret stronghold in those troubled times. There are many objects
of interest at Amber : the fine old Il6jput palace is weU worthy
of a visit, and the view from the top is strikingly picturesque
and beautiful. Except as a very interesting relic of antiquity.
Amber is now of no importance, for the city is almost deserted
and the buildings falling into decay.
This is a considerable town in the Shekdwati district of the
State, about 120 mUes north-west from
**^^ Jaipur. It is walled, and possesses a fort
of some pretensions ; and has an imperial post-oflB.ce.
Bkgm is a town of some importance on the Agra and Ajmer
^^^ trunk road, about 18 mUes south-west
^^^ from Jaipur, and the residence of one of
the principal thdkurs of the State. A considerable trade is carried
on in dyeing and printing cotton stuffs ; an imitation of the
more celebrated Sanganer work. Above a mile to the east is a
commodious staging-bungalow maintained by the Maharaja of
Jaipur.
A town of some importance on the Agra and Nasfrabdd route,
CMtad about 24 miles south-east from Jaipur.
There are eight fairs held annually at the
place^ some of them largely attended. The town has a dispen-
sary and establishment maintained by the Maharaja.
A large, flourishing, and fortified town, about 18 miles north
^^.^ of the city of Jaipur, and the seat of the
^^ th^ur of that name, the premier noble
of the State. It has a dispensary and establishment maintained
by the Maharaja,
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A large town (raflway^station) 38 mfles east from Jaipur^
situated in the immediate vicinity of the
^^^^ Bdjptitdna State Railway, and the Agra
and Ajmer trunk road, which cross each other at this point.
Dausa was once the capital of the State before Amber was wrested
from the Minas. It stands on the slope of a large, isolated,
flat hill, nearly four miles in circumference, and fortified with
a loopholed wall and bastions of considerable strength. The
town contains numerous Hindu temples and ancient edifices,
which are, however, fast hurrying to decay. At the close of the
Mutiny of 1867-58, Tantia Topi, the famous rebel leader, was
caught between two colimms of British troops in the neighbour-
hood of Dausa, when a battle was fought under the walls.
There is a staging-bungalow and dispensary maintained by
the Maharaja ; also an imperial post-office at the railway-*
station. Six fairs are held at the place annually.
An important and thriving town, 42 miles south from Jaipur.
j^^^ Has a nrad fort of some strength, and
^^ is surroimded by a wall of the same
material. It is chiefly remarkable for the important fair
" Kalidnji/' which is held annually, and attended by some 16,000
pilgrims.
A considerable town on the Agra and Ajmer trunk road, 41
j^^^ miles west from Jaipur. In the centre of
the town is a small but neat citadel, and
the place is surrounded by a mud wall. There is a dispensary
with establishment in the town, and a staging-bungalow close by,
both maintained by the Maharaja.
A thickly-popidated town of some importance, 70 miles south
j^^ from Jaipur, possessing a fort, and sur-
rounded by a mud wall. It is remarkable
for the resolute and successful defence which it made against the
efforts of Daulat Eao Sindia to take it in A.D. 1809.
A fortified town in the district of Shekdwati, belonging to the
Fateh TIT Slkar chief ship, a tributary of Jaipur,
^^' situated 145 miles north-west from Jaipur.
Although yet a thriving place, it has lost much of the prosperity
and vigour which it acquired during the rule of Rao Raja I^chh-
mdn Singh, a former chief of Slkar, who had his residence here.
There is an imperial post-office.
A large commercial town on the Agra and Mhow route.
Hindatm. ^^^ f ortifications, which at one time were
considerable, are now fast going to decay.
It is remarkable for the important Mdhdbhir fair which is held
at the place annually, attended by as many as 100,000 pilgrims.
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There are an imperial post-office and a dispensary^ tlie flatter
maintained by the Jaipur Darbdr.
A handsome and flourishing town belonging to the zamin-
dari of one of the principal thdkurs of
the State, situate near the banks of the
river Bands, 60 miles south from Jaipur. It has a citadel,
and is surrounded by a wall and moat of considerable pre-
tensions.
The capital of the State, Jaipur is situate on the Bdjpiitdna
State BaQway line, and the Agra and
^^^* Ajmer trunk road, 149 miles east from
the latter, in latitude 26"* 56' and longitude TS"" 56'. It is the
largest town, and the chief commercial centre of RdjpiitAna;
and, having been carefully laid out in comparatively recent times
by a chief of remarkable character, it is in many respects the
finest of modem Hindu cities. Tie city, which takes its name
(Jainagar or Jaipur) from the famous Maharaja Siwai Jai
Singh II, by whom it was founded in the year A.D. 1728, stands
on a small plain or basin, conjectured to be the bed of a lake,
having on all sides, except the south, where the ranges diverge,
rugged hills, the summits of whioh are now at all the import*
ant points crowned with forts. At the end of the ridge over-
hanging the city on the north-west, stands the chief defensive
work, Nahargarh, or the "Tiger Fort,'* the rock face of which is
so scarped as to be inaccessible on the south, or city side, while
on the north the ridge slopes towards Amber. A masonry cre-
nelated wall, averaging in height 20 feet and in thickness 9
feet, surrounds the whole city. There are seven gateways fur-
nished with screen-walls, all ouilt of the same pattern, witir^Ewo.^
kiosks above and macldconlis over the entrance. At nearly
equal distances are bastions and towers, pierced for cannon,
while the parapet is loopholed for musketrv. The city is remark-
able for the regularity and wideness of its streets, and the
architectural beauty of the mosques, temples, and private resi-
dences which adorn them. From east to west the city is a little
over two miles in length, and in breadth about one and a quarter
mile. It is laid out in rectangular blocks; two wide roads
cross the central one, dividing the city into six equal portions ;
these, again, are intersected at even intervals by streets of
less width, the sub-division proceeding \mtil at last the thorough-
fares become lanes. The main street^ — ^which are paved, drained,
and lighted by gas manufactured outside the city-walls — ^are
111 feet in width, the secondary ones 55 feet, and the next 27^
feet ; the business buildings, and the more important places of
worship^ being in the widest thoroughfares^ the houses of the
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nobility and the citizens in the outlying quarters, while the Maha-
raja's palace with its pleasure-grounds occupies the central block
and an area of about one-seyenth of the whole town. The city
is well provided with hospitals, dispensaries, alms-houses, and
schools. Good drinking-water has also been brought into the city
by iron pipes from the Amdn-i-Shdh river, about four miles off,
thus conferring a great boon on the inhabitants, who had previously
to bring drinking-water from outside the city. For such a large
place, very little trade is carried on, and this is for the most
part con&ied to banking and exchange business. The popula-
tion, including that of the suburbs, is estimated at 140,000. An
imperial post-office, a telegraph-office, and the British Residency
are all located outside the city- walls. There is also a staging-
bungalow and a hotel for the benefit of the nimierous travellers
and tourists who visit the place.
The capital of a tributary (Jaipur) chief ship of the same
name, yielding an annual revenue of over
Bs. 4,00,000, situated in the Shekdwati
district of the State, 75 miles north from Jaipur. It is fortified
by a citadel of some strength on the summit of a hill 1,000 feet
above the town. In the immediate neighbourhood are valuable
copper mines, capable of being worked to a large extent, the water
in which is rich in sulphate of copper and alum, and in which
there is a considerable export trade. The place is provided with
schools (both English and vernacular) and a dispensary. There
is also an imperial post-office.
A pargana in the Torawdti district of Jaipur belonging to
_.._,.,. the chief of Khetrl, on whom it was con-
ferred, m perpetmty, by Lord Lake in
A.D. 1803, for military services. The town of Kot Putli, distant
from Jaipur 74 miles north-east, posse^es a fort and other defen-
sible structures, which were of great importance when held by
the Marathas, before their subjugation by Lord Lake. Its annual
revenue is about Rs. 1,00,000. There is an imperial post-office
at the town.
A large fortified town belonging to the Sikar chiefship (a
LaciiimiaiuraTh fcudatory of Jaipur), and named after Rao
acniunangar . B/Si^a Lachhmdn Singh, a former Sikar
chief, by whom the place was founded in A.D. 1806. It is built
after the model of the city of Jaipur, and contains many handsome
edifices, occupied principally by the banking class, the chief
traders of the town. There is an imperial post-office.
An ancient but not a large town, 40 miles west from Jaipur;
N4rain4 coutauis scvcral tcmplcs of interest, and
famous as the head-quarters of the PMu
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Panthis, a religious, though not veiy ntimferous, sect, who profess
to worship one God unrepresented by an image or without a
temple ; their saints, being celibates, maintaining a succession by
adoption. From the Dadu Panthis, the foot-soldiers of the State
called Nagas are obtained, numbering between 4,000 and 5,000,
and to whose fidelity, daring, and moral influence as soldiers, is
attributed the steadfastness of the general army of the Jaipur
State to the British cause during the Mutiny of 18$7-58.
A town in the Shekdwati dependency of Jaipur, belonging to
a feudatory th^ur of the State, situate
awaigar . ^^ miles north-wcst from Jaipur, having a
yearly revenue of Bs. 76,000. There is an imperial post-office
at the place.
The chief town of a tribute-paying dependency of the Jaipur
^^.^^ State of the same name, 70 miles south
^^ ^* from the city of Jaipur ; the annual reve-
nue being about Rs. 3,00,000. It is a large fortified town.
A large, handsomely-built town on the north-west frontier of
V /ov. , . xx the State, 100 miles north-west from
Bamgarn (Shekawati). ^ • • xi j. •
Jaipur, possessmg the most miposmg
appearance as it is approached from the north. It contains
many palatial edifices belonging to. wealthy bankers, by whom
it is chiefly peopled. There is an imperial post-office at the
place.
A large and flourishing town, the principal place of a zamin-
sdmod ^^^ ^^ *^^* name held by one of the prin-
cipal thakurs of the State, yielding an
annual revenue of Rs. 1,10,000, situate 24 miles from Jaipur.
The place is defended by a fort of some strength on the summit
of a hill, at the base of which the town stands.
A town on the Jaipur and Jodhpur border, the joint property
Sambhar ^^ *^^ ^^^ Statcs, 39 milcs south-wcst
^^ '* from Jaipur. It is principally remarkable
for its antiquity and the famous Sambhar salt lake, which is des-
cribed in another part of this Gazetteer. In the town itself there
is nothing of interest. There is an imperial post-office and a
dispensary, the latter maintained by the joint DarbArs.
A flourishing fortified town, on the banks of the Amdn-i-Shdh
g^ ^^ river, 7 miles south-west from Jaipur and
^^^'' 3 miles from the Sanganer station of the
Bdjpiitdna State Railway. Its principal features of interest are
its temples and Jain edifices, one of which is a magnificent struc-
ture, and said to be over a thousand years old. The place is fur-
ther celebrated for its dyeing and printing cotton stuffs, the
water of the Amdn-i-Shdh river being said to possess some pecu-
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liar properties favorable to tiie processes. In this trade a lai^e
business is done.
The capital town of a tributary chiefship of that name in the
^j^ Shekdwati dependency of the State, 72
nules north-west from the city of Jaipur.
It is a large fortified town. The annual revenue of the estate is
Rs. 8,00,000. There is an imperial post-oflSlce at the town.
A town of some size 80 miles north from Jaipur, in the Shekd-
g. j^^^^ wati dependency of the State, accurately
"^ described by Elphinstone as " a handsome
town built of stone on the skirts of a Mil of purplish rock, about
600 feet high." Copper inconsiderable quantities is found in the
neighbouring hills, which, until lately, had been worked from
time immemorial, the subterraneous galleries being in the aggre-
gate many miles in length. The ore is of an inferior description.
The mines, which are the property of the Elhetri chief and which
at one time yielded considerable revenue, have been closed sincel872,
owing, it is said, to the difficulty and expense which was latterly en-
tailed in woricing them. There is an imperial post-office at the place.
Fairs. — There are in all twenty-three places in the Jaipur
State where the more important periodical fairs are held : these
are tabulated in Appendix A.
Soly-places cmd Antiquities. — ^Amongst the more important
of the numerous shrines and antiquities of the Jaipur State may
be mentioned the following : —
A shrine of great sanctity, on the summit of a range of hills
The Guita ^ *^® ®^** ^^^ about 1| mile from the city
of Jaipur. The temple, which is dedicated
to the sun, is a building of the plainest kind, and contains an
image of Surya, the " Sim God." A very fine view of the city
and suburbs is obtained from this point. Below the platform, on
the east side of the range, is a spring, the waters of which, after
passing several artificial wells and reservoirs, pour over the natural
rock into the well- wooded valley beneath, in which are gardens,
shrines, and tanks most picturesquely situated. The water, the
fall of which is about 70 feet, is held sacred by the Brdhmans,
and the priest in charge of the shrine asserts that it is the true
Ganges, a pilgrimage to which is quite as efficacious as to the one
which flows past Hardw^ or Benares.
This is one of the most interesting antiquities of the State.
observator or jantar ^^® obscrvatory, wMch is at the capital,
serva ry or an . ^^ erected by Maharaja Siwai Jai Singh
II, the celebrated " astronomer and mathematician,'* being the
largest of five which he provided at Jaipur, Delhi, Ujain, Mathra,
and Benares ; it has probably not been used since his deaths
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which took place in A.D. 1743. The instruments, which are for
the most part built of masonry covered with lime, upon which
the gradations were most carefully marked, but now from age
peel^ off in places, are of huge size.
Silla Devi (the stone goddess) is a temple of great antiquity,
. located within the precincts of the palacer
^^ at Amber, formerly the capital of the State.
Here, agoatis dailysacrificed — ^the substitute, according to tradition,
for the human victim which was formerly offered up to the goddess.
There is a shrine of apparently great aiitiquity in the old city
. ^ , . of Amber, called Amberlaswas (a title of
Shiva), and from which, it is said. Amber
takes its name.
The monastery and shrines of the Dddu Panthi sect at Naraina
.- . ^ , are of some interest. The monastery is a
Naraina Temples. j -i • j-/i t j.-l j_ • i ±.
striking edifice. In the centre is an elegant
pillared hall on a raised platform, wherein are deposited the palla-
dia of the- faith, the writings of the founder, and where also are the
impressions of his feet and his bed. The whole building is of the
finest Makrdna marble; its cost was supplied by contributions
from neighbouring princes, especially the Maharaja of Jaipur.
Next in order is one of three cenotaphs of pure marble, erected
to the memory of Raja Bh6j, who fell fighting, about A.D.
1677, for the Delhi emperor. The hero's descendants assert that
his hand was so large as to require a sword twice the ordinary size
in the handle. One of the most interesting objects at Naraina is
the mosque, its rear wall rising from the picturesque lake. It
has five rows of ten pillars, carved in the richest style of ancient
Hindu art ; almost all are unlike in their ornamentations, though
generally similar in form, being octagoaal at the base, then passing
into the circle, and having lotus-figure capitals, in this instance
mutilated by the Musalman. They are very similar to those at
the Kiitb near Delhi, and are believed to be of the same age as
the temple of the " Lord of Joy " (Shiva) in Shekdwati, which was
founded in 961 A.D.
Another remarkable edifice is the Tripolia, built, as an
inscription upon it shows, in A.H. 1012, or A.D. 1603.
Many stones of more ancient buildings appear to have been
worked into the mass ; but most notable are the four angles of
a ceiling, exactly similar to that of the portico of the temple of
Baroli (dedicated to Shiva) near the Mukundara pass on the
Ohambal (depicted at page 789, volume II of Tod's Bajasthan).
Sanganer, situated 7 miles from Jaipur, besides being a place
Jain Temples at Sanganer. ^^ ^.^^^ antiquity, pOSS^SCS many fine
specimens of ancient Hindu art : oi the
more remarkable of these are its Jain edifices, of which there
V
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"are several. The more important of these shrines is one of
great size, constructed of marble and sandstone, and believed
to be over a thousand years old. Though smaller, it is very
much similar in style to that of the famous Dilwdra Jain
temple on Mount Abii. Europeans are not admitted into this
temple beyond the outer entrance.
A village situated at the base and on the far side of the range
of hills to the eastward of the capital ; is a
very ancient place, famous as the first
possession of the Kachhwdha Rdjptits in Jaipur. It contains some
old temples, a few images, and some rude but very ancient wells
of the time of the Minas before they were subdued by the R&j-
ptits. Snake worship has its relic in a stone with a cobra in relief
upon it, outside the gate.
A shrine of some antiquity and importance, a little over two
nrndh miles from the capital, where the impres-
ranpadn. sious of the feet of Ramchandra, the d^ed
ancestor of the Maharaja, are worshipped.
A place of very great antiquity, about 40 miles north-west from
BaMtor vairit ^^J*^' «:^? possessing Serines of great age
and sanctity. The capital of Matsya (the
name by which the tract of country at present forming the Jaipur
State was called some nine hundred years ago), and celebrated in
the Hindu legends as the abode of the five Pdndtis during their
exile of twelve years from Delhi or Indraprastha. Historians in
the seventh century describe Bairdt as a town of considerable
importance, and possessed of several Buddhist monasteries ; while
from later historical accounts by Mahmtid of Ghazni, who
invaded the country in A.D. 1009, it is probable that the kingdom
of Bairdt included the greater part of the present State of Jaipur,
Among holy-places must be mentioned Gehtor, a village in a
^ . • , ^ , ^ deep valley in the Nahargarh range, north
Cenotaphs at Gehtor. « /\ • x "^ i i i i ^ i ^ x i
of the city, where the handsome cenotaphs
of the former rulers of Jaipur, since the time of the great Siwai
Jai Singh II, are situated. Among the holy-places and antiquities
of lesser importance in the Jaipur State may be mentioned —
I. The shrine of Bdnganga,
II. The temple of Simolaji, in Chdtsii.
III. The Debdani taMo (tank) and temple at Sambhar.
IV. The temple of Kalidnji at Diggl.
All these are much frequented by the people of the Jaipur and
surroimding States. The architectural remains of Chdtsu, which
are believed to be of great antiquity, are also of some note.
In addition to the above, there are many shrines and relics
of antiquity worthy of note in the Jaipur territory ; but no
detailed information is procurable regarding them. ,
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APPENDIX C.
Statement showing the number of Elementary Schools m the Zilas of Jaipur.
ZiLAS AKD PaBGANAS.
•si
II
II
Bbiuses.
Hindaun
1
1
2
94
Siwai M^hopur
1
1
2
63
„ CMtsii
1
1
2
57
Pargana Newai
1
...
37
Malama
...
1
23
Mdlpura
...
1
25
Dausa
,1
. . .
29
Basw£
1
...
85
Bairfit
1
...
32
Prfigptira
1
...
29
Tordwati (Ramghar)
1
1
52
Sambhar
1
« . .
80
TalnV a Sri Mddhopur . . .
...
1
18
Kot Bdndwar
1
• . .
28
Toda Rai Singh
...
1
29
Kasba Sanganer
1
1
43
„ Amber
• ••
1
85
Sbekdwati
• . •
• ••
,,,
• • t
Udaipur
1
• • •
80
Jhunjhnu
1
• • •
73
Thikana-ka-Gfion
Total
8
1
9
82
22
11
83
844
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APPENDIX D.
Statement thowing the number of Maktubs and Chattalae in {he Jaipur
territory partially supported by the Bdj.
Localities.
1
1
^
Total namber' of
Pupils.
Siwai Jaipur
44
91
135
1,304
Zila Jaipur
2
89
41
702
„ Hindaun
• • •
7
7
118
Siwai Mildhopur
1
8
9
205
Chdtsu
...
8
8
167
Maldma
3
13
16
299
Dausa
1
23
24
419
Basw£
1
15
16
305
Tordwati
%
29
81
1,137
Fargana Sambhar
...
8
8
82
Zila Gting&pur
a
15
17
309
,, Lalsot
...
6
6
273
,, TodaBhim
1
6
7
139
,, Shekdwati
7
81
88
1,070
M^lpura ••
...
8
8
273
Fagi
1
4
5
188
Bairdt
•••
6
5
79
Kot Kdsim ••• ••• •••
1 .
2
8
47
Total
. 66
313
879
7,061
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JESALMER:
COMPILED BY
Lieutenant-Colonel 0. K. M. WALTER,
POLITICAL AGENT.
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GAZETTEER OF JESALMER.
Geography.
Boundaries and Area. — ^The State of Jesalmer lies generally
between latitude 26° 5' and 28" 24' north, and longitude 69' 30' and
72° 50' east ; its greatest length, east and west, being 172 miles, and
greatest breadth, north and south, 136 miles. It is of the shape
of an irregular oval, the longer axis being 215 miles lying north-
east and south-west. It is bounded on the north by Bhawalpur, on
the east by Bikanir and Marwar, on the south by Marwar, and on
the west by Sind. The area of the State is 16,447 square miles.
Configuration. — The country is almost entirely a sandy desert,
except in the portion north and south of the town of Jesalmer,
which is very stony, being a continuation of the hills of Bdrmer
in Mallani. These extend about 40 miles north of the city, with
a breadth of 10 or 12 miles. Due east from Jesalmer there is
also rocky ground indicated by stone hills appearing at intervals in
the sand as far as Pokaran and Phalodi in Marwar. Near the city
the ground is very stony, with comparatively little sand and no
alluvial soil. Low ridges of limestone rock, many miles in length,
run parallel to each other, with a gentle inclination so as to form
long valleys between their ridges ; but even in these valleys there
is little arable soil. There are here and there numerous hills of
sandstone, of a dark color, flat topped, and entirely destitute of
vegetation. The general aspect of the country is an interminable sea
of sandhills of all shapes and sizes, mingled in inextricable confu-
sion, some rising 150 feet above the general level of the country;
those in the western portion of the country are occasionally
covered with phog [calligonum) bushes, in the eastern with
large tufts of grass. The western portion of the country around,
and to the south of Shahgarh, is one of the most desolate tracts
that can well be seen ; in the ordinary desert the sandhills are
clothed to a certain extent with shrubs and coarse grass, and
around the villages these afford pasture for the flocks and herds ;
but in this part there are large extents of shifting sand, locally
tern\ed " draens." These vary in si^e from two or three miles
across to ten or twelve, and on them there is no trace of vegeta-
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tion, and their surface is ever changing, as the wind heaps the
sand into hills, or scoops into deep hollows ; they are very diflSiciilt
to cross, the path shifting daily. The inhabitants say that they
are travelling slowly northwards ; they swallow up and occupy a
large portion of the country, depriving the inhabitants of much
of their wretched pasture-ground, and causing them to be poorer,
and to have a harder struggle for life than the rest of their
feUow-subjects. Their chief subsistence is milk, with a little
bdjri, which they obtain from Sind, or exchange for sheep. The
stony sections are two : one would be comprised within a line
drawn from Vinjarai on the southern frontier, through the villages
of Khaba, Kathori, and Mohangarh to the border village of
Chdlim, north-west by north of Pokaran in Marwar ; the second
section would be between the Mdrwdr frontier to the south-east,
and a line drawn from the above-mentioned village of Chdlim>
in a north-eastern direction through Nok to the border of the
Bikanir State. The west of the State is a vast expanse of sand in
enormous waves, covered with a very scanty vegetation and very
thinly populated. A country could hardly present a more desolate
appearance ; the villages are few and far apart, and consist gene-
rally of some circular huts, or " wigwams," collected round a well
of brackish water. Towards Thanoli and the western portion of
the coimtry there is little, if any, cultivation. In the east, near
the large villages of Nok, Bikampur, and Barsalpur, there are
many fields in the valleys formed by the sandhills where, when
the season is favorable, the inhabitants grow jowdr and bajrd.
In several places there is a kind of sandstone and inferior lime-
stone which comes to the surface in the valleys. All over the
country, water is scarce, and generally brackish. The wells are
very deep; one recently measured by an ojfficer of the Great Trigo-
nometrical Survey of India, at the village of Chanria, 32 miles
south-east of the capital, was 490 feet deep. Most of the villages
have small ponds, in which the rain-water collects, in a good
season sufficient to last for seven or eight months ; but as a rule,
owing to the scanty rainfall, the supply fails in from four to six
months ; the villages have then to obtain their water from long
distances (16 to 18 miles) ; the poorer classes, who cannot afford
to get their water from a distance, drink the brackish water (a
well or two of which every village possesses), mixing with it a
little " dahi " (curds), the acidity of which, in a measure, counter-
acts the brackishness of the water. The average depth of wells is
said to be about 250 feet. In the eastern portion of the country
each village has its tankas, or circular holes in the ground lined
with fine polished chunam, in which the water collects during the
rains, and is kept for use when other supplies fail.
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S<:arcity of Water. — ^The rainfall is very scanty indeed, and
water is not only very far below the surface, but is very scarce,
except at a few favored localities. In the sandy desert, water can
generally be obtained if wells are dug ; but in some portions of
the stony desert, especially in the north-eastern corner of the
State, it is so far below the surface that the springs cannot be
tapped by wells, and the nature of the surf ace-soU is such that it
is extremely difficult to prevent drainage- water collected in tanks
from being absorbed by the soil. Por instance, between the villages
of Bdp and Chdlim, a distance of nearly 40 miles, there is but one
village at which water can be obtained during the hot season,
and during years of drought even the tank of that locality dries
up and the whole tract is deserted. The excavation of a well
was attempted in this part of the State. It was dug to a depth
of nearly 500 feet without tapping the springs, and was at Last
abandoned in despair when a stratum of sand was reached. It
may be imagined that, in such a country, salinity of soil would be
rare, and, in fact, traces of salt are only met with at the two oases
where depressions occur and water is near the surface.
Soils. — Almost the whole of the soil af Jesalmer may be
described as sandy, which is even favorable to some grains,
notably to bajrd, of which good crops are grown. The capital
of Jesalmer is built on a hill which furnishes a Kmestone more
valuable than even the red sandstone of Marwar : it is of a dull
yellow color, and takes an imperfect polish, but is good for
lithographs. There is another variety of yellow limestone with
large quantities of a substance like red ochre blended with it,
produced at Hdbur, a few miles from Jesalmer, and there are pits
of a yellow unctuous clay resembling fuUer's-earth, or multdni
mdti.
Rivers and Lakes, — There are no perennial streams in Jesaimer,
and but two small rivers— one called the Kahni, the other Lathi-
ka-Nddi ; the former takes its rise from water accumulating during
the monsoon in low ground belonging to the villages of Kotri,
Gahura, and Lutabana, and, after flowing a distance of 28 miles,
spreads over a large space of flat ground and forms a lake, or jhil,
called the Bhiij jMl. Very occasionally, when there is an excep-
tionally large rainfall, this river deviates from its usual course,
near a village called Kuldhana, and, passing by that of Lodorva,
empties itself on what is locally known as a " Rinn," or flat salt-
marsh, 14 or 16 miles beyond Bhiij ; here the water soon dries
up and can be turned to no account, the soil of the Rinn being
unfit for cultivation.
The Lathi-ka-Nadi issues from*Marwar and has two branches :
one rising near, and passing by, a village of Marwar, the Rinn,
w
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or salt-marsh of Aresur and Tillage of Thuri, where it changes
its name to " Rtipa-ka-Bhalu ;" the other branch rises near, and
passes by, the village of Bhangti of Marwar, and over the flat
grounds of Jinj. It is joined by the other branch about eight
nailes to the east of Lathi, and, flowing on about 24 miles to the
west, spreads over some low flat ground near the village of
Mohangarh, covering sometimes a space of ground 20 to 30 miles
in extent. This river has, however, had no water in it since 1825,
when the people tell of a very heavy rainfall.
Climate and Rainfall. — ^The climate of Jesalmer is essentially
dry and healthy, akin to that of Marwar ; epidemics are of rare
occurrence ; people seem to suffer chiefly from fever, spleen, and
skin-diseases, guinea-worm, and small-pox (which is, of course,
endemic). There is a saying that neither mud, musquitos, nor
malaria is to be foimd in these regions. As regards temperature,
the heat is greatest in the months of May and Jime, and hot
winds prevail with much violence. As soon as rain falls, the wea-
ther becomes cool and pleasant ; the coldest times are from the
middle of December to the middle of February, when the ther-
momenter falls very low, with a good deal of frost and ice. In
January, the thermometer always reads below freezing-point
during the night ; the lowest recorded temperature at Barsalpur
was 18** on the 23rd January. No observations on the rainfall or
temperature have ever been registered, but the former is very
scanty indeed; in 1875, for instance, there were only two rainy days.
HiSTOBY.
The Jddon Bhdtti Rdjpiits are of very ancient lineage;
they claim descent from the Yadu or JMon kings, whose power
was great in India at a very remote period of its history, Yadu
being the patronymic of the descendants of Bhtida, the progenitor
of the " Somavansa " (the Lunar or Indu race). Accorcfing to the
ancient chronicles of Hindustan, Praga (the present Allahabad
on the Ganges) was the cradle of the race, after which Mathura
(Muttra on thB Jumna) remained the seat of power for a long
period. On the death of Hari Krishna, the deified leader of the
Jddons from whom the Bhdtti E/djptits claim lineal descent, the
tribe became dispersed; many of them abandoned Hindustdn,
among them two of the sons of Krishna, who proceeded northward
beyond the Indus and settled there. Some time after this, one of
their descendants being defeated and killed in a battle the tribe was
driven southward into the Panjdb, where Salbahan, son of Guj,
founded a town called after his name, and conquered the whole
region. His grandson was named Bhdtti ; he was a great warrior,
and conquer^ many of the neighbouring princes, and from him
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the patronymic was changed, and the tribe was thenceforth dis-
tinguished by his name. Shortly after this, the tribe was again
driven southward by the king of Ghazni, and, crossing the Sutlej,
found refuge in the Indian desert, which was henceforth to be
their home. This traditional account may represent in outline
the early migrations of the Bhatti tribe, which may be supposed
to have entered India from the north-west under heroic leaders
now deified as the sons of Krishna, and to have been settled for
some time in the Panjdb. One of the grand expeditions of Mah-
miid of Ghazni (1004-5 A.D.) was against the city of Bhdttia,
also called Bhera, which place is now said to have been on the left
bank of the Jhelum, opposite the Salt Range ; and there can be
little doubt that Bhdttia was, or had been, in the dominion of the
Bhattia Rdjptits, Mr. E. Thomas considers that the four last
Hindu kings of Kabul (before the ifihaznevides) may have been
Bhdttia Rdjputs. It may be taken as certain that the Bhdttias
were driven into the desert by the conquests of the Musalmdns
on the north and west ; that they maintained constant warfare on
both borders for many generations with the Muhammadans ; and
that they gradually subdued or drove out the rival tribes or clans
whom they found in the territory which they occupied, of whom one,
the Sodas, appear to have been very strong ; their head-quarters are
now further westward towards Umarkot, Their head-quarters
appear to have been placed successively at Tumoli, Deorawal,
and Jesalmer : the two fixst named places still exist, the last is
now the State's capital. Deorawal was founded by Deoraj, a
famous prince of the Bhatti family ; shortly after his birth in 836,
his father and all his kinsmen were treacherously murdered by
the Barahas, a neighbouring tribe, he alone bdng saved by the
stratagem of a jogl, a Hindu religious mendicant. Deoraj
became a great warrior, and established the power of the Bhdttis
firmly in this desert tract ; the title of Rawal also commenced
with him, and he is coimted as the real foimder of the Jesalmer
family. The Bhdttis gradually extended their possessions south-
ward, and many of them became great freebooters, a character
they have continued to bear ever since. In 1156, Jesal, the sixth
in succession from Deoraj, founded the fort and city of Jesalmer
on a low ridge of sandstone hills, and made it his capital, as being
more secure than his former residence, Ix)dorva, which was in
the open plain. Subsequent to the founding of Jesalmer there
was a succession of warlike princes, who were constantly engaged
in battles and raids, and their taste for freebooting proved most
disastrous, for, on two occasions, viz., in 1294 and shortly after-
wards, the Bhdttis so enraged the emperor Ala-ud-din that the
imperial army was despatched against them> and conquered and
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sacked the fort and city of Jesalmer, so that for some time it
remained completely deserted.
In the sixteenth century we hear of the Turkoman governor
of TJmarkot, under the Aryhan dynasty, marrying the daughter
of the Bhdtti chief of Jesalmer ; and the son of this marriage,
Khdni Zamdn, was a distinguished general of his time in Sind,
which was then on friendly political terms with Jesalmer. The
Bhdttis seem to have formed alliance with the Sind Amirs
against the Rahtors, who undoubtedly pressed them seriously, and
considerably interfered with their ancient territorial dominion.
After this, there is iiothing especial to record till the time of
Rawal Sabdl Singh, the twenty -fifth prince in succession to Jesalji,
which marks an epoch in the Bhdtti history, in that he acknow-
ledged the supremacy of the Delhi emperor, Shahjehan, and
was the first of the Jesalmer princes who held his dominions in
subordination to the empire. The Jesalmer chiefs had now
arrived at the height of their power ; their territory extended
north to the Sutlej, and included the whole of the province of
Bhawalpur, westward to the Indus, and to the east and south
included many districts subsequently annexed by the Rahtors and
incorporated in Marwar and Bikanir ; but, from this time to the
accession of Kawal Mulraj, the seventh ruler in succession from
Sabdl Singh, the fortunes of the State rapidly declined, and most
of the outlying provinces were wrested from Jesalmer. Rawal
Mulraj succeeded in 1762; during his life-time the State was
virtually governed by the minister Salim Singh, who was guilty
of great cruelty and oppression. Mulraj was the first chief of
Jesalmer with whom the British Government entered into political
relations ; the treaty was concluded ia 1818. Since the death
of Mulraj in 1820, there have been no stirring events in
Jesalmer. He was succeeded by his grandson Gaj Singh, who
died in 1846, and his widow adopted Ranjit Singh, nephew of
Gaj Singh. The present chief, Maharawal Bairi Sdl, brother of
Banjit Singh, succeeded in 1864, having been adopted by the
widow of the late chief Maharawal Eanjit Singh, who died
without heirs.
Account of Muling Family/ and dominant Classes , and form of
Government. — ^The present ruler of Jesalmer is His Highness the
Maharawal Bairi S^l, by caste a Jddon Bhdtti Edjpdt, and aged
twenty-seven years. The family to which the chief belongs is
accepted as the eldest of the whole clan, and the chiefship is held
by right of direct lineage from the original founder and the deified
ancestor of the J^dons.
The constitution is very much the same as that of the neigh-
bouring State of Marwar, but perhaps it is more of a tribal
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suzerainty than even that of Marwar; but differing in this res-
pect, that the Bhdttis are divided into numerous groups which
do not, as in Marwar, spring from one recognized ancestry;
for instance, there are Maldotis, Kailuns, Bursungs, Pohurs, and
Tejmatahs — all Bhdttis, and probably branches of the same stock,
but not bound together by such close blood-ties as the Rahtors.
Many of the tribal chiefs, though acknowledging the Maharawal
as their suzerain, are, to a great extent, independent, insomuch
that they pay nothing to their suzerain for their estates, which
in some cases are equally divided amongst all the sons, whilst in
others the eldest son succeeds, and the younger branches obtain
only small portions of land as their inheritance. The Bhdttis
retain their Hindu notions, though with some degree of laxity,
from their interpourse with the Muhammadans on the northern
and western frontiers. The districts are governed by hakims,
who have, however, but little real power in the thdkurs' estates.
The administrative sub-divisions are twenty-four in number.
Manufacture. — The only articles of domestic manufacture
worth notice are the fine woollen cloths and coarse blanketing,
which are largely worn. Sheep are much kept, and the wool is
woven into excellent blankets, coarse flannels, and (with the finest
thread) into pagris^ or head-cloths, of a curious texture. The
coarse hair is spun into twine and twisted into ropes.
TniE Land.
Principal Crops. — ^Throughout Jesalmer, only rain-crops such
as bdjrd, jowdr, mot, til, &c., are grown ; the soil being light
and sandy, good crops of bd,jrd are produced after a very slight
fall of rain. Spring-crops of wheat, barley, &c., are very rare.
The only articles for which Jesalmer claims a speciality are onions,
ber fruit, and roses.
Agriculture. — ^The remarks under this head in the Marwar
Gazetteer apply equally to Jesalmer. One crop only is
produced — sowings of wheat in very small patches. The ploughs
used are very light, and just scratch the sandy soil after the first
rainfall, in June, when the seed is sown broadcast, camels being
often used for drawing the plough.
Irrigation. — OwiQg to the very scanty fall of rain, irrigation is
almost unknown in Jesalmer.
Land'Mevenue. — If wheat or gram is ever grown, the Darbdr
takes from the cultivators from a fourth to a sixth share, and if
the rain-crops, such as bdjrd, mot, til, &c., from a seventh to an
eleventh share of the produce. There are three different ways, of
collecting the Darbdr share of the outturn : one called " kankhut,*'
which signifies estimating the value of a standing crop, and thus
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determining the respective amount of the Darbdr^s and cultiva-
tor's shares ; a second that of calculating the value of a crop,
after it is cut, but before the grain is threshed out ; this is locally-
known by the term "kari ktiata;*' a third practice is to divide
the grain into shares after it is threshed out ; this is called " latta/*
In addition to the share taken by the Darbar from the cultivator,
there are the following other demands : — The dewan for the time
being; the kdnwdria, or man who looks after the crops in the
interests of the Darbdr ; the kdmddr of the kuthar, or grain store,
and the MaharawaVs water-supplier — ^are all entitled to a portion
of the yield from the rdydt. This generally averages half as much
as is taken by the State; for instance, supposing the outturn to be
100 maunds, and the Darbdr share is an eleventh, then 9 maunds
go to the ruler, 4^ to the officials above mentioned, and 86^
maunds to the cultivator ; should the State demand be a seventh,
it will get 14 maunds, the officials 7 maunds, and the cultivator
79 maunds. Jdgirddrs take from such of their tenants as are of
the ordinary cultivating class two rupees rent for as much land
as they can cultivate with one pair of bullocks in one place. As
regards other tenants, especially the fighting class, or men carrying
arms, such as Rdjptits, &c., jdgirddrs allow them to till as much
land as they like, rent-free, and these men have, in return, to do
service for the jAgirddr; but, on occasions of deaths or marriages in
the landlord's family, such tenants pay mota (fees) consisting
of cash, or a camel, horse, or bullock, according to their means.
The same custom as regards landlord and tenant prevails in
villages held as charitable grants, with the exception that the
(jlass of men bearing arms are not exempt from payment of
two rupees for as much land as they can cultivate with one pair
of buUocks.
Land' Tenures. — There are 461 villages in the State of
Jesalmer, of which 229 are fiscal, 71 held by jdgirddrs, 32 as
charitable grants, 11 under " patta," or title-deed, 109 in bhum,
and 9 for services performed to the State. There are no zamin-
dars in the State ; the Darbdr*s and jdglrddrs* dealings with their
tenants as regards land-revenue are very simple, and have already
been described. There are two classes of jdgirddrs in Jesalmer :
one holding their estates on what is called the ^^basi'* tenure,
that is, in perpetuity ; these jdgirddrs pay nothing whatever to the
Darbdr, either in the way of rent or service. The other tenure
is that of pattay or title-deed ; the holders of these estates retain
them at the pleasure of the ruler, but pay nothing, A third
tenure has lately come into practice by which villages are given
for a single life. Estates bestowed as charitable grants are held
in perpetuity, and the holders of them are exempt from payment
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of any kind. When a jdglrddr holding an estate in perpetuity-
dies, the Darbdr does not issue a new patta^ or deed, to the eldest
son. The profit obtained from the soil is divided equally between
aU the sons, if there happen to be more than one ; so long as all
agree together, this system is well enough, but it is most
frequently a fruitful source of grievous quarrels. If a dispute takes
place, a division of the land is made, either by friendly arbitration,
or by order of the Darbdr. Suppose there are four sons, each
can cultivate as much land as he likes, and the gain is his alone ;
but if others cultivate, then the produce is equally distributed
amongst the four brothers ; the eldest gets no extra share. This
system continues from generation to generation, and, in some
instances now, a man's share in the land is very small indeed. This
custom prevails principally amongst those Bhattis, descendants
of Maharawal Kait Singh, who reigned about eleven generations
ago, amongst whom the chief thdkurs are Jinjiniali, Bard, Rindur,
Dangri, and Sitnaia. Amongst the Kian and Bursingh Bhdtis,
descendants of Maharawal Kalunji, the eldest son gets the estate,
and if he has any brothers, they are allowed to cultivate as much
land as they can themselves, rent-free, or they may employ one
or two cultivators and cultivate through them, paying no rent.
Amongst the thdkurs of Jesalmer with whom this custom
prevails are those of Bikanpur, Barsalpur, Girasir, Sirda, &c. In
bhiim tenures, a tax of from one and a quarter to one and a half
rupees is levied from each holder of a tenure, he having to perform
service for the Darbdr when called upon, for which he receives
payment. Sasun villages are held by Chardns, Bh&,ts, and Swamis ;
the Maharawal has no jurisdiction in these villages, and^ if any one
committing a crime flies to any of them for refuge, he finds a
sanctuary.
Population.
Proprietary and Cultivating Classes. — The proprietary classes
are the Darbdr and the j&girdars ; the cultivating are Jdts,
Bishnavis, and E/cbaris, amongst the Hindus ; large numbers of
Muhammadans also cultivate.
Population. — No census of the population having ever been
taken, an approximate idea can onlv be given. It has been
estimated that the entire population of the State does not exceed
72,000 souls, which gives only 4-37 to the square mile ; of these,
43,600 are said to be Hindus, 26,000 Muhammadans, and 2,500
Jains.
Castes^ Clans, and Tribes. — ^Thdkurs, or heads of Rdjptit
famines, come first amongst the population in the Jesalmer
territory ; next to them are Bhtimias ; then other Rdjptits who
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take concubines ; and, lastly, the chdkars, or servants of the State,
and Gujars, The Rdjptits of Jesalmer are divided into the
following gots : — ^Bhdtti, Rahtor, Pnar, Salunki, Tanwur, Chohdn,
Purihar, Sesodia, Khfchl, and Jhala. Different kinds of Brdhmans
are as follows : — Pushkuma, Sirmoli, Joshi, Raj gar or Kesuria,
Pdliwdl, and Gojurgor. The Mahajans are divided into the follow-
ing classes : — Agarwdl, Mahesri, Oswdl, and Bhdttia. In addition
to the above, the population of the country is comprised of peo-
ple of the usual castes — Charans, Bhdts, Aroras, Lohanis, Bho-
3uks, Sundrs (goldsmiths), Jdts, Bishnavis, Rebdris, Shamis,
Gosains, Jutis, Sddhiis, Khdtris, Mdlis, Kalals, Darzis (tailors),
Khdtis (carpenters), Silawuts (masons), Ktimhdrs (potters),
Ndis (barbers), Baris, Lakheras, Kaldigurs, Mochis, Desantis,
Dhobis, Jagris, and Od^s. The Muhammadans of Jesalmer, com-
prising somewhat more than a third of the whole population,
are divided into 76 classes; Bauris, Bhils, Gtiriiras, Megwals,
and Khabriiks (sweepers) form the lowest castes in the country.
Beligion. — Of the population of Jesalmer, the worshippers
of Sukti (Suktas), the female principle locally known as Devi
Muts, form by far the larger proportion of the Hindus ; it being
calculated that they number about 31,000. The followers of
Vishnu are said to be 4,600, Shivites 3,500, Jains 2,000, low
castes 5,000, and Muhanmiadans, as stated before, 26,000. There
are altogether 68 temples belonging to the followers of Vishnu,
24 to Shivites, 37 to the Suktas, and 19 Jain temples, of which 12
are situated in the city of Jesalmer and 7 in the districts.
State of Society. — The head of society of the State is of course
the Maharawal, who possesses an annual income of a little over
one lakh of rupees. The family deity of the rulers of Jesalmer is
Swanjiaji, a goddess to whom there are several temples erected
in the State. Swanj means a spear, and the legend of the
household deity of the Bhdttis is as follows : — In the time of Sri
Krishen, the ruler of Maghadeo, the country now known as Behar,
was named Jura Sandh. He had in his possession a spear which had
been given to him by the gods. It was such a remarkable weapon
that it never failed to kill any one against whom it was directed.
All the JMon clan were much afraid of this spear, so they applied
to Kalka Devi on the subject. Kalka Devi, taking the form of
seven women, went to Jtira Sandh, and, by deceit or treachery,
obtained the spear from him, and gave help to the Jddons ; ever
since, the JMons have worshipped the goddess Kalka under the
name of Swanjihiji, or taker of the spear; the name has now
become corrupted to Swanjiaji.
The principal thdkurs of Jesalmer are — (1) the Bao of Bikam-
pur, (2) Rao of Barsalpur, (3) thdkur of Jinjiwali, (4) thdkur of
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Barti, (5) tMkur of Rindur, (6) tMkur of Gyam, (7) thdkur of
Girajsur, (8) thdkur of Dangii, (9) tMkur of Sirda. Amongst
the official classes of Jesalmer are Sah Mehtas (Oswdls) and
Tawari Mehtas (Mahasuris) ; these families are mtisahibs, and hold
hereditary posts of importance under the Darbdr ; all dewans of
the State are selected from the latter class. Sah Mehtas generally
hold posts as accountants. Men of the Purohit, Byas, and
Acharaj castes are likewise entrusted with important duties.
Half -a-century since, the thriving class of Pdliwdl Brdhmans
occupied many large villages in the districts about the capital,
but they were all compelled to forsake their homes by the exac-
tions and tyranny of the then minister Z^lim Singh ; bare walls
and roofless houses are now the only vestiges of these villages.
The main part of the population led a wandering life, grazing^
their flocks and herds. A large portion of the grain consumed is
imported from Sind ; as a general rule, the population cannot be
considered prosperous, and women wearing ornaments even of the
simplest description are rarely seen.
Occupations. — ^The Megwals (a low caste) of the country make
luis, or blankets of sheep's wool ; goats* and camels' hair is used
for small bags and druggets; girths for camel-saddles are made
of sheep's wool; the stone of the coimtry affords material for
cups and platters. There are no other manufactures. A great
number of the inhabitants are graziers, and keep large herds of
camels, homed cattle, sheep, and goats ; it is said that from 10,000
to 12,000 goats and 4,000 to 5,000 sheep are annually sold, while
bullocks in considerable numbers are exported. Camels are chiefly
bought by people of the country, there being little or no export of
these animals. The principal trade of Jesalmer is in wool, ghee,
camels, cattle, and sheep, all of which find a ready market in
Guzerdt and Sind. Grain, sugar, foreign cloth pieces, and other
miscellaneous articles form the chief imports; neither local
manufactures nor local crops suffice for local wants. Some of the
people wear English cloth, but most of them use country cloth.
Country cloth is prepared by the Megwals and Muhammadan
weavers. Men of all professions get eight aimas a day for their
daily labor, and thdr monthly pay varies from four to eight
rupees.
Administration.
Judicial System. — ^There is one civil court at Jesalmer.
Criminal cases are disposed of by the dewan at the capital, and in
the interior by the hdkims of the districts. The Maharawal alone
has the power of life and death.
JaiL — ^There is no regular jail at Jesalmer; prisoners are
x
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confined in the fort, or in such places as the authorities may
select for them.
Police. — The Maharawal has a force which may he called one
of police rather than anything else, consisting of 651 infantry,
375 of whom are generally on duty at the capital and 276
in the district ; of the latter, many are mounted on camels, the
animals ordinarily used for purposes of locomotion in those
sandy tracts. The cavalry number 155, which are equally
distributed between the capital and the outlying parganas;
of these 40 are Sikhs ; the rest of the force, both infantry and
cavalry, are natives of Rdjptit^a, or of the bordering district of
Sind. These men are armed chiefly with the ordinary matchlock,
sword, shield, or spear of the country ; but have no drill or dis-
cipline ; they are, however, very good as police.
Education. — ^Education is at a very low ebb in the State.
Government schools there are none. Jtitis (Jain priests) are the
chief school-masters, but their teaching is very elementary.
Communications.
There are no made roads nor staging-bungalows in Jesalmer,
but the following are the principal routes : —
I. — ^From Jesalmer to Jodhpur —
Basanpur ... ... ... 11 miles.
Chandan ... ... ... 16 „
Lathi ... .., ... 13 „
Udhaaia ... ... .i, 12 „ (Marwar)
On this route carts can travel ; water (though not very good)
and suppKes plentiful.
II. — ^i^om Jesalmer to Bikanir —
Basanpur ... ... ... 11 miles.
Chandan ... ... ... 16 „
Buhadnria ... ... ... 14 ,,
Loharki ... ... ... 14 „
Sehur or Uturgarh ... ... ... 18 „
Shekhasur ... ... ... 1% „
B^p ... ... ... 12 „
Zalim-Singh-ka-Serr... ... ... 12 ,,
Nokhra ... ... ... 12 ,,
Carts can travel by this route, and water and supplies are
procurable.
From Uturgarh there is also a route vid Phalodi, 16 miles
to Ndgaur of Marwar.
III. — ^From Jesalmer to Bhawalpur, Dirawar, Ahmadpur, and
Khanpur —
Chaudhri ... 16 miles : sweet water from tanks and wells.
Nahurzi ... 12 „ water brackish.
Boli ... 24 ,. ., sweet.
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This route is only fitted for camels.
After BoK of Jesalmer there comes
20 miles,
IV. — ^From Jesalmer to Ahmadpur (2)
and Aobaord —
Lanila ... ... 14 miles : water sweet.
Nohar of Bhawalpur,
Kot Sabzal, Khairpur
Saun
B&mgarh
Btmao
Tuneot
16
10
16
and brackish.
brackish.
on
By this route grain is brought from Sind to Jesalmer
camels. Carts can travel by this route.
V* — From Jesalmer to Arori, Sukkur, Shikarpur, Jacobdbdd, and
Ludkhdna in Sind —
Chutrail * ... ... 14 miles : wells, water sweet.
Kuchuri
KholiwaM
Gotaru
14
10
40
,, ,, between last
stage and this.
The next stage is Mithrdo in Sind, 48 miles.
This route is through the sandy desert, and is a very difficult
one, water being found at stages far apart from each other.
VI. — ^From Jesalmer to Mirpur and Khangarh —
The first three stages of this route are the same as those in
No. V.
HnkrathSla ... 24 miles : wells, but water brackish.
HingaM-ka-Th&l& ... 12 „ well, water bad.
This route is very fit for camels : huge tibds, or sandhills, are
met with.
VII. — ^From Jesalmer to Raiopur —
The two first stages the same as in No. V.
Sedhamrum ... ... 10 miles : water sweet.
Molakra ... ... 16 „ „
Shdhgarh ... ... 32 „ „
Another difficult route only fit for camels : huge sandhills are
met with.
Vni.-— From Jesalmer to Umarkot and Haidardbdd (Sind)—
Satds ... ... 14 miles : water sweet.
Khori ... ... 14 „ „
Bhajlar ... ... 30 „ „
Sandhills met with on this stage.
Gerlah ... ... 10 miles : water bad.
This route is only a footpath fitted for camels.
IX. — ^From Jesalmer to Guddra of Sind en route to Kachh Bhtij —
Kurwan ... ... 20 miles : water sweet.
Dira ... ... 20 „ „ and brackish.
Kohira ... ... 14 ,, ,.
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This route is only for camels.
X. — ^From Jesalmer towards Bdrmer —
Dhunwa ... ... 11 miles : hard road ; water sweet*
Devikot ... ... 18 „ water good,
Kujordi ... ^ ... 14 „ „
Carts can travel by this route.
XI. — ^From Jesalmer towards Balotra and Marwar —
The first two stages are the same as in Route No. X,
Ola, 24 miles : water plentiful and sweet ; carts can be used on this stage.
Towns.
Frincipal Totms. — ^The capital city of Jesalmer was said by
Lieutenant Boileau, who saw it in 1835, to consist of about 8,000
houses, including two or three thousand in the citadel ; but recent
estimates are much lower. He says — " It has good streets, but
scarcely anything like a bazar ; the custom-house is near the fort
gate, and at this spot there is sQme little appearance of traffic,
as well as in one or two of the contiguous streets ; but there is
little of the bustle of a large city in any part of it, except, per-
haps, about the time of lamp-lighting, or again at those times when
the women of the city stream out by thousands, and fill their
pitchers morning and evening with the water of a large tank called
Gurrisir. The citadel, town- wall, and all the principal houses
being built of the dull-yellow limestone of which the hiU is itself
composed, have, at a distance, a sombre appearance from the want
of a variety of colors to relieve the eye ; and, indeed, it is hard to
say at first view which is the native rock and which are the arti-
ficial buildings, for the former is flat-topped, and the latter are
fliat-roof ed ; but, on close examination, it will be seen that an im-
mense deal of labor has been expended on the architectural deco-
rations of a large proportion of the better class of houses, the fronts
of which are ornamented with balconies and lattices of the same
yellow marble, richly carved, which gives them a finished, though
rather cumbrous, appearance.''
The other principal towns of Jesalmer are — Bikampur, Siran,
Ndchana, Khori, Kholia, Kaldhura, Satd, Jhinjiwala, Devikot,
Bdp, Balana, Sutuana, Bdru, Chayim, Loharki, Nawan, Jala,
Lathu, Dangri, Bujoral, Mandai, Rdmgarh, Barsalpur, Giraj-
sin, Mohangarh, Kishangarh, Eanot, Shdhgarh, Btibli, 'Bhainsra,
Kanasur, Eanjitpura, Deora, Bhodli, Mahdjdlar — 34 in number,
with an estimated aggregate population of 32,620 inhabitants.
Fairs and Soli/ -places. — Two large fairs are held: one of these
is celebrated on the last day of the month of Baisakh, or April, at
Bram Hiinda, about 10 miles from the city of Jesalmer — ^it is
attended by the followers of Vishnu, Devi, and Shamus; about 5,000
or 6,000 people visit the place on the occasion — the fair lasts
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for two days : the other fair is held in honor of Goja (a saint)
at the same place in August or September of each year ; and on
this occasion, also, about 3,000 or 4,000 people assemble. Other
fairs of less note are also held, but no trade is carried on at them.
The two first mentioned are religious fairs, and the others are held
on occasions of local festivals.
Antiquities and Remarkable Places. — The capital city Jesal-
mer was founded in the year 1166 by Rao Jesal; it is situated on
one of the low ridges of yellow limestone which hereabouts pre-
sent strata nearly horizontal, dipping gently to westward with a
tolerably bold profile to the east of 90 or 100 feet high. The city
is built at the south end of one of these ranges, which is so near-
ly horizontal that its surface is quarried in every direction, and
supplies abundant building material for the inhabitants ; on the
south side of the city, but within its walls, is an insulated hill of
about three-quarters of a mile in circuit, and with rather preci-
pitous sides, which has been carefully fortified with more than
eighty bastions, and forms a very imposing citadel when seen
from the southward ; but the unf ortimate contiguity of the range
of hills already mentioned, which are within 600 yards of tJtie
north face of the fort, and nearly of the same altitude, dimi-
nishes very much its capability of defence, especially as this hill,
called SuK Dungri, is 700 yards wide at the top, and allows of guns
being brought up to the very foot of the town-wall. The ramparts
are two-and-a- quarter miles in circuit, with thirty-eight bastions,
theVhole beiag built of uncemented stone, and the bastions beiag
in general much higher than their intermediate aurtains ; but many
of them are in ruins. Four gates and three sallyports give access
to the city ; but there are many other places where access would not
be diflicult, as even horsemen may ride over the walls by ridiag
over the hillocks of drift-sand which have nearly obliterated the
southern as well as a great part of the western face. The town-
wall was never very strong, being, ia its most perfect state, barely
four-and-a-half feet thick and fourteen high (includuig a parapet
six feet high and two feet thick), without either ditch or fav^sse^
braie. A large portion of the space inside the walls of Jesalmer
city is unoccupied, the ruins of houses lying about proving that it
must have been far more populous in former times. The Maha-
rawal generally resides in a small palace in the city, and not in
the fort. Around the city there are numerous monuments
erected over the ashes of various rich or distinguished inhabitants,
and also several gardens whose greenness is in pleasant contrast
to the general arid prospect. The citadel is an irregular, triangle,
nearly 1,300 yards or three-fourths of a mile in circuit, as already
mentioned, and may be nearly 130 feet to the summit of the
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ramparts, wliich vary from 15 to 30 feet, and have a narrow
renee 6 feet broad running all round the fort. There is a single
entrance, on the north side, defended by four gateways with
sloping roads between them, so as to give easy access to the
palace and other buildings within its area, which is quite choked
up with houses and temples. At a short distance the color of the
walls gives an appearance of mud, but, on closer inspection, the
excellent quality of the stone cannot fail to attract attention, not
only for its durability, but for its fine grain and texture, affording
a great scope to the skilled architect. This has been thoroughly
appreciated by the wealthy inhabitants, for in few places is such
exquisite carving in stone, as that which decorates the houses of
some of the opulent Oswdl and Paliwdl merchants in Jesalmer,
to be seen. Huge round boulders lie in close array along the
battlements, ready for offensive purposes in case of assault. The
prospect from the ramparts is not fair or attractive. The fore-
ground presents a succession of sterile, ropk-bound ridges, barely
clad with a few stunted bushes ; whilst, on the horizon, the low
undulations seem to mark the commencement of the stiU more
arid desert and sandhills. The Maharawal's palace surmounts
the main entrance of the fort, and is an imposing pile crowned
by a huge umbrella of metal mounted on a stone shaft — ^a solid
emblem of dignity of which the Bhdtti princes are justly proud ;
the interior, however, is ill-arranged, and frittered away into
numberless small apartments. Water is obtained from three good
wells within its precincts. The palace is 969 feet above the aea ;
the city itself is about 800 feet. The Jain temples in the fort
are remarkable for their beautiful stone-carviag ; the oldest was
bmlt in A.D. 1371.
Lodorva, a few miles from Jesalmer, was, for a time, the
capital city of the Bhdttis, but it is now in ruins ; there is, how-
ever, an ancient Jaia temple stUl standing.
Tunnoti, founded in A.D, 731 by Rao Tunna, was the first
seat of power of the Jadu Rdjpiits on their settlement in the desert.
Thanoli fort is a square with bastions at each comer ; it is
partly mud and partly brick, and is gradually falling into ruins,
though still in better preservation than most of the forts,
Kishangarh is reported to be in good order.
Loharu fort is of brick, ornamented with encaustic tiles ; it is
oblong, with an inner court 50 feet high at one end ; it has nume-
rous bastions, and there are wells within the fort, which is in very
fair preservation and has several pieces of serviceable artillery.
Shdhgarh fort is of mud, and nearly overwhelmed with sand.
Lathi fort is new, and of stone, having been built by the
thdkur within the last few years.
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Bikampur is of mud and soft limestone, and is more a forti-
fied residence of the Rao than a regular fort.
The same may be said in a great degree of Barsalpur, 'which is,
to all appearance, nothing more than a large mud and limestone
enclosure on the highest portion of the village.
Rdm'garh fort is of stone, uncemented and in ruins in several
places.
The principal forts are those of Kishangarh, Ghotarti,
Bikampur, and N^hana ; those of Barsalpur, Deva, Lathi, and
Sh&hgarh are of less note.
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jhalIwIr:
COMPILED BY
Captain H. B. ABBOTT,
Political supebintekdent.
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GAZETTEER OF JHAUWAR.
Geography.
Boundaries and Area.—ThQ State of Jhaldwdr consists of two
separate areas : the mam one is boimded on the north by the
Rdjpiit State of Kotah ; on the south by the petty State of
Eajgarh, the outlying portion of the Maratha States of Sindia and
Holkar, a detached area of the Diwar State, and the State of
Jaora; on the east by Sindia's territory and a detached area
of the Tonk State ; and on the west by detached districts of
Sindia and Holkar. This portion of the State lies between 24i 48'
and 23° 48' north latitude, and 76** 56' and 77' east longitude.
The lesser detached area is bounded on the north, east, and south
by the Gwalior State, and on the west by that of Kotah ; and it
Ues between 25' 5' and 25° 26' north latitude, and 77' 26' and 76' 55'
east longitude. The area of the State is 2,500 square miles ; and
it contains a population of 140,102 souls, of which 60,227 are men,
46,060 women, 17,425 boys, and 16,400 gbls. These figures have
been taken from a partial rough census roade about 1870.
Geology. — ^The following extract from a brief memorandum
on the subject by the Superintendent of the Survey, shows the
geological formation present : —
"Two of the main rock series of India are weU exposed,
^halrapdtan, the capital, stands on Vindhyan strata at the
northern edge of the great spread of basaltic rocks known as the
Deccan trap formation ; this northern area of it being also often
mentioned as the Malwa trap. These Vindhyans belong to the
upper division in the geological survey classification, of this
great Indian rock-system. The beds about Jhalrapdtan are
considered to belong to the Rewd or middle group of them,
and consist of sandstone and shales with a band of limestone.
Over the greater part of this Vindhyan area, the strata are
quite undisturbed, and their habit is to weather into scarped
plateaux or ridges, having one face steep and the other sloping.
These are capped by the sandstone, the low ground being
eroded out of the shales. Close to Jhalrapdtan, however, a
sharp axis of disturbance passes from the south-east beneath the
trap to the north-west, throwing the beds up in an anticlinal
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form, with dips of 70° to the north-east and south-west. Along
this steep outcrop, the sandstone weathers iato long narrow
ridges. This feature gradually dies out to the north-east. The
eruptive rock was poured out over the denuded surface of the
Viadhyans. It is found filling what were narrow valleys, and
it spreads over plateaux and ridges, totally concealing the sedimen-
tary formation. There are many varieties of these basaltic rocks,
hard, with columnar and ball structure, or amorphous, also vesicu-
lar and amygdaloidalin every degree; and soft, crumbling, ash-like
beds, both earthly and vesicular. Connected with the trap, general-
ly here underlying it, but often interstratified with it, there occur
patches of sedimentary beds, earthly and calcareous, containing
fresh-water shells. They are known as the Deccan inter and
infra trappean beds. They afford very strong evidence that* the
eruptive rocks were subaerial. Here too, as elsewhere, one often
finds the trap formation overlaid by rock laterite, a peculiar fer-
ruginous and vesicular rock, the origin of which has been much
disputed. The age of the Vindhyan formation is quite unknown,
beyond that it must be at least as old as paloeozoic. The trap is
certainly either upper cretaceous or lower tertiary."
Iron, and red and yellow colored clays used in dyeing cloth,
are found in the Shahdbdd pargana.
Configuration. — ^The main area of the State is situated on a
raised plateau, which lies rather more than 1,000 feet above the sea
at the north, and gradually rises to 400 or 500 feet more to the
south. The northern, eastern, and a portion of the southern
part of this area are very hilly ; these parts are iatersected with
streams of various sizes, and, for the most part, the hills are
covered with wood and grass, and at some points surround lakes
of some extent, formed by damming- up the outlets of natural
basins. The rest of this area of the State is a rich plaia, un-
dulatiQg in parts, and dotted over with evergreen trees. The
detached area of Shahdbad is on the west — an elevated table-
land with water very far removed from the surface ; the eastern
portion is some 500 or 600 feet lower. It is crowded with MQs,
and covered with thick jimgle, giving these parts a very wild
appearance.
Jhalawd-r is divided into —
(1) The central parganas lying below the Mokandara range
or steppe, making the fall for the Pathar plateau
into Malwa.
(2) The Chaumehla — pure Malwa country.
(3) Shahabad, a wild and woody district of the plateau,
on the east.
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Nos. 2 and 3 are Zdlim Singh's personal acquisition — No. 2 by
the cession from Holkar at the treaty of Mundesar.
Soil. — Taken generally, the soil may be pronounced decid-
edly rich, consisting in great part of the dark, clayey mould
which produces valuable crops, like opium. Locally the soils
are divided into three classes, which are, again, sub-divided
into good, middling, and poor, according to the crops produced
on them. The three classes are known as — kdli^ the rich black
soil; dhdrrmi^ of a lighter color, but equally proKfic ; and IdUpUiy
a yellowish-red soil, by far the poorest of the three. It is esti-
mated that about one- quarter of the culturable area consists of
kdli, half of dhananl, and ©ne-quarter of lal-pill soil. In parts the
presence of rock and kankar close to the surface interferes with
the productiveness of the kdli and dhamnl soils.
Rivers. — Of the many streams running through this territory,
the following are the most important : —
The Parwan enters the State at the south-east extremity, and
windi^ its way for 50 miles up to the point of exit in Kotah
territory ; half-way, it is joined by the Newaj, another good-sized
stream. Por 16 miles of its length it forms the border with the
Kotah State. There are two ferries on this river — one at Mano-
har thana, the other at Bhachumi. A ferry at Bhurelia crosses
the Newaj. The KaK Sind, at the south, forms the boundary
with the districts of Sindia and Holkar, and at the northern
end of its length is the boundary with Kotah. The bed of this
river is rocky ; the banks are precipitous, and in parts Kned with
trees. It flows for a distance of 30 miles through the State, and
passes at one point within a mile of the Ohhdoni, or head- quarters
of the Maharaj Edn4. There is a ferry across it, at Bhonrasa.
The Ahii river, flowing from the south-western corner, traverses
the State for a length of 60 miles ; and, for the greater portion
of this, is the border-line with Holkar and Tonk districts in
the south, and with Kotah in the north. It joins the Kali Sind
river at the point where that streatn enters Kotah territory.
Its bed is less rocky; its banks are precipitous, and, in parts
where the foliage reaches the water's edge, are picturesque.
Perries at Suket and Bhilwari cross it. The Ohhoti Kali Sindh
river flows only for a short distance through the south-western
portion of the State. » There is a ferry at Gangrdr.
Climate and Rainfall. — The climate resembles that of Central
India, and is decidedly healthy. The hot weather is less severe
than that of Northern E^jpiitdna, the thermometer ranging
during the day in the shade from 85° to 88°. As a rule, during
this season, the mornings, evenings, and nights are fresh. The
temperature during the rains is cool and pleasant, and in the cold
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weather there are short seasons of frost« The rainfall is between
30 and 40 inches^ judging from a record which has been kept at
Agar.
Hktoet.
Sistory. — %S!&m Singh of Kotah (whose pedigree will be found
elsewhere) was originally the hereditary faujddr, or commander-in-
•chief , of Kotalu The old chief of Kotah on his death-bed nominated
Zdlim Singh regent during his son's (Om6d Singh's) minority ;
and thfe extraordinary abihty with which Z^Uim Singh exercised
his power, induced Om6d Singh, after his minority ended, to
leaye all authority in -the regent's hands. Raj Eana Zdlim Singh
tit last became, for all serious political affairs, the acknowledged
ruler of the State ; and, when the British Qoyemment guaranteed
by treaty with the cMef the integrity of Kotah in 1817, a sup-
plementary article was added in 1818 which guaranteed to Z^Uim
Singh and his heirs the authority and privileges he then possessed.
This arrangement soon produced troubles — f&st upon the death of
Om6i Singh, his successor naturally desiring to recoyer authority ;
ttnd again on the death of Zfilim Singh in 1824. After much dis-
cussion and some armed contests, the hereditary chief of Kotah
and the heir of Z^ilim Singh were induced by the British Goyern-
ment to agree to a compromise, whereby certain districts of the
Kotah State were separated off and ceded to the heirs of Zdlim
Singh ; whereby the new State of Jhalrapatan was constituted
under the hereditary rule of that family. Of the ceded districts,
that called the Chaumehla comprised four mah^ which were
ceded by Holkar at the treaty of Mundesar to Kotah upon the desire
of the British Goyemment, which especially intended them as a
reward to Zdlim Singh for his zeal and fidelity to British alliance ;
while the district of Shahdbdd had been long a j^gir in Zdlim
Singh's family, under grant from Kotah. Jhalrapdtan, the capital,
had been established by Zdlim Singh; and the name JhaMw^
was selected for his new State by the first chief. These arrange-
mtots were ratified by two treaties in 1838, from which year the
State dates its creation.
The districts then seyered from Kotah were considered to repre-
sent a reyenue of twelye lakhs, or one-third of the income of the
Kotah State. To this grant was added the obligation that the new
State should be responsible for one-third of the then Kotah debts.
By the treaties, the new chief acknowledged British supremacy,
agreed to supply troops according to his means, and to pay an
annual tribute of Rs. 80,000. He receiyed the title of Maharaj
Rana, was granted a salute of 16 guns, and placed on the same
footing as the other chiefs in Bdjptitdna. When these affairs had
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been settled, Maharaj Rana Madan Singh, grandson of the great
Kotah administrator Z^lim Singh, left Kotah attended by a
following of 10,000 persons, inclusive of jagfrddrs and officials, for
the Dhanwdrd Chhdoni, a permanent camp situated between the
city of Jhalrapdtan and the Kotah fort of Gagraun, This spot
had been fixed on as a dwelling-place by Zdlim Singh some
years previous, at a time when astrologers had foretold an ulti-
mate downfall of Kotah, and where, he considered, close imder the
guns of the Gdgraun fort, he would be safe from the wandering
bands of Marathas engaged in trying to secure his person for
the assistance he had rendered to the British; these places
he also considered a point of vantage whence he could rule,
and teach industrious habits to the turbulent Bhils of those parts,
as well as keep in check the marauding bands of that region. This
Chhdoni thenceforth became the head-quarters of the State, and
is still the place of residence of the chief,
Madan Singh died in 1845, and was succeeded by his son Pirthi
Singh at the early age of fifteen ; a regency council, composed
of the old officials of the State, being appointed to conduct affairs.
In 1867-68 this chief rendered good service to Government by
affording protection to British officers ; in revenge, the mutineers
from Nimach caused the State to suffer, which led to the Govern-
ment tribute for that year being remitted. Previous to this, the
State had become involved in debt to the amount of fifteen or
sixteen lakhs ; but the most successful manager the State has had,
Sdh Hindu Mai by name, succeeded in paying off more than half
this amount in four years.
Maharaj Bana Pirthi Singh was of a most good-natured and
happy disposition, which made him very popular with his subjects;
but his good-nature and easy-going disposition were taken advan-
tage of by the several kdmd^, who, in turn, had the control of
the State purse; the result was that the State again became
heavily involved. To remove these difficulties, ' the plan was
tried of apportioning some parganas of the State for the pay-
ment of debts ; the rest of the State being at the same time
divided off to defray the expenses of the Court, the administra-
tion, and the Baj services. When this plan failed in its
object, the late kdmddr Seth Harak Chand, who had recently
come into favor, advised the enhancement of the. land-revenue
for a period of five years as the only effectual way of getting
. rid of the difficulty. The advice was taken, and the land-
revenue raised by two lakhs of rupees^ an extra imposition which
was carried out for seven years and is said to have resulted in the
actual receipt of ten lakhs, the remaining four being found
unrealizable. This second trial to pay off the debts was scarcely
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more succe^ful then the first, as the State has creditors who claim
between thirteen and fourteen lakhs.
There are signs that this enhancement of the land-tax has
told heavily on the agricultural population in many parts of the
^ State ; and it is thought that, at the last, the Maharaj Rana was
awakening up to the realization of the fact, which had been
somewhat concealed from him.
In 1873, Maharaj Eana Pirthi Singh adopted a nice boy, by
name Bakht Singh, from a Jhala family resident in Barwdn, of
Kathidwdr,. related to him in the ninth degree. It was stipulated
at the time of adoption that if a male heir were hereafter to be
bom to the Maharaj Rana, the boy Bakht Singh was to receive a
jdgir of Es. 20,000 a year, otherwise he would succeed to the
Jhaldwdr gadi.
In August 1875, Maharaj Rana Pirthi Singh died after a
painful illness, much regretted by all. .On the 1st of Jime
1876, Kanwar Bakht Singh was acknowledged as the suc-
cessor to the late Maharaj Bana; the young Bani having
proved to be not pregnant, as at one time it was supposed she
was. On the 24th June the youthful Bakht Singh, who was in
his eleventh year, was formally installed, on which he took the
name of Zdlim Singh, in accordance with family custom, which
enjoins that only the four names of Zdlim Singh, Madhu Singh,
Madan Singh, and Pirthi Singh are to be assumed by the rulers
of this house. The young Maharaj Bana Zalim Singh is study-
ing at the Mayo College, Ajmer. During his minority the
administration of the State is conducted by a British officer under
the title of Superintendent. The organization of the new arrange-
ment, and arrangements for the liquidation of the State debts, are
the first objects to which that officer's attention has been directed.
PoRM OF Government.
On the formation of the State^ the Maharaj Bana Madan
Singh took as his type of government the personal rule of his
grandfather Zalim Singh; the daily routine of this personal manage-
ment was as follows : — ^The chief arose before day-break, when the
reports of the troops and kotwal were heard and disposed of;
written reports from the parganas, and the verbal reports of heads
of departments and offices, next received attention. Tip to 8 a.m.
was the time allowed for the disposal of all this business, when
the Maharaj Bana had his breakfast, during which the principal
sahiikars assembled before him and read out the news received
from various quarters through their firms. Breakfast ended, four
confidential officials were invited to join the chief. Before this
assembly, the papers from the office of the Political Agent of.
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Hardoti and those from the Accounts office, were produced ; the
Maharaj Rana passing his orders directly, or consulting the four
officials alluded to before deciding as he thought fit. The closing
hour for this office- work was 12 noon. From that time, to between
4 and 6 p.m., the chief retired into the zandna, where matters of
domestic import were dealt with. On re-appearing, the Maharaj
Rana held a general darbar, at which all the officials presented
themselves to pay their respects ; this over, His Highness proceeded
to the stables, and, seated there, first the Pauj Bakhshi was called,
when any enlistments necessary were made before the chief, the
descriptive rolls of the men bein g written at the time. This ended,
petitioners were summoned through the head of the Palki Khdna,
or intelligence department ; the Maharaj Eana either summarily
disposed of these miscellaneous petitions, or referred them to the
heads of departments or pargana officials for disposal. This con-
cluded the day's business. As already stated, on the accession of
Maharaj Rana Pirthi Singh a council of regency composed of
five members carried on the government. After this, government
through a single ministry came in vogue. At times the late
Maharaj- Rana made attempts to keep up the old personal atten-
tion to business; but his easy-going inclination, and excessive
fondness for zanana society, prevented steady application ; and,
consequently, each succeeding kdmdar, or manager, apj)ears to
have secured more power into his hands, until the last became ^all
but virtually the chief of the State* On Maharaj Rana Pirthi
Singh's death, a council of five sirddrs carried on the administration
under the orders of the Political Agent of Hardoti and Tonk, till
the appointment of the Political Superintendent in 1876.
Account of Ruling Family. — The ruling family belongs to the
Jhala clan of Rajpiits, long settled in Kathidwdr. About A.D.
1709, one Bhan Singh, a second son of the head of the clan, left
his country with his son and a small company in order to try his
fortune at Delhi. At Kotah, Bhan Singh left his son Madhu Singh
with the Maharaja Bhim Singh who then ruled the Kotah State,
and went on himself to Delhi, where all trace of him ends. His
son Madhu Singh won for himself the good graces of the Kotah
chief, who married his eldest son to Madhu Singh's sister, granted
him a jdglr of Rs. 12,000, and gave him the post of faujddr, a
position which implied the control of the army, ^the forts, and
the palaces. His connection with the chief gained him the familiar
title of "Mamd," which continued for some time in the family.
Madhu Singh was succeeded in the office of faujddr by his son
Madan Singh. Madan Singh had two sons, Himmat Singh and
Pirthi Singh, the former of whom is said to have been famous for
personal strength and prowess. Pirthi Singh had two sons, Sheo
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Singh and Z^lim Singh ; the latter of whom, being adopted by his
uncle Himmat Singh, and surviying his father, succe^ed to his
^ndfather's position in the Kotah State at the age of eighteen*
Three years later, ZAlim Singh was the means of securing a victory
for the Kotah troops against those of the Eaja of Amber ( Jaipur) *
ZAlim Singh afterwards fell into disfavor with the Maharao,
owing to his rivalry in the case of a favorite woman whom the Ma-
harao wished to place in his zanAna. Leaving Kotah, Z41im Singh
did good service at Udaipur. Returning to Kotah when Maharao
Gumdn Singh was on his death-bed, the chief sent for him and
committed his son Om6d Singh and the country into his charge^
The rest of Z^Uiim Singh's career is a matter of Kotah history^
Madhu Singh, his son, succeeded to his position in Kotah, and his
son Madan Singh became the first chief of the Jhal&w&c State, as
already related. The late chief Pirthi Singh has left two widowed
Ranis : the senior one, married many years ago, is of the BhattiAni
tribe of RAjpiits, and came from Chaumtin of Jaipur; the second,
the chief married only a short time before his death ; she is of
the Solankhi tribe of Rd^jpiits, and the younger daughter of the
Lonwdrd chief in Rewa Kanta. The late MaJiaraj Rana has left
no legitimate issue.
The only relatives of the family present in Jhalrapdtan are
Bhai Gopdl Singh and Chhatar ^al, descendants of Madhu Singh;
their immediate descent being through brothers of Madan Singh,
froin whom the chiefs family are directly descended. A gienealo-
gical tree of the ruling family is given on the next page.
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MohunSingli
(Jhamar, Kathi^w^
I
I
Bhow^ni Smtai
Singh. Singh
Fntteh
Singh.
Kali^i
Bingl
I
Ladgar Singh*
Bakht Singh, I
Bh6j Biy. I
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The Land.
Principal crops. — The following are the principal crops 1— ■
M&U.
Urfd.
Opium.
Jowir.
Indian-corn*
Tfl.
Wheat.
Miing.
Sugarcane
Gram.
The staple of the foUr Southern parganas^ the Chattmehla, id
opium, which finds its way to Bombay vid Indore. In other parts,
wheat and opium are chiefly cultivated, with the exception of
the Shahdbdd pargana where bdjrd is more grown* The autumn
crops are mdkd, jowdr, urid, mting, til, bdjrd, s^, sugarcane,
kdngni, tobacco, cotton, and a few others. The spring harvest
brings wheat, barley, gram, opium, and mastir*
Oost of Production. — On the supposition that the cultivator
gives his own, labor, i.e., deducting the cost of wages, it is calcu-
lated that a raj bigha of opium costs about Rs. 12 to produce ; if
labor be hired, the cost is calculated at Bs. 20. M.&kk is calculated
to cost Rs. 2-3 per raj bigha, jowdr Rs. 1*10-6, and wheat
Rs. 2-12 : the last three are calculated on the supposition that labor
is partly hired. Mdkd being mostly grown on opium ground, the
manure given to the former suffices for the latter. The manure
given to wheat and jowAr is supposed to be enough to last for
four or five years in the black soil*
Agriculture. -^^'Slou^can^ior the autumn crops first commences
at the end of May, when the soil is once turned, and is thus in a
state to derive benefit from the thunder-showers which generally
precede the regular rains. After the first burst of the rains, the
soil is again turned, and sowing begins. Land lying fallow
during this season for the purpose of receiving spring-crops is
ploughed three or four times, and gets thoroughly saturated with
moisture ; it is then in a fit state to grow wheat without the help
of irrigation. Opium receives eight or nine waterings, at first daily,
and then at intervals of three and four days. The outturn of this
crop is greatly dependent on manure, which is composed of either
cow or goat dung. Some forty or fifty of the small country-cart
loads are required for an acre. The pod of the poppy is cut three
different times for the juice ; but in the Chaumehla it is cut four
times. The average yield in an acre is 12 seers ; in the Chau-
mehla, however, it amounts to 24 seers. Rich irrigated land has
in the autumn either mdkd or jowdr sown on it, which in the
spring is followed by opium.
Irrigation. — Irrigation is chiefly from weUs ; water is generally
near the surface (with the exception of the Shahdbdd pargana) ;
but the amount of land irrigated by a well is small, owing to
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the absence of fertfle springs, and to the wells not being deeply
dug on account of hard rocky strata, or layers of moist unstable
clay being m6t with close to the surface. Around and near head-
quarters a fair amount of irrigation is carried on from bunds, such
as the large taldo below Jhalrapdtan city, whence a masonry
channel two miles long, constructed by Z^m Singh, conducts the
stored water to the lands of a village on the other side of the city.
In the districts there are several bunds, but want of attention to
them for some time has rendered them almost useless.
Cultivated Area. — It is stated that barely two-fifths of the total
area of the State are cultivated. Of the uncultivated portion, more
than one-third is culturable ; the remainder consists of hills and un-
culturable waste. The cultivated area is calculated at 10,88,488 raj
bighas, or 507,418 acres, of which 7,16,631 raj bighas, or 331,440
acres, are khdlsa or uiialienated, and of this khdlsa land, 3,969
raj bighas, or 1,846 acres, are directly tilled and managed through
State servants : of the aUenated portion, 1,08,724 raj bighas, or
50,683 acres, are in jdgir ; 59,279 bighas, or 26,702 acres, are in
" tJdak,'* or religious grant ; and 45,800 bighas, or 21,350 acres, are
awarded in lieu of pay to officials.
System of Tenures and Land Seventies. — *The ancient revenue
system in force inHardoti was the Idthd and batdi^ or rent inkind by
weight and measure in proportion to the value of the soil and of
the product. Two-fifths to one-half of the outturn, according to
the crop, went to the State ; the remainder, after payment of the
village expenses, being the right of the cultivator. The system
had its advantages : it possessed an elasticity which adapted it to
the people and their hand-to-mouth existence. But it had its
disadvantages, by affording opportunity for oppression on the part
of the collector, and fraud on that of the tenant. The office-du^
and lands of the patel were hereditary ; so was the right of the
cultivator in the soil. The land was, as it is to this day in Btindi
(also a part of Hardoti), bdpoti. The cultivator could sell or
mortgage it, and, even if made over to another in consequence of
his inability to cultivate it, he was entitled by custom to certain
dues on it, and to re-occupy it whenever he was in a position to
till it. In the P^rtan pargana of Btindi, only separated from
Kotah by the Chambal, a villager told Captain Muir that his father
had claimed and obtained his bdpoti, oir patrimony, which had for
two generations been thus in the hands of another. In 1807, Baj
Bana Zdlim Singh, the administrator of the Kotah State, superseded
the system in force by a fixed money rent. Enquiries were
instituted as' to the modes and rates of collection existing in,
• The following description of the revenue flystem is taken from a memorandum drawn up
by Captain W. J. W. Muir in 1875.
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and the nature, extent, and fertiKty of, the soil of each vil-
lage. The whole territory was measured. Pasture and moun-
tain tracts were demarcated, and the land was then classified after a
manner. A money rate per bigha was fixed for each class of soil,
payable whether the land was cultivated or not ; this rate being
somewhat higher than the value which the rent paid in kind had
represented. No one uniform scale of assessment was, however,
adopted for the entire State, the rents varying (though slightly)
with almost every village. The district and village expenses were
also estimated, and a fixed scale per bfgha was laid down, which
was to include every charge and to be collected with the revenue.
The object of this was to put a limit on exaction, and prevent
all subordinate oppression. At the same time, the ancient
Kotah jaribj or standard measure, was reduced to 56 gaZy and
the gaz to nine fists of different men. The latter, as placed in
stone by Zdlim Singh in the kach^ri at Jhalrapdtan, measures
2 feet 6f inches. The Kotah jariby or chain, therefore, equals 143|t
feet, and the Kotah bigha 2,288 square yards 36 square inches.
The settlement was aadmiwdry with the cultivator individually.
The offices and duties performed by the patel were swept away,
and the cultivator was brought into direct relation with the Raj.
The dues of the patel were fixed at 1| annas per bfgha on the
lands constituting his pateli, and his personal lands were assessed
at a lighter rate than those of the cultivator, or granted rent-
free. The first blow struck at the hereditary principle was through
the patels, who were superseded where others were ready to offer a
higher nazardna for the office. The assessment introduced was
rigorously exacted, and the slightest defalcation was followed by
distress, confiscation, and sale. Advances were made from the
treasury, in money or in kind, to all who were willing to take up
lands ; but they bore a high rate of interest, and the obligations thus
created left the peasantry at the mercy of the fisc. A very large
area of waste-land was thus brought under cultivation, and the Raj
Rana thus introduced the system of direct farming, which he subse-
quently carried to suchan astonishing extent that "the fields* which
had descended from father to son — through the lapse of ages the
unalienable right of the peasant — ^were seized in spite of law, custom,
or tradition, and it is even affirmed that he sought pretexts to obtain
such lands as, from their contiguity or fertility, he coveted. These
lands were taken up and farmed by him directly ; the once indepen-
dent proprietor sinking to the position of a hired serf, or an outsider
being entertained. At this period, when the remainder of the coun-
try was wasted by predatory armies and bands of marauders, Kotah
' ' ' »■— — ^1 I I 11 ■ I J . II ■ I
* Tod's Sqfaathan, vol. II, page 538.
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was, owing to the sagacity and energy of the Raj Bana, prosperous
and at peace.* The inhabitants of surrounding Statea flocked to it,
and, with the superabundant population thus placed at his command,
the Raj Rana brought the whole State to a pitch of the highest
cultivation. Not a nook or patch capable of producing grain was
allowed to be fallow. Any land untilled was appropriated by him,
and the establishments he maintained for the purpose rose to 4,000
ploughs and 16,000 oxen. Such was the prosperity of the country,
that an eye-witness states it was difficult to find a pathway through
the corn-fields which covered the face of Hardoti. Por years it
was the granary from which not only Rdjpiitdna and much of
Malwa — both desolated by war and famine — ^but the roving hordes
who lived on them, drew their supplies. With the return of peace
and the death of the Raj Rana in 1824, this artificial prosperity
came to an end, and the reaction was hastened by the disorders
arising from the conflict for power which raged between the
successors of the Raj Rana, the regents of the State, and the titular
rulers. In 1838, on the departure from Kotah of Raj Rana Zalim
Singh's grandson, Madan Singh, for the separate State assigned him,
all the personal farms (which had been kept by the regents
under their own personal control) fell to the State. These — still
locally known as the *^ hall ki dhartf, " and including the richest
lands — ^were scrambled for by the protigis and adherents of the
favorites of the chief who then succeeded to power, and were
secured by them at a low assessment. Financial embarrassments,
the consequence of mal-administration, led to an enhancement
of the land-revenue ; and in 1840, and again in 1860, the rents
were raised all round by the addition of a certain sum per bigha.
Similarly, in 1866, a further charge of 10 per cent, on all preceding
rates Was attached by the present chief. During this interval
the Raj had also appropriated several of the dues originally fixed
to meet village expenses, the payment of which was thrown on the
cultivator.
Such is a brief sketch of the revenue history of the State. It
is unfortunate that the papers connected with Raj Rana Zdlim
Singh's settlement are not forthcoming, as they are known to have
been in great detail. A search instituted at Captain Muir's request
in 1870 failed to discover any trace of them at Kotah, and supported
the statement of the officiak there, that they had been carried off,
with other important public records, by Raj Rana Madan Singh.
Jhaldwar, when applied to, alleged that, if taken there, they must
have been burnt with the State records in the Mutiny.
While, thus, the system established by Zdlim Singh still exists
• See Malcolm's Central India, vol. I, 603 ; II, 62.
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and forms the basis on which the revenue is collected, many of the
actual details have been modified and superseded. As already-
shown, a large element of irregular tenure was introduced on the
partition of the haK lands. In the years of mal-administration
which followed, other lands have been obtained by bribery and
collusion with the officials, or have been absorbed and incor-
porated by those who have no right to them. Similar remarks
apply to the rent-free holdings, many of which are, moreover,
beUev^ed to be held by parties who have no claim to them. Matters
have been further complicated by different standard measures
having been adopted in the grants which have been made since
Eaj Eana Zalim Singh's time. The raj blgha then fixed has
been ignored, and the local and larger bigha, varying with each par-
gana, inserted. Nor does a greater certainty exist in regard to the
lands on which (what may be called) a full assessment is paid. No
enquiry having been instituted since the settlement of 1807,
allowance has not been made for the increased productiveness or
deterioration of the soil, nor have the holdings been tested.
The total land-revenue is represented as Rs. 17,47,197, of
Land-revenue. which sum Bs. 13,21,943 rcach the
treasury, the balance being the income of
the ahenated lands, the principal of which, the j^girs, absorb
Rs. 1,52,802, the religious grants Rs. 80,625, and the payment of
officials Rs. 43,983. Rent-free grants amount to Rs. 53,487, and
grants for village service are estimated at Rs. 59,958. The man-
agement of the land-revenue department of this State has been
so neglected for years past that it is not possible to place absolute
reliance on the above figures. The land-revenue is reahzed
through the medium of a person known as the manotiddr, who, in
addition to being the cidtivator's banker, is further a security
(hence his name) on his account to the State for the payment of
the instalments of revenue. These manotlddrs effect payment by
granting hiindls at one and two months' sight on the leading
bankers resident in Jhalrapatan city and the Chhdoni ; the officials
then realize the money from the bankers. In return, the State is
considered bound to do its best in obtaining for the manotiddr the
produce of the cultivators for whom he is security. There are
some cultivators reduced to such a desperate state of poverty
that manotldars cannot be obtained for them ; such persons have
the produce of their crops taken and sold by the tahsildar, who^
after deducting the amount to be granted in advance for food and
seed, credits the remainder to the revenue. The mode of assess-
ment, as a rule, is.asamiwar, or by holdings. A rough measure-
ment is made during which note is taken of the crops then present;
to these several crop areas Old-established revenue rates are ap..
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plied, and tlie assessment is considered complete. The confusion
which has prevailed for some time in the revenue department, as
already mentioned, renders it impossible to give these revenue rates
as now existing, without lengthened inquiry, for which there has
been no time. It appears they differ in almost every sub-division
of a pargana.
The theory that the State is the lord of the soil is here very
Land-tenure. practically obscrvcd, so much so that, when
enhancing the revenue of the khalsa lands,
a similar percentage of demand was levied on the jdglrddrs under
the revenue of enhancement. The village proprietor, or biswdddr,
does not appear to exist, except perhaps, to some extent, in the
Chaumehla. The cultivators are generally occupancy-tenants
nominally, but the caprice of various managers seems to have
made them in reality tenants at the will of the ofl5cials. The
jdgirddrs furnish horses and men for the police service of the State,
and present themselves at head-quarters to pay their respects to
the Maharaj Eana on the occurrence of festivals. The religious and
rent-free grants are held on the same conditions as elsewhere. The
patels, or village headmen, have rent-free holdings in lieu of being
held answerable for the collections of revenue ; but the introduction
of manotiddrs has relieved them of much responsibility. Village
servants such as the Sansri and Bdlai hold land in lieu of service.
The lands held in lieu of pay are, unless confiscated for mis-
behaviour, life-holdings.
Cultivating Classes, — ^In the Chaumehla district the cultiva-
tors are mostiy Sondias — a class of Rdjptit origin, but in their
manners and customs now far removed from them. In the south-
east, the Mehwdtl, Bhil, and Gujar are the chief cultivators. In
the Shahabdd district Kardrs cultivate. The cultivators in the
rest of the State are Jhala Rdjpiits ; around Jhalrapdtan itself,
Kiilmis, Dhakars, Jdts, Minas, Mdlis, and Gujars.
Population.
Population. — ^The statistics under this head are not to be
altogether trusted. By far the greater portion are Hindus ; the
Jains are very few, but have some influence. There are a fair
number of Musalmdns, a good portion of them being TurMa
Bohras, of the Shfah persuasion from Gujardt.
Castes, Clans t and Tribes. — Of the Rdjpdt, the greater ntimber
are Jhalas ; the Hadiis, Eahtor and Ghandrawat, are next in num-
ber ; then follow in equally small numbers the Rajawat, the
Solankhi, the Sesodia, the Stikhtawdt, and the Khinchi. The
Brdhmansi Jains, and Musalmdns have ahready been mentioned ;
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the mahajan or banya is well represented : there are K!ayaths,
The town population contain the following working castes :—
Khati
Kiimhar
Rangrez
Kalaig4r
Liihdr
Teli
Chhipi
Bisdti
Carpenter.
Potter*
Dyer.
Tinker. ^
Blacksmith.
Oilman.
Cloth-printer.
Pedlar.
Darzi
... Tailor.
Tamboli
... BetelJeaf seller.
Mochi
••• Shoemaker.
Chamar.
Sun£r
... Goldsmith.
Dhobi
••• Washerman.
Patwd
... Braider.
Julahd
••• Weaver.
and a RajpAt class of stone-laboxirers called Or. The wandering
classes are the Santhias, Kanjars, and NItts. There is also a
migratory class of Ltihars from Marwar, who, it is said, on account
of scarcity of food in that State, pass yearly through this State
en route to Indore, and, on their return journey, spend two or
three months here in the execution of petty contracts : they take
as many as two or three hundred carts of implements with them.
The description given by General Malcolm in his Central India
of the Sondias or Sondis, has been found
by local enquiry to be substantially cor-
rect. A rough census lately taken shows their numbers in the
Ohaumehla district of the State to be 19,860 — all cultivators. In
other parts of the State a Sondia is rarely found. Their chief
clans are Ea,htor, Tawur, Jddon, Sesodia, Gehlot, Chohdn, and
Solankhi. The Chohans are said to have come from Gwalior and
Ajmer, the Rahtors from Nagore of Marwar, and the Sesodias and
others from Mewar from seven to nine centuries ago. The Ohau-
mehla Sondias consider themselves as descended from Rajputs of
the different clans, and assert that the families they are descended
from are now in several instances holders of influential jdgirs in
the States from which they emigrated. One account makes out
that the people derived their name from the country which, beiag
bounded by two rivers of the name of Sind, was called Sindwdrd,
corrupted into SondwdrA, which caused the inhabitants to be
called Sondias. The other account makes the people give the
name to the country, their name being a corruption of the Hindi
word Sandhia—- twilight, not mixed (neither one thing nor the
other). A Sondia, with his comparatively fair complexion, round
face, shaven chin, and peculiar large, white turban, is at once distin-
guishable from other classes. Though given to quarrelling among
themselves, more particularly over land, they can combine, as
was recently seen when a deputation from a pargana, consisting of
over one hundred persons, retired in sulks, owing to one of their
number having had his turban knocked off by a sepoy, which was
considered as an indignity to the whole body, and resented as such.^
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They ar^ simple and very ignorant, and still given to taking what
belongs to others, which now chiefly shows itself in cattle-Ufting.
They have taken to agriculture, and some of the Chaumehla
patels are well-to-do, but, as a class, they do not appear thrifty,
and their village expenses are very high. A few villages are held
in jdgfr, the remains, it is said, of considerable possessions granted
originally by the Muhammadan emperors as an inducement
to settle. The following is the a<5count given by Malcolm in
his Central India referred to above, of the Sondias in his
time : —
** They are often called Rdjptits, but are mixture of all classesi
or rather descendants of a mixed race. In their origin they were
probably outcasts ; and their fabulous history (for they consider
themselves as a distinct people) traces them from a prince who, in
consequence of being bom with the face of a tiger, was expelled
to the forests, where he seized upon women of all tribes, and
became the progenitor of the Sondias, or, as the term implies,
* mixed race, ' some of whose leaders soon after settled in Malwa,
where they have ever since maintained themselves as petty
zamindars, or landholders, as well as plunderers.
" That the Sondias have a claim to antiquity, there can be no
doubt ; but we have no record of their ever having been more
than petty robbers, till the accident of their lands being divided
among four or five local authorities, always at variance and often
at war with each other, combined with the anarchy of Central
India during the last thirty years, raised them into importance as
successful freebooters. Though often opposed to the Grassias,
who are settled in the same tract, a congeniality of pursuit has led
to their being much associated with the latter, and particularly since
the insanity of Jeswant Rao Holkar. Erom that date, neither life
nor property was secure within the range of the lawless bands of
Sondw^d, most of whom, from breeding their own horses, were
well-mounted. At the peace of Mundesar, the Sondias were
estimated in number at 1,249 horse and 9,250 foot, all subsisting
by plunder, for the possessions they claimed as their own were
in a state of complete desolation. " — (Vol. I.)
" The principal among the illegitimate, or, as they are often
termed, half-caste, Ildjpiits in Central India, are the Stidfs,
who have spread from Sondwdra (a country to which they give
the name) to many adjoining districts. A short history of them
has been given. They are Hindus, and take pride in tracing their
descent from Rd^jpiit heroes ; but their habits have led them, on
many points, to depart from the customs of their fathers, and,
except refraining from the flesh of buffaloes and cows, they
little observe the peculiar usages of the Hindus. This tribe
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is divided mto many classes or families, which take their name»-
from Rajpiit ancestors; but all intermarry. Second marriages
among their women are verjp^ common; and, from the strict usages
of the Rdjplits upon this point, there is none on which they
deem the Sondias to have so degraded the race from which they
are descended,
" The Sondias have been either cultivators or plunderers^ accord-
. ing to the strength or weakness of the government over them ;.
but they have always had 3 tendency to predatory war, and have
cherished its habits, even when obliged to subsist by agriculture*
Their dress is nearly the same as that of the other inhabitants,
though they imitate in some degree the R^jptits in the shape^
of their turbans. They are, in general, robust and active, but rude
and ignorant to a degree. No race can be more despised and
dreaded than the Sondias are by the oth^ inhabitants of the coun-
try. They all drink strong liquors, and use opium to an excess ;
and emancipated, by their base birth and their being considered
as outcasts, from the restraints which are imperative upon other
branches of Hindu society, they give free scope to the full grati-
fication of every sensual appetite ; consequently, vices are habi-
tual to this class which are looked upon by almost every other
with horror and disgust. There is little union among the Son-
dias ; and acts of violence and murder amongst themselves are
events of common occurrence, even in what they deem peaceable
times. Their usual quarrels are about land, and each party ia
prompt to appeal to arms for a decision. This race has not been
known to be so quiet for a century, as at present. When the Pin-
ddri war was over, their excesses gave the British Gbvemmerit
an opportunity of seizing their strongholds and compelling them
to sell their horses, which has in a great degree deprived them of
the ability to plunder; but still the presence of troops is essential
to repress their turbulent disposition ; and a long period of peace
can alone give hopes of reforming a community of so restless and
depraved a character. The women of this tribe have caught the
manners of their fathers and husbands, and are not only bold, but
immoral. The lower ranks are never veiled, appear abroad at
visits and ceremonies, and many of them are skilled iji the man-
agement of the horse, while some have acquired fame in the
defence of their villages, or, in the field, by their courageous use
of the sword and spear.
" At their marriages and feasts the Sondias are aided by Brdh-
mans, but that caste has little intercourse with them, except when
wanted for the offices of religion. Among this rude race
Ohar^ms are treated with more courtesy ; but the Bhdts, who relate
the fabulous tales of their descent, and the musicians, who sing
Al
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their own deeds or those of their fathers, are the favorites on
whom they bestow the highest largesses." — (Vol. !!•)
Meligion. — Hinduism of the Vishnu form of worship is the
religion of the greater number. The Jains have some fine large
temples in Jhalrapdtan city. There are a f ew DMu Panthis,
Giris, Puns, and Nathis ; also a very few of the sect called Kunda
Panthi, who eat in common out of a vessel called a kunda, by
way of symbolizing their indifference to caste rules. This sect
has lately established itself here, and seems anxious to avoid notice,
the members being seldom seen together, and forming, in reality,
a secret society of religious free-thinkers. The Ktil Devi of the
Jhala or ruling family is the goddess Biswanti.
State of Society. — ^The stete of society is backward, educa-
tion having made but little advance. With possibly the excep-
tion of the Chaumehla and one or two districts, the condition of the
agricultural classes, which is poor, owing, it is said, to too heavy
an enhahcement and the fall in the price of opium combined, has
reacted on the banya class, several of whom, as manotlddrs, have
found themselves out of pocket by standing security for the
payment of the revenue. The city of Jhalrapdtan does not wear
the appearance of a thriving town ; the houses of the principal
banking firms, which are branches of the prosperous houses whose
head-quarters are at Mathura, Ajmer, and Indore, must form an
exception, for they have enjoyed unusual opportunities of gain,
and some of them haverprofited by privileges granted many years
ago. Sandstone, easily got at, and very workable, being plentiful,
houses are principally made of that material ; the poor make
dry-stone walls of it, covered by a roof of either roughly-
made tiles or thin stone slabs of the same sort supported on
either wooden or stone rafters — those better off add mud or
plaster.
Ocotipation. — Of the Rdjpiits, the only class at all extensively
employed on agriculture is the Jhala \ the rest of the clan of that
name refuses, however, to intermix with these cultivators. The
Brdhmans are employed either on religious or menial services.
The banking classes are composed of about three-quarters Jain and
one-quarter Vishnu. The Bohras carry on retail business in various
wares, chiefly tin and iron. The Kayaths, as elsewhere, are clerks.
The banking interest has for some time been largely represented
among the State officials.
Education. — ^Education is in its infancy. In the districts, the
gaon giirii, or village priest, teaches the young people, chiefly the
sons of banyas and Brdhmans, their mode of keeping accounts,
and the rudiments of reading and writing the guttural local
Hindi. In Patau city, and in the Ohhdoni, there are town schools
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at which Hindi, Urdu, and EngKsh are understood to be taught ;
the teachers, however, are not very capable, and doubtless have
not had much encouragement ; the result is that very few boys
leave the schools with any appreciable degree of education.
Administbation.
Administrative Sub-divisions. — ^Twenty-two parganas (as fol-
lows) constitute the administrative sub-divisions : —
Sub-divisions. Filiates.
Chechat ... ... 44
Suket ... ... 54
Kherabdd 22
Ziilmi ... ... 10
iJrmal-JTiabapfitan ... 128
Bukarl 73
Richhwd ... ... 133
Asndwar ... ... 26
Ratlai ... ... 42
Kotra Bhatta ... ... 45
Sarera ... ... 37
Deldnpur
Aklera
Charelia
Mandhar Thana
Jawar
Chhipa Burod.
ShaMbdd
PachpaMr
Awar,
Dag
Gangrar
Filiates.
149
32
19
131
47
163
259
77
40
86
123
As will be seen, these sub-divisions are very unequal, and
require revision. Por the custom tariff, the four parganas of
Pachpahdr, Awar, Dag, and Grangrar — locally known as the
Chaumehla — are distinct from the rest of the State, as is of
necessity the detached and differently placed pargana of Shahdbdd.
Judicial Si/stem. — ^In the time of personal rule, the pargana
officials had certain criminal, civil, and revenue powers ; petitions
against their decisions, or heavy cases, were brought before the
Maharaj Rana through the head of the Palki Khana, the chief, as
before stated, either settling them himself, or referring them to the
pargana officials. At that time no fees were taken : matters of debt
were mostly settled by mutual ^reement ; agricultural implements
were never sold. In 1850, criminal and civil courts were established
at the capital ; for two years they existed but in name, for the real
powers lay with the Palki Khdna, which decided cases verbally. In
1861 these courts were re-established, but had only the power to
draw up the records of cases, and submit them to the Maharaj Rana
f of orders. About 1874 the system now in force was arranged,
but it is only lately it has had a. fair trial, for, till then, these
courts had to pay their establishments from the proceeds of fines
realized, and their action was interfered with by the late kdmdar.
The system at present is as follows : — ^The tahsil courts have
in criminal matters powers up to one month^s imprisonment and
Rs. 40 fine. The tahsildars of the Chaumehla and ShahdbM have
superior powers, i.e., two months' imprisonment and Rs. 50 fine ;
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In civil cases their powers are tmdefined. Appalls from the deci-
sions of the tahsildars lie to the criminal and civil courts at head-
quarters, half a month being the time allowed for appeal ; the
powers of the former are one year's imprisonment and Rs. 100 fine.
The powers of the civil court extend up to Rs. 1,000. Appeals from
the decisions of the two courts above-mentioned lie to a punchayet,
or appellate court consisting of three members whose powers in cri-
minal cases extend to three years' imprisonment and Rs. 300 fine ;
in civil suits their powers are limited to Rs. 7,000 ; two months re-
present the time allowed for appeals to this court. In criminal mat-
ters the courts were directed to be guided by the Penal Code temper-
ed by local custom. In civil cases, fees are taken at 12^ per cent,
nominally ; but the practice has been to make that the outside
limit, and to take fees in accordance with the wealtji of the person.
TKll lately, proceedings stopped with the granting of -a decree, exe-
cution of it being seldom heard of. Oases beyond the powers of
the appellate court, as well as appeals from it, are heard by the
head of the State, who also disposes of revenue matters beyond the
powers of the tahsildars, which are undefined.
Police. — ^The police organization is complicated. In regard
to enlistments, discharge, pay, and somewhat also in regard to
discipline, the district police are \mder a central office called the
fiibundi. The force, which numbers about 100 horse and 2,000
foot, is distributed over the country : some are tinder the orders of
the tahsildars for purely tahsil work ; others perform police duties
under the same official, who has under him an officer called a
p&hkdr, quite tmconnected with real tahsil work. The other
portion of the force is under three officials called girdi officers,
who are expected to be going the roimds of their several
districts on the look-out for highway robbers and dacoits ; the
greater part of this portion of the force is told off to outposts.
It is supplemented by sowdrs ai\d footmen from the regular
forces, which accompany the girdi (Officials on their tour. Both the
p^shk^ (through the tahsildars) and the girdi officers submit
their reports and proceedings to the hcsad of the criminal court ;
but, till lately, the subordination to the criminal court was
nominaL The town of Jhalrap^tan and the Chhioni have muni-
cipal police under kotwdls in subordination to the criminal court.
Jail. — ^Formerly, all prisoners were confined in the forts at
Mandhar Thana, Kailw^ra, and Shah4bdd. About the year 1865
a central jaU was instituted, and in 1871 a Eurasian Superin-
tendent was appointed to it. This official, having had expe-
rience in the North- Western Provinces, succeeded in bringing
the jail into good order. The prisoners are employed on road-
malong, and in the manufacture of paper, rugs, and cloths. Disci-
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pline and cleanliness are maintained. The number of prisoners
varies from 100 to 130. ^
Communications. — ^The only metalled roads in Ihe State are in
the Chhdoni, and one from there to Jhabapdtan city, 2^ miles
in length; there is one in course of construction from the
Kotah boundary to the Chhdx)ni for a length of 18 miles : this
Toad wiU meet one being made in Kotah, and thus establish
good communication between the two places. All other roads
are cpuntry-cart tracks which, in the rains, are useless for wheeled
traflGlc, as vehicles are unable to proceed in the saturated black
soU. The principal routes of these tracks are to the south-east
towards the high road between Agra and Bombay ; to the south
towards Agar and Indore ; to the south-west towards Ujain; to the
west in the direction of Nimach ; and to the north-west towards
Kotah, which line the new metalled road in that direction is to
take. Along the south-east and south routes, traffic is carried
on with Bombay through Indore, opium being exported and
English cloths imported ; grain from Bhopal is also imported by
these routes. By the north-west route, grain from Haraoti, and
a smaU quantity of cloth from Agra, are imported.
Towns.
Principal TovynPand Parganas. — ^The chief towns in the State
are the foUowing : — Jhalrapdtan, the Chhd^ni, Shahdbdd, Kail-
wdra, Chhipa Burod, Mandhar Thana, Bukari, Suket, Chechat,
Pachpahar, Dag, and Gangrar.
The old town of Jhabapdtan lay a little to the south of the
^; modem site along the banks of the
Chandarbhdka stream, which is now a few
furlongs from the centre of the new town. The name is said by
Tod to mean the city of bells, as the old town, being a place of
some sanctity, contained 108 temples with bells to correspond.
It was also known from its position by the name of Chandioti-
Nagri. This city was destroyed and its temple despoiled in the time
of Aurangzeb ; all that was left of the ancient place in 1796 was
the temple of " Sdt SeheK," or Seven Damsels (still standing in
the new town), and a few Bhfl huts around it. In that year
Zdlim Singh founded the present city, removing the tahsU from
tTrmal to Jhalrapdtan, and building a city-waU. To encourage
inhabitants, he placed a large stone-tablet in the centre of the chief
bazar, on which was engraved, the promise that whoever settled'
in the town would be excused the payment of all customs-dues,
and that, of whatever crime convicted, his pimishment should not
exceed a fine of Rs. 1-4. These terms quickly attracted traders from
Kotah and Marwar, especially from the latter place. In 1850,
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during the lif ertime of the late Maharaj Bana, the kdmddr Hindu
Mai had this gtone-tablet removed and thrown into the large
tank on which the city stands, from which time the privileges
enjoyed up to that time were annulled. The talao, or tank, is
said to have been made by an " Or " Rdjptit named Jesii. Zdlim
Singh, however, put it into repair, and constructed a masonry
channel from it for a length of two miles, by means of which the
lands of the neighbouring village of Gttndhor are irrigated. The
chief bankers reside at JhalrapAtan. The mint and other Raj
establishments are there, and the head-quarters of the Jhalrapdtan
pargana.
The founding of this town has already been mentioned in the
The chh&om history of the State : here are situated the
^' Maharaj Rana's palace, and all the various
courts, offices, and departments ; it is situated on a rising stretch
of rocky groimd ; its present great want is a proper water-supply
for drinking and bathing purposes. The population is considered
larger than that of Jhalrapatan.
In 1872-73, Lieutenant Holdich, k.b., commenced a plan
of the cantonments of Jhalrapdtan on the 12-inch scale ; these
cantonments, however, were foimd to be little more than a
collection of mud huts built round the Raja's palace, the real
old city being about 4 miles to the south, situated to the east
of a good-sized lake, the palace being built on the large ma-
sonry dam. A small square fort overlooks the town from the
sunmiit of a jimgle-covered hill to the north. The city itself
is also walled and is the real capital of the State, although
the Raja has taken up his residence at the cantonments.
At about 2 1 miles to the north of the cantonments is the
fort of Gdgraun, in the Kotah territory. The name of the
city was originally P6.tan, but was re-named Jhalrapdtan by
the first Raja, who was a Jhalra Rdjpiit. It is situated at the
foot of a low range of hills running from south-east to north-
west ; the drainage from these hills to the north-west of the town
is collected into a good-sized lake by a large and very solid ma-
sonry dam, about two-thirds of a mile long, on which are sundry
teniples and buildings, as well as the old palace. The town lies
behmd this dam, the general level of the groimd being the same
height as the water of the lake in the cold weather. Between the
city- wall and the foot of the hills are a number of gardens watered
by a small canal, brought from tlie lake. Except on the lake side,
the city is protected by a good masonry-wall with circular bastions
and a ditch capable of being filled with water from the .lake.
This ditch, however, ceases in the centre of the eastern face.
Prom the west, and passing by the city on the south at a distance
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of 400 or 500 yards , flows the ChandarhMka rirer, which then bends
to the north-east, and passing through the hills joins the Kdli
Sindh, after about 4 miles of open country. Prom the north of the
town a metalled road is carried over a very low part of the range
and continues due north to the cantonments. Between this road
and the Chandarbhdka, on a hill 150 feet above the city, is situated
the small square fort mentioned above ; it has never been com-
pleted and is of no importance. The country to the north of this
small range is flat and fairly well cultivated, and through this is
the road to the cantonment, locally always called the " Chhd^ni."
Prom the north city- wall to the Raja's palace in the Chhd^ni the
distance equals 4 miles 3 furlongs. TMs new palace is enclosed by
a high, apparently strong masonry- wall, forming an exact square,
with large circular bastions at each comer and two Semi-circular
ones in the centre of each face, the length of each face being 735
feet. The principal entrance is in the centre of the eastern side, and
the approach to it is along the principal street of the bazar run-
ning due east and west. A little more than a mile to the south-
west of this palace is a sheet of water, formed by damming-up
the drainage on the north side of the range of hills already men-
tioned in connection with the city ; below this lake, and watered
by it, are several gardens, and in the centre of one the Eaja is
building himself a bungalow, surrounded by a canal to. be kept
full of water from the lake. About a mile and a half to the
east of the Chha6ni is the Kdli Sindh river, which just here flows
nearly north and south, and is the boundary between Jhaldwdr
and Kotah. To the north is the road leading to Gagraun fort, 2^
miles distant,^ passing over rocky, undulating ground; it is un-
metalled, but is passable for carts, although decidedly rough
and, bad. A quarter of a mile from the fort, the road crosses
the Ahu river into the Kotah territory, the bed of which is between
high banks and is about 200 yards across. During the cold season
the water is not more than 40 or 50 yards wide, quite shallow,
flowing over pebbles close under the southern bank. The
remainder of the bed is sandy or shingly. Half a mile to the
south-east this river joins the Kdli Sindh.
Gdgraun is situated on a straight rocky ridge running south-
Q^ ^ east and north-west, and consequently
^^^' parallel to the low range between
Jhalrapdtan city and cantonments. The city, such as it is,
is on a low part of the ridge, the large and important fort
protecting it on the south-east, whilst a smaller and half -ruined
fort protects it on the north-west ; the city is also itself surround-
ed by a masonry-wall connected with these forts, so that from
outside the whole place appears to be one. No objection is made
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to any one entering the town or northern fort, biit neither native*
nor European is allowed inside the south-eastern, which com-
mands the town thoroughly, and is separated from^ it by a deep
ditch cut in the solid rock and a high strong wall. As already
mentioned, the Ahu river is about 400 yards distant from the fort,,
and, flowing parallel to its south-western face, joins the Kdli Sindh
almost at right-angles ; the two together then pass through a gap
in the ridge, over rapids, turning the south-east extremity of the
fort, and form a large and deep pool of water. The course of the
Kdli Sindh is here abruptly turned to the north-west by a second
ridge, similar to, but even more rocky and somewhat higher than^
that on which G^graun is situated ; it continues its course between
these two ridges, flowing directly below the north-east face of
Gdgraun for a. mile and a quarter, when it again abruptly turns
to the nori}h-east and passes through a gap in the second ridge,^
and thence finds its way through the higher ranges beyond. Thus
the Kdli Sindh and the Ahu flow very nearly parallel to each other
at a mean distance of about 600 yards, but in contrary directions^
Gdgraun being situated between them, but immediately above the
K^ Sindh. In flood-time the whole space between the two ridges
is filled with water almost up to the fort walls, on the precipice
above ; and not many years ago the city itself, which lies low
between the two forts, was flooded, the Ahu and K^ Sindh joining:
each other through it, thus isolating the south-east fort. Such
a body of water not being able to escape fast enough through the
small gap in the second ridge, a portion of it makes its way up
the valley to the south-east, and escapes through another gap
and flows up the next, a much larger valley, and rejoins the main
river at the foot of the large hills beyond.
In former years, Gdgraun appears to have been a small t&wit
with anunrgaportant fort crowning the top of the ridge; Zdlim
Singh, however^ seems to have thought it a good military posi-
tion, and built the present fort completely surrounding the old
one, which now forms a sort of citadel on the top. The south-
western face of the ridge was completely built up with solid ma-
sonry from the level of the ground to nearly the foot of the old
walls ; at the south-east extremity the waU runs along the top
of the rocks, with the exception of one huge outlying solid bas-
tion nearly circular, which rises from the river-bed ; the north-
east face of the ridge being naturally very precipitous, the wall
is carried along the top ; the north-west end, which overlooks the
town, is strongly fortified ; a deep ditch has been cut through the
top of the ridge under the walls and continues nearly to the end
of the fort under the south-west face, but gradually becomes shal-
lower till it dies away. The principal entrance is from the towur
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After a ditch has been crossed by a permanent stone bridge, a
passage lies between two high bastions, but without any gateway ;
the road then curves a little to the right, slightly ascending be-
tween very high walls, and the great gate is reached ; on the left of,
but outside, this gate is a small postern leading down to the river.
On entering, the path skirts a large excavation in the rock, intended
to hold water, but often quite dry. Beyond this is a high wall, but
with no gate, and behind the wall are a number of old buildings, all
more or less in ruins, except the one occupied by the kiladdr. A
second wall is then met with, which is believed to be the north-west
wall of the original fort. This inner place is approached by a zigzag
and through a large gateway, and a tolerably open space is f oimd
with trees about it, and some long lines of buildings imder the walls
on the right, where sepoys live, a store-house or magazine, and
the ruins of a palace. A wall again divides this into two, and
from behind this is a sloping road between two walls through a
postern down to the river. This is no longer used, and is built up.
The exit from the citadel to the south-east is by a simple door-
way in the wall, from which there is a descent till the end wall
immediately over the river and to the large circular bastion already
mentioned. By a turn to the right, and taking the road back
towards the town, but outside the citadel, a narrow space is reached
with a small precipice surmounted by the citadel wall on the right,
and protected by the ramparts on the top of the huge south-west
walls on the left. These ramparts are 60 or 70 feet abqve the
groimd outside. Continuing along this path a ramp is seen by
which the walls overlooking the town and protecting the principal
entrance may be ascended. On the north-east face there is but one
wall, the precipitous nature of the hill here rendering a second and
lower waU unnecessary.
The noticeable feature in the country aroimd Gdgraim is the
extreme straightness and wonderful parallelism of the two ridges,
not only immediately at the placeitself , but for two or three miles on
either side. The larger hills beyond, again, although much broken,
also show a similar character ; and in the valleys where the KdU
Sindh lays bare the rocks below, it is equally marked. Both hills
and valleys are thickly wooded, and those long straight walls of
jagged rock projected up above the jimgle are very striking. The
gorge by which the river finds its way out into the open plains is
very fine, high precipices alternating with wooded slopes on either
side. One precipice, absolutely vertical was plumbed and f oimd to
be 307 feet in height. This is known by the name of the ** Gid
Kerai, " or Vulture's Precipice, and, it is said, was formerly used
as a place of execution by the Kotah Bajas, the victims being
precipitated on the rocks below. The tops of these hills are the
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culminating points of the range, and the slopes from them to the
open country beyond are yery gradual. Sambur and chital
abound here, more especially near the banks of the Kdli Sindh ;
numbers of tigers, too, wander up and down the valleys, but it is
difficult to shoot them in the cold weather, as they escape through
the thick jungle over the hills ; bears, too, are said to be found.
There are numerous footpaths up and down the hills, principally
used by wood and grass cutters; but there are only two
passes at all frequented — one nearly north of Gdgraun, up the
Amjar valley to Panwar, and the other about 2^ miles further
up the range, which leads to Rajpura ; they are both stony and
rocky, and not fit for carts, but passable for laden camels. Du-
ring the dry season many of the rapids are fordable on foot, but
are very rocky, and, the rocks being slippery and the stream strong,
they are by no means convenient fords. Below the fort is a very
good ford, but the ascent into the fort is not good ; horses can go
up and down, but with some little difficulty. At the junction of the
Ahu and Kdli Sindh a large boat is kept, but is not much used
during the cold weather. Further up-stream is the Tolaghati
ford, which is very rocky, but passable for horses ; the next is the
Manderi ford, due east of the Chhdoni, which is passable for
carts ; the road is cut through the banks on each side, the left
side of the river-bed being a rocky slope, the remainder stony
and shingly; the water is about knee-deep, running swiftly
over large stones; it is frequently used, being on the principal
road to the east from the Chhd^ni; above this, again, there
are other fords fit for horses to cross, but they are not much
used except by wood-cutters. The Ahu and Kali Sindh rivers
form the boundary between the Jhalawdr and Kotah terri-
tories, and chaukis are built on either side of the river at the
Manderi ghdt. Jhaldwdr also has one at Tolaghati.
Shahdbad is situated in the detp^ched pargana of that name,
shaMb^ which was first granted to the son of Zdlim
Singh by the Kotah chief, and afterwards
became a part of the Jhaldwar State. The town was founded a long
time ago, by whom is not known, but it is said that the lower fort
wasconstructedbyRdmandLachlmidn, the heroes of theRamaydna.
The town contains about 1,000 houses, and a mosque of Aldmgir's
time. The houses are built of masonry. The water is deemed
unhealthy. Zalim Singh built an upper fort on the hill above the
town. Betel-leaf is extensively grown.
This is also situated in the Shahdbdd pargana. There are hot
Kaiiwdra Springs near it, situated in shady woods,
^ ^* where a fair is held in the hot weather.
In the north-east of the main portion of the State. Formerly
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^, , -, - four villages stood here ; one of item,
Chbipa Burod. ^i j- j.»« -Jii i
Burodia, containing a considera ble number
of Chhipis. In 1801, Zffim Singh, looking to the turbulent nature
of the times, caused the inhabitants of the three other villages to
move into Burodia for safety, and named the place Chhlpa Burod ;
and at the same time removed the adjacent tahsil of Bambori to
this place. It is now the head- quarters of a tahsil.
Mandhar Thana is the head-quarters of a tahsil ; it was formerly
-. ,, _ caUed Khata Kheri. In the times of the
Mandhar Tnana. tn ii • ji • j
Delhi emperors the pargana was given to
Nawdb Mandhar Khdn, who built the present town and named it
after himself. The place fell into the hands of the Bhils, and was
taken from them by Maharao Bhim Singh of Kotah. The inner
fortress is very ancient; the outer one was made byBhlm Singh, and
the city-walls were erected in Zalim Singh's time. The town
contains 500 houses, generally built of brick with thatched roofs.
Below the fort, the rivers Parwan and Kdkar meet and form a
deep pool. The place is noted for the manufacture of brass
utensils. A large teak forest is close to the town.
This is a very old town formerly the head-quarters of the
g^j^^^ Siikhtawdt Rdjpiits. There was a fort
which was destroyed by the Marathas.
Within the ruins is the Jhala 'Kiil Devi temple, whither the
Maharaj liana goes to worship on the occasion of the Dasera
festival. It is the head-quarters of a tahsil.
Chechat was also formerly a part of the Siikhtawdt R&jpiits*
^^^^ possessions, but was taken from them by
Raja Bhlm Singh of Kotah. It is also the
head-quarters of a tahsil.
Farganas. — ^The tahsil town of Pachpahdr from which the
Pach hdr pargaua takes its name, is situated on five
^ ^ ' hills, from which circumstance the name
is derived. It is said to have been originally founded by the
Pandiis, then to have come under the dominion of Raja Bikramajit
of TJjain. In Akbar Shdh's reign it was given in j^gir to the
Rdmpura thdkur, from whom it was wrested by the Udaipur
Rana, who gave it to his nephew, the Jaipur Raja. Holkar
next became possessed of it. The British Government took it
from Holkar and made it over to Kotah through Zdlim Singh.
The town contains 1,000 houses, of which 300 are of banyas, 200
of Brahmans, and 100 of Musalmdns.
On the margin of a tank there are situated two temples — ^one
of Jain, the other of Vishnu. A third, of the goddess Mdtd, also
exists outside the village. Each of these temples contains stones
bearing certain inscriptions.
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The pargana contains 77 villages, which hare been divided
thus — deserted, 16 ; given in religious or other grants, 6 ; and
khdlsa, 56. It was surveyed on three different occasions, viz.^
in Sambat 1906, 1925, and 1930; and the results arrived at
show the entire area to be 1,57,062 bighas 14 biswas, the culti-
vated portion of which is estimated at 62,400 bighas 9^ biswas ;
uncultivated, but culturable, 51,147 bighas 2^ biswas; given
in jdgir, 3,181 bighas 11 biswas ; whilst the remainder, on account
of its rocky nature, is totally imculturable. The revenue amounts
to E/S. 1,62,353-3. The assessment of land irrigated from tanks
and wells is fixed from Rs. 2-8 to Rs. 10, whilst that of mdl, or
land dependent on the monsoon rains, from Re. 0-4 to Rs. 1-8.
The rights or dues of patwdris, nazardnas, &c., are recovered
at the rate of Rs. 21-3 per cent. Kdntingos, chaudris, patels,
and patwdris, in lieu of their dues, possess land given them in
jdgir. The chief products of the place are wheat, gram, Indian-
corn, opium, and tobacco. The zamindars are principally of
the Sondia caste, although Rdjputs, Gujars, and Minas also follow
the same occupation; but their numbers in proportion to the
Sondias are very small. They borrow money from Bohras, or
village bankers, by paying interest at 1^ and 2 per cent, per
zp.onth.
This pargana was founded by Stikhtaw^t Rdjptits in the reign
, of Muhammad Shdh, now about five centu-
^^' riesago. After undergoing certain dynastic
changes, it came into the hands of Holkar, then into that of the
Maharao of Kotah, and finally it was made over to the chief qf
Jhaldwdr. The pargana contains 42 villages, of which ' 2 are
given in religious or other grants, and kh^a 34. These
villages were measured in Sambat 1906, and the area was found
to be 75,370 bighas 3| biswas. The cultivated portion amounted
to 26,512 bighas, of which 3,822 bighas 13 biswas were given
in j^gir and religious grants ; the remainder, viz.^ 45,030 bighas
8 biswas, being entirely unculturable on account of its rocky
or stony nature, Fiwat, or land irrigated from tanks and
wells, is assessed from Rs. 4 to Rs. 10; while that of mal,
or land not artificially irrigated, from Re. 0-4 to Rs. 1-12.
Khatdbandi and patw^ri dues are realized at 3 annas 4 pie
per rupee. The patels pay rent once in every three years*
The chief productions of the place are opium, Indian-corn, jowdr,
wheat, and gram; the last two are not very plentiful. The
cultivators are of the Sondia, Gujar, and Mina castes. The
officials appointed to collect the revenue are styled manotiddrs,
who are paid at the rate of 2 annas per rupee. These officials
also advance money and seed-graia to cultivators for the
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improvement of their lands, charging interest for the former
at 24 per cent, per annmn ; but, in the case of the latter, they
take 10 seers over every maund for each year, e.g., if they
advance one maund of grain, they recover IJ maimd at the end
of the year. The administration of justice is conducted as
follows : — ^All civil cases above Rs. 7 are disposed of at Jhaldwdr ;
in proceedings of a judicial nature, the p^shkdr is empowered to
imprison for a term of three years, and to inflict fines not ex-
ceeding Rs. 50. Matters connected with land are disposed of
by biladars, or a committee consisting of three or more influential
men of the place. The only two places of antiquity are a Jaia
temple, and a darg^h of Mlian SaMb, a Muhammadan saint.
This pargana was founded by a Khatri in the reign of Akbar
Shah. Previous to its foundation, an
*^' old city called Anopshahr existed in
the neighbourhood; the exact site of the latter cannot now be ascer-
tained. Dag was originally under the chief of Pirawa, but
since then, having passed into the hands of several of the Hindu
and Muhammadan rulers, it eventually came under the subjec-
tion of Jeswant Rao Holkar, from whom Zdlim Singh, the then
minister of Kotah, farmed it with ten others; but, on the
creation of the Jhaldwdr principality, it was made over with three
others to Maharaj Rana Madan Singh, the first chief of JhaM-
wdr. It contains 88 villages, divided into — deserted, 7 ; given in
religious or other grants, 2 ; given in j^gir, 10 ; and khdlsa, 69.
Judging from the measurements conducted in Sambat 1906, it
has been ascertained that these 88 villages covered an area of
2,60,314 bighas 3 biswas of ground, the cultivated area of which
was put down at 37,791 bighas 17 biswas, yielding an
annual revenue of Rs. 81,402-3-3; since then, much of the
cultivated land has been thrown out of cultivation, whilst that
not cultivated, though of a culturable nature, has now been
brought under cultivation. This change led to an increase in the
cultivated area, which is now much in excess of its original
extent, thus increasing the revenue to Rs. 1,02,136-1-9. The
assessment of land irrigated or irrigable from tanks or wells varies
from Rs. 3 to Rs. 7 per bigha, while that requiring no artificial
irrigation from Re. 0-8 to Rs. 1-8 per bigha. In Dag, however,
the rate for the former is Rs. 12 per bigha. The usual rights or
dues of kdniingoi, patwdrgari, mandloi, and dharmada are recovered
at the rate of Rs. 17-10 per cent. The patels and jdgirddrs also
pay certain sums of money once in every three years.
Mdkd, or Indian-corn, and opium, grow in abundance ; whilst
gowdr, wheat, and gram are not so plentiful. The zamindars
belong to the Sondia caste s some pay their rent direct to the Rajj
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others througli manotlddrs, or customs officiak of an inferior
rank, who are paid by them at the rate of 2 annas on each rupee.
These men, in lieu of cash, recover their income in opium and
grain. Sometimes they act as rural bankers to the zamindars by
furnishing them with seeds and manure, charging interest at 24,
and in some cases even 50, per cent, per annum. Takdvi
advances are also made by the Raj to cultivators for the improve-
ment of land at the same rate of interest, viz., 24 per cent, per
annum.
The administration of justice is as follows : — ^All civil cases,
excepting those of an insignificant nature, are heard and disposed
of at JhaMwdr ; judicial cases are enquired into by the p6shkd.r,
who prepares the file and forwards it on to the head-quarters for
orders, disposing of minor cases himself. He is not empowered
to imprison, but can inflict fines not exceeding Rs. 8.
The remains of antiquity existing in the pargana are — b, large
masonry tank known as Kdlidn Sdgar made by KAli^n Singh Chand-
rawat in Sambat 1663 close by two dargdhs or mosques of the
Muhammadan saints called after the names of Ghaib Shdh and
Lai Hakani. There is also a masonry well made by one Maira
Kidn of Kotah, in Sambat 1869 ; the ruins of an old makbara, or
tomb, said to have been erected during the Muhammadan rule.
Grangrar, the chief town of the pargana of the same name, is
situated close to the banks of the Kdli
^^^^'' Sindh river. Originally, it possessed the
name of " Gbrgarat.*' It is not known by whom it was founded, but
tradition says it was given in jaglr by the Kairuv Rajputs to one
Garga Charga, a giirii, or a leader of the clan. Its subsequent
history is analogous to those of the other parganas. It contains
137 villages, ckssed thus — deserted, 16; granted in jdgir, 20;
given in religious grants, 4 ; and khdlsa, 97. These were mea-
sured in Sambat 1906, but the area is not known. The revenue
amounts to Rs. 1,07,178. The system on which the assessment
is based is — ^for piwat, or land irrigated from tanks and wells, Rs. 4
to Rs. 6-12 per bigha ; for m^, or land dependent on the monsoon
rains. Re. 0-8 to Rs. 2. The rights and dues of patwdris, kdntin-
gos, and other officials, are realized at the rate of 17 per cent.
A sum of Rs. 5 is taken annually from each village on the occa-
sion of the Das6ra and other festivals, exclusive of another rupee
for charitable purposes. The chief produce is opium, wheat,
gram, jowdr, Indian-corn, sugarcane, and til. The cultivators are
principally of the Sondia caste ; but Minas, Gujars, and Rdjpiits
in small numbers f oUow the occupation also ; the proportion of
the latter is, however, insufficient. Patels are only nominally
knownj whilst the chief woijdng official is the manotid^ or a
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mahajan, who is held responsible for the due payment of the rents
from cultivators. He advances money, seed-grain, &c., on interest
at the same rates as those obtaining in the other parganas, and is
paid by the zamindars at 2 annas on the rupee.
Regarding the system of administration of justice, all import-
ant cases, whether of a civil or criminal nature, are instituted and
disposed of in the courts of the capital. The p^shkar in the latter
case merely prepares the file and fortrards it on to the head-quar-
ters (Ohhaoni) for disposal.
Amongst the remains of antiquity may be mentioned an 61d .
tank on the borders of which exist a few cenotaphs or chabutras
of the ranis who became satis ; over these chabutras are large
slabs bearing certain inscriptions. The town contains a very old
building close to the banks of the river now occupied as a
kacheri or E-aj office. In former times some jewellers' shops
appear to have been estabKshed in the city, as small rubies and
other precious stones are often found in the neighbourhood, even
at the present day.
This is a -smaU Bhil hamlet in the range of hills which
^^^^. divides Hardoti from Jhaldwdr, and
some 14 miles east of the JhaldwAr
cantonment. It takes its name from a small temple adjoining,
and is situated on the eastern extremity of the beautiful lake
known as the " Mansurwar," formed by throwing an embank-
ment across the valley, which is here some six or seven hundred
yards broad, and which may be said to be a continuation of
the one in which Mukandara, Gangrar, and Mandhar are
located. The place is oi;e of great beauty. The eastern, northern,
and western sides of the lake are richly wooded to the water's
edge, while the karaunda, growing in great profusion, not only
forms a thick network below, but covers the trees for some 30 and
40 feet of their growth. The place is one of the favorite hunting
resorts of the Jhaldwdr princes, and always contains tigers.
The embankment is at the western extremity of the lake. The
lake is about a mile long by a quarter broad. Towards the east
it is shallow, and runs into long sedgy creeks and channels, all
fringed with trees. Apart from the beauty of the scenery the
spot is famous for its historical associations. It is the site of a
city of ancient times said to have been called Sriandgri, which is
stated to have existed on the slope of the ridge along the southern
side of the lake, and to have extended westwards as far as the
tJj^r, about a quarter of a 'mile to the west and rear of the present
embankment. Nothing now remains save three old temples and
the remains of others, and blocks of hewn stone which, covering a
large area, testify to the , former extent (rf the city. Here and
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there, too, the streets can be traced. In the south- western comer
a village known as Gurguj has been subsequently established by the
Bhils. The largest temple is sacred to Mahadeo; the one adjoining
it, to Mdtdji ; while the third on the TJjAr is a Sar^ogi's, and said
to have been built by a GwAl. An inscription on some ruins to the
south of the tank sets forth that it was a Baisunti temple erected
by one Sah Damodur Sah on a Monday on the first of the dark por-
tion of the month Kdrtik, Sambat 1416, to the glory of Grod. The
town is said to have been one of the chief of the Khichi Raj, whose
capital was first M4u, some four miles due north, on the northern
slope of the range, and afterwards Gdgraun. The embankment of
the lake is about 300 yards long by 30 broad. It is literally covered
with most interesting Bati remains, which are difficult to
approach, owing to the way in which the karaunda has en-
shrouded them. It is only by clearing this away that they
can be inspected. Some 30 or 40 chhatris and chaMtraa with
funeral stones still exist, while the ruins of numberless others
strew the embankment. Each stone bears the effigy of the dead :
a cavalier mounted and armed at all points, and the wives who were
burnt with him. Underneath their names are written ; but the
letters on very many are entirely effaced. In the majority, only
the top line is legible ; while in a few, the whole remains. Com-^
mencing from the northern end, the first is a stone bearing date
Sambat 1550 to Raj Sri Maharaj Dhiraj Maharaj Sri Gungaddsji.
The next is a fine large chhatri built on a broad square stone-faced
platform raised some four feet from the ground. The chhatri is a
large spacious one. A portion of the roof and the eight round stone-
pillars remain standing. In the centre is a stone-tablet with a
cavalier and five ladies ; underneath is the following inscription :
In Sambat 1578, on the 11th of the light portion of the month
P6s, Monday, Rajan Sri Rao Sria departed : five Ranis burned
with him, his wives — ^the Solunki and her slave-girl, the Sis6dniji,
the Gaurji, the Kesodumji, the Stiktaw^tji. He was Lord of
Gdgraun. Medina was his, and his abode Clan Khichi, Ramlote,
Golan bmlt on the comer of the chhatri of Bindyak (Gan^shji),
Purdhan, Mdchalpur, Purdnapura (then follows a couplet in praise
of Rdm) . Erected on the embankment of the Mdjisurwar at Rdtddei.
The remains of two other chabtitras are inmiediately behind ; one
of these probably is that of Bindyak, referred to in the preceding
inscription — Sambat 1578 Berkhey P6s sud gydras Somwdr ke din
Raja Sri Rao Sria deolok hua. S^t liya panch rdnion n6 — ^Bhau
Solunki dur bdndi, Bhau Sis6dni, Bhau Gaurji, Bhau Kesodumji,
Bhau Siiktawdtji. Gdgraun ka dhdni, has ka bhom Meddna, Gt>t
Khfchi, Ramlote, Golan, kone Btadyak meldlno, Purdhan, Mdchal-
pur^ Purdoapura • • • Mdnsurwar ke pdl par Rdtddei Mdnsurwar ke
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pdl. Then come two others on which only Sambat 1543 and Sambat
1546 are readable, then one on which is — Sambat 1516 on the 10th
of the light portion of Baikh, Khawaisji Sri Gunga Singhji s6t kara
Piitr Sri Rdmji deolok hua. Then come others of 1587, 1555,
121B, 1611, 1516, 1566 (Raja Hanwant Singh), 1558 (Raj Hdri
Singh), 1666 (Deo Singh, son of Sheo Singh), 1565 (Rao Raja Sheo-
duth Singhji), 1661 (Sheo Singh), and 1604. The one dated 1687
has below it a statement that it was raised to the son of MaharaJ
R4m Singhji. The one with 1213 bears a cavalier with sword and
spear, and the woman on a high raised platform ; the inscription
is not readaWe. The one of 1561 is covered by a chhatri supported
by very handsomely-carved pillars. In many the dress and appear-
ance of the parties represented are curious. In several, both the
cavalier and his raids are represented as wearing crowns, while the
horses of others are caparisoned to the knees.
At the extreme southern end is a chhatri, the antiquity of which
cannot be doubted. The tablet is a large broad stone of a whitish
color, different from all the rest, which are of a reddish-brown^
It represents a cavalier and seven women. Close to the last, and
almost buried under the karaunda overgrowth, is a small slab of
stone not a foot broad by some 3 long, with an inscription in Sans-
krit, the letters of which are beautifully and clearly cut, and so
sharp that they look as if onlydon^ lately. It bears the date
1276. Captain Muir had it examined by pandits from Jhaldwdr,
but none could read it. The tank, it is stated, wa» built by Raja
Man of Jaipur, who was sent by Akbar to punish Pirthiraj,
Rahtor of Mdu. But RajaM^n lived about Sambat 1650 (A.D.
1594), or later than the dates on the sati stones. The lake, too, is
called Mdnsurwar in Rao Sria's tablet of Sambat 1&78. To the
temple of Rdtddei is attached the legend that a sister of Achla
Kich of Gdgraun came to stay here, and was turned into stone.
A small temple was ^ected to her, which ZdUm Singh enlarged
and built of stone.
About two miles to the west of the lake the river TJj& forces
its way through the ridge which bounds
** the valley on the north, cutting through
the rock ; this cutting is called the Chdupulda Mdtd. On the
northern side of this pass are the remams of the palace of
Medina, another seat of the Khlchis, much of which is stOl
standing on higher ground, and commands the entrance to the ruins
of the old fort. Underneath the palace stood, it is said, the
village or town of Medina. Three temples, a chhatri, and some
funeral stones only now mark the site. Two sati stones bear the
date 1571| one bears 1569.
cl
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The iJj^r from here forces its way across the yalley, and then
south through the hills through a long de^p defile, wild and wooded
to the north, where it debouches on the plain at Mdu. The
whole range of hills abounds with stories of the " Ghdtirao "
(Lofd of the Pass), the Khichi Mehrao, one of the legendary-
heroes of past days.
A large lake of that name two miles to the east of, and in the
^^^jj^ same valley as, Edtddei and the Mdnsurwar.
It is upwards of two miles long by half a
mile broad. It is in a natural hollow, and formed by closing up a
gap of some 260 yards long and 100 broad on the northern ridge.
The embankment is formed of large blocks of cut stone piled tier
above tier. It is said to be much older than M^nsurwar, and to
be very deep. Kadila is stated by some to have been a raja, by
others a mahajan of Mdu. To the south of Kkdila there used in
ancient times to be a large town called Rung Pd<tan ; there are
now no traces left of it ; it had a raja by name Mkha, whose
rani was named Sodi. The story goes that one day they were
both listening to the song of a Dome named Bhola, and were so
pleased that the raja promised to give the Dome whatever he
chose to ask ; the rani, who was on the roof, pointed with
her finger to a valuable necklet she wore, wishing to prompt the
Dome to ask for it. The raja saw the motion made in a large
mirror he had before him, and, believing that the rani had intended
the Dome to ask for herself, was angry, and gave her to the Dome.
The latter served her as a devoted slave. Once only the raja
and rani met, when they were at once changed to stone, and one
chhatri covers the ashes of both ; the lady, true in life to her
lord, was burnt with, and united to, him in death. The chhatri
was built on the embankment of the Kadila taldo ; but time has
removed all vestiges of it. *
Fairs and Soly -places. — ^The principal temples in Jhalrapdtan
have the following legend as to the cause of their foundation.
When the new city was being built, one Ganga Eam, a Liihdr, was
engaged in building his house when he was told in a dream
that four images would be dug out of the spot, and he was there-
fore to dig the foundations himself ; he did accordingly, and dug
out a stone box in which were found the four images — Dwdrka-
nath, Eamnik, Gopindth, and Santndth. Information of this was
sent to ZdKm Singh, then at Kotah, who hastened down and
directedthat a small boy should be given four slips of paper with
the names of four Hindu persuasions on them ; whichever slip
the boy placed on an image, that was to be considered the worship
that image desired. The result was. that Dw^kanath desired
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Ballabh Kul or the Ndth Dw^ persuasion, now represented by
the large temple in P^tan ; Ramnik desired Vishnu Marjad wor-
ship, and has a temple inside the palace enclosure at the Chhaoni ;
Santnath desired Jain worship, and has a large temple in Patan ;
Gopinath wished for no worship, and, consequently, has no temple.
The legend regarding the ChandarbMka stream is as follows : —
A certain raja had leprosy which he found incurable. One day,
when out hunting, he pursued a black and white pig to where the
present river now runs ; in a hollow close by there was water, into
which the pig in despair jumped, and appeared the other side
entirely black. The raja, seeing this wonderful result, deter-
mined to try the pool for his own recovery; accordingly he
bathed in it and was cured. The place thenceforth became
a resort for pilgrims, and a fair is held here yearly in the
month of Kdrtik, when the ceremony of bathing is extensively
performed. The fair lasts for a week : bullocks, cows, buffaloes,
brass and copper vessels, and cheap ornaments are bought and sold.
In the month of Baisakh, another large cattle fair is held on the
banks of the large Patau talao, where bullocks principally ex-
change hands, the zamindars of Hardoti and the adjoining States
coming in numbers to make purchases. At Mandhar Thana, in
the month of Phagiin, there is a Sheordtri fair which lasts for
fifteen days; here, too, buffaloes, cows, and bullocks are bought
and sold, as also brass vessels* and some cloth. Zamindars from
E-ajgarh, Narsinghgarh, Pdtan, Haraoti, and Khilchipiir, assemble
there. The KMlchipiir bullocks are much in favor. In Baisakh
there is a fair held at Kailwara, in. the Shahdbdd pargana, which
lasts for fifteen days. The people bathe in the hot pools at the
place called Sita Bdri, and buying and selling of plough-cattle
and agricultural implements goes on. People assemble from
Jhaldwdr and Hardoti, especially the latter. ^
Antiquities and Remarkable Flaces. — ^The ruins of the temples,
idols, and buildings of old Jhalrapdtan are found near the banks
of the Chandarbhdka stream. An inscription found on a stone by
Captain Muir contains the name of a Baja Diirga Gul, and bears
the date Sambat 748 or A.D. 692. One story has it that a Eaja
Hti founded this city ; another account gives the credit to Baja
Bhim, one of the Pdndtis ; and a third account is that the *^ Or • '
Bdjputby name Jesii mentioned above (on page 207), when break-
ing stones, found his iron hammer turned into gold on a philoso-
pher's-stone, and, repeating the process with other hammers and
obtaining similar results, took up his quarters at the place and
founded the city.
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JODHPUR;
/
MALLANI:
COMPILED BY
LlEUTEKANT-OOLONEL 0. K. M, WALTEJ^i
POLITICAL AGENT.
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GAZETTEER OF JODHPUR.
Geogbapht.
Boundaries mid Area. — Jodliptir, called also Marwar, is the
largest in extent of the Rdjptitdna States. It is honnded on the
north by Bikanir and Shekdwati ; on the east by Jaipur and
Kishangarh ; on the south-east by Ajmer and Merwara ; on the
south by Sirohi and Palanpur ; on the west by the Eann of Kachh,
B,ndthe Thar and PArkar districts of Sindh; and on the north-
west by Jesalmer. It lies generally between 24*" 30' and 2T 40'
north latitude, and W 0' to 75° 20' east longitude. Its greatest
length, north-east and south-west, is about 290 miles, and its great-
est breadth 130 miles ; and it contains an area of 37,000 square
miles.
Configuration. — The configuration of the country may be
briefly described (as referred to below in the paragraph on geology)
tts a vast sandy plain, with, in the south-east third of the district,
or to the south of the Ltinl river, various isolated hills of the same
description as the Arvali range, but none of these hills^ are
sufficiently elevated or extensive to deserve the name of mountain-
ranges.
Soils. — ^The soils of Marwar may be classified as follows : JBai^
Jcaly the most common, is a light sand, having little or no earthy
«tdmixture, and only fit for the production of bdjrd, mot and miing,
til, sesamam, water-melons, and other plants of the cucumber
ibmily ; wheat is chiefly grown in a rich soil known as chikni
(clayey) ; pild is a yellow sandy clay adapted for barley, tobacco,
onions, and vegetables; sc^fMi (white) is a soil of a siliceous
nature, only productive after heavy rains ; and khdri, alkaline
earth, poisonous to all vegetation.
Geology. — ^The geological characteristics of the country are
somewhat complex, and vary considerably as the district is
traversed from east to west. The south-eastern boundary, viz.^
Merwara and the Arvali range, part of which towards the south
is within the frontier of Marwar, consists principally of metamor-
phic rocks which rise precipitously from the Marwar plains, in
some localities attaining an elevation of 3^000 feet.. The metamor-
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phic or transition rocks, found in that part of the Arvalis bounding
Marwar, are chiefly gneiss, hornblende, quartz, and mica-slate ;
but, in the higher lulls, bands of basalt and porphyry are seen, and
occasionally granite, which, more towards the south, becomes the
principal feature of the highest part of the range, as at Abii.
Passing from the Arvalis towards the west, the surface, eyen at
the base of the mountain-range, is found to be sandy ; but the
understratum appears to be chiefly gneiss, hornblende, mica-slate,
and quartz, all of which may be seen cropping up through the
surface sand, and in some localities attaining an elevation of 800
to 1,000 feet. The aspect of the country, therefore, as far as the
Liinl river (which, passing through the southesm district, divides
Marwar into two unequal parts), is that of a sandy plain, vrith
here and there bold, picturesque, conically-shaped hills rising to
the elevation above noted. These hills, or rather rocks, are most
numerous near the Arvalis, becoming gradually more widely
separated as the Liinl is approached. The most prominent of these
formations are — ^the Nddolai hill, on which a colossal stone-elephant
has been placed; the Pimagir hill near Jddhan; the Sojat hill ;
the hill near Pdli ; the hill near Giindoj ; the Sdnderao hill ; the
JAlor hill ; and various others of minor note and size. Immediate-
ly around these hills the surface is hard and stony, gradually
passing into sand, which becomes more heavy as the eastern and
northern districts are approached. After crossing the Lum, or at
about one-third of the breadth of the principality, these conically-
shaped hills are less numerous, and sandstone appears ; but the
metamorphic rocks are not lost sight of until the range on
which the capital ( Jodhpur) is situated is passed. The geological
nature of the country round Jodhpur is especially interesting.
The fort commanding the city is built on a sandstone formation
rising to the height of 800 feet, having to the north cones of
porphyry and masses of trap of various descriptions, placed in
juxtaposition to the sandstone. The layers of this sandstone are
usually parallel with the horizon, and thej^ generally rise
abruptly out of the sand' below, but are sometimes visibly
supported by trap or metamorphic rock. In some places, porphy-
ritic trap is ranged in stairs, and has apparently been thrown up
at a later date than the sandstone, without having materially,
damaged the stratification of the latter. The country to the
north of Jodhpur is one vast sandy plain called ThuU or sandy
waste, only broken by sandhills or t^bds, which, commencing in.
Marwar, stretch into Bikanir in the north, and into JesaJmer,
Sindh, and Mallani in the west and south. Occasional oases are
met -with in this district; but water is exceedingly scarce, and
often from 200 to 300 feet from the surface. It is conjectured ;
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that the substratum of this part of the country is sandstone, asi
that is passed through in sinking the deep wells ; but no special
investigations have been made.
Of minerals there are none in Marwar. Zinc Used to be
obtained in small quantities near Sojat. Marble exists in profu-
sion at Makrdna in the north, and also in smaller masses near
Ghdnerao on the south-east border.
Salt sources. — One great peculiarity of the State of Jodhpur
consists in its numerous salt sources. Within its borders are con-
tained — (1) a part of the great Sambhar Lake, a vast natural
deposit of salt ;* (2) Pachbadra, an important salt-field, 35 miles
south-west of the city of Jodhpur ; (3) Didwdna, a salt lake
situated near a town of the same name and 65 miles north-west
of the Sambhar Lake; (.4) Phalodi, a salt-marsh in the north- wes^
comerof the State near the Jesalmer frontier ; and (5) Pokaran,
another salt-marsh 12 miles west again of Phalodi. Besides these,
there is the river Liini, which, entering the State on its eastern
boundary, flows in a south-westerly direction to the Rann of
Kachh, and is, for a long distance up from its mouths, capable of
yielding salt in practically unlimited quantities throughout the
entire hot season. And north of the Sambhar Lake, between it
and the Shekdwati frontier, there are the salt jhils of Sargot and
Kachawan, with unknown capabilities for salt manufacture.
Pinally, over and a\)ove these salt sources, there are in the State
72 salt-producing villages possessing 370 working factories.
The salt source at Pachbadra is situated in a valley or depres-
sion, which has evidently been at one time the bed of a river.
The tract occupied by the salt-works comprises about 8 miles in
length of the valley bed, with an average breadth of about 2^
miles. The salts produced are locally known by the names of —
Sambra, 1st quality; Hiragarh, 2nd quality; and Pasali, 3rd
quality — ^f rom different areas into which the salt source is divided.
The Sambra salt is excellent. The crystals are irregular cubes
varying in size from half an inch to nearly an inch in length.
The quality of the salt obtained from the Hfragarh area differs
.from the Sambra mainly in point of size. The sides of the crys-
tals rarely exceed half an inch. The Pasali salt is very inferior
in quality to the others. It is white and opaque, and none of the
sides of the crystals exceed a quarter of an inch in length. The
method of obtaining salt at Pachbadra is extremely simple. Ob-
long pits are dug of various sizes ; a supply of brine percolates
through the pit bed, and when that has become sufficiently con-
centrated so as to show signs of crystallization around the pit'
edge, branches of a thorny shrub called morali are sunk in it ;
on these branches salt-crystals form and continue to grow for
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alx)ut two, or sometimes three, years ; at the end of that period,
as a rule, the salt crop is extracted in the following manner : men.
enter the pit, and, with an instrument called a aangra (an iron
wedge-shaped chisel, ahout one foot long, attached to a wooden
handle five feet long), they cut through the thorny branches and
"break up the salt which is caked on the bottom ; the branches,
with the crystals attached, are carried to the edge of the pit, and
the crystals are shaken or broken off ; while the salt which has
been broken up is drawn to the sides by a broad iron hoe, with
a handle five feet in length, and is then removed in baskets to the
top of the pit. The approximate annual outturn of salt- at Pach-
badra was estimated in 1877 at about 11 lakhs in British maundy
of the three qualities noted above.
The Dldwdna salt source consists of an oval-shaped depression,
surrounded by sandhills. It is about three miles long by one
broad, its longer axis lying almost due east and west. About three-
quarters of a mile from each end a dam or bimd is built across
the depression, cutting off the centre portion from the ends, the
object being to prevent, as far as possible, the drainage of the sur-
xounding country from reaching the centre space within which
Bait manufacture is carried on. The process of manufacture ia
as follows : — The bed of the centre portion of the marsh is not
•unlike that of the Sambhar Lake — ^black, fetid, and cldyey ; and, in
this, wells are dug, and, round the wells, irregularly-sha]ped solar-
evaporation pans are made in the clayey bed, the bottoms and
Bides of the pans being carefully kneaded and worked so as to be
Bmooth, free from cracks, and water-tight ; these pans vary in size
from 250 to about 2,500 square ya^s, and are from 8 to 12 inches
deep. The wells are about 6 feet in diameter and 12 to 14 feet
deep, lined with wood to keep the sides from falling in ; and the
brine is lifted by means of the chanch, or lever bucket, and
run along shallow drains into the evaporating pans. It is' there
allowed to remain imdisturbed for from ten to twenty days until
the salt is made ; the salt is then scraped into a heap, allowed to
drain, and removed to the edge of the pan, where it generally
remains until it is sold. The salt season tisually commences in
February, and lasts till the rains set in. The people who manu-
facture salt at DIdwAna are a class of low Muhanunadans called
Deswdli, a tribe peculiar to Didwdna ; their profession is heredi-
tary. The usual annual outturn of salt at Didwdna was estimated
by Mr. Whitten of the Inland Customs (Salt) Department ia 1877
at about 8| lakhs of maunds.
The Phalodi salt-tract is a depression about 5 miles by 3 miles,
and the major axis is about north and south. Besides the main
basin there is a long strip of saline soil at present unworked%
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The mode of manufacture of salt is almost precisely the same as
at DidwAna, described above. The operations, however, commence
in November and continue till the advent of the rains. The an-
nual outturn was estimated in 1877 at about 1^ lakhs of maunds;
but it was at the same time considered that double this amount
could be manufactured without difficulty^ The Pokaran salt-tract
is a similar depression about 8 miles in length by 4 in breadth, and
the mode of manufacture is the same as at Didwaua. The annual
average outturn was estimated in 1877 at 20,000 maunds ; but
the produce appeared to be only as much as could be readily
disposed of.
Rivera and Lakes.- — ^The river Liinl takes its rise in the
lake at Ajmer ; it is at the fountain-head
called the Sagarmati ; it is joined at Gro-
vindgarh by the Sarsuti, which has its source in the Pushkar
lake, and at that point takes the name of Liini. Prom Govind-
garh, this river flows in a south-westerly direction through Mar-
war, and is finally lost in the marshy ground at the head of the
Bann of Kachh. Throughout its course, as far as Balotra, the
Lunl is nearly everywhere confined between banks ranging from
5 to 20 feet high, covered with jhdo {tamarix dioica). It is fed by
numerous tributaries, chiefly from the Arvali range of mountains.
In heavy floods, which occur, however, very rarely, it overflows its
banks in the district of MallanL The local name of this overflow
is Rel ; and whenever such an occurrence takes place, the crops of
wheat and barley grown on the soil thus saturated are very fine.
The Liinl is for the most part merely a rainy-weather river, and its
bed is dry everywhere, except where the action of the water has
in places scoured out deep holes, which remain filled with water
nearly all the hot season. Drinking-water is obtained from
November to June fi*om masonry wells sunk in the banks to a
few feet below the level of the river-bed; and it is a peculiar fact in
connection with these wells that, if excavated too deep, the water
loses its sweetness, and becomes bitter and quite unfit for drinking
purposes : from these wells, also, considerable tracts are irrigated
in the districts through which the river flows, and crops of wheat
and barley are grown. There is a saying in Marwar that half the
produce of the country, in so far as cereals are concerned, is depen-
dent on the river Lunl, and this is undoubtedly the case. It attains
its greatest breadth in the Sachor and Mallani districts. Melons
and the singhdra nut {trapa natans) are grown in great quantities
in the bed of the river in the dry season. The bed of the river is
filled with sand, with out-crops here and there of a coarse sand-
stone rock. It is from this sandstone that the masonry wells above
referred to are constructed. The Luni itself, in its course through
d1
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Manrar to Balotra, is for the most part sweet, except in the neigh-
bourhood of the village of Bala ; but the water of the affluents is
more or less tainted with salt, and on their banks exist many of
the minor local salt-works of Jodhpur. As the Ltini below Balo-
tra flows towards the Rann of Kachh, it becomes more and more
saline in character ; this is specially the case where it is joined by
the river Sukri. On the edge of the Bann of Kachh, on the border
of Marwar, the three branches of the river are described as " reser-
voirs of concentrated brine/'
The Jojri rises in the Merta district of Marwar, and falls
TheJojri. into the Liini about 15 miles to the
south-west of the capital.
The Sukri has its source in the Sojat
district of Marwar and joins the JAxii.
The Giiyabdla rises in the hills of Kdpura, pargana Sojat of
^^^^ Marwar, and empties itself into the
^ Liinl near SathlAna.
The Beria or Pdli river rises in hills near Sojat, and joins
^ „ . ^^,. the Giiyabdla. The people of Pdli, by
The Rena or PWi. i- i x *j. a ^ S n xi.
which town it flows, contmually use the
water of the Beria for dyeing purposes ; they dig shallow earthen
wells two or three feet deep in the land of the river-bed, just
above the water-level, and boil the water, mixing the dyeing
materials in it ; the water has some peculiar chemical qualities,
its effect being to give a certain permanency to the colors used by
the dyers.
^^ g^^ The BAndi rises in the Arvalis near
Siriari, and falls into the Lunl.
The JuwAi rises in the Arvalis, flows west past the canton-
^ - .. ment of Erinpura, where, when in flood,
the nver is of extreme breadth, and
joins the Ltinl near Gtira.
The only lake in Marwar is the famous salt lake of Sambhar,
o 1.1. cui^T % which is thus described by Colonel Brooke
Sambhar Salt Lake. •••. j n-n'^* ' -n a > tL
m his report on the Famme m Bajpii-
tdna of 1868-69 : — " North of Ajmer occurs a depression in the
ArvaU, the dividing ridge of Bdjpdtdna. The country is also
gradually depressed for a distance of 30 or 40 miles on either
side, and forms a hollow where a lake 30 miles long has been
formed. This great basin must have been filled with salt-
water by the receding waves in some former geological era,
when Bdjptitdna was upheaved from the sea. As the mass of
water diimnished by evaporation, the clay bed became saturated
with salt. The waters of each rainy season flowing into the lake
dissolve a portion of the brine, which crystallizes again in the hot
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weather. Two other depressions of the same kind exist : one in
the north of Marwar at Didwdna, and the other in the south at
Pachbadra " (described above).
There are a few jhils or marshes in Marwar, notably one in
the Sachor district, which covers an area of 40 or 50 miles in the
rainy season, the bed of which, when dry, produces good crops of
wheat and gram.
Climate and Bamfall. — ^The climate of Marwar may be em-
phatically indicated by one word — dryness, which, even in the
monsoon period, is, comparatively speaking, the principal charac-
teristic. This arises from various causes, which must be briefly
considered before the peculiarities of the climate can be even
cursorily appreciated. The chief conditions modifying climate in
Marwar may be stated as follows : — First, the geographical position
of the country ; secondly, the geological nature of the surface ;
thirdly, the absence of forest cultivation and vegetation. How
these conditions modify the climate, and influence public
health, the following details will show. With respect to the
geographical position of the country. As before observed, Mar-
war extends from Sirohi, Palanpur, and the Rann of Kachh
in the south, to Bikanir in the north, a distance of some 290
nules, and from the Arvali mountains, which separate it like
a wall from the more fertile districts of Mewar in the east,
to the Rann of Kachh, Umarkot, and the Thar deserts in the west ;
being at its widest part nearly 130 miles across. The country is
therefore without the range of the full force of the south-west
monsoon from the Indian Ocean, and entirely removed from the
influence of the south-east monsoon from the Bay of Bengal. Also
the clouds from the south-west, before arriving over Marwar, must
float above extensive arid districts, as the sandy tracts of northern
Gujardt, Kachh, the Eann, and the desert districts of Umarkot
and Parkar. This results in a very small rainfeill, which, taking
the centre of the country, Jodhpur, as the guide (at which place
only have meteorological observations been recorded, and those
only recently), does not often exceed the average of five and
a half inches, and is more frequently much less, although
occasionally a larger fall may occur. This small rainfall
alone, under a tropical sim, is sufficient to account for much
of the characteristic dryness of the climate. In the next place,
the geological nature of the district induces dryness of atmos-
phere. The surface consists of sand, lying on a substratum
of ferruginous sandstone, in which numerous concrete silice-
ous and chalk formations are found. In many places, me-
tamorphic rocks, consisting principally of gneiss, mica-slate,
quartz, and hornblende, rise through and far above the sand-
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stone and snrface sand. These eminences, generally of a
conical shape, are called Mers^ and towards the west of the dis-
trict they give place to the t^bds, or sandhills of the desert. What
little rain does fall, must therefore be immediately absorbed by
the thirsty sandy soil of the country, and by the still more sandy
surface of the beds of the one river, and of the comparatively few
water-courses, furrowing the land. This one river, the Ltini, con-
tains only scanty pools of water, and its tributaries are dry dijring
ten months of the year. Hence, in the absence of lakes, there can
be no moisture in the atmosphere from the evaporation of the
water. It is well known that the absence of forest cultiv?ition and
vegetation add to the dryness of a climate, and it is also well
understood that the rainfall is, usually, comparatively smaller or
larger in proportion to the amoimt of forest and vegetation
existing. In Marwar there is no forest, and, in comparison with
other districts, very little cultivation or jungle. The sandy soil,
the brackish water nearly everywhere found, and the prevalence of
the saline efflorescence known as reh^ are the principal reasons
why there is so little of either wild-jungle growth, or of cultivated
ground. Thus, all conditions unite in producing that extraordinary
dryness characteristic of Marwar.
The next most striking peculiarity of the climate is the extreme
variation of temperature, which occurs during the cold season
between the night and the day. This depends in a great degree on
the dryness of the atmosphere, the heat given off by the earth at
night passing freely through dry air, whereas it is absorbed and
rete/ined by the damp of a moist atmosphere. Thus it occurs that
on the sandy soil of Marwar, while the nights may be sufficiently
cold for ice to form, the days are often marked by a temperature
of 90** F. in the shade of a tent.
The diseases prevailing are those which would be theoretically
expected under such climatic conditions, viz.^ malarious or
paroxysmal maladies, especially in the autimmal season, when the
extremes of temperature are first experienced. Skin affections
are also very prevalent, depending, probably, partly on the bad
water and indifferent food of the lower classes, and partly on their
dirty habits, the latter being in some degree the result of a scar-
city of water for household and personal use. The food of the
people, consisting chiefly of bdjrd, is also instrumental in the
production of dyspeptic complaints, which would be even more
prevalent, were it not for the abundance and cheapness of salt
throughout the country. Guinea- worm and mycetoma or madura
foot are also diseases of the soil. Of epidemic maladies, small-pox
is the most prevalent, occurring periodically with some violence.
Cholera, however, comparatively seldom presents itself, and it
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more rarely penetrates the semi-desert districts to the ^est of the
capital of Marwar,
HlSTOKT.
History. — The present ruling chief of Marwar is His Highness
the Maharaja Jeswant Singh, who holds that position hy right of
being chief of the Eahtor clan of Rdjpiits, to whom the territory
belongs. As will be seen below, the founder of the Marwar
dynasty migrated from Kanauj, and in less than three centuries
his descendants spread over an area of four degrees of longitude
and the same extent of latitude, or nearly 70,000 square miles.
In short, the Rahtor race, from its warlike and aggressive propen-
sities, became the most powerful clan of the Rdjpiits, and several
independent States were founded by offshoots from it, among
which may be mentioned the States of Bikanir and Kishangarh
in Rdjptitana, and Edar and Ahmadnagar in Gujardt. Though
the early history of Marwar is wrapt in obscurity, still there is
reason to beKeve that the Jdts, the Minas, and the Bhils originally
held the country in separate petty chiefships, before the great
Bahtor conquest. General Cunningham states that the kingdom
of Gurjara, in which he includes Marwar, was ruled by a Gujar
prince ; but there is no record of such a dynasty in the local aimals
or legends, nor any remnant of a Gujar race ;* contemporaneously
with the great Hindu dynasties of Delhi, Kanstuj, and Chitor,
portions of the vast tract then known as Marwar were ruled by
Purihar, Gohel, and Deord clans of Rajputs. This was the era
immediately preceding the fall of the Rahtor sovereignty of Kii-
nauj in A.D. 1194. The local historiai^s record that, subsequent
to that event, Shivaji, grandsont of Jai Chand,$ the last king
of Kanauj, entered Marwar on a pilgrimage to Dwdrka, and,
halting at the town of PdH, he and his followers displayed their
valour by repelling large bands of marauders. At the entreaty
of the Brdhman commimity of the place, who were greatly
harassed by constant raids of plundering bands, Shivaji agreed to
settle among them and become their protector. The Rahtor
chief, acquiring land and power around Pdli, gained there the
first footing in his future kingdom. His son and successor,
Asthdn, extended the domain by conquering the land of Kher
from the Gohel Rdjpiits, and established his brother Soning
• In Marwar the word Gujar is used for Qnjardt.
f By some accounts the nephew.
J The dynasty of Kanauj is said to have lasted fourteen centuries from the first sovereign,
Nden Pal, to the last, Jai Chaiid ; it was completely overthrown by Shahabuddin, the Afghan cluef
of Ghor, who had invaded India.
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in Edar,* then a small principaKty on the frontier of Gujardt,
The succeMing chiefs were engaged in perpetual broils with the
people they had settled among, and it was not till Rao Chanda,
„ the tenth in succession to Shivaji, that Mandor, then the capital
u of Marwar, was, after several attempts to wrest it from the
Purihar sovereign, acquired by the Rahtors in marriage. Prom
I the time of Chanda, A.D. 1382, the actual conquest of Marwar
I by the Rahtors may be dated. Chanda was succeeded by Rao
Rir Mai, a famous warrior as well as king. Jodha, the youngest
of his twenty-four sons,t ruled after him, and founded the city of
Jodhpur, which he made his capital. He had fourteen sons, and
from this numerous progeny the principal Rahtor clans and
feudal chiefs of Marwar were founded, and the whole land over-
spread. Rao Jodha died in 1489, and to him succeeded Satel, his
eldest son, who met his death in 1492, in a j&ght with a band of
Pathans who had carried off a number of women from a fair then
^ being held at Pipdr. After him came the second son of Jodha,
Rao Sujd, who occupied the gadi of Marwar for twenty-seven years.
Sujd's son died during his father's life-time, leaving two sons by
two mothers : the elder, Biram Deo, was set aside ; and the younger,
Rao Ganga, succeeded on the death of his grandfather. It was
during the reign of Rao Ganga that the Rahtors fought under the
standard of Mewar, led by Sanga Rana, against the Mughal
emperor Bdbar, in the fatal field of KhAnud in 1528, in which his
grandson, Rao Mai, was killed. Ganga survived this disaster
only four years, and was succeeded by Rao Maldeo in 1532,
during whose occupation of the chiefship, Marwar attairied to
its zenith of power, territory, and independence. When the
emperor Humdyun was driven from the throne by Sher Shah,
he sought the protection of Maldeo ; but in vain. Maldeo, how-
ever, derived no advantage from his inhospitality, for Sher Shdh,
^^ in 1544, led an army of 80,000 men into Marwar. The
struggle was a severe one, but the first levSe en masse of the
descendants of Shivaji, arrayed in defence of their national liber-
ties, was defeated ; though so nearly was victory resting with the
Rahtors, that Sher Shdh, at the close of the fight, is said to have
exclaimed, with regard to the sterility of the soil of Marwar as unfit-
ted to produce richer grain, ^* he had nearly lost the empire of Hin-
dustan for a handful of barley." In 1561, Akbar, probably in
revenge for Maldeo's inhospitable treatment of his father, invaded
Marwar, and captured Merta and the important fortress of Ndgaur,
both of which places were conferred by Akbar on the younger branch
* This branch was eventually ejected about 1525 by the Mohammadan king Moor Ghaffiar
Sliilh (Gujardti), but Edar was again recovered by the Rahtors,
t Not eldest, as stated by Tod's Eajatthan, volume L
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of the, family, the chief of Bikanir, now estabKshed in independ-
ence of the parent State. In A.D. 1569, Rao Maldeo succumbed to
necessity, and, in conformity with the times, sent his second son,
Chandarsen, with gifts to Akbar, then itt Ajmer, which had
become an integral part of the monarchy ; but Akbar was so dis-
satisfied with the disdainful bearing of the desert king, who
refused personally to pay his court, that he not only guaranteed
the free possession of Bikanir to Rao Singh, but presented him
with the firman for Jodhpur itself, with supremacy over his
race. Chandarsen appears to have possessed all the native pride
of the Rahtor, and to have been prepared to contest his country's
independence, in spite of Akbar and the claims of his elder
brother, Udai Singh, who eventually was more supple in ingra-
tiating himself into the monarch's favour. At the close of
life the old Rao had to stand a siege in his capital, and, after
a brave but fruitless resistance, was obliged to yield homage, and
pay it in the person of his son, Udai Singh, who then became, as
the native chroniclers say, the servant of Akbar. Maldeo was
succeeded by Chandarsen, who, though jimior, was evidently the
choice both of his father and the nobles, who did not approve of
Udai Singh's submission to Akbar. Chandarsen was slain in the
storm of Siwdna by the royal troops, under, it is supposed, the com-
mand of Udai Singh, who then obtained possession of the gadi^ and
gave his sister, Jodbdi, in marriage to Akbar. On this, the emperor
not only restored all the possessions he had wrested from Marwar,
with the exception of Ajmer, but several rich districts in Malwa.
Udai Singh was not ungrateful for the favours heaped upon him
by the emperor, for whom his Rahtors performed many signal
services. He received the rank of Raja from Akbar in 1584, and
died in 1596, being succeeded by his son. Raja Sur Singh, who also
attained to high honor with Akbar, for whom he conquered Gujardt
and the Dakhan. As a reward for his great services, he held from
the emperor, in addition to his native dominions of Marwar, five
great fiefs in Gujardt, and one in the Dakhan. On the occasion
of the contests amongst the four sons of Shahjehan, Jeswant
Singh, second son of, and successor to. Raja Sur, was appointed
generalissimo of the army sent to oppose Aurangzeb near Ujain.
His vanity made him delay his attack imtil Murdd joined his
brother, in order that he might have the pride of saying that he
had triumphed over two imperial princes in one day; that triumph,
however, was denied him, for, after a long and murderous conflict,
he quitted the field a vanquished man, though exhibiting to the
last abundant proof of his own contempt of danger. Jeswant
Singh subsequently made peace with Aurangzeb, who, however,
never forgot the former part taken against him^ and^ to get rid of
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Idm, appointed him to lead an army against the Mgh&ns^ and
during his absence caused the death of his only son, Pirthiraj,
by means of a poisonous robe. Jeswant Singh died, beyond Atak *
in A.D. 1681* His wife, who was with him, was in her seventh
month of pregnancy. She determined to become sati^ but was
prevented ; and, shortly after, gave birth to a son, named Ajit.
As soon as she was able to travel, the Rahtors prepared
to return to their native-land. Aurangzeb carried his ven-
geance towards Jeswant Singh even beyond the grave, and
commanded that the infant should be surrendered to Ms custody,
oflEering to divide Marwar amongst the Rahtor contingent
if they would surrender him ; but the offer was in vain. A
severe battle was fought at Delhi on Aurangzeb's attempting
to obtain forcible possession of the young Ajlt, and in the midst
of the contest the infant prince was saved by being concealed in
a basket of sweetmeats and entrusted to a Moslem who made
him over to a man named Dtirga DAs. This loyal and faithful
adherent succeeded in carrying off the heir to the gadi of Mar-^
war to a place of concealment amongst the hills of his own coun-"
try. After this, Aurangzeb invaded Marwar, took and plundered
Jodhpur, sacked all the large towns, destroyed the Hindu tem-
ples, and commanded the conversion of the Rahtor race. This
cruel policy cemented into one bond of union all who cherished
either patriotism or religion ; the Rdjpiits cast aside all private
feuds and combined to a man against the emperor, and, in the
wars which ensued, Aurangzeb gained, for a time at least, little of
either honor or advantage. In 1680-81 he suffered a disastrous
defeat at the hand of the Rahtors, who instigated his fourth son.
Akbar to rebel, by promising to support him in a dash at the
imperial throne ; he restored young Ajit to the gadi of his ances-
tors ; and it was then that the Rahtors rallied round Akbar, that
years of anarchy prevailed, and the sovereignty of Marwar was
again taken from them. In 1710, Shdh Alam made friendship
with the chief, and restored to him the nine districts comprising
his ancient kingdom. When the Sayyids were in power, A]it first
coalesced with them, and afterwards roused their ire, and they
invested Jodhpur. Abhai SiQgh, his son, was taken to Delhi as a
hostage, and amongst other conditions insisted on, was the giving
of a daughter in marriage to Farukh Siyar. To this marriage may
be ascribed the rise of the British power in India; for Farukh
Siyar was at the time afflicted with a dangerous malady (a white
swelling or tumour on the back) rendering necessary a surgical
operation, retarding the nuptials between him and the Rahtor
princess, and even threatening a. fatal termination. A mission
from the British merchants at Surat was at that time^at courts
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fend, Bfi a last resource, tlie surgeon attached to it was called in,
who cured the malady and made the emperor happy in his bride.
He desired the sui^eon, Mr. Hamilton, to name Ms reward ; and
to the disinterested patriotism of this individual did the British
owe the first royal grant or firman conferring territorial posses-^
8ion and great commercial privUeges. Ajit was much mixed up
with all the intrigues that occurred in the imperial court prior
to the death of Farukh Siyar; but when the latter event occurred,
A]lt, refusing his sanction to the nefarious schemes of the Sayyids,
returned with his daughter, the emperor's widow, to Jodhpur,
leaving his eldest son Abhai Singh at court. The Sayyids threat-
ened destruction to Marwar, and ultimately succeeded in per*
suading Abhai Singh that the only mode of arresting its ruin was
his own elevation. He and Bakht Singh were the two elder, by
one mother, a princess of Biindi, of the twelve sons of Ajit.
To the lattCT, Abhai Singh wrote, promising him, in the event of
the death of their common father, the independent sovereignty
of Ndgaur ; and then (in 1726) was committed the foulest crime
in the annals of Rajasthan, the murder of Ajit by his son Bakht
Singh. Abhai Singh succeeded ta the §fad% smd, at the time of
the rebellion of Sirbaland Kh^n, rendered great service to
Muhammad Shdh, heading, in 1731, a force against Ahmaddbdd,
where he fought and conquered the rebel. Abhai Singh returned
to Jodhpur with the spoils of GujarAt,^ and strengthened his
forts and garrisons, determining, in the general scramble for
dominion which was then going on, not to neglect his own
interests. After this, internal disputes arose between Abhai Singh
and his brother Bakht Singh. The former died in 1760, and was
succeeded by his son RAm Singh ; and from this date, and from
the parricidal murder of Ajit Singh, may be traced the many
disasters which befel the Rahtors. A feud arose between R4m
Singh and his uncle Bakht Singh, and^ a fierce fight took place
at Merta, in which the former was beaten, and fled to TJjain,
where he found the Maratha leader, Jai Apa Sindia, and with
him concerted measxures for the invasion of his country. In the
meantime, Bakht Singh, the parricide, met his death, it is said,
by means of a poisoned robe given him by his aunt, the wife of
the Jaipur prince, Ishwari Singh, a princess of Edar, then ruled
by another son of Ajit ; and Bijai Singh, his son, was proclaimed.
Rdm Singh, assisted by the Marathas, gained a victory over Bijai
Singh ; but, the Marathas considering that their time could be
employed more profitably on richer lands, a compromise ensued,
and the cause of Rdm Singh was abandoned, on stipulating for
a fixed triennial tribute, and the surrender of the important
fortress and district of Ajmer in full sovereignty to the Marathas.
El
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After this, Marwar enjoyed several years of peace ; but tlie rapid
strides made by the Marathas towards universal rapine, if not
conquest, compelled the RAjpiits once more to form a union for
the defence of their political existence. The battle of Tonga
ensued, in which the Marathas under DeBoigne were defeated,
and Sindia compelled to abandon, not only the field, but all his
conquests for a time. Bijai Singh recovered Ajmer tempora-
rily; and also wrested the rich province of Godwdr from
Mewar. Amerkot was about the same time taken from the
Sindh rulers and attached to Marwar. In 1791, the murder-
ous battles of Pdtan and Merta took place, in both of which
the Eahtors were defeated by the Marathas under DeBoigne, and
the result was the imposition of a contribution of £600,000.
In 1794, Bijai Singh died. His successor, Bhlm Singh, attempted
to put to death afl possible competitors to the throne; and he
had nearly succeeded when he himself died, while the last heir to
Bijai Singh was besieged in Jalor. This was Eaja Mdn Singh, who
became chief in 1804, and whose rule lasted through nearly forty
years of discord and confusion. At the beginning, his succession
was disputed in favor of a supposed posthumous son of Bhim
Singh, called Dhonkul Singh. The Jaipur B;aja supported Dhon-
kul Singh ; his real object being to force M^ Singh to give up
to him the Udaipur princess, the famous Krishna Kumdri, who
had been betrothed to Mdn Siagh. Amir Elidn, the Pinddri,
joined the Jaipur army : Mdn Singh was defeated and besieged
in Jodhpur; but he managed to bribe Amir Khdn to come over
to his side and to attack Jaipur ; so the Jaipur troops retired
hastily. Amir Khdn massacred treacherously the principal rebel
thAkurs at Ndgaur ; and Raja MAn Singh thus established him-
self ; though the dissensions between the chief and his principal
clansmen continued imtil his death. In 1814, Amir Khdn again
entered the country, overran it, and murdered ia the Jodhpur
fort the Raja's spiritual director, Deonath, with the Dewdn
Indraj. This murder of a most holy man, the chief of the power-
ful order of the Ndths, overwhelmed Mdn Singh with horror :
he became a recluse, abandoned all power to the Ndths, and
lived like an ascetic devotee, feigning madness. At length he
was recommended to nominate his only son, Chatar Singh, as
his successor, to which he acceded. The minister of the young
prince sent envoys to Delhi to seek an alliance with the British
Government; and ia January 1818, at the commencement of
the Pinddri war, a treaty was concluded by which Jodhpur
was taken under the protection of the British Government.
Chatar Singh died shortly after the conclusion of the treaty, where-
upon his father threw off the mask of insanity and resumed the
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administration. Internal dissensions, howerer, continued; and in
1839, in consequence of disputes with the nohles, and the entire
subjection of the Maharaja to the priestly influence of the Ndths,*
the misgovemment of Jodhpur became such that the British
Government was compelled to interfere. A force was marched to
Jodhpur, of which it held military occupation for five months,
and Mdn Singh executed a personal engagement to eaasure future
good government. Mdn Singh died in 1843 without natural heirs
and without having adopted a son. He was the last descendant of
Abhai Singh, and the succession now lay between the chiefs of
Edar and Ahmadnagar in Gujardt in the Bombay Presidency.
Edar was the nearest of kin ; but the selection being left to the
widows, nobles, and State officials, they chose Takht Singh of
Ahmadnagar, whom, with his son Jeswant Singh, they invited to
Jodhpur. Owing to constant disputes between the Darbdr and
the tMkurs, the affairs of Marwar remained in an unsatisfactory
state during the administration of Maharaja Takht Singh ; but he
was a loyal chief, and did good service during the Mutinies. He
died in February 1873, and was succeeded by his eldest son,
Maharaja Jeswant Singh, the present ruler of Marwar.
'Form of Government. — ^The ruler of Marwar is styled Maha-
raja, and holds that position as head of the clan of Bahtors,
whose ancestors first conquered the country and who have ever
since possessed it. The constitution has hitherto generally been
described as feudal, but exception has been taken to this term by
recent writers of authority, and it may be better explained by
calling it that of a tribal suzerainty rapidly passing into the
feudal stage. The institutions of Marwar are highly favor-
able to general peace and the protection of personal property,
provided that the tribal chiefs live in harmony with their
suzerain and with one another ; for there is a chain of autho-
rity running from the ruler to the possessor of a circle of
a hundred villages, and of one village, and of well mounted
and armed troops stationed throughout the country, which must
bid defiance either to foreign or domestic aggression. The
rights of all classes of the agricultural commimity are weR-
defined, understood, and thoroughly respected, except in periods
of anarchy or misrule. The pat^t, or tribal chief of any magni-
* Mdn Sipgh had always been at variance with Maharaja Bhlm Singh ; he had long held
Jalor in spite of frequent attacks made against him^ but was reduced to the last extremity, and on
the eve of surrendering himself and Jalor, when he was relieved from his perilous situation by the
death of Bhlm Singh. He attributed his escape to the intercession of B,jogi, or holy man, named
Deonath — ^the proenomen signifying the deity, and the latter a tribe of Gosains ; for whilst con-
sulting him on capitulating, Deonath cried out " Wait for a day or two : I will bring about your deli-
verance." After that, Mdn Singh deserted the religion of his forefathers, and Deonath became his
divinity and steward of all spiritual mysteries, or his faith, and thus it was that the N^ths obtained
such influence over him.
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iide, is the ruler of his estate, and the judge ahnost exclusirely
1 aU matters of civil and criminal jurisdiction over his people,
^he duty has descended from father to son for a period generally
f some himdreds of years ; all parties are hound together hy a
ense of present interest and past advantage ; so that, in addition
what has heen considered hy the first authorities as the hul-
rark of the rights of the people of India, the village community,
he people of Marwar have a conamunity of villages belonging to
ach patdit, and a community of patdits, all liiJced together in
. chain of common defence against the despotism of the throne^
nd foreign aggression. The thdkurs of Marwar owe military
ervice to their suzerain, and exact the same from their brethren
whom assignments of land have been made ; and these form their
oUowing, the whole constituting the following of the suzerain
limselL The thdkur and his brethren are entitled to the Gk)v-
mment share of the produce from those, either proprietors or
ithers, who cultivate the land ; and these small possessions are, in
he opinion of those who have had opportunities of judging, better
aanaged than the fiscal lands, and the people happier under
hem. The fiscal lands are managed by hdkims, appointed and
emoved at the pleasure of the chief or his minister, who exercise
or the time the same jurisdiction in these lands as the thdkur
loes permanently over his estate, and, as the general conservators
>i the peace, a certain degree of authority over the thdkurs them-
elves. The actual fiscal lands in Marwar hardly amount to a
ifth of those in the possession of thdkurs and jdgirddrs, and are
lot so well managed ; yet everywhere the right of Government to
b certain money rate, or share of the produce, is so well understood
hat the agricultural classes everywhere live in comparative
ecurity. In fine, there is no conamunity so exclusively tribal, and
mder such mixed jurisdiction, as that of Marwar. The Maharaja,
ls the tribal suzerain, often finds it diflScult to pass a decision or
five directions in cases coming before him, mainly owing to his
)osition, which is that of one exercising limited jurisdiction over
/U aristocracy consisting principally of his brethren and kinsmen.
Administrative Sub-divisions. — ^The administrative sub-divi-
ions of Marwar are twenty-one in number, each presided over
y a hdkim.
The Land.
Principal Crops. — The principal rain-crops grown are pulses
nd millets, bdjrd, mot, til, and jowdr ; the first two are exten-
ively produced in the sandy tracts: the former is sown as
arly as possible, even in May, should any rain fall in that month ;
lie latter in August : the former takes three months, the latter
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six weeks> to ripen. Besides these cereals, large quantities of
melons are grown, wMch supply food for a considerable portion of
the year, and, when abundant, are allowed to be plucked by any
passer-by, and even the cattle are fed on them ; the seeck are
dried, ground, and mixed with flour for food. In the fertile por-
tion of Marwar, enclosed within the branches of the Liini, wheat
and barley are produced in considerable quantities : these are
sown in October, and reaped generally in March and April. Cot-
ton is occasionally seen near wells, but the staple is generally
poor. Opiimi is cultivated in the south-east portion of the district
m the vicinity of the ArvaU range of hills, where the water is
sweet and the soil rich. Tobacco and sugarcane are also, but
not extensively, grown.
Agriculture. — In the sandy parts of Marwar the rain sinks
into the soil and does not flow off the surface, so that a very small
rainfall suffices for the crops. "When the rainy season commences^
the sandhills are ploughed by camels, and the seed planted very
deep in the ground. After it has sprouted, a few showers, at
long intervals, bring it to maturity, and, as the Ught-built desert-
camels walk quickly, each householder is able to put a large
extent of ground under crop. The produce in a favorable season
is more than is necessary for the wai^its of the population ; but,
unfortimately, the means of storing grain are difficult to procure,
as burnt earthen vessels for the purpose have to be brought from
long distances ; the surplus produce is therefore frequently left
on the ground to be eaten by cattle. The k^rbi, or bljr^ stalks,
which make excellent food for cattle> are little heeded in good
years when rich grass is plentiful. Generally speaking, neither
kdrbi nor grass is cut or stacked as a provision against bad
seasons.
The most fertile districts of Marwar are — (1) Godwdr, (2)
Sojat, (3) Jetdran, (4) Maroth. Wells with abundant supplies
of good water are to be found in each, and both spring and
autumn crops are grown. After these come — (1) Merta, (2)
Jdlor, (3) Jodhpur, (4) Sachor, (5) Ndgaur. In one-half of each
of these districts, where weHs are plentiful, both spring and
autumn crops are raised ; in the other half, and in all the other
districts of Marwar where the crops are dependent on the rainfall
alone, and where there are no wells or other modes of irrigatiouj^
only autumn crops are grown.
Irrigation. — ^Large naasonry bunds are scarce in Marwar, but
the cultivating classes are very careful to make the best use
they can of the scanty rainfall which is usually their lot. A
number of them join together and enclose as much land as they
can with a small earthen eanbankmeat^ which they surround
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}homs to prerent the ingress of aniinals; the water is allowed
lect for three months, and the soil is then thoroughly
bted, and produces, without further irrigation, good crops
leat. Irrigation is also extensively carried on, by both
in and ordinary wells, where the water is not more than
et in depth; beyond that depth, well irrigation is not
able.
and'Bevenue. — ^No tmiform system of assessment prevails
[arwar; it varies in different districts; but one-third of
actual produce is the prevailing rate. In Ndgaur the land
\ one luxuriant rain-crop, of which the extreme share of
alf falls to the landlord. In the Thull, or sandy portions of
fcate, where labour is scarce, and where the ground yields
3tnd uncertain returns, the landlord's share sometimes falls
w as one-fourteenth. There are different modes in which
>arbdr or the jAgirddr's portion of the produce of the soil is
ed from the cultivator. They are as follows : —
irst : the Idta mode. — ^All the produce of the harvest is reaped
ollected at one, two, or more places close to the village ; and,
threshing-out, the Darbdr portion is taken in kind on the
having been duly measured or weighed.
3Cond : the kunta mode. — ^The same process is gone through,
this difference, that the Darbdr portion of the produce is
L by guess or calculation, without imdergoing the process of
iment or measurement. This is an unpopular mode, against
bi the cultivators generally complain.
hird: the kdnkar kunta mode. — ^The total amount of the
ice of the harvest is calculated while the crops are standing,
;he Darbdr portion, in kind or in cash, taken on the strength
at calculation.
'ourth : the mukata mode. — By this mode a fixed rate per bigha
ish is realized from the cultivators. These rates vary for
:ent kinds of produce.
'if th : the bighari mode. — ^By this mode a fixed rate per bigha,
measurement, is levied, in cash or in kind,
ixth : the gugari mode. — ^By this mode a fixed amount of
ace in kind is received, generally from well lands.
>f these six modes, the first is the most acceptable to the
vators.
'he village officials are as follows t-r-Pirst, the havilddr, or
3r of trust, who collects the revenues for the Darbdr or for
dglrddr, and is also the police officer of the village : second,
[itnwarid, who guards the fields, and prevents the cultivators
. stealing the com : third, the taf addr, who receives, and is
)nsible for, the accounts of the Darbdr portion of the
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produce; this official is sent, when the whole produce of the
village is collected at one place, to receive the Darbdr portion of
the same : fourth, the toldvati, who measures or weighs the
produce. These officials are nominated by the Darbdr, or the
3dgirddr, as the case may be, and are paid by the villagers.
In addition to the above, the other officials are — the chaudhri,
the patwdri, and the bdmbhi. These offices are not hereditary,
and the jdgirdar can nominate any one he likes to them. During
the periods these persons hold their appointments, they enjoy
certain privileges and immunities for which they pay something '
in cash yearly to the jdgirddr.
Land-Tenures. — There are altogether 3,600 villages, including
those of Mallani, now under British management, in Marwar ; of
these, 2,158 are said to belong to Eahtors, descendants of the origi-
nal conquerors of the country, who hold their lands by right of
consanguinity to the ruling chief, and pay a military cess and
succession-tax as detailed below. Pour hundred villages are held
by Edjpiits of other clans, such as Bhdttis, Chohdns, Tu^, Indars,
&c. These, for the most part, occupy under bhiim tenures, paying
only a small annual sum in the shape of what is locally known as
faujbal, or tribute. The Bhdttis, as a rule, possess their villages
from having formed marriage-ties with the families of the rulers
of Marwar. Chohdns, Tudrs, Indars, and others, date further
back, and are generaUy descendants of those who held estates
prior to the occupation of the country by the Rahtors, and whose
rights have ever since been upheld. These thdkurs are better off
than the first described, for the amount of tribute in no case
equals that of rekh^ or military cess ; and succession-fees are not
paid. This leaves but 942 villages for the fisc, out of which
have to be deducted estates bestowed on members of the family
of the ruling chief, charitable grants, and villages awarded for
service.
Thakurs of Mallani, the descendants of Mallindth, who
conquered lands for themselves, and have remained semi-inde-
pendent, pay tribute only. The estates of the principal feuda-
tories are given alphabetically, viz. : Ahor, Alaniawds, Asop, Auwd,
Bagri, Balunda, Bhakri, Budsa, Chdnaud, Chandawal, Gh^erao,
Harsauld, Jaula, Khejurla, Kherwa, Khinwasar, Kuchdman,
Mdroth, Mithri, Nimbdj, Pokaran, Raepur, Eds, Edyan, Eohat.
These estates vary in value from a lakh down to fifteen
thousand rupees. The thdkurs, being all off-shoots from the
rulers of Marwar at different times, are semi-independent,
very conservative, and, as a rule, extremely loyal to the head of
their house. Por their fiefs they pay a yearly military cess called
rekh^ which is supposed to be 8 per cent, of the gross rental
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Talue of the estate; they have also to furnish one horsemaA for
every thousand rupees' worth of rekh j and where the rekh of an
estate is less than Rs. 1,000, one foot-soldier has to be provided.
When a thdkur dies, his heir has to pay a succession-tax. In
direct descent the Darbdr takes three-fourths of the gross rental
of the estate, leaving one-fourth for the support of the heir,
who is absolved from giving service for that year. Where an
adopted son succeeds, the Darbdr takes as wicces»ion-tax the
whole of the revenue of the estate for one year, and no service
is exacted.
The lands of a village, partially or wholly, are of the following
denominations : — ^The bd,pi, the mangli, the hdsili, the sdsan or
the doli, the pusditd, the jdgirl, and the bhi^. The tenures^
under which these lands are held, are not alike throughout the
coxmtry, and, though generally similar in their main features,
they vary in different districts, according to the custom which
has for long prevailed in each.
The description of these lands is as follows :—
The bdpi land, or lands of ancestral inheritance, from h&p, a
father (or fatherland). This title is invariably conferred upon
lands either by the Darbdr or by the jdgirddr, tmder the following
circumstances : — ^
Eirst, when a cultivator at his own private and exclusive
expense has dug a well, with the permission of the Darbdr or of
the jdglrddr, the title of bdpi is conferred upon the lands to be
irrigated by that i^ell, in consideration of the expense incurred by
the cultivator and the future rental benefits that are to accrue
therefrom to the Darbdr or to the jdgfrddr. In virtue of this
title, these lands become the perpetual inheritance of the
cultivator, and cannot, except on some strong State grounds,
be resumed. He can sell these lands, or dispose of them in any
way he may be inclined. If the owner of such lands ever
happens to migrate for some years to a foreign country, or if
he has not sufficient means to bring them under cultivation,
the Darbdr or the jdgfrddr is entitled, in consideration of its,
or his, own interests, to cultivate them, or to cause them to
be cidtivated by others, on the payment of a certain rent
to be paid to the owner on his return. Only when the
owner of such lands dies without leaving any heir behind
biTn can these lands be appropriated by the Darbdr or the
jdgirddr, or made over to any other person under the same
tenure or any other in vogue in the village. No portion of
such lands can be given in charity by the owner, such alienation
bemg strictly forbidden. It must, however, be understood that
these bdpi lands are not exempt from the payment of customary
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ijents to the Darb&r, or to the j&gird&r, as the case may be. The
Jats of N^gaur, and the Paliwdl Brdhmans of Merta in general,
hold such lands, and more or less the same tenure prevails in other
districts of Marwar.
Secondly, when a cultivator has constructed an embankment
with the object of fertilizing his fields and those of his neighbours,
he secures the title of b^pi to the lands lying in the vicinity of
that embankment, for the same reasons, and subject to the same
terms, as stated above.
Thirdly, when a cultivator, with the permission of the DarbSr,
or of the j^gird^-r, has peopled a deserted site within his village,
and at his own risk has brought the land around that site under
cultivation, the title of bapi is conferred upon such lands.
Fourthly, the Darbar and the jagirdars can also confer this title
upon certain lands, on their receiving a lump sum for the same
from the cultivator, or on the promise of payment of an enhanced
rate of rent in perpetuity.
Mangli lands. — ^When bdpi lands are held by Brdhmans, they
are called mangli, the term mangli meaning ^ propitious.^ The
change of designation, however, makes no difference in their
conditions or the obligations attached to them.
Hdsili, or lands subject to assessments. — ^These form the major
portion of the lands belonging to a village, and can change hands
at the option of the Darbdr or of the jdgirddr. The jdgirddr or
the Darbdr is also entitled to determine the rates of assessments
on these lands as his interests may dictate.
Sdsan lands (sdsan is a Sanskrit word signifying * order'). —
These lands are granted for charitable purposes, both by the Darbdr
and by the great jdgirddrs, for which it is necessary to secure a
Raj sanad. Such lands are invariably exempt from all kinds of
assessments, and it is considered highly sacrilegious to resume
them. If cultivated by the owner, he is entitled to enjoy the whole
produce ; but if by any other, he, the owner, can claim only a
portion of the produce according to the terms of agreement between
him and the cultivator. These lands may be sold by the owner,
but only in the absence of any heir to claim them can they lapse
to the Darbdr or to the jagirddr.
Doli lands. — These are lands generally given in charity by the
jdgirddr only. No Raj sanad is necessary for these grants,
which, however, are considered as sacred as the sasan grants, and
held equally exenipt from all kinds of taxes or assessment.
Pusaitd (a local term for * rent free ') lands are generally given
by the jdgirddr to those whom he employs in his service. They
can be resumed by the jdgirddr at any time when he dispenses
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with the serrices of his servants. They are held exempt from all
assessments or taxes.
Jdgfri lands. — ^When the Darb&r or the great sirdArs resume
any village from its jdgirddr, the latter, in consideration of his
previous position, is allowed to retain some lands, free of rent, to
be tilled by him, or by his tenants. These lands are held exempt
from any kind of tax, and the owner is allowed to enjoy the
iisufruct for generations, provided he conducts himself peaceably,
Bhiim lands. — ^These are of various descriptions : —
Pirst, the lands given by the Darbdr or by the j&girA&r to any
one for important services rendered to the State or callage, or for
the protection of the village. Such lands are exempt from all
kinds of taxes or fees, except thebhiimbdb (which is no more than
a mild form of tribute), to be levied from them yearly. Treason
against the State, or the commission of a heinous crime, can alone
justify the Darb^r in resuming these lands.
Secondly, lands peopled and brought imder cultivation by some
enterprising persons are allowed to be enjoyed by them in perpe-
tuity. A fixed tribute, named dumba, is paid yearly to the j%ir-
ddr within whose estate the land comprising the bhtim is situated.
These lands are also exempt from any other tax or service, and
continue to be enjoyed by the owner for generations, provided he
conducts himself peaceably. This kind of tenure mostly prevails
in Godwdr.
Thirdly, lands or villages seized upon, or conquered, ^wan7y,
and successively enjoyed for a series of generations, without being
renewed or disturbed even during a change of government, also
constitute bhtim. Such bhiims are mostly found to exist in Jdlor
and Godwdr, and are by far the most important of all. They are
exempt from all kinds of taxes ; only a fixed sum, named faujbal,
is levied from them yearly. They cannot be resumed except on
the grounds stated above. It wiU be thus seen that the position
which the bhiimids in general hold is more important and durable
than that enjoyed by the jdgirddrs, and they may fairly be said
to be the undisputed lords of the soil over which they preside or
rule.
There is also the ndnkdr tenure — from ndn, * bread ;* and kdr,
' working ;* or working for bread. Eight or ten villages in the Merta
pargana are held imder this tenure, chiefly by Rdjptits, who possess
them in perpetuity, and no tax of any kind is levied by the Darbdr.
Proprietary and Cultivating Classes. — ^The proprietary classes
have been described above. The principal cultivating classes are —
Jdts, Sirwis, Bishnawis, Pitals, Edjpiits, and Muhammadans of
the country, such as Kdim Khdrds, who enjoy grants of land which
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they till themselves. The first named are said by Tod to comprise
five-eighths of the whole class of inhabitants*
Population.
Population. — Marwar is peopled by Rdjpdts (the conquerors
and possessors of the soil), by Chdrans, Bhdts, Jdts, Bishnawis,
Minas and Bhils (the aboriginal inhabitants), and by the usual
mixed Hindu population, with a sparse number of Muhamma-
dans. The Chdrans, a sacred race, hold large religious grants
of land, and enjoy pectdiar immunities as traders in local
produce. The Bhats are by profession genealogists, but also
engage in trade. The Minas, Bauris, and Bhils are predatory
classes, but are employed in menial capacities. The Muham-
madans are principsdly soldiers, the word sipdhi being used in
Marwar as a Mughal word, to designate a Muhammadan, The
Marwaris, as a race, are enterprising and industrious ; the agricul-
tural classes, having to undergo great privations from poor food
and often bad water, and living on a poor soil, are trained in a
Bevere school of hardship and patient endurance. Marwari
traders are to be found in all the chief cities of South and West
India. In the pursuit of trade they quit their homes for years,
only revisiting them on occasions of marriages or of family con-
cerns. No census of the population has ever been taken, but it
has been roughly calculated at about 2,850,000, of whom 86 per
cent, are said to be flindus, 10 per cent. Jains, and 4 per cent.
Muhammadans. Supposing the nimiber of inhabitants to be
tolerably correct, this would make a total of 77*02 to the square
mile; and local authorities calculate the E/ahtor population as
200,000, which gives a percentage of 3*40.
Castes^ ClanSj and Tribes. — ^The principal Hindu castes are as
follows (the list received from well-informed local authorities
gives the precedence first to Brdhmans, second to other religious
sects, and third to BAjputs) : —
Brdhmans are divided into the following sects: — ^Tailang,
Parik, Sankhwdl, Graur, Kanaujid, Pushkama, Sawug, Srimdli,
Sdrswat, Khandelwdl, Sarwarid, Gujardti, Purohit, Daima, Gujar*
gor, Sundwar, Nadwdni, Sdchora, Pdliwdl.
The other reKgious sects, Bhikhd6vi, are as follows : — Sodmi,
Jdti, Sddh, Mahdtmd, Ndth, Dhundia.
Rdjptits are divided into the following gots : — Itahtors, Bhattis,
Pudrs, Ohohdns, Gehlot, Tudr, Kachhwdha, Dewals, Solankhi,
Purihars, with whom are the Indars, Dodhia, Goyal, Gaur, Bargti-
jar. Next to Bdjpiits in order of precedence come Charans, Bhats,
and then Mahajans, of whom there are nine different sections, viz.^
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Oswdl, Mahesri, Aganvdl, Porwdl, Siimdl, Srisrimdl, Vijdwargi,
Saraogi.
After the Maliajans come all the other Hindu castes not men-
tioned above ; a Kst of most of them is given in the Mallani por-
tion of this Gazetteer ; only those not mentioned there being en-
tered here — ^Motesar, a caste of beggars peculiar to Marwar, who
receive largess from Bhdts and Chdnins on occasion of marriages
in their families; Pancholi, local name for Kdyaths; Khatri
(mahajans) ; Sirwi, a cultivating class ; Gujar, also a cultivating
class; Tirwdri, a kind of Chi^ran; Rdwal (buffoons); Chdkar
(domestic servants to Rdjptits) ; Mehra, same as Kahdrs ;
Bdri, makers of the small cups constructed of leaves, used for
holding various articles of food ; Bharbhunjd (grain-parchers) ;
Baid, a low caste ; Kharwdl, men employed on salt-works ; Belddr ;
Dabgar, makers of the large camel-leather kiipis, or Jars in which
ghee is carried ; GhAnchA, basket-manufacturers ; Jdgri, beaters
of the small drum used at native dances ; Gwdrid, rope-makers ;
Mer, inhabitant of Merwara; Ndt, gipsy; Mina, the well-known,
predatory class ; Gururd, the priest of Chamdrs ; Bauri, another
predatory class, employed also as chaukidars on the principle
*^ set a thief to watch a thief ;" Bdgri, a somewhat similar caste
to Bauris ; Satid, a low caste ; Sdnsi, a predatory caste ; Dhdnkd^
a low caste.
Meligion. — Of the Hindu population, 45 per cent, are follow-
ers of Vishnu, 36 per cent. Devimats, more properly called Sdktas,
or the worshippers of Sdkti, the female principle; they also call
themselves Bdm-Mdrgis, from bdm (4eft ') and mdrgis (* travellers
along a road ' — ^frommdrg * road'), the real meaning being * those
who do not walk straight.' The Devimats or Saktas form secret
societies, most of their rehgious rites being carefully kept from
the knowledge of the uninitiated. The Shivites are said to num-
ber only 5 per cent., and the Jains 10 per cent., of the population.
The principal local saints of Marwar are — Rdmdeo, Harbu,
Pabu, Goga, and Mahir-Monglid. iEach of these saints has
large numbers of disciples. There are also the Bishnawis, follow-
ers of Jdmba, Dddu Panths, and Rdmsandhis. The above are all
included in the total population of Marwar as amongst the wor-
shippers of Vishnu.
State of Society. — ^The family deity of the rulers of Marwar
was, in the Sat Yug or first Hindu epoch, Mansd Devi ; in the
DwdparYug (second epoch), Pankhdni; in the Titd Yug (third
epoch), Rdshtarsend; and in the present or Kali Yug (fourth
epoch), Ndganechi. The legend is as follows : — The authors of the
human race were Mdyd (literally, ' mother'), a female deity, and
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Brdhm (the creator). In the Sat Tug, or first epoch, the female
deity was called Mansd (as at her desire the world was formed).
In the second epoch her name was changed to Pankhdni, or winged
goddess, because she had of her own will become changed into a
falcon. In the third epoch, she took the name of Rashtarsend
(rdshtar meaning the world, and send a falcon), and in this
form remained hovering over, and protectress of, the world.
The real title of the Marwar Bdjputs was " Rdshtwar," now
corrupted to Rahtor. The name arose from the goddess Rdsh-
tarsend bestowing her 'car (blessing) on that sect of the human
race now called Rahtors, hence their original name Rdshtwar or
Rashtarwar. In the present epoch, or KaK Tug, the tutelary
deity's name was again changed to Ndganechi, The reason given
for this change is as follows : — ^When Duhar, the grandson of
Shivaji (the original founder of the Rahtor dynasty in Marwar),
succeeded his father as ruler of the land of Kher, he went to the
Karndtak, where the Rahtors ruled previous to becoming kings
, of Kanauj, for the purpose of bringing the image of the goddess
Rdshtarsend from her temple there to his own country of Kher ;
but when the cart containing the goddess reached the village of
Ndgana of Marwar, the vehicle came to a stand-stiU, Upon this,
Duhar concluded that the goddess wished to take up her abode
there, so he built a temple for her reception at Ndgana, and placed
the goddess in it (the temple is still existing in this village) ; her
name then became Ndganechi or Ndganake (resident of Ndgana).
There are several temples to this goddess in Marwar.
J)arhdr ceremonies. — ^The following are some of the customs of
the Marwar Court: — ^The highest honor the Maharaja bestows on
a visitor is to receive and dismiss him standing, and raise his right
hand a little on his arrival and departure ; to the next in rank, the
Maharaja rises both on arrival and departure of the visitor ; there
is, again, a third grade of visitors, on the arrival (not departure) of
whom the Maharaja rises. All the aristocracy of Marwar precede
the Maharaja in processions ; on such occasions it is considered a
mark of high honor for the chief to stop and receive the salute
of any particular person joining the procession. The great drum
beats four times every night in the fort at Jodhpur at fixed times,
and it is considered a mark of high honor and respect to stop the
beat of the drum once out of the four times, on the occasion
of the death of any of the principal thdkurs. On the demise of
any of the principal thdkurs or hereditary officials of the State,
the Maharaja pays a visit of condolence to the families of the
deceased at their homes.
Six grand Darbdrs are held during the year by the Maharaja,
viz.^ on the festiyals of Akhetij, Das^ra, Dewdli, BLoli, Barasgdnth
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(annirersary of the chiefs birthday), and Edkhipunam. At the
first four festivals the Maharaja, and the principal thdknrs, sitting
according to their rank, dine together in one room (the Maharaja
being the host) ; but the food is served on separate dishes.
Except on Akhetij and Edkhipiinam, nazars are ojffered to, and
accepted by, the chief.
On the birth of an heir to the gadi^ an inferior class known as
Bdris make an impression of the newly-born child's foot on a piece
of cloth with saffron, and this piece of cloth is exhibited to the
aristocracy of Marwar, and to the chief of Kishangarh, from
whom they receive largess in return for the good news they
convey. When an heir is bom to the gadi of Kishangarh, the
cloth with the mark of the child's foot is brought by the Bdris to
the Jodhpur chief, thus notifying the intimate connection between
the two princes.
Ceremony of Installation to the gadi of Marwar. — ^The prince
to be installed has to fast the day preceding the ceremony.
On the day of the ceremony the chief Brdhmans assemble in the
fort to invoke the deity for a blessing on the proceedings ; the
chief then bathes in the sacred waters of the Ganges, Junma, and
Pushkar lake, brought for the purpose. Gan^h, Shiva, Vishnu,
Brdhma, and other gods are propitiated in the presence of the
prince. Afterwards weapons of war, viz.j swords, shields, and guns,
also the royal insignia, umbrella, sceptre, and standard, and the
DarbAr horse and elephants, are worshipped. This ceremony is
termed Bajesar. When this has been done, the chief, arrayed in
his State dress, takes his seat on the gadi, which is placed on a
raised marble platform known as Singhdr Ohauki. The thdkur
of Bagri then comes forward and binds on the sword of State,
greeting the chief aloud with the words **May Jodhpur prove
propitious to you 1" to which the Maharaja replies, " To you let
Bagri prove propitious T' Meanwhile the Bids (Hindu priest)
places the tilak (or mark of inauguration) on the forehead of the
Maharaja. A salute of guns is fixed, and shouts of joy are imme-
diately raised from all parts of the city. The newly-installed
chief then rises from the gadi and takes his seat on another
marble platform in a palace called the Daulat Khdna (or abode of
wealth), where nazars are offered, and obeisance made, by all the
jdglrddrs and State officials. The reason given for the Bagri
thdkur*s investing the chiefs of Marwar with the sword is
as follows : — ^During the life-time of Eao Sujd, his son (who was
heir to the gadi) died, leaving two sons by two mothers — ^the elder
Biram Deo, the younger Ganga. When BaoSujd was dying,
several of the thdkurs of Marwar, who were then more nearly
related to the chief than now, including Thdkur Pachden of
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Bagri, came to the fort to enquire after the health of their chief.
Having come off a long journey, they were famished, and sent to
ask the mother of Biram Deo for food ; she returned an indig-
nant reply to the effect that she was not an inn-keeper, and that
food could not be cooked for them at that late hour. Gbnga's
mother, hearing of this, not only prepared hot baths for
the way-worn travellers, but also sent them a capital dinner.
Whereupon Pachden (who was regarded by the others, being
much the oldest, as wise and discreet), much pleased with the
hospitality of Granga's, and indignant at the treatment of Biram
Deo's, mother, offered his and lus comrades' swords to Ganga, and
at Sujd's death installed him on the gadi^ superseding his elder
brother. Erom that time the right of investing the heir to the
gadi of Marwar with the sword has belonged to the thdkurs of
Bagri. On occasions of great Darbdrs held by the Maharaja, no
matter what chiefs of high rank are present, it is the rule for the
ChampAwat, be he one of the highest or lowest of his clan, to
offer his nazar before all others. The reason assigned for this
is, that, on the death of Maharaja Jeswant Singh in A.D. 1681,
beyond Attok, where he had been sent by the emperor Aurang-
zeb, the latter seized the country of the Rahtors, and all the
thdkurs had to flee for their lives. One of the ranis of Maharaja
Jeswant Singh was pregnant at the time of her husband's death,
and wished to become sati with his other rani and seven concu-
bines, who immolated themselves with his pagri, or turban,
which had been brought home from beyond Attok ; but, being
in the seventh month of her pregnancy, she was prevented
from so doing by Uda KimipAwat.. In due course she
gave birth to Ajit, who for many years, during which the
Muhammadans held the country, was protected in the hills of
Marwar by Diirga Dds Kanot, whilst Mukimd Singh Champdwat,
who was in the secret of his chief's hiding, acted as commander-
in-chief of the forces, which ultimately raged successful warfare
against the Muhammadans. Por this act of fidehty, the Cham-
pdwats, to the present day, are looked upon as the first in the
numerous Rahtor clan of Marwar.
Amongst the families of influence inMarwar are the following:—
Bhanddris, of the Oswdl sub-division of the Jains, have long
held the highest posts in the State, viz.y those of dewdn, bakhshi,
and the musdbat. Bhanddri B/Ughndth, during the time that
Maharaja Ajit Singh was at Delhi, ruled Marwar in his master's
name for many years.
Mohnots, Osw^s, have held equally prominent positions with
the Bhanddris. Mohnot Nainsi was a famous minister in the
reign of Maharaja Jeswant Singh.
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Singwi, Oswdls, have held the most important offices of State
from Maharaja Mdn Singh's time to the present.
Bakhshi Bhim Raj and Dewdns Ind Raj and Fateh Raj
were conspicuous characters during Maharaja Mdn Singh's reign.
The post of bakhshi has been hereditary in this family since the
time of Maharaja Biji Singh.
Muhtas, Oswdls, who came originally from Jdlor, have also
filled the highest posts during the reigns of Maharaja Man Singh
and Takht Singh.
Lodh6s, Oswdl mahajans, have held offices of high position
and honor, and have, on several occasions during the last two
reigns, been entrusted with the post of Darb4r vakil, as also
that of dewdn,
Asopa Brdhmans have, since the time of Maharaja Bijai Singh,
repeatedly held the important post of DarbAr vakil at the
Maratha Court, and with the earlier British Residents at Delhi.
Bishan Rdm, a member of this class, signed the first treaty
between the British Government and the Marwar Darbdr.
Pancholis or Kdyaths have held the posts of dewdn and bakhshi
since the time of Maharaja Ajit Singh ; they are also the hereditary
scribes (Hindi) and accountants of the State, and are employed
in all offices.
Pushkarna Brdhmans, members of which caste rose to emi-
nence during the reign of Maharaja Takht Singh, and held the
offices of dewdn and bakhshi.
SabhAwat Rajputs are the hereditary deorhiddrs (literally,
* door-keepers ') of the State ; they superintend all Darbdr cere-
monials : all officials and others who desure to pay their respects
to the Maharaja are introduced by, and all honorary dresses are
presented through, them.
There are two other important and hereditary offices of State-
one that of Bias, the other Purohit. The former official must be
a Brdhman of the first rank. He performs all the religious cere-
monies in which the Maharaja himself has to take part, such as
that of installation to the gad% marriages, &c. All gifts to
Brdhmans are distributed through this functionary. The present
holder of the office is Bias Biidh Ldl, whose ancestors have
enjoyed the post for many years.
The other official — ^termed Rajgur Purohit — ^performs all the
ceremonies on occasions of deaths amongst members of the
Maharaja's family. The present incumbent is Daulat Singh, to
whom the post has descended from his ancestors.
There are also hereditary Chdrans of the State. Of these,
the families of Bdnkedas and Ohaendi,s are the first in rank;
they hold the posts of bard, "and it is their duty to collect
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and preserve the records of eacli reigning chief, and embody
them in their histories, which is done both in prose and verse.
They also compose odes commemorative of the most impor-
tant passing events, which they recite before the Maharaja
in darbdr. They receive rich gifts from the chiefs of the
courts to which they belong, and the highest honors are
paid to them. Kavi Raj Murdr Dhan, the present poet-
lanreate of Marwar, is a grandson of the Bdnkedds above
mentioned. The got of the Bids who performs all the religious
ceremonies of the court is Sdndilia; that of the Rajgur Purohit,
Bhardwdj.
In the sandy portion of Marwar, beehive-shajied huts are
generally seen, with the exception of the thdkur s residence,
which in small villages is generally of mud with a thatch roof.
The villages are enclosed with a strong fence of thorns to keep
out wild animals and thieves. In many, the houses are built
separately, and each has its own enclosure of thorns. Where this
is the case, sanitation is easy, and these localities appear cleaner
and neater than others. The middle classes generally dwell in
houses constructed of mud with thatch roofs ; those of the
mahajans are frequently of stone and mortar ; whilst in some vill»
ages the thdkur*s house is a handsome, well-constructed residence.
The lower classes of Marwar are generally temperate,
laborious, and economical ; their dress is of the simplest kind ;
as a rule, they partake of two meals a day, consisting of bread,
vegetables (generally dried), and curds and milks. Their houses
usually contain nothing but a limited number of cooking utensils,
and several sleeping-cots ; carpets or rugs are rarely used ; the
people sit on the bare ground. ^
The trading class are bankers and merchants. Marwaris are
scattered all over India, and are a most enterprizing class, amassing
often great wealth. Though visiting their native country seldom
and at long intervals, they are most loyal to the rule of the State.
When the late chief Maharaja Takht Singh died, every Marwari in
Calcutta and Bombay shaved his head and face as a mark of
mourning. The principal cultivators are Jdts, Sirwis, Bishnawis,
Pitals, Rdjptits, and Muhammadans of the country, such as
Kdim Khanis who enjoy grants of lands. These latter, however,
after their agricultural labours are over, lead very idle lives,
passing their time in their own houses, or in some public spot
smoking and gossiping. The women, on the contrary, work hard,
being employed in drawing water, for which they often have
to go rery long distances ; cooking, dressing their com, spinning,
and lookmg after the cattle on their return from grazing. They
also work, in the fields.
Gl
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The people of Marwar are described, by one who has long lit^ed
amongst them, as generally laborious, frugal, comparatively well-
to-do, and physically s1ax)ng.
Customs of marriage and inheritances — ^Although, according
to Hindu law, it is strictly forbidden to take money on the occasion
of the marriage of a daughter^ yet three-fourths of the Bdjpiit
population, and nearly all of the other aects of Hindus in Marwar,
«et this law at defiance ; and, in the lower grades of society^ the
toother of the bride often receives large sums of money from the
bridegroom, especially when he is much older than the bride*
Ceremonies of betrothal vary in different castes. Among
Edjpiits and ChArans it is customary for the contracting parties to
partake of opium together in the presence of a few members of
their caste, when the betrothal is verbally completed. Amongst the
Tailang Br&hmans the &i^er of the proposed bridegroona sends a
handkerchief to be placed on the head of the girl. It is usual
amongst SArswat Brdhmans for the &ther of the intended bride
to pla^ a ring on the finger of the proposed bridegroom ; whilst^
amongst other Brdhman sects, the father of tiie girl to be
betrothed gives fruit, raw sugar, cocoanut^ &c», to the other
party, or vice versfd. Amongst the Osw61 mahajans the bride-
groom's friends send a garland of flowers and a ring for the bride ;
other mahajans exchange raw sugar and cocoanuts in confiirma-
tion of the betrothal. ^ Amcm^t the JatiA Ktimh^, the binding
of a thread on the bride's wnst is the chief custom^ Amongst
all other classes an exchange of raw sugar and cocoanut con-
firms the betrothal. When the marriage ceremony takes place>
the bridegroom, accompanied by his male companions, goes to the
bride's house, whilst entering which the Brdhmans repeat verses
from the sacred Yedas, and invoke the gods and planets ; the
bridegroom then clasps the bride's hand in his, and together they
walk four times round a fire lit in the centre of the room ; for
three times the bride precedes her husband, and on the fourth
follows him. Amongst the Srimdli Brdhmans it is customary, on
the morning after the first CCTemony, for the bridegroom to carry
his bride four times round the fire% With Maheswdris and
PanchoUs, again, when the bridegroom enters the bride's house^
the bride's maternal uncle takes her in his arms and walks seven
times round the bridegroom.
Except amongst the higher classes, such as Brdhmans, Maha-
jans, and well-bom Bdjpiits, widows are generally allowed to re?,
marry ; divorces are permissible and are common. ^
The laws of inheritance in Marwar differ ; that of primogeni-
ture principally prevails. In many States there are certain lands
or villages which are ostensibly the recognized portions of younger
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sons. The share of a younger son is not fixed, but it is always
more than mere food and clothes, except during the life of the
father. On the father*s death the younger son's share to a
portion of patrimony (though only perhaps a few fields) is always
allowed.
With some of the thdkurs of Mallani, however, and other
relatives of Rao Mallin^th, an equal division of the pro-
perty takes place amongst all the sons at the father's death.
Lands held under pusditd, bhiim, sdsan, and j^giri tenures (see
under head of "Land-Tenures") are equally divided amongst all the
sons. Amongst Br^hmans, banyas, the lower (Mrder of Rdjptits, and
aU others of the Hindu community, property, whether moveable
or immoveable, is equally divided amongst all the sons on the
death of the father. The same custom prevails amongst Jdts^
the most important cultivating class in Marwar ; and when a
J^t has no son of his own„ he may make his son-in-law his heir,
provided the latter agrees to reside for the remainder of his life in
his deceased father-in-law^s house. As a rulie, daughters'* soos do
not inherit; but the Srimffi Brdhmans, failing male issue of their
own, adopt daughters' sons — ^a practice allowable by the Hindu
law-givers of olden times.
Occupations. — ^He majority of the population of Marwar are
by occupation cultivators. There are workers in ivory, dyers,
potters, barbers, carpenters, oilmen,, domestic servants, goldsmiths,,
dealers in lac, blacksmiths, tailors, washennen, liquor-sellers,
bearers, chintz-printers, milk and butter sellers, betel-seUers, steel-
sharpeners, diggers, grain-parchersj^ braziers^ bards, masons,, &c..
Trade.
Manufactures and Trade. — ^The manufactures of Marwar are
of no great importance in a commerciail point of view. Turbans
for men, and scarves for women, which are peculiar to this part
of the country, are dyed and prepared with much labour for
wearing, by Ohadwas and Khatris. An embroidered siUc knotted
thread for wearing on the turban, GaXiQA.phulmdldy also peculiar to
Marwar, is made by Osw^ mahajans. Those who are engaged in
this work are called patwas.
Jamdanis, leather boxes for holding clothes, are extensively
made in Jodhpor by Mochis ; they cost from two to five rupees.
Snuff is made by Khatris in the city of Jodhpur, and i»
exported ; it sells at from one-quarter to three-quarters of a seer
for the rupee.
At Ndgaur, iron wires for the native setdr (a guitar of three
strings) are made by ironmongers j this wire sometimes sells at
thirty-two rupees a tola.
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Arrows arc made by a class of Muliammadans who are known
from their trade as tirgars.
Ivory toys are also extensively made at Ndgaur by Chiirigars,
and exported.
Brass cooking-utensils of various kinds are made at Ndgaur by
Thatheras, and are largely exported.
At Merta, gugis (cloaks) and chakmds (the same material in
pieces) are made by Muhammadan weavers (Pinjaras) of sheep's
wool ; the former sell at from one-and-a-quarter to four rupees,
and the latter from eight annas to two rupees, each.
Khas-khas tents, pankhds, &c., are also made at Merta by
tailors.
At Sojat, saddles, bridles, &c., for horses are made by Modiis.
At J^or, drinking-vessels of bell-metal, prettily engraved, are
made by Thatheras.
Scarves worn by women in mourning are dyed of very fast
colours at Pokaran, B^otrd, and Sindari of Marwar ; and are
largely exported to Bikanir, Jaipur, and Ahmaddbdd.
The principal exports are salt, cattle, sheep, goats, horses, cot-
ton, wool, dyed cloths, hides, and pomegranates. Prom Makrdna,
marble and marble manufactures are exported, and stone from
various quarries. The chief imports are goor, kand (coarse and
refined sugar), and rice from Bhiwdni of Hisdr; opium from
Kotah, .Mewar, and Beilwar.
Prom Bombay come English piece-goods, silver, and copper.
Prom Gujardt spices of every kind, dates, gimi-arabic, borax, co-
coanuts, silks, sandalwood, and dyes. Com is imported at times
from Sind and Bhiwdni, Trade is carried on chiefly by permanent
markets at Jodhpur, Pdli, Merta, Parbatsar, Ndgaur, Didwdna,
Pachbadra, Phalodi, Jdlor, Pipdr, and Bdlotrd.
In ordinary years local crops suffice for local wants, but local
manufactures are insufficient.
Judicial System. — ^At Jodhpur there are civil and criminal
courts presided over by separate officials. The Maharaja alone
has the power of life and death, and final appeals lie to him in all
but petty cases. Most of the district cases are disposed of by the
hdkims.
The thdkurs within their estates assxmie independent magis-
terial authority, and, until lately, it was only the lower f euda«
tories who would surrender criminals or brook interference in cri-
minal cases. Arbitration is generally resorted to in all civil cases.
Jails. — ^There is one very large newly-constructed jail at
Jodhpur, roomy, well- ventilated, and cleanly kept. There is
also a lock-up at the head-quarters of each district, in which, how-
ever, only short-termed prisoners are kept ; those sentenced to
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more than three months* incarceration being sent, as a rule, to the
Central Jail at Jodhpur.
Police. — ^The police duties are generally conducted by the
army, no separate establishment existing.
ilducation. — ^Education in an advanced form is unknown in
Marwar. A large proportion of the population can read and
•write Hindi, amongst whom are included most of the ladies of
good birth, which it is believed is peculiar to this State. The
capital now possesses two good schools, one for the sons of th^
kurs and the higher classes, the other for children of trades-people
downwards. At both these schools, English, as well as the ver-
nacular languages, is taught. There are ako schools supported
by the DarbAr in some of the district towns, and every large
village possesses one, presided overbytiie local Jdti (Jain priest).
Communications. — ^There is one metaUed road, 100 miles in
length, running through Marwar; it is the main route from
Ajmer to Ahmaddbdd in the Bombay Presidency. There are
travellers* bungalows on this road as follows, commencing from
Bedwar in the Ajmer border : —
Bar, 16 miles : water sweet; supplies plentiful.
ChandAwal, 17
Sojat, 12
J&dhan, 15
P^i, 11
Gundoj, 11
Dhola, 13
Sanderao, 9
jf
33
39
33
39
99
9 93
9 99
9 ^ 9%
»> 9y
If 99
99
Route from Jodhpur towards Bd»rmer in Mallani—
Nar Nadi, 12 miles : tank water; sandy road ; supplies plentiful,
Doli, 16 „ well water; supplies plentiful; soil hard.
Sarvarhi, 12 „ water brackish; supplies plentiful; soil sandy ^
Pachbadra, 14 „ soil hard ; tank water ; supplies plentiful.
Jasol of Mallani, 8 „ sandy ; have to cross the Lum ; water good ;
supplies plentiful.
On this route both carts and camels are used.
Route from Jodhpur towards Jesalmer —
Balarvo, 16 miles : Bandy and hard soil ; water good ; and supplies plentiful,
Ghdvrho, 8 „ „ „ „ from wells; supplies
abundant.
Chfimbu, 10 „ „ water sweet; supplies plentiful.
Dechu, 18 „ „ wiell water good ; supplies plentiful.
Mandlo, 8 „ „ and hard soil ; watar good ; supplies abundant.
Luvo, 10 „ soil hard; tank water ; supplies procurable. [a nala.
Pokaran, 8 „ „ water good ; supplies abundant ; have to cross
Oddnia, 12 „ „ water salt ; supplies procurable.
Carts and camels can be used on this route.
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Route from Jodhpnr
Bhaw&d^ 16 miles
Um^esrio^ 16
S&tiko,
Tantuwifl^
Kaku,
Kudsu^
Deshnok,
Bikanir,
18
12
14
12
20
10
11
11
99
99
99
< 256 >
toBikanir —
: soil hard ; water good ; supplies scarce,
water good ; suppUes scarce,
sandy; well water sweet; supplies plentiful.
,, watex from tanks good ; supplies procurable^
„ water good ; supplies plentiful.
„ and hard soil; water sweet; supplies abundant.
„ „ water good; supplies abundant.
Carts and camels are used on this route»
Boute from Jodhpnr to Jaipur —
Bisalpur, 18 miles : sandr ; water good ; s»[^lies pl^ntif uf»
PJpdr,
Borunda^
Merta,
Pabhi,
Bhakhri,
16
18
18
18
14
Parbatsar^ 20
Kotrhi, 10
Korsineo^ 10
Sambhar^ 10
Jobner^ 14
Govindpur,18
Jaipur^ 10
99
99
99
99
99
1>
99
99
99
99
99
99
soil hard;
99
99
99
99
99
hard and sandy ; water good ; supplies abundant,
sandy ; water good ; supplies abundant,
(the same as above; have to traverse the Gungoli pass);.,
sandy ; water good ; supplies procurable,
hard soil ; water good ; supplies plentiful,
(the same as above) .
sandy; water good; supplies plentiful,
water and supphes as above,
have to cross a mda; water ."good; supplier
abundant^
99
99
Carts and camels, &c.; travel by this routev
Eonte from Jodhpnr to Ajmer dbect —
sandy ; water good ; supplies abundant.
soil hard; (rest same as above).
sandy ; have to cross the Luni ; water good; sup*
plies procurable,
have again to cros&the Luni; water gpod; supplies.
plentiful,
sandy and hard soil ; water good ; supplies abun^
dant.
soil hard ; (same as the piseceding).
soil hard ; have to cross the Sarsuti ; water good i
supplies plentifuL
sandy ; (the rest as above),
(metalled road) ; soil hard and sandy ; water good j;;
supplies abundant..
Carts and camels go by this ronte»
Eonte from Jodhpnr to Ajmer vid Merta —
Bisalpur, 18 miles : sandy; water good; supplies plentiful..
Pipir, 16 ;, hard soil; (rest as above).
Borunda, 18 „ ,, ^
Merta, 18 „ „ „
Btsalpnr,
Bogal,
JMk,
18 miles
16 „
16 „
Balundaj
10 „
Lanbian,
8 „
Kurhki, 12 „
Oovindgarh, 8 „
Puslikar,
Ajmetf
14 «
6 ,,
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^yan^ 14 miles : hard soil ; (rest as above) »
Ladpura^ 10 i> yj if cxobq the Luni twice.
PushkaTj 12 J, sandy; water good; supplies abundant.
Ajmer, 6 ,, (a metalled road from this place to Ajmer) ; supplies
plentiful.
Carts and camels travel by this route.
Eoute from Jodhptar towards Udaipur —
Mogra, 12 miles : sandy; water good; supplies plentiful.
Eolmt, 16 ,, soil hard ; have to cross the Luni ; water good ; supplies
plentiful.
P41i, 14 „ sandy and hard; have to cross two nadis; water good;
supplies abundant.
Busi^ 14 „ soil hard; water good; supplies plentiful.
Jiwand, 12 „ „ have to cross a nadi ; (rest as above).
Desuri, 14 „ „ water good ; supplies plentiful.
Jilwfira (of Udaipur) 10 miles; stony; have to cross the pass; camels and
carts can go; water good; supplies abundant.
Route from Jodhpur towards Mount Abd—
Mogra,
Bohatj
Pdli^
<jundoj,
Dhola,
S&nderao,
12 miles: sandy; water good; supplies abundant.
15
14
10
13
9
soil hard; have to cross the Luni; water good;
supplies abundant,
both sandy and hard; have to cross two nadis;
water good; supplies abundant; staging-bungalow,
post and telegraph offices here.
[water good; supplies plentiful,
soil hard; metalled road; staging-bungalow;
it
Boute from Jodhpur to Palanpur —
S&law^Sj
Phinch, 8
Dhunarho, 10
Khandap, 18
Balwarho, 14
Aildno^ 8
Dhanno, 16
Bhfnmalj 18
K%mal, 16
Bargaouj 14
Bant, 10
Panthfiwarho, 10
Ganodrho, 10
Dantiwdrho,
10 miles: sandy; water good; supplies plentiful.
10
10
10
Bhutorhi,
Palanpur,
Carts and camels go by this route.
water brackish ; supplies plentiful,
soil hard; water good; supplies plentiful,
soil sandy and Hard; water good; supplies plentiful,
soil hard; water good; supplies abundant,
sandy ; supplies plentiful ; water good.
„ (red; as above) .
soil hard ; water good ; supplies plentiful,
sandy; (rest as above) .
,, water good; supplies plentiful.
soil hard ; (rest as above) .
„ have to cross a stream; water good;
supplies procurable,
soil hard; have to cross a stream; water good;
supplies procurable,
soil hard ; water good ; supplies procurable,
sandy; water good; supplies abundant*
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Boute from Jodhpup to Bedwar —
Bisalpur, 18 miles: sandy; water good; supplies plentiful.
Kdpura, 10 ^ ,, soilnard; water good; supplies plentiful.
Chipio, 18 „ sandy and hard ; have to cross a stream ; water
good ; supplies plentiful.
Bar, 10 „ (travellers' bungalow) ; soil hard and sandy ; have
to cross a stream; water good; supplies plentiful.
Bedwar or Nayanagar, 14 miles (metalled road) running through the
Bar Pass,
Carts and camels go by this road.
Boute from Jodhpur to Didwdna and Daulatpura vid Ndgaur —
Gangani,
18 miles:
sandy; water
good; su]
pplies p
lentiful.
Ustriln,
16
99
soil hard ; water good ;
supplies procurable.
Qevv&a,
10
99
99
99
99
plentiful.
Kharaii,
10
99
99
99
99
procurable.
Kigaar,
10
99
99
99
99
abundant; post-
office here.
Somrh&n,
14
99
99
11
99
plentiful.
DugashtdUj
10
99
99
99
99
99
Khi&lo,
10
99
99
99
99
99
Kathoti,
8
99
99
99
99
99
Kairap,
10
99
sandy;
99
99
99
Kolio,
8
99
soil hard ;
99
99
99
Didwfina,
6
99
99
99
99
99
Daulatpiira,
6
99
sandy ;
99
99
99
Carts go by this route.
Route from Jodhpur to Bikanir vid Ndgaur —
Oanganij
Ustrdn,
Basni^
Goran,
Kham&l,'
N^aur,
18 miles : sandy, water good ; supplies plentiful ; carts and
camels can go : have to cross a stream.
16 miles : soil hard; water good; supplies plentiful.
14
10
10
10
14
AMi,
. Charkhro
of Bikanir, 16
Nokho, 18
Deshnok, 14
Bikanir, 14
99
99
99
99
99
„ „ „ procurable,
„ „ „ plentiful.
„ „ „ procurable.
„ „ „ abundant; post-office
here,
sandy and hard ; water brackish ; supplies procurable.
sandy ; water brackish ; supplies scarce.
„ water good ; supplies procurable.
„ „ „ plentiful,
sandy and hard; water good; supplies abundant.
Towns.
Principal Toums. — ^The principal towns are Jodhpur, Bdlotrd^
Asop, Barlu, Pachbadra, Pokaran, Mathdnia, Bisalpur, Tinwri,
Baliinda, BilAra, Khinwasar, Siwdna, Pipdr, Kiira, Agolai, Sam*
dari, Bhdwi, P^, Ndgaur, Mtindwd, LMniin, Ktiehera, JAel, Par-
batsar, Baru,Bordwar, Thduwla, Merta, Anadpur, Rdyan^ Bhakhri^
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M^rotli, Ltinwa, N^wa^ Kuchdman, Mithri, Mindha, Sambhai*^
Sojat, Winawds, Jetdian, Raepur, Nimbdj, GMnerao, Sddri>
Nddol, Sdiiderao, Desurij Chdnaud, BdK> Winjua, Phalodi, Jdlor,
Ahor, Bhinmdl, Biidgaon, B^rmer, Jasol, Tilw^a, Gura, Nagar,
Sindri, Baitu, BAt4rUj Bohat, Mogra, Auwa, Alaniawds, Bar Jdd*
ban, Chanddwal) G^aIldo], Dhola, Phalstind, Didw^na, S4iithu,
BdkhAsap, Sdchor, Ohitalwdna, Bagri, Mandor, Bar^tia, Bdbra>
Samel, Bds> Sdlawds, Sathldiia.
Fairs and Soly*plaae8^"-^Th!b prinoipal fairs in Marwar are as
follows:-^
TilwAr^, in Mallani, held in March. ; lasts for fifteen days* See
Maliani portion of this Grazetteer, page 290.
Mtindwa of N4gaur, held in the months of December and
January, prinoipally attended by trarellers, and gives an income
of about B/S* 3^000; it was instituted by Maharaja Bakht
Singh in honor pf Shri Krishan under the name of Girdhdri. It
laste nearly two months, and is visited by from 30,000 to 40^000
people, principally from Marwar ; but people from other districts^
chiefly ftom Bhiwdni, also attend. The Mtindwa fair formerly
brought in an income to the Daxbdr of from Bs* 10,000 to
!Els. 16,000, but it has fallen off of late years% Bullocks are sold
in large numbers at this fair*
The Parbatsar fair is held in the month of Bhddon (August)^
and lasts for ten days. Bullocks are sold in large nxmibers. It
is attended by about 10,000 people, and is held in honor of Tejaji,
of whom an account is given in the Ajmer Gazetteer. The way
the fair came to be held at Parbatsar in Tejaji's honor is, that
in the time of Maharaja Bijai Singh there was a very sharp
hdkim at Parbatsar, who foimd that Marwaris, especially J4ts>
went in great numbers to the fair at Sarsura of E^ishangarh^
and that a good iacome was derived by the Kishangarh Darb^r
in consequence ; so, knowing that the chief object wMch took the
Jdts to Sarsura was to worship at Tejaji's shrine, he made up a
story that Tejaji had appeared to him in a dream, and dedred
that he should be worshipped in future only at Parbatsar. The
hdkim, then, had a figure made representing Tejaji, and ordered all
Jdts, on pain of punishment, to attend the Parbatsar fair, and
not to go to Kishangarh. The Darbdr derives a revenue of from
Ks« 5,000 to Es« 6j000 a year from this fair^ which is attended
chiefly by Jdts.
The B/dm Deord fair is held in the month of Bhddon (August)^
and is attended on an average by from 8,000 to 10,000 people,
principally from Marwar, Mewar, Bikanir, and Jesalmer* It is
held in honor of Bdm Deo, of whom an account is given elsewhere.
The income of this fair goes to the thdkur of Pokaran, who holds
Hi
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it from the Darbdr on the same tenure as he holds his estate.
The fair is represented as of the annual value, or rekh^ of Rs. 8,760 ;
and he has to give the service of eight men, or one man for each
thousand rupees* worth of rekh.
The Bil^ fair is held on Chait Bud 15th, corresponding with
the latter part of the month of March, and lasts only one day ;
5,000 or 6,000 people usually attend. No income is derived from
this fair ; it is held near a spring of water about four miles from
the village of Bildra, and the legend is that Raja Bal having been
in the habit of giving great feasts at this spot, the deity Ganga
appeared to him once in a dream and told him that, if an
arrow was shot into this spring, he would appear there, and that the
water of the spring should become as sacred as that of the holy
Ganges itself. Bal obeyed his order, and the water of this spring
has ever since been held sacred, especially by the poorer classes.
The place is called Bdnganga, from bdn, an arrow.
The Barkana fair is held in the month of Pus (December) ;
6,000 or 6,000 people attend it from the Godwdr pargana, in which
Barkana is situated, and from Mewar and Sirohi. It lasts for
two days, and is held in honor of a Jain temple erected there ten
or twelve centuries ago.
A fair is held in Pebruary or March on the top of a hill called
Oorambar (a corruption of the word Gorakh), four miles from the
village of Sdran, pargana Sojat ; 5,000 or 6,000 people attend this
fair from the neighbouring villages, and horn Mogra, Merwara,
&c. ; it lasts for two days. There is a temple to Gorakhndth on
the top of the hill, and the fair is held in his honor.
The above are the principal fairs, but small local fairs to the
number of sixty or seventy are held all over the country.
Towns*
Antiquities and BemarJcahle Flaces. — ThB city of Jodhpur was
Jodhpw hvoli by Rao Jodha in A.D. 1459, and,
from that time, has been the seat of gov*
emment of the extensive principality of Marwar. It is placed
on the southern slope, and flat beyond, of a small range of
hills running east and west, the prevailing geological form of
which is red sandstone ; the city is surrounded by a strong wall
nearly six miles in extent, and there are seven gates each
bearing the names of the towns to which it leads. The fort is built
on an isolated rock, the highest point of the range, and contains
the Maharaja's palace, a large and handsome buildmg, completely
covering the crest of the hill on which it stands, and overlooking
the city, lying several hundred feet below. The city contains
many handsome buildings, palaces of the Maharaja, and town
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residences of the thdkurs; besides numerous fine temples and
tanks. Building-stone is plentiful, and close at hand, and the
architecture solid and handsome.
Jdlor is the chief town, situated on the southern border of
j^j^^ the vast sandy plain of Marwar, which
stretches away for full 300 miles, broken
occasionally by low ranges of rocky hills, to the Indus on the
west, and Sutlej on the north. It is a place of importance,
famous in former ages for the strength of its fort, and the
many long and gallant sieges it withstood. Built early in
the Christian era by the Pramdrd dynasty, then all-powerful
in Western India, its walls, composed of large masses of cut-stone,
remain in perfect preservation. The fort, about 800 yards in
length by 400 in width, crowns a rocky hill of an altitude of 1,200
feet above the surrounding plain, and commands the city which
hugs the northern slope. The main entrance lies on this face, and
leads up a steep, slippery stone roadway, passing three distinct
lines of defence, all of considerable strength^ and mounting guns
on the outer face of the fort. There is but a single rampart wall,
about 20 feet in height, on the outside, and of varied thickness,
sufl&cient, however, to admit of cannon being mounted. The fort
is amply supplied . with sweet- water from two excellent tanks
inside.
This is a large, walled, irregularly-built city, formerly the capital
^^ ^ of the northern portion of Marwar, and
^^' still containing the fort and palace of the
former rulers. At least one-quarter of the city is now in ruins,
presenting a confused mass of fallen houses and of debris, such as
one might expect to encounter in some city of the dead, but
scarcely to be seen in a town containing some 30,000 inhabitants.
There are several very handsomely carved sandstone houses,
generally the property of merchants engaged in amassing wealth
elsewhere. Various sanguinary encounters have taken place at
Nagaur. Rao Chanda successfully attacked the imperial garrison
then located there in the latter part of the fourteenth century.
Again, in A.D. 1407, Rao Kilan of Jesalmer pretended to offer
a daughter in marriage to Chanda, and went so far as to say that
if he suspected aught unfair (there had long been a feud between
the two families), he would, though contrary to custom and his
own dignity, send the Bhdtti princess to Ndgaur. The offer was
accepted, and the wedding party set out ; but the carriages sup-
posed to convey the bride's cortege contained armed men. Chanda
came out to meet, as he thought, his bride, found out his mistake,
and commenced to retreat ; but too late. The armed men rushed
out from their carriages j and Chanda was killed at the gate of
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Ndgaur. In A JD. 1661, Ndganr was captured by Akbar, but was
afterwards restored by him to the Bahtors, on his marriage with
the sister of their chief.
Merta was founded by Bao Doda, fourth sonof Bao Jodha, and
added to by his son, BaoMaldeo, who reigned
*"*^ from A.D. 1532 to A.D. 1669, and bmlt the
fort called after him Mai Kot. Merta has been the scene of many
a hard-fought battle, and the country round is covered with stone
pillars erected to the memory of the dead. It was at Bdngarwds^
about two miles distant, that in AD. 1790 the Marathas, imder
DeBoigne, inflicted such a disastrous defeat on the Bahtors, on
the bund of a tank called J>&agql6i. There is still to be seen a
tomb erected to the memory of a Frenchman, captain of infantry,
wounded in the service of Maharaja Sindia on the 11th Septem-
ber 1790, who died of his wounds on the 18th of the same month,
aged sixty-one. The inscription is in French, the slab being of
white marble. Water is plentiful at Merta, there being numerous
tanks all round the city*
The town of Didwdna is situated to the north-west of a large
DidwAiuk ^^® ^^ *^^» being a natural depression in
the surface of the ground, in every respect,
except in size, similar to its more extensive neighbour Sambhar
(see account under Salt Sources). DidwAna is a large, walled
town, said to contain about 20,000 inhabitants. Some of the
houses are well built of stone. There are several wells of sweet
water, and on the side of the town, opposite to the salt sar^ a fresh-
water tank, from which manv of the town people drink.
Nadolai was once the capital of the province of Qodw&, and is
Nad laL exceedingly interesting owing to its archi-
tectural remains, showing that in that part
of the world the Jain faith was once predominant. It was at a
very early period the abode of a branch of the Choh4ns of Ajmer,
and from it sprung the DeorAs of Sirohi, and the Sonigui^ of
Jdlor. One of the princes of Nadolai, Lakha, is said to have
measured swords with MahmM. The fortress, or rather its
remains, is on the declivity of a low ridge, to the westward of the
town, with square towers of an ancient form, and built of a very
curious conglomerate of granite and gneiss, of which the rock on
which it stands is composed. The temple of Mahavira is a yeij
fine piece of architectnre (see Tod, volume I, page 697). Nadolai,
Bdli, Desuri, and Sddri, in the province of Godwdr, are said, by the
author just quoted, all to have been ancient seats of the Jains.
Mandor, three miles from Jodhpur, is interesting as having been
j^, , the ancient capital of the Purihar princes
of Marwar, prior to its conquest by the
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Rahtors. It contains the cenotaphs of the ruling chiefs of the
country, erected on the spot where the funeral pyre consumed
the remains of those who in former days seldom burned alone.
There are also stone effigies of gallant chieftains of Marwar,
curious as specimens of nide carving by workmen of the country.
But little respect or reverence is shown towards spots which in
western countries, as cemeteries, are considered sacred in the
present day. Many of the cenotaphs are homes for the beggar,
and even the pariah dog ; and nothing is done towards repair-
ing the monimients erected to those who were heroes in their
day.
Situated 39 miles to the north of Jodhpur, Pip&r is a very ancient
j^ town, and is celebrated in the traditions
of the desert as one of the cities founded
by the Pramdrds prior to the Christian era. There is an abun-
dance of wells, and good water is also obtained from a lake called
the Sampu, which is connected with the tradition of the founda-
tion of Plpdr, as described by Tod in his Annals as follows :--•
" A Brdhman of the Pdli tribe, whose name was Pipd, was in
the habit of carrying milk to a deity of the serpent (Takshak)
race, whose retreat was on the banks of this lake, and who
deposited two pieces of gold in return for the Pdliw^'s offering.
Being compelled to go to Ndgaur, he gave instructions to his son
to perform his charitable office ; but the youth, deeming it a good
opportunity to become master of the treasure, took a stick with
him, and, when the serpent issued forth for his accustomed fare,
he struck him violently, but the snake, being scotched, not killed,
retreated to his hde. The yoimg Brdhman related his adventure
to his mother, when the good woman, dreading the vengeance of
the serpentine deity, prepared a servant and bullock to convey
her son to his father at Ndgaur. But what was her horror in the
morning, when she went to call the youth, to find, instead of him,
the huge serpent coiled up in his bed 1 Plpd, on his return, was
inconsolable ; but stifling his revenge, he propitiated the serpent
with copious libations of milk. The scaly monster was conciliated,
and revealed the stores he guarded to Pfpd^ commanding him to
raise a monument which would transmit a knowledge of the event
to future ages. Hence Pipdr arose from Pip4, the Pdli;
and the name of the lake Sampu, from his benefactor the
^ serpent * (sampa). All these allegorical tales regard the
Takshak races, the followers of the religion of Buddha or
Jaina, and their feuds with the Brdhmanical sects. It is
evident that Pfpd, the Pdli, worshipped both ; and the very name
induces a belief that the whole P^liwdl caste are converts^ from
Suddhism/'
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Pdlij the commercial city of Marwar, is situated 45 miles south*
p^ east of the capital. Pdli has acquired an
unenviable notoriety as the place of origin
of the maha mdri^ or Indian plague, in 1836. Situated on the
main road between Ahmaddbdd and Ajmer, it has long been
the chief commercial mart of Western Rdjpiitdna. The prin-
cipal trade carried on is that of dyeing woollen cloths. The
city is built of sun-burnt bricks, no stone being readily procur-
able in the neighbourhood. In the civil wars that formerly
raged in Marwar, the possession of Pdli, from the commercial
character of its inhabitants, was of great importance to either
party, and at their desire the fortifications were razed. As an
emporium, its reputation is of ancient date, and, politically, it is
connected with the establishment of the reigning family of these
regions. A community of Brdhmans then held P41i in grant from
the princes of Mandor, whence comes a numerous class, termed
P^wdl, who follow mercantile pursuits. It was in Sambat 1212
(A.D. 1156) that Shivaji, the founder of the Rahtor dynasty
and son to the emperor of Kanauj, passed Pdli on his return
from a pilgrimage from Dwdrka to the Granges. The Brdhmans
sent a deputation to ask him to relieve them from two great
enemies to their repose, namely, the Minas of the Arvah, and
the lions, which had become very numerous. Shivaji relieved
them from both ; but the opportimity to acquire land was too
good to be lost, and, on the festival of the Holi, he put the leading
JBrdhmans to death, and took possession of Pdli.
Phalodi is a large town to the north-west of Marwar near the
borders of Bikanir and Jesahner. The garhi, or fort, was
built by Biao Hamird Nirdwat, great-grandson of Itao Sujd,
There is a house still in the fort called by Hamird's name. The
garhi was added to by Rao Maldeo, who succeeded to the gadi
of Marwar in A.D. 1532, and is now in good order, having been
recently repaired. The population is said to be about 12,000,
Many of the mahajans, who own houses in the place, carry on
trade in all parts of India, but leave their families at Phalodi,
returning at intervals.
The fort of this place is said to have been constructed by
p karan- "^^^ Maldco out of materials brought from
Satelmir, distant about two miles from
Pokaran, which he dismantled. Satelmir was built by Satel, the
eldest son of Rao Jodha (after whom Jodhpur is named), on
the top of a low ridge of hills ; there is nothing left now, but the
ruins of an old Jain temple. Pokaran is the appanage of the
premier baron or thdkur of Jodhpur, who holds the post of
pardhduj which entitles him to a seat on the khawas^ or behind
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the Maharaja, on an elephant on all State occasions. AU docu-
ments, being grants of lands, villages, &c., by the Darbdj*, have to
receive his signature. His ancestors came foom Bhinmal to Pok*
aran in the time of Maharaja Abhai Singh.
Famine*
Famine 0/1868-69. — Colonel Brooke, Officiating Agent to the
Governor-General for the States of B/djptitdna, in his report on
the famine of 1868-69, writes thus : — " At Jodhpur no rain what-
ever fell during the rainy season, at least not sufficient to be
measured by a pluviometer. Godwdr under the Arvali, which
partakes of the Ajmer and Mewar climate, was favored with a
little rain in July, but none subsequently. The south-west mon-i
soon failed entirely throughout Marwar. '
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MALLANL
History,
Mallani justly claims to be called tile cradle of the Rahtoif
race in the west ; for when E^mau j fell before the Muhammadan
arms, Asthdn, the great-grandson of the last Itaja of that
State, emigrated to Marwar with a body of his followers, and in
A.D. 1181 established himself as ruler over Blher, a town near
the banks of the Liini, and the districts of Mewo (now called
Mallani) adjoining it, which he seized from the Qohels, of whom.
Tod, in his Annals and Antiquities of Itajasthan, thus writes : —
** Their first residence was Jund Khairgarh near the bend of
the Liini in Marwar. How long they had been established here
we know not. They took it from one of the Bhfl chiefs named
Kherwd, and had been in possession of it for twenty years when
expelled by the Rahtors at the end of the twelfth century."
When the Qohels were exterminated by the Rahtors, Kher is
said to have been a town of importance ; but the only ancient
building still standing is a temple of Chatarbhiij, which local
informants assert to have been constructed in A.D. 1176.. The
Gohels migrated to Bhaunagar on the Gulf of the Mdhi, after
their defeat, and are still to be found there in large nimibers.
After the conquest of Kher, the Rahtors do not appear to
have acquired further territory in Mallani until the time of
MallinAth, when the districts now known as Gtira and Nagar
were conquered from the Sords (whose chief was named Sind) by
Khem Karan, son of Jaitmdl and nephew of Mallindth. There
is a local tradition that Khem Elaran obtained possession of
Sin&'s wife, and that it was by her treachery that he succeeded in
overcoming the Sords. The descendants of children bom by her
to Khem Karan still reside in Nagar, and are known as Udh4nia
Rdjptits. After their defeat by Khem Karan, the Sords
emigrated to Nagar Fdrkar of Bind. When Asth^ first
captured Kher, the present B&rmer district of Mallani was
held by Anant Rao Sdnkld. According to Tod, volume I, page
93, the Sdnkl^ were the second of the thirty-five Sacho
or branches of the Framdrds. There are now the remains of
two (apparently) large cities — one, Kher&ru, to the west, and
the other, Jtina, to the south-west, of B&rmer — and twenty and
twelve mUes, respectively, distant from it; said to have been towns
of importance in those days. The Sdnklds were exterminated
by the ChohAns, who, in their turn, had to succumb to the
Kahtors, and the manner in which the latter obtained possession
of the B&rmer district is said to have been as follows:—
The leader of the Chohins was named Mdnja, whose daughter
had been given in marriage to Jagmdl^ son of Mallin&th (the
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ninth in succession to Asthdn)-. By her, Jagmdl had a son named
Mandlak. Jagmdl had a quarrel with his Choh^ wife, who, on
this account, accompanied by her son, left her husband and
returned to her father, who gave her a village, which was
called after her and is still known as Ranigdon. Jagmdl
then summoned a number (said to be about 200) of his most
faithful followers, and instructed them to go to his wife and
son and give out that they too had quarrelled with and left him ;
they therefore went and joined Mandlak and his mother. Some
time after, when all preparations had been secretly made, Jag-
mdl set off with 300 or 400 men, on pretence of bringing back
his wife and son. On arrival at Jiina, he attacked and killed his
father-in-law, and added the present Bdrmer district to his pos*
sessions. An old rhyme is still current in Marwar which, it is said,
was often quoted to Mdnja by the Chdrans —
" O Mdnja ! you may as well place your trust in a tiger's whelp as in the ofiCspring of JagmiZ r
Put him away foom you, or he wiX one day kill you I"
Major Malcolm's report^ written in 1849.
" In the fourteenth century a separation took place in the
Rahtor tribe, a portion following the fortunes of Birdm Deo (the
younger son of Sdlkd Rawal), who subsequently founded the
principality of Jodhpur ; while the remainder, under the elder
brother, Mallindth, continued to occupy their former position in
Mewo, or Mallani as it is now more frequently denominated
after Mallindth Rawat, the immediate ancestor of the present
chiefs of Bdrmer, Jasol, Nagar, and Sindari.
** It is uncertain how long the Rawats of Kher continjied to
exercise any control over the rest of the chiefs, or to be considered
as the head of a principality ; but, at the period when we first
became acquainted with them, all traces of such a power had long
ceased, and each chief of the principal families into which the
tribe is divided claimed to be independent.
^* The law of Gavelkind, or that by which an equal division of
the property of the father is, at his death, made among his sons,
has long existed among these tribes, and to its deteriorating effects
are to be traced all the evils which have befallen the community.
Dissensions among families, and blood-feuds arising out of the
minute sub-division of land, which it enforced, led to the assistance
of the neighbouring and comparatively powerful chiefs of Jodh-
pur being frequently solicited, and this gave rise to an interference
on which the latter ground their right of sovereignty over the
districts at large.
"No treaty or formal contract between the parties can be
produced in support of this claim, but the circumstance of the
past Rajas of Jodhpur interfering in the settlement of the local
il
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disputes among the chiefs, and lerying, for a number of years,
an irregular species of tribute on the district, confirms, according
to the usage of the country, their right to be considered as the
lords paramount of Mallam,
*^ For many centuries past, the districts of Mallani had been
one continual scene of anarchy and confusion, and their inhabitants
more savage and lawless than the neighbouring Khosds of the
desert. The Court of Jodhpur, when called upon to repress their
excesses, acknowledged their inability to coerce them. Under these
circumstances, the British Government, as conservators of the
general peace of India, found themselves compelled to proceed
against them as a public nuisance, and, with their own troops, to
seize the districts which they occupied. The Jodhpur Darbdr
having failed to render even the limited assistance which they had
promised, the whole trouble and expense of the undertaking fell
upon our Government.
"After the occupation of the district, the principal chiefs
were removed as prisoners to Kachh, whence they were subsequently
released, on furnishing security for their good conduct, and on- the
express stipulation, entered into by Sir Henry Pottinger with the
chiefs of Banner in person, that, as long as they conducted them-
selves with propriety, they should be considered under the special
protection of the British Government.
"The Jodhpur Darbar, though they had utterly failed, as
above stated, to afford any assistance to Government in the
reduction of Mallani, were not slow to put forward a claim to its
sovereignty. In reply to this demand, it was admitted by Govern-
ment that the Rajas of Jodhpur had for many years exercised
a species of control over Mallani, and levied tribute from its
chiefs at irregular periods ; that such claims as it might have
once possessed ' were rendered null and void by the state of anarchy
and confusion into which it had allowed the country to fall; and
that, though the British Government had established a claim to
the districts themselves, consequent on having reduced them
to order and obedience, it was willing, out of kindness and consider-
ation to His Highness, to waive its just rights, and to acknowledge
His Highness as entitled to sovereignty over these districts, and
the tribute they might yield ; at the same time, informing him
that our interference would not be withdrawn till his Government
could afford satisfactory evidence of its capacity to rule them itself.'*
Major Impey^s report of 1868.
" Mallani came under British control in 1836, and was managed
by a Superintendent on a consolidated salary of Rs. 700 a month.
He also commanded a detachment of regular troops, consisting
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of one squadron Bombay regular cayalry, two companies regular
infantry, and one hundred Gaekwar horse ; his head-quarters
were at JBarmer.
*^ In 1844 this detachment was withdrawn and replaced by 30
horse and 60 infantry of the Jodhpur Legion and 160 Marwar
horse. On the departure for England in 1849 of the local
Superintendent (Captain Jackson), the district was, first as a
temporary measure, and then permanently, placed imder the
charge of the Political Agent, Marwar.
" In October 1850, on account of sickness at Bdrmer, the Politi-
cal Agent arranged with the officer commanding the Jodhpur
liCgion to have his own escort at Jodhpur increased to 40 horse
and 80 foot, and from it to furnish reliefs for the Mallani guard,
which was then reduced to 14 horse and 8 foot, the Mallani
prisoners being brought from Bdrmer to Jodhpur.
^*In 1854 this detachment was altogether withdrawn from
Bdrmer, and the military control of the. district has since then
been left to the contingent of the Darbdr horse, which now con-
sists of 60 men mounted on camels, 50 horsemen, and 30 foot-
soldiers, with the usual complement of commissioned and non-
commissioned officers.*'
A circumstance worthy of note here, is the addition to Mallani
of the tract of country now called Takhtdbad, after the late ruler
of Marwar, Maharaja Takht Singh, which is thus described by
Major Impey : — " In the south-west corner of Mallani, where it
marches on Sind, there is a strip of district, about 50 nules long
and 7 broad, known as Takhtdbdd ; it comprises twenty-nine villa-
ges, some of them consisting of only a few huts, collected round a
pool, or well of fresh water, and which more properly would be
styled hamlets, the nucleus, we may hope, of future villages."
Geography.
General Topography. — ^The province of MaUani lies between
Marwar Proper and Sind. It having never been surveyed, only
an approximation of its area can be given. Taken from its extreme
points from north to south, it is about 150 mUes in length,
and 120 mUes in breadth from east to west ; and its area may be
roughly calculated at 18,000 square miles. On the north it is
bounded by the State of Jesalmer and the Shiv district of Mar-
war ; on the east by the Pachbadra, Siwdna, and Jdlor districts of
Marwar ; on the south by the Sachor district of Marwar ; on the
west by the TJmarkot and Chdchrd divisions of the Thar and P^rkar
districts of Sind ; and on the north-west by the Girdb district of
Marwar.
Configuration. — The general features of the country are sand-
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hills. The whole of the northern and western portions form
part of the little desert stretching into Sind and Jesalmer,
These sandhills rise to an altitude in places of 300 to 400 feet,
and this part of Mallani resembles the troubled waves of a sea of
sand. Por ages, these wastes hare been the grazing-grounds of
camels, kine, goats, and sheep, tended by the hardy Biluch tribes
of the desert, who combined this occupation with cattle-lifting.
Water is found some 150 to 300 feet below the surface ; but is
usually brackish, and in some spots deadly to man or beast. Wells
and pools that are drinkable after the rains, and up to March be-
fore the heat has absorbed the moisture, become then noxious, and
drinking-water is exceedingly scarce. Wherever a successful well
exists, it constitutes a village or hamlet, round which the herdsmen
flock in summer and pay dues to the villagers whose well they use.
The people have a superstitious prejudice against the construc-
tion of new wells, and seek for old wells to repair. There is a
current belief that an ancient king, known as the Sagar Raja, had
an army of demons who possessed the faculty of smellmg out where
good water existed, and there he had wells dug : the sites of these
old wells are sought for. This belief has lately been strengthened
by the fact that in the confines of Baitu, in the Sindari estate,
five of the Rdjpiit shareholders dug separate wells, and all turned
out salt and useless. Still, of late years, five new wells have
been made in the Takhtdbdd district ; but in this tract Muham-
madans abound, and it is not regarded as Mallani Proper.
Wells cut in the rock, or rather at the foot of the rocky lulls,
such as the great well of BArmer, cost some thousands of rupees ;
but wells so situated are rare. In the soil called ndyar, hard soil,
the average cost of a well is Rs. 1,500 ; but near the Liinf or
in the pAr they may be dug for Rs. 40 to Rs. 50 ; but these are mere
pits for water, and are not constructed of permanent masonry.
Mivers. — ^The only river in Mallani is the Ltini (for a lengthen-
ed description of which see Jodhpur).
The Liini enters Mallani at Jasol, and pursues a tortuous
course along the eastern boundary of the country for some 80
miles, finally leaving the province at Gdndap of Giira, and, flow-
ing a few miles further through the Sdchor district of Marwar, is
eventually lost in the marshes of the Rann of Kachh. It is the
only stream that relieves the sandy aspect of Mallani. After
the rains, generally speaking, the water found in the bed of the
Liini, and in the wells along its banks, is sweet and abundant ; but
the stream is as capricious as it is erratic. On one bank it may be
a blessing, on the other a curse. This is seen in two villages in
the Giira estate : one is rich with crops, the other arid and
bare ; on one bank the stream flows over sand, and its water is
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sweet ; on the other, over a hard bottom, and is brine. This
capriciousness may be noticed along its whole course through
Marwar and Mallard. Generally in the hot weather the river-bed
is dry, though water, salt and sweet, may be found by digging
a few feet below the surface; but, in places, it leaves deep
pools in chasms of rock or sand, such as are found near Sindari.
The Sukri river (for which also see Marwar) joins the Luni
at Gdndap.
Jhils or Lakes. — ^There are jhils at Shokar, Sarkdpdr {sar
means a marsh, and par is a soil peculiar to the Bdrmer district
and the north-western part T)f the province — see page 285), and
at Kharin-ka-pdr. These are in the Bdrmer district. In those of
Takhtdbdd and Setrao there are thirty-five or forty of these
marshes. In favorable seasons, wheat is grown in the beds,
and, when the marshes become dry, kutcha wells are dug to a
depth of from eight to twenty-four feet, and thus a plentiful
supply of water is procured. The Sark^pdr covers an area of
from 1,000 to 1,200 bighas. Villages are located near all these sars.
Mountains or Sill-countries y and Minerals, — One very high hill
in Mallani is Nagar of Jasol ; the ascent to it is about a mile
and a quarter in length. On the top are tdnk^ (reservoirs for
water), and one small nadi, or nala. As far as is known, there
are no minerals in this hill, nor is the stone used for any pur-
pose. It is the highest point of a small ridge which trends in a
south-western direction, and is about 1^ kos in length.
In the Sindari Pattd, at a village called Dundali, is a solitary
hill, locally known as Gohdna, in height about the same as that
of Nagar. No minerals have been found in it, nor is the stone
used for building or other purposes.
There is also a small range, consisting of two or three hills,
near the village of Sanpdn of Sindari, from which slabs for roof-
ing purposes, called sils^ are procured.
At Simu, also in Sindari, there is another solitary hill, the
ascent to which is about three-quarters of a mile. Its stone is not
utilized.
In the Gdra pargana there is a single hiU of about seven miles
in length, but of no considerable breadth, called Dhorimanha,
from a village of that name at its foot. Its elevation, at the
highest point, is about the same as that of the Gtira hill. There
are in it caves, in which in former times Sar^his and other preda-
tory tribes were in the habit of concealing themselves.
There is at Chahotan a portion of an important ridge of hills,
which extends through Jesalmer into Bikanir territory. At
Chahotan this ridge is of considerable height, beiQg about If miles
in ascent. There are several ponds on this hill; which become full
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in the rains, and grass grows on the table-land at its summit, which
is about a kos in area. On this are the remains of an old fort.
Water jiercolates half-way down the hill, where it re-appears, and
is collected in a kundy or basin, and from this the "villagers of
Chahotan obtain their supply of drmking- water throughout the
year. At Khardru, where tnere are the remains of an ancient
city, supposed to have belonged to the SAnkld tribe, who were
exterminated by the Chohdns, is a large hill, the highest point
of a small range in that neighbourhood. There are no (known)
minerals in it, and no quarries.
Jasdi-ka-pahdr, in Bdrmer, has a large extent of table-land on
its summit, which, in the rains, is covered with grass; there is
also a good supply of water, and the cattle of the surrounding
villages graze there for six months in the year. This hill used to
be a fastness for robbers in former times.
Juna-ka-pahdr, another portion of the Chahotan ridge, is a
very steep hill ; and, although it contains an abundant supply
of grass, cattle cannot, owing to its abruptness, graze there, but
grass is cut by laborers when a supply fails elsewhere. There
are the remains of an old fort on the summit of this hill.
Jiina was, in former years, a large village belonging to the
Sdnklds ; but at present there are only a few inhabitants in
it.
Tdrdtarha is a hill situated about three kos distant from Jtina-
ka-pahdr. Its aspect is much the same as that of the one last
described.
R4nig4on-ka-pahdr, between Tdrdtarha and Jiina. — Grass is
found on this hill, but the sides are so steep that cattle cannot
graze there.
Bdrmer-ka-pahdr. — ^The village, or rather town, of Bdrmer is
located under this range of hills. There is a small fortalice,
built on the summit of one of the lower ranges, in which the
Bdrmer thdkurs now reside. The stone of this hill is used for
building and roofing purposes.
Luno-ka-pahdr, also near Bdrmer, is a small hill, but the
stone is much used for building purposes, long slabs being
procured from it.
Multdni Mdtl, or fuller's-earth, is found in considerable
quantities at Kapuri of Bdrmer ; it is used by natives of all castes
for washing the hair. It is also mixed with macerated paper,
from which small vessels are made, too porous, however, to retain
liquids. This earth is taken to TJmarkot in Sind, Jodhpur, and
Bikanir. It sells on the spot for about IJ annas per donkey-load,
and 2 annas per bullock-load or from IJ to 2| maunds in
weight.
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Forests. — ^There are no forests or forest-trees in Mallani. The
common trees are — ^khejrd (acacia leucophloeaj , kumat, khair,
roHrd (iecoma undulata)^ phog (calligonum) ^ ber (zizyphus jujubaj ^
jdl, dk foalotropisj ^ and nim: the first eight are indigenous; the
last is only seen where cultivated. On the banks of the Liini the
babiil (acacia arabicaj is found in considerable quantities, and
the jhdu; the last, howeyer, is more of a shrub than a tree.
The wood of the khair, khejrd, and rohird is utilized for
building purposes ; that of the rohird;, after being kept for a
couple of years, is much valued, and tables, chairs, boxes, &c.,
are made of it. The flower of the dk, mixed with salt, pepper,
&c., is considered a good remedy for coughs ; and the sap which
.is extracted from it is thought a certain remedy for pricks by
thorns ; the leaves are also extensively used as applications in
cases of rheumatism. The twigs of the dk and phog, but especial-
ly of the latter, are employed as materials for supporting the
sides of kutcha (shallow earthen) weUs, and in building huts ; the
leaves of the ber, mixed with cut grass, &c., is a favorite food for
camels.
Grasses. — ^Murath(?),* sanid,* and khinp* grasses are used for
thatching purposes, and from the latter strong ropes are made.
The bhurat, siwan, and bured are very conmion in Mallani, and
on them the cattle chiefly graze.
'Wild Animals. — The common beasts of prey are wolves^
jackals,, foxes, and leopards ; the last named are, however, rare.
The wild-pig is occasionally found. Ravine-deer are seen all over
the district ; antelope only in the neighbourhood of Jasol. Hares
are occasionally seen, but are not numerous. Amongst the game-
birds are the large bustard (eupodotis edwardsiij and tilor (houbara
macqueeniij, the ordinary grey partridge and grey quaU, the large
sandgrouse (pterocles arenariusj , the common sandgrouse (ptero^
cles exustusj^ the painted sandgrouse (pterocles jascitusj^ the
coolen or demoiselle crane (anthropoides virgoj, the black ibis
or curlew (local name, kur ddntli). Ducks of various kinds are
found in the cold weather wherever there are pools of water.
There are no fish in Mallani.
Communications. — ^There are no made roads in Mallani, nor
travellers* bungalows. A house has been erected at Jasol, which
is sometimes occupied by the Political Superintendent when on
tour, and by any European officers who may come to the district
to attend the Tilwdra fair. Travellers from the North- West and
^ — —^
* Englisli names not known*
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other parts of India, proceeding
to
Dw^ka, take the following
route:—
JaBol to Taprin ...
..• 4 kos*
Tapran to Bhukdn
... 8 „
Sindari
... 4 „
Tie]&
... 4 ,>
J£likherfi
• •• ff
Nagar
... 4 „
Gura
••• *' f9
Gandap
... 6 „
On this route there are no difficulties
; sweet-water is found at each
stage ; supplies are plentiful ; and wheeled vehicles ca.n he used with
comfort.
Another route is from Jasol to Gadrah in Sind ; from Umarkot
the stages are as follows : —
Sanli
... 5i kos.
Nosar
... 6 „
Chawfi
••• ^ }3
Shokar
• • • ^ S3
Barmer
... * If
Jasai
... 5 „
SidnS
••• ^ »
Khatalkapfo ...
... 6i „
Gadrah (in Sind)
••• *i fs
On tliis route, with the exception of Ohawd (where it is brackish),
water is plentiful and sweet, and all supplies procurable. Carts
can only be used as far as Banner ; beyond that, sand and sand-
hills are encountered, and the country is covered with brushwood
of the kumat and khair, which render the passage of wheeled
vehicles almost impracticable.
A third route is vid Jesalmer to Rori Bakar, and from Jasol
is as follows : —
Tilw^ra ••• ... ... 4 kos.
Santara ... ... ... 6 „
Sodhan ... ... ... 6 „
x&atii ... ... ...o „
Ondo (of Sheo Marwar) ••• c. 3 „
Ula (of Jesalmer) ... ... 7 „
With the exception of Ratu, the water is sweet at all these
stages, and supplies plentiful. Carts can travel by this route ; but
very heavy sand and sandhills are met with, which render
it (fifficult for bullocks to drag carts along.
S
* The kos in Mallaxd is a little more than 1| zniles.
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A fourtli route is from BArmer to Takhtdbdd, the portion of
Mallani which joins the border of Sind : —
Akora ... ... ... 6 J kos, .
Chahotan ... ... ... 6 ^,
Bijrar ... ... ... 5 ,,
Kelnor (head-quarters of Takhtdbdd) ... 7i „
By this route, carts cannot travel ; only camels and horses are
used. The country is very sandy, and covered with an under-
growth of kumat trees. Water at all stages good, and supplies
plentiful.
The route from Bdrmer to Gdra is as follows : —
Mitri, 6 kos: water sweet ; supplies plentiful.
Noklira, 5 „ „ brackish ; „ „
Khandali, 6 „ „ very scarce; „ „
Gura, 6 „ „ good; „ „
This route is only fit for camels ; carts are not advisable.
Climate: — ^The climate of Mallani is a healthy one ; hot winds
prevail with great violence in the months of April, May, and
June, but the nights are fairly cool, and, as soon as rain falls, the
temperature becomes pleasant ; the coldest months are from the
middle of November to the middle of February. The amount of
raiafall cannot be given, as a register has never been kept.
Epidemics are rare ; fever, spleen diseases, and guinea-worm
are the most common maladies.
DroughUy Floods^ and Blights. — Droughts are very common ;
floods never take place ; and blights are of rare occurrence.
In these desert tracts, locusts generally appear after an un-
usually heavy monsoon, and do much damage.
State of Society. — In the towns of MaUani, such as Bdrmer,
Jasol, Sindari, Nagar, and Giira, most of the houses are construct-
ed of stone and bricks, and roofed with tUes, whilst those owned
by the poorer classes are of mud with thatched roofs. In the
towns the people are generally prosperous. Throughout Mallani,
with the exception of the towns, beehive-shaped huts are mostly
used, each family having a separate enclosure, which is fenced
round by a strong hedge of thorns, those who can afford it
having a compound- wall of mud as well. The people store their
com in mud-constructed granaries, which are found in all these
enclosures, and bear somewhat the appearance of Egyptian urns.
Owing to the enormous area of land belonging to one village, vary-
ing from three to six kos in circumference, the people form out-
lying settlements, locally known as dhdnis, round which they cul-
tivate. In some of the larger villages these dhdnis number from
40 to 80. Scarcity of water does not allow of much bathing, and
Kl
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Hhe village people are filthy both In their persons and flress.
Although they cannot be said to be floimshii^, there is little ot
no actual poverty.
Population,
Population. — No census of Mallani "has ever been taken;
•therefore, as regards the division into Hindus, Muhammadans,
and Jams, only an approximate idea can be formed. Erom local
enquiry it would appear that the Hindu (dass is by far the most
numerous, forming a third of the whole population. Next to the
Hindus in nimiber come the Muhammadans, who inhabit about
120 villages of the district. The Jains are represented by Oswdls
and Jdtis, whose nimibers are not considerabfe.
Castes, Sects, and Races. — ^The Rdjptits of Mallani are divided
into fiftv-two gots, as follows : — ^Deord, Sesodia, Bh&tti, Sodhd,
Solankhi, Chohdn, Parid, Paridrid, DhiSndu, Dhdndal, Bord,
Bdgeld, Bidd, Detd, Singarpdl, Khipd, Jasolid, Phalsundid,
Sinmdl, Gogdde, Sdudi, Indd, Jetang, B^ddr, Kasumblid, Ghelot,
Eiirmot, Kelan, Gogli, Sugdr, Shekdwat, Mdngalia, Dhawechds,
Paridr, Kalded, Kaldwat, TJgd, Sor, Jasor, Selot, Kdld, Bharakmal,
Makwdnd, Jharechd, Barechd, Kotechd, Karwd, Birdwd, Jai-
chand, Klhdwarid, ^tmot, Mahechd. Ijocally, they and their
relatives take preced^ice, and after them the castes detailed
below : —
These men do not cultivate, but trade on a small scale;
o . V i>-/i. tli©y go i^^m, house to house beffffing for
Snmali Brdhmans. • ° j -n j j t i ^ R
gram, and will not eat cooked mea.t, or
drink water, brought by any other than their own caste.
There are large numbers of Jdshis (astrologer class) in the
j^g^-,^ district of Mallam; their chief occupa-
tion is trade, they take ghee and gund
(gum), the latter obtained in large quantities from the kumat
and bdnuU trees — ^the first to Gujardt, Jodhpur, and Nayanagar ;
the second to Bhiwdni. In return, they bring back goor (raw
sugar), khdur (coarse sugar), cocoanuts, dates, betel-nuts, and
occasionally rice. Those J^shis who are cultivators are dealt
with on more favorable terms than other labouring classes ; a
fourth share only of the produce is taken from them, and they
pay no import or export dues.
with the original Bahtor founders of
Mallani, and cultivate.
These men have lately come from the Bikanir State to Mallani.
«o. of T^«a.r«««. T^^y ^^® *1^® Purohits of the Jdts ; they
cultivate, and also live on chanty.
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These men are the Purohits of the thdkurs of Mallani; their
^„ duty is to escort the ashes of their
Raigur Brfthmans, ,•', , iJii-i aj.
deceased masters to the Ganges. At
weddings they receive from all classes of Hindus what is locally
known as lik, Le., presents in money ; they hold lands rent free
from th^urs.
,, -^ , . The Agarwdl Mahaians are worshippers
of Vishnu, and traders.
^ , , . ^r v . The Maheshwari Mahaians are also
worshippers of Vishnu, and teaders ; few
cultivate.
r^ xiTurx.' /t • -^n Tho majority are cultivators; only
Oswal Mahaians (Jainis).. j i i •* "^ -l
those who are very prosperous become
traders.
In Marwar and Mallani there are two classes, of Chdrans ;
^^^^^^ one called Bdrath, the other Garwi,
Ch^ans. The former class were originally
Bhdttis ; but in the time of either Shivaji or MaUindth, they were
named B^U^ths, and received the title of Chdran. The village of
phurmard in the pargana of Ndgaur of Mallani belongs to them
in iidak (rait-f ree tenure, or,, literally ^ in charity) . The supposed
origin of the Bdraths is, that a Bhdtti of good family had
an intrigue with a woman, also of good family but of another
caste ; and they came together and took up their abode on the
left bank of the Liinl, near Durmard. The water on this
bank of the Liini is brackish and undrinkable, whilst that on
the right is sweet and good. When the river was in flood (so
runs the story) this couple, either singly or together, were able,
under the auspices of a goddess (name unknown), to cross
to the right bank without even getting their clothes wet,
and thence bring sweet water. On this they were looked upon
as holy people, and the village of Durmard was given to them.
They have now spread over other parts of India. The Bdrath
Chdrans worship Mathwiji chiefly. The Garwi Chdrans ori-
ginally, from some quarrel with their then ruler, came from
Kachh, with their families, flocks, and herds. At the time they
immigrated, Jdlor of Marwar was held by an ancestor of the
present ruler of Palanpur (Muhammadan), and was his capital.
He located these Garwi Chdrans on the banks of the Ltini ; their
headman was called Shind, and the present village is called, after
him, Shinaddri. Ddri means accepting (ddran) ; Shinaddri there-
fore meant that Shind consented to live there. The name is
now corrupted into Sindari. Their descendants still live in this
village, which in former times was considered " suma,'* or a place
of refuge, from which no criminal or ottiers seeking an asylum
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could be given up. Both these classes of Chdraus consider them-
selves as above the law, and resent any interference by committing
chdndi, that is, self-immolation, and cutting and wounding them-
selves with knives, swords, and daggers. The Garwi Chdrans are
great traders,and never accept charity,as Bdrath Ghdrans do. They
pay no dues, and in troublous times, when plunder was rife in the
land, these men, although trading with thousands of rupees' worth
of property, were never molested ; this was mainly owing to the
dread of their self-immolation, the onus of blood in such a case
falling upon the authors of the crime which led to it. The
Garwi Chdrans are now divided into clans, or khamps, and inter-
marry, but not with the Bdrath Chdrans, with whom they wiU
neither eat nor smoke. Most of them worship the goddess Ndg
Bai.
These men are held in great awe, in the same way as Chdrans,
g^^ by all Hindus ; they hold lands, and some-
times villages, rent free ; they receive great
largess at weddings, and, if refused, abuse the non-givers in song.
These are a caste of Brdhmans, but eat meat and drink liquor.
LohauM They trade in the same manner as the
J6shis ; they pay less duty on goods than
others, but are not so leniently treated as J6shis.
A low caste of Brahmans ; they live chiefly on charity, and are
the Purohits of Oswdl mahajans ; they cook
^^ ** for the Oswdls and read kabits. Although
themselves Shivites, they worship at the Jain temples.
There are two classes of these men— one locally known as
sunte Simdrs — and are worshippers of Vishnu.
In MaUani they cultivate, but their trade
is that of workers in gold, silver, brass, &c. The other class is the
Mer Sundr ; they also worship Vishnu, and their trade is the same
as that of the Brdhmania Sundrs ; but they do not intermarry,
drink, or eat with them.
This tribe formerly resided in all the villages of Jasol, in two
j^^ of Sindari, and in one of Bdrmer ; now
they have spread over the entire district
of MaUani. They are capital farmers.
These men are cultivators, but are only found in estates bor-
^^^.g dering on the Ltini, where both spring and
autumn crops are grown. They, as well as
Jdts, Rebdris, and Pdliwdls, are worshippers of Vishnu.
The Bishndwis (followers of Jamba) cultivate in the district
Bishndwis. of Chahotau.
The Rebdris keep large herds of sheep and goats, and the
Rebdris. morc Wealthy possess cattle and camels.
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The offspring of a man and woman of different castes are so
. . called. They intermarry with each other,
anjogi mi. ^^^ ^^^ class is considcrcd the offspring of
sin, and is coldly regarded. They cultivate, but many of them
are frequently beggars.
These men eat flesh and drink spirits. Their bodies are buried,
not burnt, after death. They are worship-
^^^^^' pers of Mahadeo. There are different classes
of Gosains; sonjie are buried in a sitting position, and some at
full length. Their remains are interred in the place where they
lived ; a platform of mud or stone, according to the status of the
deceased, is placed over the remains, and a figure of Mahadeo.
In parts of Marwar this class owns villages, and are well off.
Some of them (those who marry) cultivate, but the greater num-
ber are beggars, that is, they five on charity. There are twelve
different classes of Gosaias, of whom ten are in Mallani,
tnz. — Giri, Puri, Bhdrti, Ban, Sarswati, Sdgar, Parit, Parghat,
Arun, and Runkhar.
The Ndths are kiiown by wearing a stone ornament passed
through the lobe of the ear. Many of
this class, especially those who are well
off, do not marry at all, and are called Nihang (the Ndgas of
Jaipur) ; those who marry are termed Girhast. The gtirii, or
priest of the famous Mallindth from whom Mallani is named, was
a Gosaia called G^ribndth ; none of his (the priest's) disciples
are allowed to marry, and if any of them is caught intriguing
with a woman, he is turned out of the temple and not allowed
to re-enter it. • He then may marry if he likes, or take a woman
into his house as a concubine. If a Gosain or any religious
man, that is, a man who is a priest of Mahadeo or of a temple,
has an intrigue with a woman, he and she escape punish-
ment by going to a temple and putting on fakir's costume — dust-
colored clothes. After remaining a day or two in the temple,
they take up their abode in the village as man and wife, and no
ill is thought of theni ; but the man cannot be a priest in the
temple, and he is no longer considered a ch61a, or disciple.
-.,. ,- . . They are worshippers in the Jain tem-
pies, and are by profession school-masters.
Their trade is to stamp dyed stuffs ; some few also cultivate ;
Khatris those who work at this trade for thdkurs
are exempt from taxes, and perform his
work for less payment than they receive from others.
j^^^.^ -This class is a very industrious one;
they are the market-gardeners of India.
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The Sungds call themselves mahajans ; they; ate the KaMs of
the North-Western Provinces ; their trade
Simgds. ^ ^j^^ ^£ distillers of liquor.
The same remarks as regards Mochis
^^^ ^**^""^' (see next page) apply to them.
The Khdtis are also servants of the village ; they have to per-
^,,. , , . form all carpentry- work of the village^
Khatui (carpenters). • f, •'i. a__j.ii
repairs as well as making of carts, ploughs,
&c. They are not so well remimerated ns kdmhdrs^ mochis,
tailors, and others.
These men cultivate ; pay land, but no other, taxes. They are*
siiawats really stone-masons by profession, and in
Mallani they do all kinds of stone- work„
and are house-builders, as well as constructors of the ordinary
stone flour-mills of the village : these chakis, or flour-mills, cost
from one to two-and-a-haJf rupees each ; there is a great trade in
them at Banner, whence they are conveyed to Sind and other
places. " Sildwats'' are of the same caste as Khdtis (carpentersj^
with whom they intermarry.
^. , . These men are by trade oilmen ; they
also cultivate.
There are three classes of Ktiinhdrs : the first are called
KtimhArs Karsds, and are cultivators of the soil ; the
second, who have no special appellation,
but are known as Ktimhdrs, make earthen pots, cultivate, and
keep asses with which they plough. Earthen pots are supplied
by these men to the villagers ; from those with whom an alrange-
ment is made, they receive annual compensation in the way
of grain, and, on occasions of marriages and deaths, cast-off
clothes ; and from others payment, in either money or grain, at
the time of purchase. The thdkurs of Mallani absolve this caste
also from the payment of dand, an annual tax of three rupees
levied on all other cultivators ; as also from jh6pri, or house,
tax, which others have to pay at the rate of one rupee per
annum ; they are also excused by the thdkurs the payment of a
tax varying from two to six rupees, which is levied on all other
cultivators on the occasion of the marriage of their (the cultiva-
tors') daughters. !For these remissions they have to give earthen
vessels without payment to, and fetch water for, the th^ur,
whenever he visits the village. The third are called, like the
Megw^s, Jdtid Kiimhdrs ; these do not intermarry with the other
two classes of Ktimhdrs ; they are workers in wool (locally called
jdt), hence the term Jdtid, and thread and rope makers ; they,
too, cultivate.
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These men are treated in the same way by the thdkurs as
^ , . shoe-makers and tailors. By such as
NdiB (barbers). ^^^ ^ ^^^^ ^^^j^ ^^ ^^j^ ^p^^ ^j^^
l3arber is paid yearly in kind, and by others as their means admit.
The women of this class attend other women in child-birth, act
also as wet-nurses, and perform other menial duties for the ladies
of a household.
These men work in gum-lac. Bangles of lac sell from six to
^^^ twelve annas a pair; the ivory ones cost
Lakher s (bang e- ers). ^^^ ^^^ ^ ^^^ rupCC eight aunaS a
pair. The women of the country often have their arms covered
with these ivory bangles, the whole cost of which is from about
twelve to fourteen rupees. Lakherds pay no taxes to the thdkurs,
and for this indulgence they have to repair the bangles of the
thdkur's family when broken.
These form a low class of Brdhmans ; a few cultivate ; they
get the clothes thrown over dead bodies
when taken to be burned, and eat the
food given in charity by people for twelve days after the death of
any one in a family.
This is an inferior class, who more often beg than work.
Desdntari Whatever charity is given on a Saturday
^ ^ ' is given to these men. If a Hindu
festival falls on an unlucky Saturday, the Desdntaris are pre-
sented with a black buffalo, cow, goat, or even a black blanket,
and in return they worship the god (Saturn) in order to drive off
the evil omen.
Mochis, besides shoe-making, also do other kinds of leather-
Mocbis work. The price of ordinary leather
^ ** shoes in a village varies from twelve
annas to a rupee and a half. Cultivators of the soil pay for their
shoes in grain, others pay cash. The thdkurs only pay half price
for their shoes, some nothing at all ; and the mochis are allowed
to cultivate as much land as the yean by their own household,
rent free. If a thdkur gives excessive work to the mochi, he will,
in exchange, lend him bullocks to plough with, or obtain them
for him from others ; and supply seed for sowing. If a mochi has
no time to cultivate, the tMkur assists him in other ways by
presents of money and clothes on occasions of marriages or deaths.
For this, the mochi has not only to supply shoes to the thdkur's
family, but perform all other duties pertaining to his trade.
They receive clothes and food in charity
moiiB (drum-beaters). fj^j^i the village, and largess at weddings.
The same remarks apply to this class as
Phobia (washermen). to shoc-makcrs, tailors, and others of the
serving class.
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There are three classes of Megwdls ; they eat together, but do
^ ^^ not intermarry: the first are locally known
^^ "* as Bdmbis, the same caste as Chamdrs in
the North- Western Provinces; they perform the general work
of the village, look after travellers, &c., and get, in return, the
skins of all unclaimed dead animals ; on occasions of marriages,
food ; and from the heads of villages, a certain quantity of grain
at harvest-time ; they are also workers in leather, and weavers.
The bodies of those who are followers of Rdmdeo (a holy man
whose shrine is now worshipped at Edmdeora near Pokaran),
andPdbu, another holy man who formerly lived in the neighbour-
hood, are buried; and the bodies of worshippers of Vishnu are
burned. The second are Jdtids, the Regars of the North- Western
Provinces: these men cultivate, but their special occupation is
dyeing and working in untanned leather ; they eat the flesh of
dead animals. The third are called Bangards ; they make cloth
from thread, and also cultivate. The same remarks as to burning
and burying after death apply to the Jdtids and Bangards.
They act as veterinarians. A few of them also operate on the
^_^ human body in cases of stone disease.
^^™^ Many are cultivators and traders, and are
treated with a certain degree of leniency by the thdkurs.
This class form the gtiriis, or spiritual guides, of the Megwdls ;
^. , they labor in the fields, and are weavers
too by trade.
A kind of Chamdr ; they are also drum-beaters ; they work in
g^^^^ the fields, and get pay by the village for
^'^*™** their duties as drum-beaters.
These men are good cultivators; they act also as shikdris,
r>un / 1^ • • 1 ^ messengers, and general servants to the
tnakurs, and are paid accordingly. This
class were inveterate thieves, but (in Mallani at least) are now
losing that character. On occai^ons of marriages, a small band
of these men, arme4, are collected to form a body-guard, and
they are generally to the front whenever disputes occur between
one village and another.
These men are paid by the thdkur and
Bhangis. others according to their means.
The Muhammadans in Mallani are divided into forty-one
classes, as follows : — Sayyid, Daras, Samejd, Samd, Rdhamd, Nuhri,
Arisar, Manglid, Makyd, Bakid, Jonij&, Hdlipotrd, Abrd,
Bhamsard, Mher, Chdma, Janj, Bhyd, Sdnd, Sangrasi, Kaldr,
Chichdr, Sahtd, Dal, Rdjar, Gaju, Jhakrd, Thdbd, Rdmdawd,
Bhati, Kati, Tdlozi, Dewat, Hingord, Sardi, Dhdndal, Chopdn,
Sumrd, Panu, Rind, and Jesar.
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BeligioiP. — The majority of the Hindus of Mallani are wor-
shippers of Shiva. The principal th^kurs of Mallani, descend-
ants of Mallindth, worship at the temple of Rugndth ; and the des-
cendants of Jaitmil, a brother of Mallinath, of whom are the
thdkurs of Nagar and Gurd, at that of a god named Alamji. There
is a very ancient temple (built seven hundred years ago) at Kher,
the village so called near the Luni, to Rugndthji, who is
worshipped by maaiy of the Rdjptits of the districts. Jain tem-
ples are found all over Mallani ; three at Nagar are very old, hav-
ing been built prior to the occupation of Mallani by the Rahtors.
Temples to Mahadeo are also common. The founder of the district,
Mallinath, is generally worshipped, there being shrines to him in
almost every village. A great annual fair is held in his honor at
TUwdra on the banks of the Ldnl near to his shrine.^ On the
opposite side of the river is a temple erected to his wife, Rup^
3>evi. The legend about Mallindth and his wife Rupd is, that the
former did not die, but was translated to the skies on horseback
from a hill near the village of Dudiali of Marwar ; and when his
wife Rupd heard of his disappearance, she started off in a rath for
the spot in order to become sati, but on the road she vanished f rom*
the rath, and was never seen again ; so they are now worshipped as
god and goddess. There is a goddess locally known as Bdnkahnatd,.
held in great veneration by aU in Mallani. In boundary and other
disputes the oath of Bdnkalmdtd is always taken, and is considered
a most blading one. At Bdrmer there is an old temple erected
to Bdlarikh (another name for the sun) ;. the idol is of wood. All
the Jdshi (astrologer)^ tribe are said to- be worshippers of Bdlarikh,.
and the temple at Bdrmer to be the only one to this god. At two
ruined towns or cities of Bdrmer — Kherdru, and Jiina, sometimes
called Patrdsar, said to have been strongholds of the Gohels — are-
still to be seen remains of Jain temples, as well as those of
Mahadeo and Rugndthji. In every village of Mallani, gene-
rally under a khejra tree, will be found a stone slab with the
figure of a snake carved on it y and the victiai of a snake-bite is
always taken to this shrine, and Goga interceded with for recovery.
The local legend about Goga is as follows : — There was once a Rana,
named Jdwar, a descendant of Choh^ Pirthviraj; he had a
wife, named Vachal, who had no offspring, and they lived at a
village called Dadrdwd.* It so happened that Gorakh Nath, a
Sidh, or holy man, very famous in the religious history of Hindu-
stan, and the founder of an independent sect, came to their village,
and went round, as was his custom, begging. Jewar's wife
did not see him at the time, being engaged; but, hearing
* Situated in the district of Hansi.
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afterwards that a holy man had been to beg, she sent her
maid to search for him. The Sidh had located himself outside
of the village, whither Jewar's wife herself took food to
him, and told him of her having no offspring, and of her great
desire for a son. The Jogi was so pleased at such a lady of rank
bringing him food that he told her her wish should be gratified
and she should have a son. Upon this she returned to her house,
and, in accordance with the Jogi's promise, a son was bom> to
whom the name of Goga was given. One day, when the child was
lying in its cradle, a snake appeared, which the child grasped by the
neck, and, as is the wont of children when they get hold of any-
thing new, put it to his mouth ; when people came up and saw
this, they dragged away the snake, and expected to see the child die,
as it was actually suclang the snake's head. When nothing result-
ed to the child, and they remembered the story of his birth, they
assumed that Goga was endowed with miraculous powers, and he
has ever since been worshipped, but particularly as a protector
from snake-bites.
A local hero named Pdbu is also much venerated in Mallani ;
the legend about him is as follows : — ^Asthdn, the founder of the
Rahtor dynasty in Marwar, had a son named Dhdndal, whose
descendants are to this day known as Dhdndal Rahtors. He had
two sons — ^the eldest Bhui^, the second Pdbu. DhAndal had a
blood-feud with the Khichi Rdjptits, the chief of whom was named
Jhind Rao, whose head-quarters were at a place called Jdel in the
pargana of Ndgor. Pdbu on one occasion went to the village of
Kolu in the Sheo pargana of Marwar to marry a daughter of a
Sdnkla Rdjptit, las brother Bhurd accompanying him. Whilst
there, Jhind Rao made an open attack upon a Chdran woman
named Dowal, a resident of Pdbu's village, and carried off all her
cattle. The Chdran women went at once to complain to Pdbu,
and arrived at the exact moment when the marriage ceremony, or
pherd, was being performed. On hearing what had occurred,
Pdbu left his bride, mounted, and, with his brother and followers,
went in pursuit of Jhind Rao, whom he overtook. A severe battle
was fought, and Pdbu was kiUed after performing prodigies of
valour. He has ever since been worshipped as a deity, owing to
his death whilst fighting so gallantly. There are temples in many
parts of Marwar to Pdbu, who is represented as on horseback
with a spear in his hand. His horse was called '* Black Caesar,'*
and there is an efi&gy at Mandor of Pdbu moimted on this, hia
favorite warhorse.
Social Qustoms and Umgies. — ^Marriage ceremonies in Mallani
differ little from those in other parts of India, but the expenses are
much less. Widow-marriage is not allowed amongst the thdkurs
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and other superior classes; but amongst Jdts, Rebdris, Sundrs,
Chamdrs, and others of the inferior classes, a widow can take a
second husband. There is no regular marriage ceremony: the
intended husband comes to the widow's house, where he is fed ;
he gives the woman clothes and jewels^ and takes her away, but
never by the front door of the house. If she has any children
by her former husband, they remain with his family ; the ojffspring
by such a second marriage are considered as legitimate.
Whenever a marriage or death takes place in a thdkur's
fetmily, a fee called ddpd is levied from all classes (cultivators
included), except Brdhmans and Shdmis ; this fee varies from
one to eighteen rupees, but the lowest sum is that generally
taken, especially from the cultivators. As regards inheritance in
the pargana of Bdrmer, the estates are equally divided amongst the
sons of a thdkur. In Jasol, Sindari, Nagar, and Gtira, the eldest
son succeeds to the estate, and other brothers have portions
(in land) given to them for their livelihood. The property of
aU other Hiudu castes in Mallani is equally divided amongst
all the sons.
The Land.
Principal Crops.— ^TUhe various kinds of crops grown in Mal-
lani are bdjrd, mting, mot, jowdr, til, and cotton: these are
sown as soon as the monsoon sets in, and are reaped, bdjri 70
days, cotton 90, and the rest 60 to 65 days, after sowing.
Water-melons, locally known as matird, grow in wild pro-
fusion in the rainy season ; the villagers eat large quantities ;
each melon contains on an average about three seers of juice,
which is cool and pleasant to the taste. The seeds are eaten by the
cattle, and, in time of dearth, ground into flour and used as food by
the people. Tumba is a gourd indigenous all over Mallam, but more
particularly in the thull or sandy portions. Bullocks, camels, and
horses eat the gourd ; and men for their own use cut it in pieces
and bury it in the sand, where it is kept until only the seeds
remain ; these are then washed, brayed in a mortar, the outer husk
thrown away, and the remaining portion of the seed mixed with
bdjri and ground into flour. Wheat-crops are grown on the banks
of the Ltini, but are very rare in other parts of Mallani. When
the rainfall is favorable, however, this cereal is cultivated in
marshy lands in the Setrao and Chahotan districts. Barley and
sesamam are rarely seen, and gram never.
Agriculture. — The plough of the country is the same as that
used in other parts of India. Bullocks, buffaloes, camels, and
asses are employed for draught; and occasionally, when a cul-
tivator csmnot afford animal labour, the plough is worked by men.
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The soil of Mallani may be classed under tliree heads : sand
knc^wm as thuU ; hard or stiff sandy clay called ndyar ; and de-
posits of soil in the hills of limestone called pdr. Three parts
of Mallani may be roughly estimated to consist of sand* Of
the remaining quarter, two-thirds may be classed as hard sandy-
clay, generally so salt and sterile in its nature as to niirture
only grass which springs up with the rain and withers away
immediately. In such ground, sweet-water is not to be found*
The remaining portion is known as pdr, a soil peculiar to the
Bdrmer district and the north-western part of the prorince*
It is formed of patches of deposited soil lying in the interstices
tit the foot of limestone ranges, and is in request for culture, as,
at little expense, crops can twice a year be grown on it, water for
its irrigation being obtained at little cost by digging shallow
trenches or reservoirs in the surrounding limestone bed, which
catch the upper drainage of rain-water from the surrounding
slopes*
Agricultural Tenures. ^-^ThBre are no zamindars (or such classes
as. are known by that name in the North- Western Provinces) in Mal-
lani. The PdliwdlBrdhmans more than any other class resemble
zamindars, and they are oiily found on the banks of the Luni.
The probable cause of their position is to be traced in the history
of the first arrival df the Rahtors in Marusthali or Marwar, when
the Pdliwdls accompanied them to the land of Kher, now known
as Mallani. The cultivators pay hdsil (revenue) in kind to the
jdgirddrs, who are the real owners of the soil ; and the PAliw51s
Teceive ti zamindari haq, locally known as ghtigri, from the culti-
vators (except of their own caste). This haq, or share, is paid in
kind, and depends on the season. In good seasons he gets for every
kalsi (a local measure containing about twelve maunds) 13 or
13| pailis (another local measure of about 1^ seers), or, in other
words, about a sixth share of the produce. If the Pdliwdl
neither cultivates himseK nor can find husbandmen, he has to pay
rent in cash to the jdgirddr for such land as is left uncultivated.
There is no land measurement in MaUani : a field, or khet^
in the ner^ or land near the Liinl, may be from 8 to 25 blghas, and
for these fields the Pdliwdls pay from two to five rupees as
jent.
BenUBates. — ^All J&t, Rebdri, Bishnawi, and Kalabi hus-
bandmen pay three rupees per chula (i.^., per family) in cash
yearly to the jdglrddr. Por this they may employ as many
ploughs as they can, and the produce is then shared by customary
proportions according to the crop. Por bdjri and cotton crops
-they pay as revenue to the jdgirddr from an eighth to an
eleventh share of the produce, besides supplying for his horses
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a camel-load of bdjri heads (or as much as can be packed in
a bora, or bag), and from mting, mot, jowdr, and tfl, a very
small share varying from one to two camel-loads. Of the
spring-crops, for well-land a fourth, and for bardni, or lands
irrigated or saturated from bunds, a fourth or fifth share, belongs
to the jagirddr, who also takes for his horses one or two strips
or beds of wheat locally known as khodd. In addition, the
cultivator has to pay a small share of the produce of both autumn
and spring crops to the pardhdn, or headman of the jdglrddr, and
likewise to the village temple. From other cultivating classes,
such as those who do service, the jdglrddr takes from one
to five rupees per annum per family, but no share of the prbduce.
In the Takhtdbdd district of Mallani the proprietors of the land
are the thdkurs of Setrao, Chahotan, and Gangdsarid of Sdchor
of Marwar. There are in this district a class of Muhammadan
settlers called Samejds, and to them the lands have been leased
for a period of thirty-five years, twenty of which have expired.
They pay two rupees per plough to the landholder, but are exempt
from all other taxes. They are held responsible for the peace of
the country. *
Mode of collecting revenue and agricultural statistics. — ^The
m.ode of collecting the revenue by the jdglrddr is as follows :— •
When the grain is threshed out and stored in one spot, his
men proceed to the place, the grain is measured in earthen vessels
{ghards), and the jdgirddr's share put aside. Implicit trust seems
to be placed in his tenant by the landlord : there are no kanwdrids,
or watchers of the crops, as on the khdlsa lands belonging to the
Darbdr. Until the grain is collected in heaps, a tenant may con-
sume as much as he requires for the daily sustenance of himself
and family; but if he makes away with, or conceals, any, the
jdgfrddr, on discovering this, takes a twofold, and sometimes a
fourfold, share, and in future the delinquent has to give security
against repetition of the offence.
Pamike.
In 1868 the south-western monsoon had failed entirely through-
out Marwar, and there was, consequently, no grass crop. The
country within the branches of the Liini had been visited by
heavy storms of rain on the 1st and 2nd September, which saved
the stunted grass, which was too sparse to cut and too short for
homed cattle to graze upon. A little rain fell in the south-western
comer of Marwar and at Giira in Mallani, but the herds leaving
the country on their way to Gujarat soon trampled it down. A very
short crop of grain, about one-fifth of the usual quantity, had been
originally sown, and of this little ripened. It was hoped, if there
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If ere another fall of rain, that a considerahlo quantity would be
saved ; but no fall occurred.
A report was received on the 25th September from Mallani
that not even in the villages where rain had fallen on the 1st and
2nd September wotdd the cattle be saved, as there had been no
subsequent falls. The Jodhpur cavalry detachment at Mallani
was disorganized, and the horses had been let loose from their
pickets to take their chance of life by feeding on the grass-roots
beneath the sand. Even the deputv in charge of the djstrict was
unable to procure grass for his sole horse, which he had ojBfered for
sale at one-eighth its value without being able to find a purchaser.
Nothing cotud show the great distress from the want of grass
more than the latter fact.
Mallani suffered equally with the rest of Marwar. With the
exception of about half-a-dozen hamlets, the whole tract belongs
to thdkurs, offshoots of the family of the Jodhpur Maharaja.
They not only own a ^reat number of cattle, but breed one of the
finest and most endurmg races of horses in India, which are at the
same time both high-spirited and tractable. The produce they sell
yearly at the great fair of Tilwdra near Bdlotra, and this forms a
principal source of their revenues. On the approach of the famine
the thdkurs sent their horses to their connections in Gujardt and
Jesahner. The change of forage seemed to agree with the
horses as little as with the cattle, and about three-quarters of the
breeding stock died. It would be supposed that horses would
not have been afficted in the same way as cattle. They may
have required grain on a change of pasture, but it is not im-
probable that there was a murrain both amongst cattle and horses,
aggravated, as' in the hmnan body, by insufficient food and bad
water, which caused so great a mortality.
The long-looked-f or rains set in at last in the middle of July,
and the people were enabled to plough their fields. They had lost
their cattle and plough-bullocks ; wherefore, making smaU ploughs
expressly for the purpose, they yoked themselves in place of their
oxen, and women dropped in the grain as the men laboriously
turned the furrow. Only one ploughing was given, and a few
thorns in place of harrows were dragged over the furrows to
scratch the earth over the grain. So precious were camels and
bullocks at this time for agricultural operations that three rupees
a day represented the rate of hire for a camel ploughing, and four
rupees a day for a pair of bullocks.
A breadth of land equal to half the usual quantity was sown.
The grain everywhere sprouted splendidly, and all reckoned that
the famine had passed, when another scourge visited the country
in the shape of locusts. They entered Marwar from Jesalmer
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at tbe end of May, and laid their eggs in every direction. These
hatched as the rains set in, and by the end of August the young
locusts had spread over the whole famine tract, laying fresh eggs
wherever there was sand. The broods from these eggs appeared
early in September, and, moving in dense masses backwards and
forwards, destroyed every living thing in their way. Crops were
eaten down so that the ground had the appearance of never having
been sown. By degrees the locusts got their wings and flew hither
and thither over the country, devouring the ripening grain which
the young broods had spared. Each swarm, of which there must
have been hundreds in Rdjpiitdna, settled every night, covered
every green plant over an area of 12 or 15 square miles, and left it
bare as they flew away in the morning. The loss to the country
by the locusts was about 76 per cent, of the crop, which originally
was only a half crop.
Mallani, being a desert tract, suffered less from fever than the
rest of Marwar. An accurate account was taken of the popu-
lation of 81 villages in Mallani, and enquiries made for the purpose
of a census. The mortality in these villages will give some idea of
the great loss of population by the famine throughout Marwar.
Loss of Population caused hy the Famine in 81 villages in Mallani*
I
r
8
NtTMBEB that EHieBATBB
DIBD.
AND
iM'
IS ^
p
1
^
^.9
§* •
II
^
4,631
11,498
1,714
8,061
2,896
9,620
33,420
1 Bdrmer
31 Villages of Bdrmer
11 Besdla
1 Villages of Besala
1 Sindari
36 Villages of Sindari
81
5,047
18,623
2,002
3,722
4,730
13,883
190
1,514
180
460
1,197
3,048
115
243
"'24
118
305
111
481
118
117
519
910
Total
43,007
6,589
805
2,316
416
2,235
298
761
1,834
4,268
9,807
The loss in Mallani was consequently about one-fourth of
the population, the number before the famine having been 43,007,
and after it 33,420. The difference between the loss by fever in
the interior desert villages of Bdrmer and Besdla, and by the
same disease at Sindari on the bank of the Liinl river, is very
marked. In the former, the deaths by fever were only one-for-
tieth of the population ; in the latter, one-sixth. The total loss by
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fever was much less in Mallani than in the richer districts erf
Marwar, where it was in many cases as high as one-third.
The district of Mallani, which is under the direct management
of the Political Agent, was almost depopulated by emigration.
The native official in charge was called on for a list of such works
as would give employment to the poor, and which might be profit-
ably commenced, and were situated in different parts of the country.
The deepening of four tanks already in existence was taken in
hand, as well as the construction of three new ones. An advance
of money was at once made for the works, and the jdgirdArs were
informed that half the cost of any work undertaken in their estates
would be paid for by the Political Agent.
Tkade.
Commerce and Manufacture. — The chief manufacture in
Mallani is from wool and country cotton carried on by the Ban-
gard Megwdl class. Cloth for wearing apparel composed of
cotton and wool mixed, and luis^ or blankets of wool, alone are
made. Small dariSy for spreading on beds, of camel-hair, are also
woven by the Jdtid Megwdls.
The Mochis of Barmer make horse and camel gear of leather,
which finds a market in Umarkot as well as in the district.
Stone flour-mills are also constructed at Barmer and exported
in large nimibers.
The principal articles of commerce are ghee and gum : the for-
mer is taken to Gujarat, Jodhpur, and the Ajmer town of Nayana-
gar ; the latter to Bhiwdni. The imports are raw and coarse sugar,
and rice, from Bhiwdni. TIrd (a kind of vetch) and tobacco are
brought from Malwa by the banjdras who carry salt there from
Pachbadra.
Opiimi is brought from Kotah, Jhalrapdtan, and Pdli.
English cloth comes from Karachi and Bombay ; from the
former place vid Haidarabad and Umarkot, and from the latter
vid Pali, and sometimes by the direct route vid Ahmaddbdd, Dfsa,
and Giira of Mallani. Ivory comes from Mandvi, generally by
way of Gujardt and the Tharrad, and sometimes vid Sind.
There is a very large export of bullocks from Mallani ; they
are chiefly taken to the Tilwdra fair for sale, and those that do
not find purchasers there, are taken by Muhammadan butchers
to Gujardt. Butchers from Ahmaddbad and Disa come to Mallani
and purchase large quantities of lambs at from eight to twelve
annas a head. After marking, they leave them in the district to
graze until they obtain a good size, when they take them off to
the markets, paying to the grazier from one to two annas per head
per annum for their trouble. They also purchase goats in the
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same way ; but only male, not female, goats are sold. There is
also a sale of from 1,000 to 1,200 camels every year from MaUani ;
these are chiefly purchased at the Tilwdra fair ; and, in the same
•way, from 100 to 150 colts or fillies from the district find a mar-
ket. In good seasons the crops not only suffice for local wants, but
graia is exported to Jesalmer, the north-western parts of Marwart
and occasionally to Kachh.
Fairs. — ^An annual fair is held at Tilwdra of MaUani in the
month of March, which lasts for fifteen days. In 1875 the live-
stock brought to this fair was as follows : —
Young bullocks ... ... ... 15,000
Full-grown „ ... ... ... 15,000
Camels ..• .*• ••• 5,000
Horses ... ... ... 400
Hides, tanned leather, brass and tin utensils have a large sale.
The annual attendance of people is from 30,000 to 35,000 from
all parts of the country, the larger number of course from Mar-
war ; but other parts of Bajpiit^a, Gujardt, Sind, and the Panjdb
are well represented. The principal object of adoration is the
ehriae of MaUindth ; all sellers of animals or goods make a small
offering of either pice or food at the temple, and the general cry
of all the Hindus throughout the fair is " Jai Mallindth T*
The JDarhdr. — ^This subject has been treated of under Marwar.
Aristocracy. — The whole province of Mallani consists of jdglr
estates, the principal of them being held by the five chief houses,
descendants of Mallm^th, and of Jaitmdl, his brother.
The first in rank is Jasol, the Rawal thereof being the senior
- , _, ^. branch. The estate of Jasol comprises 72
viUages, which are divided between two
kotris, or families, half belonging to Rawal Chiman Singh, the
representative of the Partdb Singh family, and his relatives ; and
the other half to Thdkur Padam Singh as head of the Baghji
family, and his kinsmen.
The main portion of the BArmer estate consists of 60 villages,
B&mer Estate which are held by five different f amnios
known as Raot^, the first in rank, the
Sdhebdni, Kishndni, Pophdni, and Elhimdni. There are also six
viUages forming an integral portion of this estate held as chari-
table grants, udaJe, or rent-free.
The Sindari estate is composed of 62 villages. There are two
sindari Estate. families in Sindari, one known as the Ratan
Singh, and the other as the Hdthi Singh.
The first is the owner of twelve, and the second of eight, villages.
Of the remaining 42, 25 are shared by both families, 15 belong
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to petty Edjpiits (Chliutbliaids), and 2 to Br^Uunans. Rawal
Mdnji is the head of the Sindari f amUy.
The Nagar estate consists of 29 very large villages, and, being
situated on the Liini, is highly cultivated
Nagar Estate. ^^^ ^^j^^ j^ ^ divided amongst two f amir
lies known as the Eawatji and Akheraji. The head of the former
is Rawat Gomdn Singh, who succeeded to this estate by adoption,
and to whom belong three-fifths of the villages ; whilst Bawat
Bhabut Singh, son of Gomdn Singh, remained as heir and pro-
prietor of the Akheraji portion. The Nagar family are descend-
ants of JaitmAl, a brother of MaUindth.
Otira was fotmded as an off -shoot from Nagar eleven genera-
^ „ tions back. The Nagar Rdjpiits, being
Gdra Estate. ^ . i i j v xi. • • n j.t.
much troubled by the mcursions of the
Chohdns of Sdchor, planted an outpost at Gura, headed by Thd-
kur B/atan Singh. By degrees it became a separate colony, and
thus was formed the Gdra estate consisting of 103 vUlages,
There are two families in it, known as the Mdldeoji and Surajmal.
In the former, Bana Khem Singh holds four-fifths, and Thdkur
Bakht Singh one-fifth, of the villages. Of the latter, Bana Karan
Singh is the sole proprietor.
Besides the five principal estates noted above, there are four
chahotan, Setrao, Besiia^ and miuor oucs — Chahotau, Sctrao, Bcsdla^ au^
si^i Estates. Sidui. The two first sprung some genera-
tions back from the Bdrmer family. Besdla and Sidni are
later off-shoots of the same house. Chahotan comprises 40 small
villages, Setrao 20, Besdla 12, and Sidni 10. The holders of
these estates are quite independent, and pay separate faujbal, in
the same way as the owners of the five larger estates.
In the historical portion the manner in which the TakhtdbM
rr ^.^.^x^.J:A t. x 4. cstatc camc to be incorporated with Mallani
Takhtdbdd Estate. , , j •t.j^tj -j i? cxX
has been described. It consists of 29
villages. When it was merged in Mallani, the right of proprietor-
ship had to be determined, and this was done by assigning one-
third to the thdkur of Setrao, one to the thdkur of Chahotan,
and one to the thdkur of Gfingdsarid of Marwar Proper. ^
Tenure by which the Jdgirddrs of Mallani hold their Uitates.-^
The jdglrddrs of Mallani hold their estates by right of conquest.
When the British Government were compelled to interfere, as has
been described already the Maharaja of Jodhpur put forward a
claim to sovereignty over the district; and owing to the chiefe
of Jodhpur having, for many years, exercised, or rather attempted
to exercise, a species of control over Mallani, and levied tribute
from its chiefs at irregular periods, this claim was allowed by
Government; but, as Mallani has been since 1836 imder British
management, the Darbdr has virtually had nothing to do with it.
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The ]dglrddrs pay faujbal, or army tribute, amounting to
Rs- 8,932 yearly. This is levied by the Political Superintendent
in the following proportions, and remitted to the Darb^ : —
Bs.
Rs.
Jasol
2,100
Chahotan
218
Bdrmer
1,100
Setrao
132
Sindari
1,800
Bes4Ia
500
Nagar
302
Si^ni
200
Gura
2,530
Megrii
50
Tkey also pay
Rs. 1,631 for office expenses.
Official Classes or Civil Establishment of Mallani. — ^The chief
local authority in Mallani is designated h^im, and receives a
salary of Rs. 150 per mensem. He acts imder the orders of the
Superintendent, to whom he submits all criminal cases. Civil
suits, and disputes about land, are settled as much as is possible
by arbitration. The cost of the civil establishment is Rs. 5,748,
of which Rs. 1,531 are paid by the jdglrddrs, and the remainder
by the Marwar Darbdr.
Police. — The police force of the district is under the command
of a native officer with the rank of Resaldar, who receives a
salary of Rs. 100 a month. He has under him fifty men mounted
on camels, fifty horsemen, and thirty foot-soldiers, with the usual
complement of non-commissioned officers.
Towns and Villages. — ^The chief towns of Mallani are —
Bdrmer, which is the head-quarters of the district, and where
the hdkim resides; Jasol; Sindari; Gtira; and Nagar. The
number of villages are 415, but these do not include dhdnis, or
hamlets, which are very numerous. There is nothing of special
interest to record regarding the towns of MaUani.
Ck)vt. C, B. Presfl, Simla.— No. 886, P. D.— S-8-79— 354.
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