Full text of "The realistic presentation of American characters in native American plays prior to eighteen seventy"

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
AT LOS ANGELES

The Ohio State University Bulletin

VOLUME XXII MAY, 1918 NUMBER 26

CONTRIBUTIONS IN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE NUMBER 1

The Realistic Presentation
of American Characters in
Native American Plays
Prior to Eighteen Seventy

BY
PERLEY ISAAC REED, PH. D.

Associate Professor of English in
Maryland State College

PUBLISHED BY THE UNIVERSITY AT COLUMBUS

imber 17, 1905, at
of Congress, Juls

5 DOS 7

Entered as second-class matter November 17, 1905, at the post-office at Columbus,
Ohio, under Act of Congress, July 16, 1894

PART I

PREFACE

Research in the field of American letters would hardly seem
to require an apology. It is a well-known fact that native litera-
ture contains many important problems which up to the present
have failed to receive scientific treatment. This circumstance alone
seems to justify investigation such as is here undertaken.

My subject, chosen from our lesser American literature, is:
The Realistic Presentation of American Characters in Native
American Plays Prior to Eighteen Seventy. This means that I am
to examine all significant dramatic pieces, written by authors
either American-born or closely identified with American inter-
ests, with the object of determining to what extent, in what man-
ner, and with what fidelity these playwrights have drawn their
characters from distinctive American life, just as it actually was,
during the different historical periods prior to 1870.

This problem presents three phases: The first deals with the
dramatic characters which realistically reflect actual American
life; the second, with characters which embody elements of a dis-
tinctive American nationality ; and the third, with characters from
American life which possess universality of human interest.

The first phase has been given the most space, not because of
greatest importance but because of its widely inclusive nature. As
a test of realistic representation of real persons or conditions I
have supplemented internal evidence with frequent references to
historical documents. In handling the second phase, notwithstand-
ing the occasional denial of a distinctive nationality to the United
States, I have on the contrary proceeded with a certain positiveness,
and have tried to show to what extent characteristics of a national
mind appear in native drama. Concerning the element of univer-
sality the verdict has been spoken almost before I begin. If Ameri-
can drama, prior to 1870, contains characters with an appeal not
bounded by time and place which plays are they, pray? who is
producing them ? and who is reading them ? Such retort, however,
will not dispose of this last phase of my subject, for there do exist

a few American plays of genuine merit. These will be pointed out
in their proper place.

In order to determine even with a fair degree of accuracy the
extent, the manner, and the fidelity of the realistic presentation
of American characters it is of course necessary as an initial step
that there be made a thorough analysis and wide survey of native
dramatic literature. Because America has never experienced a dra-
matic golden age, it does not follow that there has been wanting a
sufficiency of aspiring native playwrights. Such an opinion would
be farthest from the truth. If all the plays written in America
prior to 1870 were on record that is, good, bad, and indifferent
the number would run into the thousands. This at once argues the
impossibility of examining all native dramatic pieces.

The first requirement of the person who would peruse the
American drama of the past is obviously a fairly comprehensive
bibliography. Such has been provided by Messrs. Oscar Wegelin
and Robert F. Roden for The Dunlap Society. The Wegelin-Roden
bibliography is a compilation of the titles of plays by American
authors, either published or performed, or both, in America be-
tween 1714 and 1900. 1 This list, while not complete, is more in-
clusive than any other and is believed to contain the titles of all
native American productions that are of significance in tracing the
rise of native) drama. It gives the names with additional infor-
mation of more than one thousand plays that may be called
American. Some eight hundred of these were written before 1870.

I wish to state here that I have used this bibliography of
American plays as a directory for my reading. I also acknowledge
my indebtedness to it in compiling a list of representative Ameri-
can plays, chronologically arranged, in Bibliography I. Although
frequently looking farther and now and then taking characters
from plays not mentioned by Wegelin or Roden, I have notwith-
standing made comparatively small use of supplementary pieces;
for in most respects the aforesaid bibliography seems sufficiently
representative and complete.

Of the some eight hundred American plays that appeared be-
fore 1870 about one hundred and fifty have been found unavailable,
owing principally to a lack of information about their authorship,
their period of composition, their place and time of production, or
other important data. Of the remaining six hundred and fifty,
however, definite use may be made: believing this latter group of

iSee Bib. II.

plays to be representative of native dramatic writing prior to 1870,
I have taken them as the basis of my study. More than three hun-
dred of these pieces are discovered by noting the titles or the list of
characters only, neither to present, nor to be suitable to present,
realistic characters from American life. The remaining body of
plays, however, is by no means so obvious, so that the searcher of
American realism has imposed upon him necessarily the exami-
nation of at least three hundred American dramatic pieces, many
of which were never played and would hardly take rank in the
proverbial seventh-rate category.

For presenting the results of my investigation I have used
the following method: In the first place, the history of the rise
of American drama, prior to 1870, may be said to divide somewhat
naturally into three periods, namely, the Period of Spontaneity
(1751-1787), the Period of Experiment and Dependence (1787-
1815), and the Period of Development and Partial Independence
(1815-1870) . Each of these three general periods may be separated
conveniently and often unarbitrarily into two or more subdivisions,
depending often upon conditions either wholly or partly external
to the drama, usually of a theatrical or political nature. To each
subperiod I have given a chapter, the contents of which I have
made the specimens of realistic characters which are found in the
representative realistic plays of that period. These characters are
assembled into wide groups, which frequently admit of further clas-
sification, and in each group are included such examples, often ac-
companied by remarks, as seem to be sufficiently and correctly illus-
trative. This means that in a given group all the examples obtain-
able are not usually included but rather such as clearly exemplify
the predominating tendency along realistic lines. Inasmuch as the
realism of play-characters is usually suggestive, and only more or
less complete, many specimens will be discovered that but partially
satisfy. It is believed, however, whether the characters herein in-
cluded are convincing or not, that they are the best available and
indicate the actual status of realistic character-presentation of each
period. Consequently, if this, and this only, be true, nothing further
primarily needs to be aimed at.

As a background for the character-groups and, furthermore,
as a partial justification of the various subdivisions, I have intro-
duced each part and chapter with a few brief remarks, some bear-
ing upon the status of the native theater and drama of the day,
others directing attention to persons, movements, and conditions

that seemed to exercise a determinative influence, and all in a
general way tracing facts and circumstances that mark the his-
torical development of the drama in America. To each chapter I
have appended the conclusion to which my survey has led, and in
the general conclusion, following the last chapter, I have presented
in condensed form the leading facts and deductions relative to my
problem.

The subject of realistic character presentation in American
plays has already been touched upon in a few books and in a
larger number of magazine articles. Although the authors of these
writings, as far as I can discover, make small claim to exhaustive
study, direct attention primarily to certain well-known American
stage types, give limited space to the manner of the character-
realism pointed out, and seldom attempt to trace the development
of realistic tendencies in relation to determinative causes, yet to
these same works I acknowledge many obligations. Most of the
works which I have consulted are given in Bibliography II.

My special thanks are due to Professor J. V. Denney and Pro-
fessor Brander Matthews, for suggesting and helping to define my
subject; to the former and Professor G. H. McKnight, for helpful
advice, encouragement, and criticism; to Professor M. B. Evans,
for critical comment ; to Miss Maud Jeffrey, reference librarian at
Ohio State University library, for untiring effort in securing the
loan of American plays ; and to the Library of Congress, the Bos-
ton Public Library, Brown University Library, University of Penn-
sylvania Library, Harvard University Library, and others, for
generously loaning rare and valuable dramatic pamphlets.

P. I. R.

OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUMBUS
June 6, 1916

CONTENTS

PAGE

CHARACTER-CLASSIFICATION SCHEME 11

PART I

THE REALISTIC PRESENTATION OF AMERICAN CHARACTERS IN

THE NATIVE AMERICAN PLAYS OF THE PERIOD

OF SPONTANEITY, 1751-1787

CHAPTER I. Realistic Characters in American Plays Written Between

1751 and 1774. The Beginning Years of American Drama ... 15

CHAPTER II. Realistic Characters in American Plays Written Between

1774 and 1787. An Epoch of Partisan Pieces 26

PART II

THE REALISTIC PRESENTATION OF AMERICAN CHARACTERS IN

THE NATIVE AMERICAN PLAYS OF THE PERIOD OF

EXPERIMENT AND DEPENDENCE, 1787-1815

CHAPTER I. Realistic Characters in American Plays Written Between
1787 and 1796. The First Decade of Native Drama Under Signifi-
cant Theatrical Influence 46

CHAPTER II. Realistic Characters in American Plays Written Between

1796 and 1805. The Dunlap Decade of Managership 59

CHAPTER III. Realistic Characters in American Plays Written Between
1805 and 1815. A Decade of Comparative Passivity in American
Drama 71

PART III

THE REALISTIC PRESENTATION OF AMERICAN CHARACTERS IN

THE NATIVE AMERICAN PLAYS OF THE PERIOD

OF DEVELOPMENT AND PARTIAL

INDEPENDENCE, 1815-1870

CHAPTER I. Realistic Characters in American Plays Written Between

1815 and 1829. A Time of Awakening in American Drama ... 87

CHAPTER II. Realistic Characters in American Plays Written Between
1829 and 1845. An Epoch of Growth for Native Legitimate Drama
and Plays Treating Native Themes 99

CHAPTER III. Realistic Characters in American Plays Written Between
1845 and 1860. An Epoch of Significant Creative Activity in Ameri-
can Drama Ill

CHAPTER IV. Realistic Characters in American Plays Written Between

1860 and 1870. A Decade of Transition in American Drama . . 130

GENERAL CONCLUSION 136

BIBLIOGRAPHY I 144

BIBLIOGRAPHY II 167

CHARACTER-CLASSIFICATION SCHEME

1. Yankee Characters

2. Indian Characters

3. Frontier Characters

a. The Colonist

4. Military Characters

a. The Officer

b. The Private

5. Political Characters

a. The Public Official

b. The Patriot

c. The Tory

d. The Patriotic Citizen

e. The Politician

f. The Confederate

6. Rural Characters

a. The Farmer

b. The Country Girl

7. Man of Affairs Characters

8. Working Man Characters

9. Fashionable Society Characters

a. The Beau

b. The Lady

c. The American Girl

10. Servant Characters

a. The White

b. The Black

11. Professional Characters

12. Charlatan Characters

PART I

THE REALISTIC PRESENTATION OF AMERICAN

CHARACTERS IN THE NATIVE AMERICAN

PLAYS OF THE PERIOD OF

SPONTANEITY

1751-1787

The beginning of somewhat significant dramatic and theatri-
cal activity in the American colonies may be dated from 1751. In
this year there was published in Boston a three-act farce, entitled
"The Suspected Daughter" and written by T. T. (unidentified),
which is probably the first dramatic production by a native Ameri-
can. 1 About this time (1750-52), also, preparations were making
in England for sending to America a genuinely professional com-
pany of actors. This project was undertaken by William Hallam,
a minor manager and actor of London, and because of the success
of his troupe under the direct management of his brother Lewis
as compared with earlier 2 more or less professional efforts, Wil-
liam Hallam is sometimes mentioned as the "father of the Ameri-
can stage." 3

Following 1751 native plays began to appear frequently, 4 and
the American theater, through the activities of professional English
players, came gradually into existence. 5

As the closing date of what may be called the first period of
dramatic history in America the year 1787 is assigned. In the
spring of this year there was produced in New York, Royall Ty-
ler's comedy of "The Contrast," which is considered our first native
play with an obvious American stamp. 6 Here appeared the original
of a line of stage- Yankees who were successfully acted for three-
quarters of a century.

The phase of American drama antedating the presentation of
"The Contrast" I have called the period of spontaneity. This desig-

SeeWegelin, 7.

See Seilhamer, 1:1-18; Neidig, 86-88.

See Dunlap, 3-8 ; 347.

See Bib. I.

See Dunlap, 1-66.

See Part II, Chapter 1 ; also, Ford, A., 684-86.

14 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

nation is not largely arbitrary. Before 1787 native drama received
little direct encouragement. This is attributable to a disregard of
culture in the struggle for existence, the presence of English play-
ers and plays on the Colonial stage, the hostility of many colonists
to theatrical performances, and the absence from American society
of persons of special literary aptitude. In spite of these conditions,
however, there were many persons who did not forget the pleasure,
the art and the power of dramatic writing: some seemed anxious
to dramatize the New World materials, a few perhaps aspired to
literary excellence, others undertook a play by way of experiment
or diversion, but the great majority were induced to write be-
cause they wished to instruct or arouse, and knew no more ef-
fective vehicle of expression than the dramatic form. Thus, there
appeared between 1751 and 1787 some forty 7 inferior pieces, bud-
ding forth without the warmth of a true theatrical atmosphere
and developing largely because of an irrepressible dramatic in-
stinct in the midst of scenes of action.

The play-characters of this period of spontaneity in American
drama fall somewhat naturally into two groups : The first embraces
the characters of the Provincial plays which were written between
1751 and 1774. The second group includes the characters of the
Revolutionary pieces which are products of the epoch between
1774 and 1787.

Following Wegelin.

CHAPTER I

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS WRITTEN
BETWEEN 1751 AND 1774

THE BEGINNING YEARS OF AMERICAN DRAMA

To the student of American drama in its relation to American
life our earliest plays become both interesting and valuable. As
far back as Provincial times native playwrights were cognizant of
the dramatic materials of the New World. A few of their produc-
tions reflect the dominant features of Colonial life so accurately as
to prove a close relation between the plays and the atmosphere
that warmed them into being. Of some twenty native dramatic
pieces x written prior to 1774 at least half are American in tone
and in many respects bear a stamp of actuality that challenges spe-
cial attention. 2

Before the Revolution the best native dramatic writing came
from the pens of Andrew Barton (probably Col. Thomas Forrest;
1745-1828), Thomas Godfrey (1736-1763), and Robert Rogers
(1727-1798). The leading centers of theatrical activity were Wil-
liamsburg, Annapolis, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston.
The chief professional players were those headed by the elder Lewis
Hallam and David Douglass. Amateur performances that tended
to react against puritanic prejudices were sometimes given by
Harvard college students. 3

The reason for making 1751 the opening date of this chapter
has been given. 4 The end of dramatic and theatrical activity in
the colonies although native drama and the theater were yet al-
most ununited 5 may be said to have come in 1774. 6 In this year
the first Continental Congress recommended the closing of all
Colonial theaters, and inasmuch as the opinions of this worthy
body were usually adopted by the populace the resolution had in a

1 Bib. I, for this chapter, omits about a half-dozen college-commencement dialogues and
two or three inconsequential plays recorded by Wegelin.
Cf. Tyler, B., 11:188.

* Ford, A., 683.

See Part I, Introduction.
See Part II, Chap. I.

See Dunlap, 35.

16 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

general way its desired effect. By this time, also, native dramatic
writing had begun to take on a distinct political coloring.

1. INDIAN CHARACTERS

The aboriginal as a dramatic character 7 is not utilized in the
native provincial plays to the extent one might presume; for to
my knowledge, as far as the subperiod under scrutiny is concerned,
only two plays contain Indian roles. 8 The earlier is de Villeneuve's
negligible tragedy in French, entitled "Le Pere Indien" (1753),
which has never been printed; the other is a superior tragedy
called "Ponteach; or, The Savages of America" (1766), by Major
Robert Rogers, a famous Colonial Indian fighter. Rogers' play is
doubtless the best of the time and contains an interesting group of
natives.

The hero is Ponteach, an ambitious chief of the Great Lakes
region. He is represented as suspicious and visionary, imaginative
and superstitious, impulsive and energetic, crafty and intellectual.
He reveres the memory and customs of his ancestors; he desires
to keep his long-trod hunting grounds inviolate; he receives his
friends with an unfeigned good will, but avenges his wrongs with
a merciless cruelty. Daring and firmness, even in an enemy, excite
his admiration; treachery and haughtiness, wherever observed,
kindle in his heart a flame of indignation. In success he is proud
and peremptory ; in reverses he keeps resolute and undespairing.

In such a delineation of this sachem it would not be impossible
to discover idealization ; yet if compared with the real red man of
history 9 and not judged by romantic accounts of the Indian, 10 it is
believed that Ponteach will be found to embody the more signifi-
cant attributes of his race.

A passing remark may be made on the other chiefs of the
play. Astinaco is shrewd and statesmanlike, always preferring a
sly, secret means to effect his purpose ; the Wolf is an aged chief
who looks backward for true Indian life, considers the young In-

7 The original introduction of Indian characters into a dramatic composition on American
soil was a French masque by Marc Lescarbot, bearing the title "Theatre de Neptune." This was
written and acted at Port Royal, Acadie, in 1606, and has for characters Neptune, six tritons,
four Indians, and a jovial attendant. See Gay, "The First Amer. Play," Nation, 88:136.

8 In Cookings' "The Conquest of Canada" the Indian allies of the French are made to yell
several times, but there are no written Indian parts.

See McMaster, Hist, of the People of the U. S., 1:5-8; Parkman, Conspiracy of Pan-
tiac, 1:40-46; 183.

10 Cooper's novels, Chateaubriand's travels, etc.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 17

dians puny and cowardly, and is strongly opposed to English en-
croachments ; the Bear entertains hope of withstanding the ven-
turesome palefaces by uniting the discordant tribes.

A particularly striking realism is to be observed in the fol-
lowing characters. The conjurer " cries, howls, and beats his breast
in prayer, and subjects himself to sweats and chills, to come into
the desired relation with the Great Spirit. The warriors 12 in their
most ferocious state of mind madly crave the enemy's blood ; after
capturing, scalp and cleave open the head; and thereafter seldom
scruple to appease their hounds with a feast of luckless brains!
The red hunters are friendly, simple-hearted denizens of the forest ;
they show an insatiable thirst for rum, paying for a small quan-
tity a fabulous price in skins ; when angered by ill treatment, they
premeditate terrible vengeance, not only against their wrongdoers
but against all persons of the white race.

With the exception of Ponteach, the leading Indian charac-
ters of Rogers' tragedy seem least realistic ; yet if we push to the
background the literary restrictions which the author observed, then
the vitality and truth to nature of the characters especially of the
minor become more evident.

Other Indian Characters

Philip (impetuous, fiendish, blood-thirsty young brave), Chekitan (deliberate, justice-
loving young Indian), and Tenesco (sagacious counselor to the sachem), Rogers, "Ponteach"
(1766).

2. FRONTIER CHARACTERS

The principal examples of frontier characters are also found
in "Ponteach." The author represents them in an extremely un-
favorable light, causing us to suspect an intentional exposure of the
duplicity and treachery imputed to English bordermen 13 and
French priests. 14

The two traders, 15 McDole and Murphey, are bold impersona-
tions of rascality, the latter showing greater resemblance to a civ-
ilized being only because of his shorter frontier experience. He
possesses a conscience not altogether smothered, and manifests
some reluctance to engaging in his companion's knavish practices.

See Rogers, Concise Account of N. A., 247.

See Parkman, Conspiracy, etc., 1:19.

SeeParkman, Conspiracy, etc., 1:173.

See Winsor, Narrative and Critical Hist, of Amer., 1 :307-8.

SeeParkman, Conspiracy, etc., 1:174.

18 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

But McDole complacently runs the whole gamut of trickery. Crav-
ing money inordinately, he gulls the Indian traders by first treat-
ing them to drugged wine, then by charging exorbitantly for all his
merchandise, and finally by cheating their drunken simplicity out
of a good share of the weight. This he perpetrates without a trace
of shame, for to him they are nothing but the most cunning of
wild beasts. He further reveals his sordidness by feeling little con-
cern for the innocent colonists who are massacred by the Indians'
misplaced vengeance which such men as he have aroused.

The villainy of these representations, though shown with in-
credible blackness, is after all not without a large element of truth. 18

In the character of Mrs. Honnyman, a hunter's wife, we find a
frontier woman in some ways typical. 17 She is God-trusting, moth-
erly, and gentle; has unwillingly accompanied her husband to the
border, and disapproves of the treachery practiced upon the In-
dians, although of much of it she is kept in ignorance. Like the ill-
fated wife of many a pioneer she becomes a prisoner and the victim
of savage barbarity.

Another noteworthy frontier character of Rogers' tragedy is
a French priest. Although doubtless misrepresenting his religious
order he is not unlikely drawn from a real prototype. 18 This Jesuit
is made ambitious, subtle and hypocritical, worldly, debauched and
villainous; under the mask of his holy office he imposes upon the
Indians' credulity, and by any means that his craftiness can devise
labors to antagonize them against the English settlers.

Other Frontier Characters

Honnyman and Orsbourn (unprincipled hunters), Rogers, "Ponteach" (1866).
Abbess and Two Nuns (at the siege of Quebec, 1759), Cockings, "The Conquest of Can-
ada (1766).

3. MILITARY CHARACTERS

Two military officers of the frontier, Colonel Cockum and Cap-
tain Frisk, are presented in "Ponteach." They are proud, rough-
mannered braggarts and even to the friendly Indians are harsh and
cruel. 19 They never hesitate to provoke hatred, for in their opinion
the country should as soon as possible get rid of dangerous animals
and wily savages.

"Parkman, Conspiracy, etc., 1:173-74; 11:321.

17 Cf. Winsor, Nor. and Crit. Hist, of Amer., 1:292.

18 See Parkman, Conspiracy, etc., 1 :56.
"/bid., 1:176.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 19

Other Military Characters

Raccoon (old debauchee of foreign extraction, who is seeking a colonel's commission),
Barton, "The Disappointment" (1767).

Captain Gripeall and Captain Bagshot (Tories), Warren, "The Adulateur" (1773).

4. POLITICAL CHARACTERS

As should be expected, there appears in our earliest plays a
variety of political characters, many of which accurately recall the
leading interests and issues of the quarter-century just preceding
the Revolution.

a. The Public Official

Sharp, Gripe, and Catchum, three English governors in "Pon-
teach" (1766), are haughty, unscrupulous officials, and feel but
little responsibility for anything except their own welfare. They
flatter and cheat the Indians, then treat them with contempt. Of
the king's presents to his red brothers they first take a large share
of the best for themselves ; and when the grateful warriors recip-
rocate, again the governors keep back the most valuable gifts. They
too by their perfidy become the instigators of outrages against the
unoffending settlers.

b. The Patriot

The Patriot cause is earnestly championed in "The Adulateur"
(1773) by such enthusiasts as Brutus, Junius, Cassius, and Portius.
These names of course when interpreted mean Otis, the Adamses,
Warren, or any of the other most zealous leaders. The role of Bru-
tus is particularly full of patriotic fervor. He stands firm for un-
trammelled liberty and justice; with lofty utterance he harangues
his eager followers ; he prefers to keep sedate, yet insists on a deter-
mined spirit; he cherishes the memory of a liberty-loving sire,
and brands his yielding countrymen as groveling vipers; he be-
comes inflamed at the injustice of the courts, the licentiousness of
the soldiery, and the affronts of brazen-faced tyranny; his soul
bursts forth in a flame of righteous indignation, and at freedom's
altar he will sacrifice all that life calls dearest.

The passion, the satire, and the partisan authorship of "The
Adulateur" naturally render its characterization unreliable as far
as exact portraiture is concerned ; yet when we draw aside the cur-
tain of prejudice that obscures the actual conditions there are few

20 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

dramatic pieces exhibiting more faithfully the opinions, the moods,
and the acts that helped to precipitate the Revolution.

Other Patriot Characters

Deacon Graveairs (represented by a Tory author as a stupid, ignorant Whig), Sewall,
"A Cure for the Spleen" (1775). 1 *

c. The Tory

Governor Rapatio (Thomas Hutchinson ; "head-devil of British tyranny in America" 21 ).

P p (Tory who cringes, bows and fawns to get an office and pension), E r

and Meagre (other Tories), and Justice Hazlerod (creature of Rapatio; bombastic, servile
pretender), Warren, "The Adulateur" (1778).

Bumper (honest country justice; advocates right of England to rule over the colonists)
and Quaker Brim (shrewd, unfailing friend of monarchy 22 ), Sewall, "A Cure for the Spleen"
(1775).

d. The Politician

Colonel Robert Munford of Virginia wrote a satire entitled
"The Candidates" 23 which contains some genuine political charac-
ters. The most important probably is Mr. Wou'dbe, who aspires to
the office of burgess in the Virginia general assembly. He pos-
sesses a strong personality, an even temper, and a working sense
of justice and integrity. In speech he is direct, and deliberately
makes his political promises. But he is now in politics and cannot
easily avoid electioneering tactics ; that is, if he may hope to rep-
resent his countrymen. One or two of his speeches will character-
ize him further :

WOU'DBE. Who are you for?

GUZZLE. For the first man that fills my bottle; so Mr. Wou'dbe, your servant. (Exit.)

WOU'DBE. Ralpho, go after him and fill his bottle.

RALPHO. Master, we ought to be careful of the rum, else 'twill not hold out. (Exit.)

WOU'DBE (pulling out his watch). 'Tis now time a friend of mine has appointed for
me to meet the freeholders at a barbacue. Well, I find, in order to secure a seat in our
august senate, 'tis necessary a man should be either a slave or a fool: a slave to the people
for the privilege of serving them, and a fool himself for thus begging a troublesome and ex-
pensive employment, (p. 24.)

Again he says :

Tomorrow being the day of election, I have invited most of the principal freeholders
to breakfast with me, on their way to the court-house, (p. 43.)

Other Politician Characters

Mr. Worthy (former delegate to the Virginia assembly; consents to "stand a poll" again),
Sir John Toddy (candidate who "loves tipple too well"), Guzzle (freeholder, rough and out-

20 Although this piece was not published till 1775, it is thought on account of its sub-
ject matter to have been written some months earlier. Hence its inclusion with the Provin-
cial plays.

Tyler, B., 11:194.

22 See Bancroft, Hist, of U. S., V :468.

See Bib. L

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 21

spoken; sells vote for a drink of liquor), Mr. Strutabout (coxcomb candidate), Mr. Smallhopes
(another candidate). Twist (votes for the man who promises to reduce taxes), Prize (voter),
Ned and Jack (tools of candidates; move among voters to create sentiment), and Captain
Paunch (sober-minded voter), Munford, "The Candidates."

Puff (late Representative to the Continental Congress; drawn from Tory viewpoint),
Sswall, "A Cure for the Spleen" (1775).

5. RURAL CHARACTERS

"The Candidates" contains three characters that belong in this
section. The first is Mrs. Guzzle who, having a drunkard husband,
imbibes too freely herself. But when she begins to hiccough and
grow sick and dizzy she explains that she has eaten too much gin-
ger-bread! The remaining two are Lucky Twist and Catharine
Stern, wives of Virginia freeholders. They show more than pass-
ing interest in local politics. Mrs. Twist favors Mr. Wou'dbe for
burgess, because he is good to poor people and "when he comes into
a poor body's house he's so free and so funny." Mrs. Stern finds
herself in difficulty between the candidate and her jealous husband :

If a clever gentleman, nowadays, only give a body a ginger-cake in a civil way, you're
sullen for a week about it. Remember when Mr. Wou'dbe promised Molly a riband, a pair of
buckles, you would not let the poor girl have 'em ; but you take toddy from him yes, and
you'll drink a little too much, you know, Richard, (p. 26.)

Real women seem to be suggested in these characters.

6. MAN OF AFFAIRS CHARACTERS

In Colonial days the inn-keeper was always one of the conse-
quential citizens of a community. Such a man of affairs appears
in both "A Cure for the Spleen" (1775) and "The Disappointment"
(1767). The former contains Landlord Fillpot, a Whig, who tries
as far as possible to remain neutral in political controversies. The
latter play presents the tavern-keeper, Hum. This landlord deserves
the title of "fine fellow," for he can boast the qualities that are ir-
resistible to the masses. Jolly, loquacious and sociable, he also
drinks, swears and swaggers after the fashion of a "gentleman" ;
to hear a good joke is his delight, and in the execution of one he
acknowledges few superiors. His tavern is the official assembly
hall of all the idlers of the community.

7. WORKING-MAN CHARACTERS 24

In the Colonial plays a few interesting examples of the working

24 This section is intended to include characters taken from the so-called laboring class.
It embraces dependent workmen, their families and usual associates, and all persons in general
of small affairs.

22 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

man are to be noted, and the most of them seem to be copied from
actual persons.

"A Cure for the Spleen" (1775) contains a barber named
Trim. He is a conceited, talkative fellow and a fine specimen of
small-town politician. He always takes sides as policy directs, and
seeing that his customers are mostly Whigs becomes a leading ad-
vocate of the popular cause. In self-defense Trim insists :

If I was denied the privilege of my shop to canvass politics, as a body may say, that
is. Lord North, East India company, constitution, charter rights and privileges, duties, taxes,
and the like o' that body o' me, sir, strip me of this darling privilege, and you may take my
razors, soap, combs, and all.

In "The Disappointment" (1767) there is presented a liberal,
merry-hearted Irish cooper named Trushoop. He is greedy for
money but unwilling to stultify himself completely in getting it.
A disturbing circumstance of his life is his wife's temper; this,
however, he can usually mollify by an increase of pin-money. When-
ever Mrs. Trushoop loosens her sharp tongue in the shop, her hus-
band takes advantage of his position and pounds from the barrels
a drowning bass !

Another character that has some undeniably realistic touches
is the honest and virtuous but sharp-tongued wife of the cooper
just mentioned. Mrs. Trushoop possesses an independent air, frets
and scolds on slight provocation, and brings her wayward husband
into submission with cutting words, occasional blows, and a discon-
tinuance of the regular meals. Her tastes are coarse and sordid;
she grows jealous of her neighbors' good fortunes; with her hus-
band she tipples the rum-bottle, and because of his too frequent
late hours bitterly defames his fraternal brothers, the Masons.

If we thoughtfully review these characters of common life,
we cannot fail to recognize a large element of human nature run-
ning through them. In the case of "The Disappointment," more-
over, we have the author's own statement that in his writings he
had in mind an actual situation and real persons. 25

Other Working-Man Characters

Washball (barber), Buckram (material-minded, stormy-natured Scotch tailor), Trowell
(easy-going plasterer), Topinlift (happy-go-lucky sailor; speaks in nautical terms), and Moll
Placket (strumpet), Barton, "The Disappointment" (1767).

26 "I am obliged to assure the public that the story is founded on fact, transacted near
this city (Philadelphia) not long since and recent in the memory of thousands, and for the
truth of which I appeal to my fellow citizens." From preface, Barton, "The Disappointment "
2d ed.

Ford, in A, 679, mentions the Douglass company's rehearsal and later withdrawal of
"The Disappointment" without playing, in 1767, because of a too personal characterization.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 23

8. FASHIONABLE SOCIETY CHARACTERS

The fashionable class, naturally enough, has small representa-
tion among the realistic American characters of Provincial plays.
Only one of the more important pieces utilizes such, namely, "The
Disappointment."

Here we see Miss Lucy, Washball's niece, and her suitor, Mean-
well ; but both are romantic types. Mrs. Trowell is more distinc-
tive. It can hardly be doubted that she is a sample of a well-known
New York class of the day. She represents the would-be fashion-
able wife. Once she was jealous of her inconsequential spouse; now
she is resigned to anything he may choose to do. She consumes her
time in gossiping and gadding, and imagines that without her
charming presence the tea parties, card parties, theater parties,
garden parties, and sleighing parties would suffer appreciably.
Whenever it becomes necessary to win her husband's approbation
her tactics are always wheedling. Among the causes of the day to
which she generously lends her support are the virtues of Free-
masonry: here she maintains is to be found the quintessence of
religion.

9. SERVANT CHARACTERS

Dolly (maid ; becomes flustered when hurried ; curses the slow-boiling kettle ; blows the
fire and gets smoke in her eyes), Barton, "The Disappointment" (1767).

Ralpho (servant to Wou'dbe, candidate for burgess; asks for a new suit while his mas-
ter is treating the voters), Munford, "The Candidates."

10. PROFESSIONAL CHARACTERS

A fair example of the orthodox Tory parson appears in "A
Cure for the Spleen" (1775). Parson Sharp is looked up to as a
learned and almost perfect man, and whatever doctrine he sees
fit to promulgate is accepted as incontrovertible. 26 He "compares
the Americans to the Jews, who, though placed in the chosen land
by their king who had 'driven out the Canaanites, the Indians, be-
fore them, now vauntingly say, Who shall be Lord over us?' " 27
And those ministers who preach from the pulpit rebellion and poli-
tics he considers as special objects of denunciation.

"The Disappointment" (1767) contains a scrivener called
Parchment. This official in his own estimation at least is one of
the city's most substantial citizens. He declares himself a gentle-

26 See Byington, The Puritan in Eng. and N. E., 128.
"Dunlap, 48.

24 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

man both by education and birth, and in his personal habits fol-
lows his fashionable associates. His air is learned and dignified,
and his diction shows traces of legal phraseology. In his profession
he is as honorable and crafty as seems expedient ; in his politics he
defends the principles of republicanism.

11. CHARLATAN CHARACTERS

Rattletrap (plays part of a conjurer, though not in his regular employment; seems to
imitate real persons who claim to do magic), Barton, "The Disappointment" (1767).

CONCLUSION

The realistic presentation of American characters in native
plays prior to 1774 is as follows :

1. Characters that realistically reflect American life appear
in at least half of the some twenty plays recorded by Wegelin prior
to 1774. 28

Bibliography I gives all the important p re-Revolutionary plays.

2. Most of the realistic characters are found in the pieces
that treat native historical or political subjects. In this category
three-fourths of all the early plays containing American charac-
ters belong.

3. The predominant class of realistic characters is political.

The various political characters reflect a variety and range of interests comparable to
the heterogeneous life of the colonies.

4. The play-characters and situations are closely related to
the real people and conditions of the time.

Sometimes, as in "Ponteach," "The Disappointment," and "The Adulateur," well-known
individuals are so directly copied that their identity is recognizable.

5. No suggestion of the Yankee type occurs, and compara-
tively small use is made of Indians and fashionable persons as
dramatic characters.

There are perhaps to be discovered remote hints of some of the
distinctive elements which distinguish American nationality.

Material-mindedness is satirized in "The Disappointment" ; the interest of the com-
moner in national politics is suggested in "A Cure for the Spleen" ; and the bold resolve to keep
inviolate our "certain unalienable rights" is exemplified by the spirit of the Patriot characters
in "The Adulateur."

28 Conclusions numerically stated are always based on Wegelin's, or Roden's complete
bibliographies, and not on the selected list of Bib. I of this work.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 25

III

None of our Provincial plays, whether containing realistic
characters or not, possesses enduring qualities. The early pieces
died with the civilization that fostered them.

CHAPTER II

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS WRITTEN
BETWEEN 1774 AND 1787

AN EPOCH OF PARTISAN PIECES

The Continental Congress effectually closed 1 the Provincial
theaters, as far as professional acting was concerned, 2 in the fall
of 1774. No noteworthy performances again occurred till 1782
when the Baltimore company, first managed by Lindsay and Wall,
later by Ryan, 3 began professional playing. The first play acted
in the new republic, under the protection of the American flag, was
performed in New York by the second Lewis Hallam and his feeble
company in 1785.* From then on for several seasons the Old Ameri-
can company, jointly directed by Hallam and Henry, was the lead-
ing theatrical troupe of the country, and became instrumental in
turning the public mind again to the playhouse. During the trouble-
some years of the War for Independence all Patriots were natur-
ally of a single mind, and even had the new Congress not looked
with disfavor on dramatic activity we may be assured that there
would have been little interest taken in the production of native
plays.

However, within the thirteen years following 1774 5 a signifi-
cant amount of dramatic writing was attempted, for bibliographies
containing the plays of the time record some twenty pieces. 6 The
majority of these compositions were neither suitable nor intended
for production on the regular stage, and it seems certain that only
an occasional author aspired to anything like literary excellence.
Therefore, the incentive for frequent pieces in dramatic form must

1 It should not be forgotten that between 1775 and 1781, under the direction of English
military officers, the drama was encouraged and theaters were maintained in Boston, New
York, and Philadelphia while these cities were occupied by the British. See Dunlap, 46-55 :
Seilhamer, 11:16-50.

* See Ford, B, 80.

* See Seilhamer, II :51-133.

* Dunlap, 58.

5 See Part I, Introduction, for reason for making 1787 the closing date of this chapter.

* See Wegelin.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 27

be sought beyond an interest in the theater or a desire to produce
literature.

After noting the general tenor of these plays we shall arrive
at a satisfactory explanation : for acting or artistic expression the
plays of the Revolutionary epoch were not intended, but rather for
a purpose more practical, namely, as effective vehicles of expression
for intense feelings and cherished convictions, as mediums of self-
assertion, of condemnation, or of exhortation to the oppressed.

The best native plays of the epoch were written by Hugh
Henry Brackenridge (1748-1816), Peter Markoe (1735-1792), and
Mrs. Mercy Otis Warren (1728-1814).

1. MILITARY CHARACTERS

With few exceptions, each play of the Revolutionary epoch
contains realistic military or political characters, together with a
plot that owes its origin to the day's issues. Virtually all of these
characters fall into two comprehensive groups that of the Loyal-
ists and that of the Patriots. Hence, in an analytical survey we
may expect to see a motley array of partisans delineated in varying
degrees of fidelity.

a. The Officer

In "The Fall of British Tyranny" (1776), a native chronicle
play and grand satire on the Tories, several American characters
are represented, among whom is General Washington. He is drawn
as a consecrated Patriot leader and unfailing friend of the people.
In the face of discouragements and British chicanery he keeps
hopeful; in his military operations he displays insight and wis-
dom; in his manner, although always sympathetic and concerned
about details, he exhibits directness and determination.

Such a characterization is fundamentally correct.

In the same play Colonel Ethan Allen, the commander of a
scouting party, is reproduced with much of his reputed bravery
and boldness. He wishes to obey the law and strongly resents the
opprobrium of being called a rebel. When he recalls his own gen-
tleness with the British and now sees his captured party made to
suffer cruel and inhuman torture, his soul rebels, and scorning to
beg for his life from such unfeeling masters he vows to withstand
foreign tyranny until it is dealt its death-blow. 7

'See Bancroft, Hist, of U. S., V:118-19; Hart, Amer. Hist, told by Contemporaries,
11:508-11.

28 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

In a crude attempt at a political farce on the Patriot cause,
entitled "The Battle of Brooklyn" ( 1776), there appears an exag-
gerated Tory view of the American leaders, Washington and Put-
nam, as well as some significant hints concerning the strength and
quality of the Patriot army. Both generals and other officers are
of abject character, and are working to selfish ends; finding the
colonists a gullible lot, they meet with few obstacles in their course ;
in warfare their stupidity and weakness render their faint efforts
ridiculous. Washington is stigmatized as a profligate, 8 while Put-
nam stands forth as a common robber. Three American colonels
are represented as follows : Lasher is a New York shoemaker ; Rem-
sen, a Long Island farmer; and Clark, a Connecticut rum-seller.
Skinner, a thief and now a minor officer, is employed by Putnam to
steal horses in the neighborhood.

Professor Tyler describes the piece as "unutterably coarse
mere provender for bovine and porcine appetites a triumphant
exhibition of vigor in the flinging back of filth at the enemy in
these respects, therefore, an authentic memorial of the very spirit
and procedure of the time." 9 It might further be observed that, if
judged in an unprejudiced state of mind, underlying some of these
allegations there is a trifle of truth. 10

In Brackenridge's second and superior dramatic poem, "The
Death of General Montgomery in Storming the City of Quebeck"
(1777), there is presented a group of American military officers
who in many respects resemble their originals. Below I mention
two.

Generals Arnold and Montgomery, as they herein appear, are
each endued with the spirits of true Patriots. ^The former is a
valiant and gallant leader; he abhors barbarity and to subdue it,
is not unwilling to die a martyr ; in order that he and his children
may enjoy their natural rights, without a murmur he undergoes
extreme suffering and privation. 11 The latter is a high-minded,
circumspect general and holds essentially the same opinions as does
General Arnold. He is proud of his troops, believes they are capa-
ble of any undertaking, and is never happier than when leading
them in a charge. By nature he is religious and attached to home-

8 See Ford, The True George Washington, 105-07, for the foundation of scandal against
Washington.

Tyler, B, 209.

iSee Bancroft, Hist, of U. S., V :367-81.

Ibid,, V :126-28.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 29

associations. He is an ardent admirer of bravery, deems a war-
rior's death the highest of honors, and even while feeling a strong
presentiment of an early death dashes courageously into battle.

Into "The Motley Assembly" (1779), a clever Patriot farce
on Boston society life, two Revolutionary officers are introduced.
These are Captain Aid (T. Cartwright 12 ) , a young gallant, with a
commission in Washington's army, and Captain Careless (Amiel),
"an honest young sea-captain." Captain Aid is characterized as
"a little gay." Being a frequent visitor in Boston society he dis-
covers that of late he is somewhat disdained, and that this coolness
is intensified when he spiritedly proposes a toast to General Wash-
ington. Finally, seeing that unless a beau is a confirmed rake he is
likely to grow uninteresting to the belles of the upper circle, he
becomes disgusted with such emptiness and concludes to revise
his visiting list.

Captain Careless is rough-mannered, but a true-blue son of
liberty. He thinks it is the duty of every Whig to discountenance,
"at all times and upon all occasions," the too common raillery and
abuse by the Tories. Personally, he intends to treat such offenders
with neglect and contempt ; for above everything else he puts honor
and patriotism, and is ashamed of the sons of professed Whigs, who
show indifference and a lack of spirit. 13 His views, as well as the
theme of the play, are expressed in the following lines from the
epilogue :

Blush B(oston) ! blush! Thy honest sons bewail
That dance and song o'er patriot zeal prevail ;
That Whigs and Tories, joined by waywarfl chance,
Should hand in hand lead on the sprightly dance.

* * * *

In mix'd assembly, see, they crowd the place ;
Stain to the country, to their sires, disgrace;
Hell in some hearts, but pleasure in each face.
All all are qualifi'd to join this tribe,
Who have a hundred dollars to subscribe.

Munford's comedy of "The Patriots" 14 contains Trim, a re-
cruiting sergeant, who uses his own plan for encouraging enlist-
ments :

I have the recruiting jugs full to the brim. Peach brandy, the best liquor in the
world, (p. 79.)

12 Identifications of "The Motley Assembly" from the Harvard University library copy.

18 See Hart, Amer. Hist, told by Contemp., II :474-76.

" Although this play was not published till 1798, it must have been written during the
Revolutionary epoch; for its author died in 1782, and its theme evidently suggests a con-
temporary intimacy with Revolutionary conditions.

30 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

Unfortunately, as soon as the brandy is consumed, the recruits turn
deserters.

Other Officer Characters

Brigadier Hateall (Timothy Ruggles ; heartless Tory; loyal supporter of General Gage),
Warren, "The Group" (1776).

Warren^ Putnam, Gardiner, and Webb (valiant American leaders), Brackenridge, "The
Battle of Bunker's Hill" (1776).

Brackenridge in this mediocre dramatic poem, while imputing to the British officers
perfidious motives in general, characterizes the leaders of the people in the familiar eulogistic
fashion. The work, nevertheless, preserves the spirit of earnest Patriots.

General Putnam (shows high spirit, unflinching bravery, and sharp vindictiveness ;
trusts in God, and puts full confidence in his troops) and General Lee (without passion or haste;
believes in the ultimate triumph of the colonists, yet reminds them of the inevitableness of
hardships and privations), "The Fall of British Tyranny" (1776).

Macpherson (impetuous young hero), Cheeseman (New York captain, of personal charm),
and Hedricks (Pennsylvania captain who sees honor in dying for liberty), Brackenridge, "The
Death of General Montgomery" (1777).

Captain Flash (American recruiting officer and braggart) and Colonel Simple (cowardly
officer who resigns his commission, giving old age as his reason), Munford, "The Patriots."

b. The Private

Oswald, a citizen of Connecticut, in "The Death of General
Montgomery" (1777), possesses the attributes of a good volunteer.
When the call for service comes, he is one of the first to respond ;
in the field he understands the individual soldier's responsibility;
resolved to meet whatever fate awaits him he presses on with un-
wavering purpose, for he has decided before coming that English
wrongs are no longer sufferable.

2. POLITICAL CHARACTERS

Among the realistic characters of our Revolutionary plays
representatives of the political type are almost as numerous as
those of the military. Since the two types are not infrequently
found united it is advisable to consider them as of the same general
class.

a. The Public Official

The Tory attitude and conduct, from the republican viewpoint,
are scathingly depicted in Mrs. Warren's satire of "The Group"
(1775). And a most satanic group it is! Chief Justice Hazlerod
(Peter Oliver 15 ) is represented as one of the leading offenders. He
knows little law, for it is unnecessary: everything is settled by
swords, dragoons, and ministerial nods ; finding his conscience im-
peding the path of his prosperity, he would banish it and at the

15 See Tyler, B, 11:195.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 31

same moment all human sympathy; the "jingling of the guinea"
deafens the faint voice of justice at his ear; and in order to quell
the upstart rebellious subjects, he favors the incitement of Indian
malignity against them.

"The Fall of British Tyranny" (1776) has in its dramatis
personae a few minor characters which on account of their repro-
ducing actual conditions should receive a moment's close attention.
One of these is a selectman of Boston. He sees in the blockade an
attempt to starve the Americans. Such an act he heartily resents,
as well as all other British interference. Personally, he is well
pleased with the work of the Continental Congress; he thinks it
unites mature counsel, strength, and wisdom and is worthy of the
unreserved confidence of all serious-minded citizens.

Other Public Official Characters

Mr. Jenson (commissioner to France), Bidwell, "The Mercenary Match" (1785?).

6. The Patriot

From the conversation of a Whig in "The Fall of British Tyr-
anny" (1776) we become better acquainted with the position of
the Anti-Loyalist. He is greatly disturbed by the quartering of in-
solent troops among the colonists ; indeed, with many of the king's
acts he is out of patience, and does not now favor prolonged waiting
for an answer to the petition for redress of grievances. His Tory
neighbor advises to go slowly, for the English certainly mean to do
right; at any rate, they are too strong to be resisted. The Whig
replies that such a circumstance should not unnerve true Ameri-
cans, that they should oppose, regardless of the oppressor's
strength. While the Tory urges respect for the mother country,
the Whig becomes more bitter and outspoken, denouncing all office-
seeking renegades about him and branding as suspected traitors
such persons as refuse to take sides. 16

In Munford's satirical play of "The Patriots" we are given an
interesting "picture of real and pretended patriots." Meanwell
and Trueman are represented as "gentlemen of fortune accused
of Toryism," but genuine Patriots at heart. Their conception of
loyalty is brought out in the following speeches of Meanwell :

The cause of my country appears as dear to me as to those who most passionately de-
claim on the subject. The rays of the sun of freedom, which is now rising;, have warmed my

16 See Fisher, The Struggle for Amer. Independence, 1 :23 ; Hart, Amer: Hist, told by
Contemp., 11:474-76.

32 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

heart, but I hope my zeal against tyranny will not be shown by bawling against it, but by
serving my country against her enemies ; and never may I signalize my attachment to liberty
by persecuting innocent men. (p. 57.)

The last remark refers to the Scotch settlers who, refusing to
come out openly for liberty, were rashly treated by the more de-
monstrative Patriots. Meanwell says further:

Men who aim at power without merit must conceal the meanness of their souls by noisy
and passionate speeches in favor of everything which is the current opinion of the day; but
real patriots are mild, and secretly anxious for their country, but modest in expression of zeal.
They are industrious in the public service, but claim no glory to thesmselves. (p. 58.)

Such citizens by the radical class were considered "milksops"
and were not infrequently called before "the committee" for in-
vestigation. But Trueman declares emphatically:

Whenever the conduct and principles of neither (Whig nor Tory) are justifiable, I am
neither; as far as the conduct and principles of either correspond with the duties of a good
citizen, I am both. (p. 106.)

That neither has any sympathy with a pretender, Meanwell's
part in the following will show:

SIM. What must be done to Mr. Tackabout?
BRAZ. Duck him.
SKIP. Tar and feather him.
THUND. Advertis* him.

MEAN. He should be duck'd as an incendiary, tarr'd as a nuisance, feather'd as a foul
traitor, hang'd . (p. 103.)

After many trying experiences Trueman finally concludes :

So in spite of all the malice and censure of the times, I am at last dubb'd a Whig. I
am not wiser or better than before. My political opinions are still the same, my patriotic
principles unaltered; but I have kick'd a Tory: it seems there is a merit in this which, like
charity, hides a multitude of sins. (p. 107.)

A realistic scene is presented at the close of "The Blockheads"
(1776) when the British, are evacuating Boston and the refugees
are experiencing unspeakable pain and suffering. Witnessing the
confusion on every hand, a woman in the barracks remarks:

Good enough for them they have brought it upon themselves ; they had better have
minded their farms, not have run here to be ridiculed to both parties. If I had a good farm
I would see government to the devil, before they should catch me here, to be froz'd, famish'd,
ridicul'd curse them and their spiritless defenders, and let's conclude with huzzas for
America, (p. 19.)

Other Patriot Characters

Citizens of Boston (hate the English governors; think the English ungrateful for the
colonists' service in the late war against France; have faith in the Continental Congress),
"The Fall of British Tyranny" (1776).

Brazen (coarse, blunt champion of the radical party), Munford, "The Patriots."

c. The Tory

In "The Motley Assembly," 17 a Patriot farce on the class of
"taste and fashion" that was to be met in Boston about 1779, sev-

17 See Bib. L Ford, in A, 684, mentions this piece as "the first American play to have
only American characters."

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 33

eral Tory sympathizers are presented, two of whom I shall here
speak of. Mr. Runt (Inman 18 ) is "a short, fat old fellow who is
fond of gallanting the ladies." In his mind the rebels are little bet-
ter than cattle; everybody is much worse off than before hostili-
ties began; the treacherous French are responsible for no small
amount of the colonists' hardships. For the sake of policy and
safety he conceals a great deal of his true feeling. Turncoat (D.
Hubbard) is "one of the managers of the assembly." He pretends
to be a neutral ; yet it is observed that as long as there is any hope
of preferment by the British officers he takes care not in the least
to offend them.

Mr. Tackabout, in "The Patriots" by Munford, is a pretended
Whig but a real Tory. He "bawls" out for liberty, but is unwilling
to forfeit his prospects of a title in England. Representing a
coward and demagogue who "privately condemns but publicly ap-
proves" he is made to say with cutting irony:

Where is the man that has done more than I have? I have damn'd the ministry, abus'd
the king, vijjfied the parliament, and curs'd the Scotch. I have raised the people's suspicions
against all moderate men; advised them to spurn all government; I have cried down Tories,
cried up Whigs, extolled Washington as a god, and call'd Howe a very devil. I have ex-
claimed against all taxes, advised the people to pay no debts ; I have promised them success
in war, a free trade, and independent dominion. In short, I have inspired them with true
patriotic fire, the spirit of opposition; and yet you say it is expected I should do something.

Colonel Simple remarks that "there are many to be found who do
all this," and Trueman says aside, "And few who do anything else."

Other Tory Characters

Monsieur de Francois (faint-hearted French- American, who remains a Loyalist), Crusty
^Crowbar (conscience-stricken Tory), Hum Humbug, Sir Sparrow Spendall, Hector Mushroom,
Simple ^Sapling, Scribblerius Fribble, and Judge Collateralis Warren, "The Group" (1775).

All of these personages are supposed to be "attended by court sycophants, hungry
harpies, and unprincipled danglers, collected from the neighboring villages, hovering over the
stage in the shape of locusts, led by Massachusettensis in the form of a basalisk." Following
Dramatis Personae.

d. The Politician

Mr. Worthy (member of Congress), Bidwell, "The Mercenary Match" (17867).
Isabella (female politician and radical Patriot) , Munford, "The Patriots."

At the conclusion 19 of this and the preceding sections a second
glance will not be out of place. In the military and political charac-
ters of Revolutionary plays appear the leading officers, types, opin-

18 Identifications from marginal notes of copy in the Harvard University library.

19 Brief attention is called at this time to the meritorious tragedy of Peter Markoe,
entitled "The Patriot Chief" (1784). Artistically, it is the best play of the epoch. Although
treating a foreign fable, its theme is particularly pertinent, being to show the dangers that
often threaten a state from within at the hands of traitors, and the certain triumph over all
perfidy when devoted Patriots are aroused.

34 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

ions, moods, and aims, along with representative occurrences, of
nearly a decade of conflict. In many cases exaggeration, omissions,
or idealization may be pointed out such is to be expected; yet
one cannot help feeling, after refreshing one's mind with the ac-
tual conditions of the day, that in these unpretentious American
pieces is effectively and unshrinkingly contained the real essence
of much that is today considered historically valuable. Were there
nothing else to recommend them, this circumstance alone would be
ample excuse for their study and resurrection.

3. RURAL CHARACTERS

Only a small number of unmistakable country-characters are
introduced into the Revolutionary plays. These, however, show
marked realistic traits, and also a vital connection with the day's
political affairs.

a. The Farmer

Among the characters of a satirical comedy called "The Block-
heads" (1776) are two farmer refugees, Surly and Simple. Un-
happier mortals are seldom seen, and in their hearts both repent
of their folly. The first remembers that he once had property, a
peaceful home, and kind neighbors ; that for the promise of a pen-
sion and a post of honor he was enticed away; that his wife and
daughter were then as pure as the angels of Heaven. What does
he now perceive? He is friendless, because both the Patriots and
the English disdain him; he occupies no office, and his family is
living on charity; he fled to Boston for protection but finds none,
for the British are afraid to fight; to the pangs of disgrace and
famine are added the insults of military ruffians. Although resolv-
ing on account of his pride to make the best of his misfortune, he
is avowedly wretched.

Simple, although fully as miserable as his brother Loyalist, is
represented as a less refined type of farmer. He has plain manners
and coarse diction ; for style and luxury possesses no taste ; is thor-
oughly dispirited by his financial losses, the British faithlessness,
his wife and daughter's vanity, and his own shortsightedness. He
sorely repents of having come to Boston, and declares were it not
for the courts of inquiry he would throw himself upon the mercy
of his former countrymen. He reproves himself for aspiring to a
title and concludes that British loyalty is but a "court watchword."

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 35

The character delineation of a satirist naturally becomes cari-
cature ; yet the element of reality is not the less genuine because of
its distorted or magnified proportions. In these two hapless refu-
gees an actual condition of the time seems to be pointed. 20

Other Farmer Characters

Roger and Dick (farmers of the neighborhood of Lexington; they are credulous, simple-
hearted countrymen, and become wrought up over the approach of the British), Leacock, "The
Fall of British Tyranny" (1776).

b. Other Rural Characters

A pathetic realistic scene is found in "The Fall of British Tyr-
anny." The time is the morning following the battle of Bunker
Hill. Almost overcome by fear and worry, Clarissa, a country
woman of near Boston, awaits some report of the engagement and
the return of her husband, son, and brother. Finally a neighbor
who has seen all approaches; he recounts the events clearly and
touchingly; he can scarcely muster courage to break the news of
her triple loss. Reading the sad message in his countenance, the
bereaved matron sinks to the floor unconscious, and refuses to be
comforted except by the thought that her loved ones have fallen as
"martyrs of liberty." The neighbor, witnessing this sorrow, can no
longer repress his feeling, but bursts forth in rage against the Brit-
ish, branding their general as a murderer.

4. MAN OF AFFAIRS CHARACTERS

Mr. Lyndall (vain, ambitious, unscrupulous Boston merchant), Bidwell, "The Mercenary
Match" (1785?).

5. FASHIONABLE SOCIETY CHARACTERS

The fashionable characters of Revolutionary times, as found
in the dramatic pieces, are far more than mere idealizations, and
in many instances exhibit unmistakably natural traits. As com-
pared with similar characters in the Provincial plays, the number
is proportionately larger. Thus, in the Revolutionary drama we
see suggested both the nature and the growth of the leisure class.

a. The Beau

Mrs. Warren's polemical farce, "The Group" (1775), contains
several persons of fashionable pretention that have been alluded to

2 See Bancroft, Hist, of U. S., V :199.

36 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

in previous sections. 21 One, however, belongs more properly here.
This is the stylish Beau Trumps, identified as "foppish Daniel
Leonard," 22 He is not an avowed enemy to freedom, but prefers
Tory society on account of the emphasis it gives to pomp, titles,
and fine dress. The beau, furthermore, likes himself and his reputa-
tion too well to indulge extensively in patriotic sentiment.

Other Beau Characters

Major Shapely (intriguing gallant), Bidwell, "The Mercenary Match" (17857).

b. The Lady

Lady Gates in "The Battle of Brooklyn" (1776) is a typical
Boston society dame of the day. She enjoys nothing better than a
piece of scandal, and contributes her due part in circulating de-
famatory tales about Washington. She sees little in the general to
admire, calls him "a little-minded barbarian" to suffer the arts to
be trampled, in the case of the king's statue, and looks upon the
Patriot regime as "republican Tyrants and Smugglers in power."

The Boston society set of 1779 is responsible for several char-
acters that appear in "The Motley Assembly" (1779). Mrs. Flour-
ish (Mrs. Deblois) is a vain, hypocritical scandal-monger, who
turns to herself for consummate refinement. A Patriot to her is
only a species of rational animal; she opines that "Mr. Washing-
ton, or General Washington, if you please, is a very honest, good
kind of man .... but doubtless there are his equals so say no
more" (p. 15) ; for the French allies she manifests a deep-seated
hatred and contempt. Miss Flourish (Miss Deblois), the daughter,
reflects faithfully her rearing among the ton; fashion and beaux
are the topics of her conversation ; she cries to go to the "assem-
bly," for it is such a pleasure to make remarks about those present !

Mrs. Taxall and her daughter (Mrs. and Miss Sheaffe), in the
same play, represent variations of the type. The mother is a lady
of "taste and fashion," principally because she herself says so; it
is positively stooping, she declares, to work before necessity drives
one to it ; no small part of her daily anxiety is the successful man-
agement of her daughter's courtship. Once Miss Taxall was at-
tracted by a "Yankee spark," but having come to Boston in the bril-
liant days of the siege soon decided to ignore her rustic acquaint-
ances. Being extremely light and fickle, she has some ludicrous

2 1 See Military and Political characters.

22 See Tyler, A, 11:196.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 37

ideas, a fair example of which is : Since fashionable daughters dare
not work or be useful, it is no less than an insult to be invited to do
sewing for the half -naked Patriot troops.

Mrs. Bubble (Mrs. Swan), as presented in "The Motley As-
sembly," is a social "dragon-fly." Airy, whimsical, and extrava-
gant, she occupies most of her days with the problems of her ward-
robe. She often purchases expensive gowns, just to keep her neigh-
bors from getting them; it is on the subject of clothes-allowance
that she has disagreements with her husband; the 5oy of outdress-
ing the Whigs explains her frequent presence in their hated
company.

Other Lady Characters

Miss Doggrel (sighs vainly for a return of "the days of the siege") and Tab (Sal Sheaffe ;
being unattractive, fails to receive her due share, as she believes, of the young gallants' atten-
tion; insulted when asked to ply her needle for the ragged Patriot troops), Warren, "The
Motley Assembly" (1779).

Mrs. Jenson (proud, short-sighted, vivacious young wife), Bidwell, "The Mercenary
Match" (1785?).

c. Other Fashionable Society Characters

Two would-be fashionable women are presented in "The
Blockheads" (1776). The first is Mrs. Jemima Simple, a refugee
farmer's wife. In reality she is but a shallow, uncultured country
woman and something of a scold ; but since arriving in Boston she
feels quite converted into a lady. She is now ashamed of her rough
farmer-husband; scorns Yankee plainness and frankness, gener r
ally; refers to her forsaken farm-life as stupid drudgery; tries to
assume city tastes and put on prudish airs; craves attention from
the elite and the swaggering Redcoats; and, ere long, plans ex-
tensive European travels, where she can see manners to her heart's
content.

The second parvenue, who exemplifies the silly, thoughtless,
disobedient young woman, is the daughter, Miss Tabitha Simple.
She no longer respects her father, looking upon him as an old fogy ;
with her maid's assistance she arranges clandestine meetings with
Lord Dapper, whose flattery she accepts at face value; her single
aspiration is to become a lady of the current quality, for then she
can hope to win a husband of affluence and at the same time receive
homage from the gay young fops.

50087

38 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

6. SERVANT CHARACTERS

a. The White

Betty, Lady Gates's maid in "The Battle of Brooklyn" (1776)
is a coarse, sordid, sensual woman who professes first-hand knowl-
edge of General Washington's alleged profligacy. She refers to him
as "a sweet, meek, melancholy, sighing gentleman." 23 Dorsa, a
maidservant in "The Blockheads" (1776), is a low-motived refu-
gee girl. She is ever ready to assist her mistress in collusions, is
especially concerned about a "spark" for herself, and boasts of be-
ing well-informed in the tricks of gallantry.

Other White Servant Character

Pickle (cowardly servant who likes to prey on the country lasses), Munford, "The
Patriots."

b. The Black

In "The Fall of British Tyranny" (1776) there appear a num-
ber of negro slaves, kidnaped by Lord Dunmore. They are very
ignorant and credulous, and readily consent when promised release
to try to kill their masters. These negroes might serve as speci-
mens of the Revolutionary slave in a degraded state. 24

7. PROFESSIONAL CHARACTERS

The principal examples of this class are Revolutionary parsons.

Ebenezer Snuffle, although appearing in the Tory farce of
"The Battle of Brooklyn" (1776), seems after all notably true to
the parsons of the day. He is a pompous chaplain in General Put-
nam's army, and prays earnestly for the success of what the Loyal-
ists call unjust undertakings. He is hostile to the Episcopal clergy,
and particularly bitter against the Quakers. To punish the latter
for their disloyalty to the cause of independence, he hopes to fine,
whip, imprison, and hang them."

Other Professional Characters

Minister, "The Fall of British Tyranny" (1776).

Rev. Samuel Spring (fighting parson), Brackenridge, "The Death of General Mont-
gomery" (1777).

28 See Ford, The True George Washington, 84-111.

24 Ford thinks this the initial introduction of the negro as a dramatic character into
American drama. A, 682.

28 See Schouler, Americans of 1776, 239; Trevelyan, The Amer. Rev., 303-18.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 39

CONCLUSION

The realistic characters of our Revolutionary drama exhibit a
vital, candid, and intensified realism. More specific observations
are the following :

1. Characters that are drawn' from American life appear in
at least two-thirds of the eighteen or more recorded native plays
between 1774 and 1787.

Bibliography I contains almost the entire list.

2. Of the pieces presenting realistic characters about five-
sixths are based on the day's political conditions.

3. The predominant realistic characters belong to the nvli-
tary, the political, and the fashionable society groups.

The military and political groups are extensive and diversified.

The fashionable society characters are in a high degree reflective of actual conditions.

4. All the realistic characters possess a decided singleness of
interest.

Regardless of private vocation, virtually all persons in the Revolutionary pieces are
chiefly concerned about American independence as a political issue.

5. The realistic characters are animated and essentially au-
thentic memorials of the leaders, opinions, moods, conditions, and

events which form the principal substance of Revolutionary history.

6. In consequence of the satiric, polemic, and eulogistic atti-
tudes of the authors, most of the characters of the Revolutionary
pieces are made to speak with more than ordinary passion and
conviction.

7. Before 1787 no satisfactory Yankee characters are pre-
sented.

Simple, a refugee farmer in Warren's "The Blockheads" (1776), resembles the Yankee
in certain particulars.

8. Indian parts are absent from the Revolutionary plays.

The genuine Patriot characters seem to possess most of the
essential elements of American nationality.

Some of the distinctive traits of modern Americans are independence and directness of
action, bluntness of speech and quickness of decision ; practicality, constant activity, and a
disposition to tackle big problems ; large emotions, easily wo sympathies, and a cheery, though
not subtle, sense of humor. 29 It seems to me that the Patriot characters of the Revolutionary
plays are in a significant degree differentiated by just such qualities.

40 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

III

The Revolutionary plays, more noticeably than those of any
other epoch of our dramatic history, are circumscribed by time and
local condition. Almost in no sense do they possess the qualities of
universal appeal.

"Cf. Moses, The Amer. Dramatist, 23; Fisher, The Struggle for Am.tr. Independence,
1:28; Muenaterberg, The Americans.

PART II

THE REALISTIC PRESENTATION OF AMERICAN

CHARACTERS IN THE NATIVE AMERICAN

PLAYS OF THE PERIOD OF EXPERIMENT

AND DEPENDENCE

1787-1815

Along with the triumphant issue of the Revolution, the making
of the new Constitution, and the return of the strife-wearied citi-
zens to peaceful pursuits there came a revival of professional the-
atrical activity in the new republic 1 as well as a somewhat serious
attempt to discover its dramatic tastes and, if possible, to create
for it a dignified dramatic literature. One of the earliest signs of
advancement in the latter direction was the successful presentation
of Royall Tyler's Yankee comedy of "The Contrast" (1787) 2 .

The kindly reception accorded Tyler's comedy was in a large
measure responsible for other original efforts which immediately
followed. The most important of these were the early plays of Wil-
liam Dunlap. This enthusiastic author became after a few years the
leading playwright and theater manager of the United States, and
because of his high purposed endeavors and actual accomplishments
has since been referred to as the "father of American drama." By
a long series of diversified experiments in native play writing and
production, in the midst of circumstances that were only too real,
he more than any other discovered for his contemporaries and suc-
cessors the inevitable servile course which native drama was des-
tined for many years to follow.

The theater in America throughout this period experienced a
salutary growth and for the first time began to exert marked in-
fluence upon native drama, Boston, Philadelphia, and New York
erected splendid structures, while most of the smaller cities main-
tained houses adequate to their needs. The leading actors and
actresses were all from Europe.

1 See Seilhamer, II and III.

2 See Seilhamer, 11:215; 225-39.

44 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

Though the American public grew more and more suspicious
of home-made plays, the thirty years following 1787 brought forth
numerous pieces on a wide variety of subjects. Some dealt with
history, both foreign and American; a large number were of the
fictive or romantic stamp; and not a few undertook to treat cer-
tain phases of political and social life as it was then found in
America. This motley body of plays appeared in the form of trans-
lations, adaptations, or original compositions that were more or
less imitative. Foreign domination was now in full force, although
it has ever since made itself felt, and as the master dramatist all
eyes turned to Kotzebue, who excelled not in literary drama but in
ingenious theatrical plots. Such dependence, however, is less cen-
surable when we recall that England with all her wealth of drama
was doing the very same thing. Furthermore, since the dramatic
child, like any other, must creep before it can walk, these early
years of unoriginality and amateurish effort may be more easily
accepted as a matter of course.

The servility of American authors to the playwrights of Eu-
rope continued to be marked until after the Civil War, although
during the forty years leading up to 1860, even under the constant
foreign influence, there appeared with increasing frequency Ameri-
can plays which exhibit something of the craftsmanship and cre-
ative conception of real masters. This means that the beginning of
more constructive American play writing, and hence of a new his-
torical period, may be said to date from the conclusion of the War
of 1812. During our Second War for Independence interest in na-
tive drama must have been slight, if we may judge from the char-
acter and number of American plays that were then written. Be-
tween 1810 and 1815 there was a greater lull in native play pro-
duction than had occurred in any five years of the previous twenty,
or has ever occurred in the same length of time since. 3 But fol-
lowing the cessation of hostilities, early in 1815, after the United
States had re-established itself before the world and had entered
upon an era of national awakening, the theater and drama of Amer-
ica began to rise to higher levels and as never before received the
support of the more intellectual classes of our citizenship. All the
greatest English actors paid visits to our shores, John Howard
Payne and a few other native playwrights were producing pieces
of no mean order, and the so-called "native American movement,"

8 See Part I, Chap. I, Conclusion, note 1.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 45

which kept under headway till the Civil War, was beginning to in-
clude the drama as well as everything else that ingenious, self-
confident Yankees believed they were capable of.

In view of the foregoing observations, therefore, I have taken
the year 1815 4 as marking the close of a period of experiment and
dependence in the rise of American drama, and at the same time
as indicating the beginning of a period of development and par-
tial independence the latter also never free of course from ob-
vious unoriginality.

The period of experiment and dependence in native play writ-
ing may be conveniently subdivided into three parts. The first
subperiod, embracing the plays written between 1787 and 1796,
I have called the first decade of native drama under significant
theatrical influence; the second, extending from 1796 to 1805, in-
cludes the native plays of the Dunlap decade of managership ; and
the third, covering the ten years between 1805 and 1815, contains
the native dramatic pieces of what seems to be a decade of com-
parative passivity in American drama. To each of these subperiods
a chapter has been given, showing in detail the realistic American
characters in the plays of the time.

4 Professor A. H. Quinn in a paper entitled "A Proposed Classification of the Periods
in the Development of the American Drama," prepared for the Modern Language Association
1914, prefers the year 1829 as the beginning of "the first creative period." I am inclined to
believe, however, that a close examination of the plays of the time will reveal evidences of
significant creative production during the ten or twelve years preceding 1829, the date of the
production of "Metamora."

CHAPTER I

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS WRITTEN
BETWEEN 1787 AND 1796

THE FIRST DECADE OF NATIVE DRAMA UNDER SIGNIFICANT
THEATRICAL INFLUENCE

On April 16, 1787, the Hallam and Henry company produced
for the first time at the John Street Theatre, New York, Royall
Tyler's comedy of "The Contrast." l Although this was neither
the first 2 native play that had been acted by professional come-
dians nor the first that bore obvious markings of Cisatlantic life
and manners, 3 it was the earliest production of an American play
into which had been introduced an acting character, distinctive,
national, and vital, not drawn from the imagination or the current
list of stock dramatic types but reproduced fundamentally from
the very substance of American civilization. This character was
Jonathan, the Yankee "waiter," who bore the essential marks that
have ever since distinguished stage-Yankees. Hence, it seems con-
sistent to consider "The Contrast" as the first specimen of Ameri-
can drama that suggests a native species of play.

The success of Tyler's comedy encouraged other native authors,
the most noteworthy among whom was William Dunlap. Within a
few months he wrote "The Modest Soldier" but failed to secure
its production. He then composed a stronger comedy, entitled "The
Father," which was promptly brought out in 1789. In various
quarters American dramatic pieces were beginning to appear, the
best playwrights of the time being, besides Tyler (1758-1826) and
Dunlap (1766-1839), Samuel Low and Mrs. Susanna Rowson (1762-
1824). Belonging to the decade beginning with 1787 more than
thirty original native plays are recorded, of which fully three-
fourths were either presented on the professional stage or written
with sanguine hope of production.

1 See Seilhamer, II :216.

2 Godfrey's "The Prince of Parthia" had been performed twenty years earlier by the
Douglass company, a troupe of professional comedians. See Ford, A, 679.

* See plays discussed in the two preceding chapters.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 47

With the presentation of "The Contrast" American drama may
be said to have come under significant theatrical influence. Thea-
ters were now well established in all the larger cities of the At-
lantic seaboard, 4 even puritanic Boston yielding in 1792. 5 Com-
panies of talented actors were increasing, 4 and their managers
seemed not unwilling to consider meritorious native pieces, with
a view to acting. These conditions were not so true of the preced-
ing period. Out of forty or more plays written prior to 1787 less
than a half-dozen were produced, or intended for production, on
the regular stage, although two-thirds of the number seem to have
been given by amateurs. The truth is, the American drama and
the American theater were now being more and more united, 6
and each was undergoing a stage of definite development. It is
not improbable that the fair outlook partly induced the playwright,
Dunlap, to turn manager.

William Dunlap became joint-manager of the John Street
Theatre, early in 1796. 7 This was the beginning of nearly a decade
of trying and eventful experience. For seven years, up to 1805, he
was sole director of the Park Theatre, New York, 8 which was
then the leading metropolitan theater of the United States. This
managership was of sufficient importance in the rise of American
drama to entitle it to separate treatment.

1. YANKEE CHARACTERS

In Jonathan, the Yankee "waiter" in "The Contrast" (1787),
we make the acquaintance of the original of a long succession of
stage- Yankees that were so excellently played in the theaters of
antebellum days by comedians of the quality of Hill and Hackett.
In the earlier plays I can recall but a single character that tends to
anticipate Jonathan : this is Simple, 9 a farmer-refugee in "The
Blockheads" (1776). Simple is drawn as a raw countryman who
speaks in coarse language and has no use for manners and style;
he is characteristically stingy, and has a great deal more sense than
his name indicates. But the purpose of the characterization in that
case is to show the ill fortune of the country-refugee rather than

See Seilhamer, III.

Ibid., 111:19-20; Clapp, 7.

See Dunlap, 71.

Ibid., 148.

Ibid., 226; 282.

See Part I, Chap. II, Sec. 3, a.

48 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

to exhibit an individual type of American. Therefore, for the true
Yankee type, farmer Simple may be disregarded.

Tyler's Jonathan, as far as fundamental traits are concerned,
seems to reproduce the substantial New Englander with an ap-
proach to fidelity. He has an original and homely but good humor,
an independent air, a large quantity of that rare commodity called
common sense, a very special concern about his material goods,
and a puritanic morality such as turned ever to the meeting-house
and shunned the theater as the abode of Satan himself.

Jonathan proves that he is "a true-born Yankee American
son of liberty" by singing "Yankee Doodle" for Jenny, his new
city acquaintance. This is said to be the earliest use of the text
for dramatic purposes. 10 His peculiar speech appears in such ex-
pressions as "tarnation," "dang it," "gor," "buss," "tarnal,"
"spark it," "I vow," "I swear," "swamp it," "out in doors," "like
the nation," "marcy on my soul," "smite my timbers," and "pretty
considerably glad." He shows the same propensity in his affairs
of the heart as have nearly all the stage- Yankees since his time:
all of them with hardly an exception fall madly in love at first
sight, and within a few minutes after getting acquainted wish to
"buss" and embrace the "gal." In this play, as is usually true,
Jonathan is by no means scorned but laughed at in a friendly way.
Below I give part of his account of a visit to the John Street The-
atre where he thought he was merely at "the place where they
played hocus pocus" :

JONATHAN. So I went right in, and they showed me away clean up to the garret,
just like a meeting-house gallery. And so I saw a power of topping folks, all sitting around
in little cabins just like father's corn-crib, and then there was such a squeaking of the fiddles,
and such a tarnal blaze with the lights, my head was near turned. At length the people that
sat near me set up such a hissing hiss like so many mad cats, and then they went thump,
thump, thump, just like our Pelejr thrashing wheat, and stampt away just like the nation,
and called out for one Mr. Langolee I suppose he helps act the tricks.

JENNY. Well, and what did you do all this time?

JONATHAN. Gor, I I liked the fun, and so thumpt away, and hissed as lustily as
the best of them. One sailor-looking man that sat by me, seeing me stamp, and knowing I was
a cute fellow, because I could make a roaring noise, clapped me on the shoulder and said,
"You are a damned hearty cock, smite my timbers." I told him so I was, but he needn't
swear so and make use of such wicked words.

Upon learning that he had been at the theater he exclaims :

Marcy on my soul! Did I see the wicked players? Mayhaps that 'ere Darby, that I liked
so, was the old serpent himself, and had his cloven foot in his pocket. Why I vow, now I
come to think on't, the candles seemed to burn blue, and I'm sure, where I sat, it smelt
tarnally of brimstone. (Act III, Sc. 1.)

10 The tune of Yankee Doodle first found native dramatic use in the fourth song intro-
duced into "The Disappointment" (1767).

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 49

In 1788 Samuel Low presented the managers of the John
Street Theatre a superior comedy of manners called "The Poli-
tician Out-Witted." This play contains two characters of the
Yankee type, the more important of which is a farmer named
Humphry Cubb. He is just as awkward, droll, and shrewd as Ty-
ler's Jonathan, and does not differ essentially from him. Cubb is
a talkative fellow, is addicted to the quoting of proverbs (which
he usually concludes with the remark, "as the old saying is"), and
uses such words and phrases as "worser," "sartin," and "I never
larnt to cypher." He will not take pay for an accommodation, sel-
dom refuses the offer of a glass of ale, presents his sweetheart with
a ribbon when he calls, and pays little attention to style and dress,
buying his own "cloathes" at the "vendue option." He does not
"keep up" on politics especially, nor does he understand the full
import of the new Constitution that is now before the state for
adoption. In general, Low uses caricature more broadly than Tyler,
but, it seems, without any greater intention of offence.

Other Yankee Characters

Yankee Servant, Dunlap, "The Modest Soldier" (1787).

Dolly (country girl who has come to New York, to hire out as a domestic), Low, "The
Politician Out-Witted" (1788).

Susannah (pretty, vivacious, but small-minded house-maid), Dunlap, "The Father" (1788).
Yorick (true-blue Yankee Federalist), "The Better Sort" (1789).

As we review these earliest examples of the Yankee type the
question arises : have we here merely a new comedy clown for the
native stage, such a person as never existed in any land, or an
animated creature of flesh and blood, a specimen of distinctive
American life, reproduced with obvious exaggeration but at the
same time with many of the fundamental traits of Yankee nature ?
The answer to this question must lie in a comparison of the stage-
type with that citizen of substantial worth " who for nearly a
century and a half has been one of the strong pillars of our re-
public. Such a comparison, I am disposed to think, tends to show
that the second opinion above given is more nearly correct.

2. INDIAN CHARACTERS

The Indian, as yet, is a negligible character in native dramatic
writing, for during the decade following 1787 there seems to have
appeared but a single noteworthy piece introducing such a type.
This was a serious opera, entitled "Tammany; or, The Indian

11 See Fisher, The Struggle for Amer. Independence, 1:22-24.

50 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

Chief," by Mrs. Ann Julia Hatton. It was written for the Tammany
Society and performed at the John Street Theatre, New York,
1794. Only songs from the piece have been published. 12

3. POLITICAL CHARACTERS

Realistic political characters are found in more than one-third
of the native plays of this decade, and authentically remind us of
the day's principal events and issues.

a. The Public Official
Watchman, Murdock, "The Triumphs of Love" (1795).

b. The Patriotic Citizen

The use of the heading, Patriotic Citizen, does not imply
that citizens not herein included are unpatriotic. It refers to that
type of citizen, met on every hand, who makes his country's welfare,
whether real or supposed, one of his chief interests and seldom fails
to give voice to his opinions, both in and out of season. This type,
as seen after the Revolution, is not especially partisan but decided-
ly patriotic and individually concerned about the qualities of good
citizenship, the best means of promoting such, and the avoidance
of numerous dangers which threaten the young republic.

A fair example of patriotic citizen is Colonel Manley in "The
Contrast" (1787). Although somewhat idealized, in most respects
he evinces the traits of a sober-minded American. He stands for
morality, honor, and justice, occupies his mind with noble senti-
ments, and is willing for self-sacrifices in services to his country.
He cautions against the dangers of luxury, opposes acts of in-
trigue, and generally condemns the all too prevalent imitation of
Europe ; for instance, he says :

In America the cry is, What is the fashion? and we follow it indiscriminately, because
it is so. (Act II, Sc. 1.)

For dueling he feels no tolerance, for he considers such an insti-
tution un-American. Again he sounds an American note when he
mentions the customs and ideals that predominate among his
countrymen :

In our country the affections are not sacrificed to riches or family-aggrandizement :
^. ... my family is decent, and my rank honorable. (Act IV, Sc. 2.)

Mr. Sententious in "The Better Sort" (1789) is a man of good
sense, but a trifle sentimental. His wife wishes to become a lady

12 See Wegrelin, 60.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 51

after the English fashion, but Mr. S. has grave doubts. He ex-
patiates, though vainly, on the virtues of plainness, economy, and
prudence, tries to inculcate higher ideals than those of the self-
styled "better sort," and entertains a strong desire to dissuade the
town ladies from their foreign tastes. He is loyal to his govern-
ment, and believes in the wholesome influence on the people of
native literature :

I have now by me "General Montgomery," "The Battle of the Kegs," "Freneau's Poems"
and many others that were favorites with the Continental soldiers, and no doubt contributed
as much to encourage them to endure hardships and persevere in the struggle, as paper money.

"The Triumphs of Love" (1795) contains an extremely patri-
otic citizen in the character of Major Manly. He says :

I glory in being an enthusiast in the cause of liberty and my country; and esteem it
the most fortunate circumstance of my life that I have been instrumental in effecting a revo-
lution which has given freedom to millions living, and will secure it to millions yet unborn.
.... A great majority of the citizens of the United States are sufficiently enlightened to
judge for themselves ; they will not be led away or imposed upon by designing men . . . . ;
they, I trust, set a just value upon one of the best constitutions, that ever was framed for the
government of man. (pp. 16-17.)

When it is announced "that the people to the westward (whis-
key-distillers of Pennsylvania) are in arms against the laws of
government," the major's brother-in-law remarks :

Burning and destroying private property that is but a trifle for your liberty boys.

MAJOR MANLY. (Walking in a passion.) Anarchy boys, rather say! The genuine
sons of liberty will never disgrace themselves by such conduct, but will ever be obedient to the

laws Never had mortals less cause to complain than the people of the United States.

In no age, nor in any country, was ever human nature in so dignified a state, as in ours.
View our Congress assembled. See the representatives of an extensive empire, clothed with
the people's power, devising for the general good ! But there is this to be observed : It is vain
for them to legislate, if this fundamental principle is not sacredly adhered to, that what the

majority determine upon shall be the law of the land If that principle is kept alive,

I will be bold to defy either the intrigues of foreign courts or the conclave-machinations of
our own citizens, to prevail against it. (p. 57.)

Other Patriotic Citizen Characters

Colonel Duncan (officer who gained distinction in the Revolution and is proud of it),
Dunlap, "The Father" (1788).

Harriet (serious-minded American woman; reason is the directing force of her life;
solid worth as opposed to sham and a fine exterior, her ideal), Low, "The Politician Out-
Witted" (1788).

c. The Politician

The early American politician, as found in the post-Revolu-
tionary plays, is not wholly devoted to politics, but usually amid
private interests shows a special solicitude concerning the status
of his government. Since this was the decade of the adoption of
the new Constitution, it is to be expected that contemporary plays
will reflect prevailing opinions on the subject.

52 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

The first specimen that we shall examine is a zealous Federal-
ist named Trueman, who appears in "The Politician Out-Witted."
Trueman is a somewhat pompous schoolmaster. He considers him-
self an erudite scholar, uses long, big-worded sentences interspersed
with Latin phrases, and by repeated reference to grammar, logic,
mathematics, and teaching-experience leaves no doubt as to his
pedagogical nature. But above all, at the present hour, he is a
Federalist and a steadfast advocate of the new Constitution. 13
This, he declares, is "a prodigy of legislative wisdom" ; the whole
system is "judicious and salutary," and when set up beside the old
Articles of Confederation it makes them look like "a very shadow
of government" and not so good as a school-boy might do. Al-
though fortune-broken by the late war, he feels no disposition to
waver, and is anxious for the protection of the "new roof," which
requires but three more state-adoptions since Massachusetts, the
sixth state, has recently signed.

In the same play there is presented a merchant, Old Loveyet,
who is a champion of the Anti-Federalist opinion. 14 Such a man
to-day would probably be called a "stand-pat old fogy," for he in-
sists that the old regime is good enough for him. He is so much
prejudiced that he will neither read nor hear the Federalist side of
the question, and in arguments becomes angry and intolerant. He
declares that he has no desire for representation in a national
House, and that he is growing tired of the discussions on every
hand. To him the new Constitution is both, "tyrannical and vil-
lainous," and "a devilish design upon liberty and property" that
1 will "reduce to poverty and slavery." If adopted, he can foresee
national "consolidation and annihilation of the states."

Other Politician Characters

Peter Lovemuch (bavin? been "a true Whig of '76," he will now be a "staunch Fed-
eralist of '89"), "The Better Sort" (1789).

4. MAN OF AFFAIRS CHARACTERS

The playwrights of this time, in their presentation of busi-
ness men, seem to have aimed at fictitious characters rather than
exact copies of living persons. There is only now and then a real-
istic touch.

See Hart, The Amer. Nation, X :277-97.
See Hart, The Amer. Nation, X :277-97.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 53

Mr. Racket, a reckless husband in "The Father" (1788), rep-
resents one kind of business man. At the beginning of the play he
remarks :

Well, this drinking is not the thing for a sober citizen; half -past eleven o'clock by all
that's indolent, and my store not open yet.

Occasionally he concludes that the weather is too bad for business,
leaves his shop closed, and lets his customers call another time.
He remains away from his wife and home as much as possible, for
neither is to his liking. Serious people bore him unspeakably. He
looks after himself primarily, gets irritated upon small provocation,
flirts and carouses without scruple, visits the theater without his
wife's company, and is going headlong to ruin. An unextinguished
spark of honor finally saves him.

Alonzo Hazard in "The Better Sort" (1789) represents a
usurer and miser that keeps always alert so that he may not miss
"the main chance." Principal and interest are his gods. Although
in his dotage, he is anxious to marry a new fortune. He thinks
money the true object in courtship, and calls love but "fol de rol."

Other Man of Affairs Character

Vanrough (stern, material-minded, conservative business man), Tyler, "The Contrast"
(1787).

^^ 5. FASHIONABLE SOCIETY CHARACTERS

Fashionable characters appear in most of the plays of this
decade, which treat native themes, but more closely resemble stock
characters than like types of the Revolutionary pieces.

a. The Beau

The beau of the late eighteenth century usually combines two
individuals: the fop, who is superficial and showy, and the rake,
who is devoted to sensual pleasures.

"The Politician Out-Witted" (1788) contains two fops of the <
current variety. Frankston is referred to as a "lad of spirit" false-
ly called "a ladies' man." He swaggers, struts, and flatters ; "chat-
ters, whispers, titters," and shows his white teeth in the theater-
box; with extravagance of manner "extols in rapturous strains";
is addicted to the use of French phrases; occupies his. mind with
designs of conquests; is easily made jealous, and in short is "the
very moral of our Tory." Dick Worthnough is but an intensified
Frankston. He is a coxcomb, puppy, and profane rake ; he "titters,
capers, vows, and bows" ; he talks scraps of French, sings amorous

54 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

lays, wears "silk-satin breeches, lily-white gloves" and goes with
"crimp'd up toes and powder'd calabash."

Trueman, ardent Federalist of the play, 15 perhaps throws some
light on local conditions. He says :

The manners of the present age are so dissolute that the young fellows of these de-
generate days think they can not be fine gentlemen without being rakes, and, in short, rascals ;
for they make a merit even of debauching innocence ; indeed, that is scarcely to be wondered
at, when so many of those who are called ladies of taste and fashion, strange as it may seem,
like them the better, (p. 46.)

Other Beau Characters

Fop ("such as fops then were in New York" 14 ), Dunlap, "The Modest Soldier" (1787).

Dimpk (beau of the time; after a trip abroad, despises all things American), Tyler, "The
Contrast" (1787).

Harcourt ("puppy"), Sidney (roue society husband), and Turncoat (rake who screens
Sidney, because the latter renders him like services), ''Occurrences of the Times" (1789).

Captain Flashet (coxcomb and braggart captain; "a soldier who has had the honor to
serve under the great Washington ; who escaped from the savages with half a dozen wounds,
upon the tremendous fourth of November, and who hath since been principally concerned in
quelling the whiskey insurrection" p. 22), "Virtue Triumphant" (1795).

As a dramatic type, appearing in American plays of this dec-
ade, the beau is doubtless imitated from contemporary English
drama ; yet, when the assigned characteristics are examined, there
seems to be some evidence of actual representation. This statement
applies likewise to the fashionable lady.

b. The Lady

Charlotte in "The Contrast" exemplifies the social "butter-
fly," being pretty, airy, and sprightly, and living mostly for self-
admiration and to be gazed at by others. Her interests are dress,
parties, and beaux, her ideals wealth and social position. She is
fanciful, chatty, and coquettish, finds but ennui among the serious-
minded, thanks heaven more for her comely foot than for her soul,
and among the ton passes her days where she dresses, walks, and
dances, lisps, languishes, and smiles. On the subject of matrimony
she expresses these views: if privileged to spend his money, ride
in his carriage, and bear his name, it is not at all necessary to
love one's husband.

Letitia, in the same piece, is but a pale reflection of her friend
Charlotte.

Maria Airy, as presented in "The Politician Out-Witted"
(1788), seems to be typical and all that her name implies. Funda-
mentally, she resembles Charlotte in "The Contrast." She passes

16 See Sec. 3, c. of this chapter.
Dunlap, 77.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 55

her time, when not lounging at home, now at cards, dancing and
visiting (the last with all formality and fashionable shortness) ;
now making excursions on Long Island, or sailing on East River;
now walking down Broadway to see, and be seen of, the beaux;
now strolling on the Battery or the Mall. Moralizing she dreads as
an attack of "the dumps," and "the sweets of domestic life" is but
a sentiment to scoff at. At the theater she forgets to see the play
because of the "lads of spirit" in the opposite box ; she talks much
nonsense to the play-votaries, and delights in making her adorers
jealous.

Mrs. Sententious in "The Better Sort" represents the fashion-
able lady that is uneducated. Her philosophy is : if a woman have
a fortune, let her enjoy it ; and the best way seems to be to set up
as one of "the better sort." Hence, she begins to imitate the splen-
dor and extravagance about her; praises English taste and scorns
American plainness; echoes abominably the remarks of her cul-
tured friends ; uses repartee, faints easily, and speaks bad French ;
reverently hears the decree of Dame Fashion, and takes issue with
no one except her husband !

Other Lady Characters

Mrs. Racket (shallow society wife), Dunlap, "The Father" (1788).

Mrs. Sidney (vexed wife, who is not so likely to be disgraced by her husband's bad con-
duct as she imagines), "Occurrences of the Times" (1789).

Mrs. Augusta Bloomville ( fashionable wife ; "shop-hunting, visiting, cards, balls these
make up the routine of her life" ; empties her purse at the milliner's ; neglects her husband,
but smiles at "every powdered puppy") and Miss Dorinda Scornwell (supercilious devotee of
fashion ; prefers "cards to conversation, a ride to a book, and the ball-room to the play-house" ;
relates the following to a friend :

I was last night at the assembly At the very moment when I was on the point

of securing my number, who should enter the ball-room but the very enamorata that I met at
the New York assembly, drawn thither, undoubtedly, by my irresistible ladyship, and evidently

improved in every fascinating grace The Colonel never dances, so we enjoyed a most

enchanting aside conversation, cut in at whist, came off victorious in the rubbers, and thus
concluded a divine evening, (p. 89) "Virtue Triumphant" (1795).

c. The American Girl

In recent years much has been written about the American girl
as a distinctive native type. Among several traits of character
one in particular is usually assigned: absolute personal independ-
ence as an ideal. 17

Mira, who is the heroine of "The Better Sort" (1789), seems
somewhat to anticipate the modern American girl. Her father
wishes that she marry a wealthy old gentleman whom she posi-

17 See Nation, 30:365; 417; Living Age, 116: 294.

56 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

lively hates : she would rather be tied to a whipping-post than wed
the old miser ! Mira wishes to be obedient and to hearken to good
advice, but at the same time she feels the force of her soul. She
prefers a youth of open, generous mind, believes that with her
hand should go her heart, and maintains that "the girl of spirit"
has the natural right to dispose of her affections as she pleases.

d. Other Fashionable Society Characters

Mr. Ralph Maitland (widower; deliberate and opinionated; "a lover of reason and friend
of equality" ; wears a periwig and carries a snuffbox ; expecting a business visit from a widow,
he thus directs his servant:

And, d'ye hear, throw open the shutters in the best parlour, set the new vases in order,
let them be furnished with fresh flowers ; run for Frize, the barber, and let my razors, pow-
der, and perfume-box be all ranged in my dressing-room, (p. 19). "Virtue Triumphant"
(1796).

6. SERVANT CHARACTERS

a. The White

"Virtue Triumphant" contains three serving women that are
drawn partly from life. Deborah likes her mistress, but is dis-
posed to scold the other servants. Jenny is an ignorant, prying
Yankee girl, who claims that in Europe there is a "Gluttoner" that
chops off heads and "is so greedy as to swallow a thousand heads
for a breakfast." Molly represents a dissatisfied hired-girl, evi-
dently from the country :

I never was in such a place in all my born days so many mistresses i' fackins ! 1

wishes I was at home, milking my cows again, so I does I'm resolv'd I gives Madam

warning before to-morrow night getting up by break of day in the morning, sitting up till
midnight, cleaning here and running there one has not a moment's quiet and I gets nothing
by it after all, only four dirty shillings a week, while Mrs. Gadabout's Susan has a whole dollar,
only for dressing her mistress's false hair I'll not stay here, so I won't, (pp. 34-35.)

b. The Black

In Murdock's "The Triumphs of Love," which was acted at
the New Theatre, Philadelphia, 1795, there is presented a scene in
which a large-souled master, George Friendly, Jr., sets at liberty
his negro servant, Sambo. This scene is intended as a protest
against slavery, and is probably the first use of American drama
to serve the cause of the abolitionist. A portion of the scene is
given below :

SAMBO. (Who goes and views himself in the glass.) Sambo, what a gal call a pretty
fellow. Dis wool of mine will curlee up so, can't get him straight dat all de fashion among
gemmen. Sambo tinks himself handsome. He berry 'complish'd, too : he sing well ; he dance
well; he play fiddle well. Can tink so, so, pretty well. He tink he berry often tink why he
slave to white man ; why black folke sold like cow or horse. He tink de Great Somebody above
no order tings so. (Exit.)

G. FRIENDLY, Jr. (Who has overheard Sambo; alone.) Be softened as thou wilt, still,
slavery, thy condition is hard. The untutored, pathetic soliloquy of that honest creature has

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 57

more sensibly affected me than all I have read or thought on that barbarous, iniquitous slave-
trade ; and yet how many thousands of the poorer class of whites are there, whose actual situa-
tion is vastly inferior to his : he has no anxious cares for to-morrow, no family looking up to
him for protection, no duns at his door. Yet, still, still there is something wanting. It is
cruel It is unjust for one creature to hold another in a state of bondage for life. Sambo,
thou shalt be free. (Re-enter Sambo.) Sambo, suppose you had your liberty; how would you
conduct yourself?

SAMBO. Ah, Massa George, you no ax Sambo dat for true.

G. FRIENDLY, JR. Yes, Sambo, I do; and from this moment you are free. You may
remain with me upon wages, or go where you may think yourself more happy.

SAMBO. (In a reverie then becomes extremely elated; jumps about; kisses the skirt
of his master's coat; kisses his hand.) O Massa George, I feel how I neber feel before. God
bress you. (Cries.) I must go, or my heart burst. (Exit.)

G. FRIENDLY, JR. Tell me, ye sensualists, what are all your luxurious gratifications,
compared with the exalted mental sensations of doing a generous act? Would to heaven I could
as easily liberate our fellow-citizens, who are slaves in Algiers, (pp. 51-53.)

7. PROFESSIONAL CHARACTERS

A doctor who is somewhat more than a fictitious person ap-
pears in Dunlap's "The Father" (1788). His name is Doctor
Quiescent, and to such a person we often apply the name crank.
In his own estimation he is "a young man of character, scientific,
philosophic, versed in the languages, high in his profession, pro-
found in his meditations, deep in his cogitations" (Act III). He 1
speaks in technical language, and uses circumlocution and digni-
fied phrases for commonplace ideas. He feels some distinction in
that he is a traveled American; to his student-days, and to his
patients and treatments he likes to refer ; he rails bitterly against
"the old women's remedies," and his singular cases he intends to
publish in the American magazine. Among his associates he is
shunned on account of his tiresome ways.

Other Professional Characters

Dr. Harrangue (gives advice freely, but seldom follows it himself; interferes with all
community affairs, because he believes it a good citizen's duty; known as a man who at times
never agrees with anybody), "Occurrences of the Times" (1789).

CONCLUSION

The realistic presentation of American characters in native
plays written between 1787 and 1796 is as follows :

1. Characters of significant American stamp are found in
more than one-third of the some thirty-five recorded native plays
of this decade.

Bibliography I includes all the noteworthy pieces.

58 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

2. The characters with realistic qualities appear partly in his-
torical plays and partly in pieces of high and low comedy, usually
of a certain political significance.

3. Most of the realistic characters reflect a certain interest in,
or attitude toward, the day's political affairs and good American
citizenship.

See, for examples, Cubb and Yorick (1), Col. Manley, Sententious, Maj. Manly, True-
man, and Loveyet (3), Dimple, Mrs. Sententious, and Mira (5), Sambo (6), and still others in
the various sections of this chapter.

4. The leading groups of realistic characters are the Yankee,
the political, and the fashionable society.

The native Yankee, caricatured but in many respects true to life, was first introduced
into dramatic writing during this decade. The type appears in four or more different plays
within two years after its original introduction in "The Contrast" (1787), but is seldom found
in American plays of the next eighteen years.

Political types are found in more than one-third of the plays, and remind us authenti-
cally of the day's principal events and issues.

The fashionable society types seem to be imitated from contemporary English drama,
although they frequently show attempts at the realistic portrayal of native characters.

5. Indian characters are as yet negligible.

6. Characters that are obviously realistic occur somewhat in-
frequently in the typical theatrical plays.

Of some twenty stage-plays, which give chief attention to a gripping, romantic plot, only
about one-fourth contain native characters of realistic importance. These are "The Contr/wt,"
"The Modest Soldier" (in MS), "The Father," "The Triumphs of Love," and one or two others
in manuscript.

On the other hand, the plays containing some of the best examples of realism are less
suited to acting ; e.g., "The Politician Out-Witted," "The Better Sort," and "Occurrences of the
Times."

A distinctively national American type, the Yankee, first finds
dramatic use in this decade.

The Yankee as a citizen, and in no small measure as a dramatic type, embodies the ma-
jority of the elements of American nationality as they were suggested in the conclusion to
Chapter II, Part I.

The political types, also, seem to be accurately reflective of the
patriotic phase of American nationality.
See Section 3, b and c.

Ill

As a group, the plays of this time containing American char-
acters possess greater breadth of appeal than those of the Revolu-
tionary epoch, yet not sufficient merit to perpetuate them.

Partial exceptions are Tyler's "The Contrast" (1787) and Dunlap's "The Father" (1788)
both of which were republished by the Dunlap Society in 1887. Their importance, however,
lies principally in their significance to the dramatic historian.

CHAPTER II

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS WRITTEN
BETWEEN 1796 AND 1805

THE DUNLAP DECADE OF MANAGERSHIP

In May, 1796, 1 William Dunlap (1766-1839) of New York City,
having for twelve years taken an interest in dramatic activity of a
higher order and having himself written and adapted more than a
half-dozen somewhat successful plays, became associated with
Messrs. Hallam and Hodgkinson as joint-manager of the John
Street Theatre, New York, which was then the leading theater of
the country. Dunlap was induced to undertake the management of
"that powerful and complicated engine, the theatre of a great me-
tropolis" a task for which he confesses he was ill fitted 2 for the
following reasons: first, an opportunity would be afforded to
bring out his own plays; secondly, there were, he imagined, fair
prospects of wealth ; thirdly, "the control of the stage in a large por-
tion of the continent" was desirable authority ; and, finally, the en-
thusiastic dramatist believed he could be of service to his country,
for he aspired to dignify American drama and even, it would seem,
maintain a theater that should "be a school of morality, of patriot-
ism, and of every virtue ; the glory of the fine arts and the delight
of the wise and good." 3

The playwright industriously followed the career of joint-
manager and manager for ten seasons, the last seven of which he
directed the Park Theatre of New York, the successor of the John
Street house built in 1767. 4 During his decade of managership, in
spite of ceaseless dissensions among his players and a long train of
discouragements due to epidemics of yellow fever, indifferent pub-
lic support, bad internal organization, and eventually broken
health, 5 the author-manager wrote and adapted and had produced

1 Sec Dunlap, 148-49.

2 Ibid., 247.

* Ibid., 276.

* See Dunlap, 218.
6 Ibid., 326.

60 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

more than a half -hundred plays, many of which exhibit special
dramatic talent. In 1805 he retired from the management of the
Park Theatre, a bankrupt; five years later he was again connected
with it, but this time for a few months only. 6 For several years he
continued to write and adapt plays for the theaters of New York.

Dunlap is known as the "father of American drama," 7 and
his claim to the distinction can hardly be disputed. He was the
first American who earnestly tried to cultivate among his country-
men a taste for genuine drama, and the first American author who
persistently essayed the writing of plays 8 which were successfully
staged and in a few instances received with a semblance of satis-
faction in the closet. He has been called "our first dramatic manipu-
lator ; he was the first theater manager to illustrate how readily
foreign materials might be turned to American advantage, without
costing much." 9 He might also be spoken of as our first dramatic
experimenter, for in order to gain public approbation he tried
original composition, the imitation of foreign models, translation,
and adaptation, and left to his successors reliable information as
to what kind of plays the American public demanded. We know
further that from the time of his connection with the New York
theater, both as author and manager, American drama underwent
a course of upward though, to be sure, gradual development.

Between 1796 and 1805 native theaters kept increasing in
number, and began to be better constructed and better furnished.
The finest theaters of the time were "the Federal, in Boston,
opened February 3, 1794; the Chestnut, in Philadelphia, opened
February 17, 1794, and the Park, in New York, opened January
29, 1798," 10 although there were adequate houses at Albany, An-
napolis, Baltimore, Charleston, Providence, Washington, and other
places. All the influential actors of the decade came from Eng-
land, the three foremost of whom were John Hodgkinson (1765-
1805), James Fennell (1776-1816), and Thomas Cooper (1776-
1840) ," each exemplifying the Kemble style of acting. Among the
abler American dramatic authors, after Dunlap, should be named
John Daly Burk (1776-1808), David Everett (1770-1813), Charles

Ibid., 861.

T See Moses, 48.

8 Sea Scilhamer, II :278.

Moses, 47.

"See Winter, A, 16.
"/bid., 16-31.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 61

Jared Ingersol (1782-1862), and Elihu Hubbard Smith (1771-
1798). During these years a more or less tentative effort in native
drama and a general dependence upon foreign models are to be
noticed.

1. YANKEE CHARACTERS

The comedy of "The Traveller Returned" (1796) contains an
exaggerated Yankee servant in the character of Obadiah. He is
represented as a raw country fellow, who habitually uses such ex-
pressions as "nation," "I swamp it," and "adds rabbit me." The
following scene with the housemaid is typical :

OBADIAH. Oh ! tarnation, tarnation, tarnation !

BRIDGET. Are you mad? (Shaking him violently.) Tell me what ails you, I say.

OBADIAH. Oh! I have broke I have broke I can't speak it .

BRIDGET. Broke what?

OBADIAH. I have broke I have broke th the the what d'ye call it

BRIDGET. The the the what d'ye call it! Now what the plague do you mean,
Obadiah ?

OBADIAH. Why, that there glass thing, Bridget, by which folks find out when we
should be cold and when we should be warm.

BRIDGET. I'll be hang'd, Obadiah, if you don't mean the thermometer.

OBADIAH. Yes, Bridget, it is the 'mometer, the 'mometer ; the worse luck mine!
Yes, yes, it is the 'mometer, sure enough.

BRIDGET. Why, don't take on so, man; my mistress is a good, kind lady, and never
faults people for trifles and accidents, and the like of that. (p. 129.)

Other Yankee Character

Jonathan (of slight importance), Minshull, "Rural Felicity" (1801).

2. INDIAN CHARACTERS

Massasoit (humane, imaginative, grave sachem) and Tisquanto (friendly minor chief;
of marked naivete), Croswell, "A New World Planted" (1802).

There are three other unimportant Indian characters in the play. The nature and atti-
tude of Tisquanto (above) are revealed in the following speech:

I run so fast that I am out of breath. I have been hunting on that high land, "most to
the clouds, that Indians call Munxhill I heard a noise I stopt and hear it more 'tis the war-
whoop of Indian I keep still and hear it louder sound 'tis certain war-whoop, and it moves
this way then I set out and run, to let you know. (p. 29.)

3. FRONTIER CHARACTERS
a. The Colonist

The historical play of the early nineteenth century, contain-
ing the colonist as a frontier type, necessarily reflects not the period
of writing but a more remote time as conceived by the author. In
"A New World Planted" (1802) colonists of the early seventeenth
century are presented, but without special attempt at realism. We
shall notice Governor Carver and Counselor Standish.

62 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

Carver thanks God for the asylum which the Pilgrims have
found, and begins his administration with a feeling of hope. Soon,
however, disorders arise :

For now the Narragansetts threaten war

And have sent their savage signal here

A bundle of their arrows, closely bound

In the black skin of an enormous snake.

What answer shall we send them, Brother Standish?

To which Standish replies :

Send back the skin, charg'd well with ball and powder,
And let the villains know we are prepared, (p. 14.)

When it is learned that Massasoit is coming to pay the Eng-
lish settlement a visit, Standish says:

Our men must all parade in martial pride,
Rending the air with trumpets and with drums;
'Twill give a grand idea of English tactics,
And honor our great visitor and us. (p. 22.)

Of this Carver fully approves.

Governor Carver, upon concluding a treaty with Sachem Mas-
sasoit, says to Samoset, an interpreter:

Desire the King to ratify the contract
By making of his mark upon the treaty.

(Samoset goes to Massasoit and talks in private. [They] then rise off the cushions, and
come to the table. The Governor signs one of the contracts, and gives Massasoit the pen, and
points to the place where he should make his mark, who accordingly does. The Governor then
shakes hands with him, and takes a glass of wine and gives a toast, viz:)
Long peace between the English of New Plymouth
And our Ally, the great King Massasoit.

(Samoset whispers to the King the explanation. Then Governor Carver hands him a
glass of wine.)

MASSASOIT. Wame nuckone nashpee, mosogheonk kah, wonnomit-tuoonk.
SAMOSET. This is the Gov'rnor's toast in Indian words, (p. 24.)

Other Colonist Characters

Bradford (counselor to the Puritan governor), Lyford and Oldham (leaders of rebellion
against the settlement), and Mrs. Standish, Mrs. Martin, and Mrs. White (colonial wives),
Croswell, "A New World Planted" (1802).

4. POLITICAL CHARACTERS

Since the military characters in the plays of the Dunlap decade
possess a significant political stamp, it has seemed best to include
them in the political group.

Here again we are confronted by the historical or retrospec-
tive play, which of course is not intended to reflect the period of its
composition. Before 1796 virtually all native playwrights when
they were treating native themes chose their plots from contem-
porary life, but after that time they began frequently to revert to
the past for dramatic subjects. John D. Burk in his tragedy en-

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 63

titled "Bunker Hill" (1797) is one of the first playwrights of im-
portance to draw upon past native events or conditions for
materials.

a. The Patriot

In "Bunker Hill" General Warren is represented as a conse-
crated Patriot leader such as history proves that he was. He says :

The patriot should o'erleap all obstacles

Which stand between him and his darling country. (Act II, Sc. 1.)

He almost worships the spirit of liberty, and resolves to be free, be
the cost what it may. Although he is modest by nature, in his de- \
termination to have justice he becomes furious. Toward kings he
feels the bitter hostility that was typical of his partisan country-
men at the time.

What are kings?

Kings form a horrid junto of conspiracy,
A Catilinian compact 'gainst the lives,
The rights, the peace, the freedom of the world.

They live by blood, and tears, and sweat, and groans :
They exercise oppression, lust, and piracy ;
Famine and war, their iron-hearted ministers,
Before them go; while prostrate at their feet
Science and freedom downward to the dust
Point their dishonor'd faces. (Act. Ill, Sc. 2.)

He never loses confidence in his people, and is willing to give up
his life that his ideal of a country may become established.

Another tragedy containing Patriot characters is Dunlap's
"Andre" (1798). The General in the play is evidently modeled
after Washington's real character. He is a genuine Patriot of ma-
ture, calm, and deliberative mind. He keeps ever ready for action,
and is direct to a purpose. By the spirit of his troops he is encour-
aged, and in their hardships he feels sincere sympathy. He recog-
nizes the virtues of an enemy, makes allowance for human imper-
fection, and has a mind large enough to overlook insult. His per-
sonal impulse is to spare Andre's life, yet he signs the death-war-
rant on the grounds of necessity.

The same play presents a youthful American captain of un-
bridled spirit, in the character of Bland. He might be said to rep-
resent the body of citizens who condemned Andre's execution. He
is a fearless Patriot captain-of -horse, zealous, impulsive, and gen-
erous. At one time he was a British prisoner, and became an ad-
mirer of Major Andre. He measures a man by his worth and not
his party, considers the laws of warfare unjust, and cannot think
of his English friend's being put to death. Although he has merit

64 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

and is usually dutiful, circumstances render him rash and head-
strong, and in a fit of passion he vigorously attacks the course of
justice decided upon by his compatriots for the British spy. He
later gains control of himself, confesses his wrong attitude, and
feels shame on account of his maddened behavior. Yet he never
wavers in his deep attachment to Andre.

Other Patriot Characters

Major Camden (officer in the American army, during the Revolution; warm admirer of
Washington, Congress, and the French allies), "The Traveller Returned" (1796).

Generals Putnam and Prescott (resemble Warren) and Elvira (Patriot girl), Burk,
"Banker Hill" (1797).

McDonald (middle-aged general, distinguished by his bravery, cool-headedness, common
sense, and disposition always to reason his way) and Mrs. Bland (patient, sensible, dignified
Patriot wife and mother), Dunlap, "Andre" (1798).

There are always more or less overemphasis and idealization
in the portrayal of Patriots by a native playwright such is to be
expected. Whatever realism such characters possess must be
sought beneath the conventional externals.

b. The Politician

The characterizations in this group seem to be unusually
realistic.

In a dramatic piece by John Murdock, called "The Politicians"
(1798) , the politician is presented in variations. The play sets forth
conditions during Washington's second presidency when the peo-
ple were dissatisfied with the government's attitude toward both
England and France. 12 We are first introduced to two females of
diverse political views. An excerpt from their conversation will
characterize them :

MRS. TURBULENT. You are bitter, very bitter, Mrs. Violent.

MRS. VIOLENT. I will never be otherwise to your party a wicked, restless, mar-
ploting set ; ever combining to cross the purposes of government, trying every possible means
to render President Washington's administration unhappy to him.

MRS. T. (Scornfully.) President Washington's administration! He never was equal to
the situation he was placed in : vastly has his talents been overrated ; he possesses none beyond
that of being an overseer to a Virginia plantation, or the superintendence of a horse-stable :
he is an excellent judge of horses.

MRS. V. Monstrous! monstrous! (Walking in rage.) After such sacrilege I shall be
afraid to remain under your roof, lest it should fall upon me, to speak so contemptuous of a
man who may justly be called the father of his country. A man who is an honor to his God,
a credit to his country, and an ornament to human nature.

MRS. T. He, an honor to his country, he I and his infamous party have been the ruin
of our country.

MRS. V. Your Jacobin faction are to be charged with all the evils that have befell us,
and all the troubles that await our country : you have been abetting the French tyrants from
the first to the present moment, (pp. 4-6.)

"See Winsor. Narrative and Critical Hist^ VII:461ff.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 65

Partial, in the same play, is antagonistic to the Federalists,
and after the following remarks comes to blows with the bitter,
outspoken Crusty:

PARTIAL. Your servant, Mr. Crusty; what is the news?

CRUSTY. Damn all news.

PAR. Be not so short, good Mr. Crusty. Nothing from our good friends, the French?

CRUST. Damnation to them, the thieves: they our old friends!

PAR. I think so. Don't you know the old saying, Mr. Crusty: friends in need are
friends indeed. We should have been slaves, if they had not befriended us.

CRUST. Not more so than they would make us.

PAR. Did they not show us their best affections?

CRUST. 'Twas interest, damme, sir; nothing but interest. 'Twas a stroke of policy;
cutting a limb off their powerful rival. Rome against Carthage, damme; Rome and Carthage
over again.

PAR. Then you don't conceive we are under the strongest ties of obligation to them?

CRUST. No, sir, no; I hate the words obligation and gratitude. They are worn as
thread-bare as your great grandmother's under-petticoat. Put the matter to concise reasoning;
I hate your damn'd long arguments : we had a dispute with Great Britain about her unconsti-
tutional attempts on the score of taxation ; we had recourse to arms ; we had occasion for
auxiliaries ; we hired Frenchmen ; we paid them ; and what the devil do they want more ?

PAR. So you won't give them any credit we are under no obligation!

CRUST. By Jupiter ! no ; they are under obligation to us.

PAR. How will you make that appear?

CRUST. Why damme, for inoculating them with the spirit of liberty; if a change of
things is to be a blessing to them, who are they to thank but us? (p. 9.)

"Federalism Triumphant" (1802), a bitter satire on the Ver-
mont Federalists of the time, contains about two dozen political
characters, of which the following are the more noteworthy :

Jonathan (Governor Trumbull 13 ) uses his "utmost endeavors
to promote the good old (Federalist) cause"; Primus, ci-devant
speaker of the Vermont assembly, acquiesces "in his Excellency's
opinion"; Long John (John Allen) is anxious to "push Jefferson
into hell's kitchen damn all Democrats" (p. 13) ; Hillbarn be-
lieves that "money is the nobility of America," and longs to found
"a more stable government than that which is dependent on the
fickle whims of the people" (pp. 9-10) ; M'Fingal (John Trumbull)
is a poet of the Federalist faction ; Jerry sees Republicanism get-
ting "beyond the control of all the Hamiltons, Adamses, and Har-
pers of modern times" (p. 37) ; and Pierpont (Edwards) is "tired
to death of the waterman politicians, looking one way and rowing
another, in religion or politics" (p. 34) .

Other Politician Characters

Conciliate, Dispassionate, Hasty, and Adz Murduck, "The Politicians" (1798).
18 Identifications from the Brown University copy.

66 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

5. RURAL CHARACTERS
a. The Farmer

Farmer Clover in "Rural Felicity" (1801), while having nu-
merous romantic touches, still reflects contemporary life in the
country. Concerning America we hear him addressing Patrick
thus:

We are in a free country ; here our laws display an equal share of justice to the citizens
of the world, and our government is guarded against foreign intrusion ; and our jurisprudence,
similar to that you left ; our distance from the old world and the extent of our fertile country
have been in favor of general liberty, (p. 14.)

The practice among farmers of getting a quarter of fresh meat
occasionally from a neighbor is referred to :

CLOVER. Neighbor Boniface has killed his fat ox ; I am to have a round, a sirloin, a
rump, and a brisket. We shall have roast and boil'd for some days. Ha, ha, ha ! no sooner
said than sent; there's neighbor Miller's man with a quarter of a lamb, and on Thursday
expect a quarter of a veal from Widow Smirk, (p. 19.)

At the table Clover remarks on rural etiquette :

Of those dishes within your reach, please help yourself, which is a privilege compatible
with ease and liberty. To stand on more ceremony than necessary is contrary to the rules of
the Clover charter, (p. 26.)

And when offered wine by his city guest he says :

We do not accustom ourselves to drink wine in the country.

The following conversation with his guest, a merchant the
farmer smoking, his wife spinning seems very real :

CLOVER. The flax, of our own growth: when properly dressed, the thread equal to any.

CONSTANT. (The guest). Were everyone as industrious, there would be little occasion
for imported linens.

CLOVER. It was held up as a patriotic maxim, and became pretty general before the
Revolution; since peace, all kinds of manufactures ceased. We seek the good of our country
by importing the manufactures of others.

CONSTANT. Hush ! the truth, my dear sir, is a crime. The revenue, the revenue must
be considered. We who live by commerce conceive it most to our interest to exchange the pro-
duce of America for the manufactures of Europe.

CLOVER. Time must convince which mode is likely to be of the most essential service.

CONSTANT. True, sir; we will drop the subject, (p. 56.)

6. WORKING MAN CHARACTERS

The barber of a century ago had a somewhat heterogeneous
existence. Such a specimen appears in "Rural Felicity" (1801)
and is not altogether fictitious. As Razor shaves his customers
on the green before his door, he of course claims the prerogative
of talking :

I love liberty and justice, therefore I am ready to shave ; come take your turn as the
horned do when they go to Heaven. Be quick, or I shall shave the oldest man first, (p. 33.)

The fellow has a mind to engross all the business to himself; but modest men like me
live by plain dealing. Say but the word and make me your executor ; I'll shave close, comb
your wife's wigs, and leave them well dressed, for the good of my country. (Making a lather
in his basin.) (p. 34.)

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 67

Something as to the diversity of his services may be inferred
from the new sign which Razor shows his patrons :

Look at my new sign called "The Salutation."

SALUTATION

(This group is supposed to be the heads of all nations, setting public example by politely
addressing each other.)

"On rulers' being wise
Depend thousands of lives."

COLUMBIAN ALE, SNAPNECK, AND WHISKEY,
SHAVING, HAIR-CUTTING, TOOTH-DRAWING, AND BLEEDING

(p. 34.)

To his countrymen regaling and gossiping he offers a bit of
advice :

You are like a company of gossiping dames, talking slander for the want of good man-
ners ; let me hear no more. I drill you all, and I shave you all, and my ale suits you all, and as
long as it don't interfere with the interest of your families, I shall be glad to serve you all.
Then, away to your homes. When you are independent by your diligence, then read Burke
on Governments; also, be acquainted with the laws and constitution of your country, (p. 35.)

Other Working Man Character

Frize (barber), Minshull, "The Merry Dames" (1804).

7. FASHIONABLE SOCIETY CHARACTERS

The plays of this decade contain comparatively few fashion-
able characters which realistically reflect American life.

a. The Beau

Two somewhat realistic examples of the early nineteenth cen-
tury beau, such as was seen in New York, are presented in Min-
shull's inferior comedy of "The Sprightly Widow" (1803). With
reference to characterization the author says: "The characters I
have drawn are from incidents that daily occur in human events,
and not pointed at any particular persons" (preface). The first
beau is Dash, an agent. He is a spendthrift and fop who runs
deeply in debt, often becomes intoxicated, has a weakness for
gambling, and gets "bilked of his cash by a coalition of lewd wo-
men"; yet he possesses a fine disposition and clever mind, and
passes as a favorite in "the higher circle." Other characteristics
come out in the following. He says, "I am engaged with a party
at the Harlaam races" (p. 11), and again, "A fine day for the
races. It's there I mean to square my elbows and surprise the
jockeys" (p. 12). He frequents "the Tontine Coffee-House," and
when he goes riding it is usually in a tandem. His tastes are further
revealed when he exclaims, "Let me see 0, so so, a new gig and a

68 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

pair of chestnut geldings, harness complete" (p. 11) these, for his
own use.

The second beau is Fanfaron, a blustering bully. By one he
is called a "poltroon," by another a "fashionable blade," and again
he is referred to as a "time-serving humorist." He flatters the fair
sex, and has all customary "gentlemanly" manners. The stage
directions contain the following : "Fanfaron appears at a distance,
strutting and dressed like the knave of clubs, with the addition of
a pair of ear-rings in his ears, in company with Dash intoxicated"
(P. 27).

b. The Lady

In "The Merry Dames" (1804) there is introduced a fash-
ionable lady named Mrs. Lively. She is doubtless drawn with a real
person in mind. Frize, the barber, says that Mrs. Lively is one of
his best customers who have hair-frizzing done, and that "she
pays like a princess." He is also accustomed to call at her home in
the capacity of hairdresser. When he comes one day unexpectedly,
to deliver a message, she asks, "Frize, what has brought you here?"
He answers, "Fashion, madam, and I am always attentive to my
master's best customers. What is your opinion, madam, of the
last new fashion from Europe?" She takes two lady's wigs and
examines them; then she sends Frize away, saying, "I thank Mr.
Comb for the attention paid me in sending the first of the fashion ;
should I want either, I will send for you" (p. 6) .

Other Lady Characters

Marriott Montague (gay, thoughtless society girl), "The Traveller Returned" (1796).
Mrs. Stockton (good-humored "society mamma") and Widow Sprightly Minshull, "The
Sprightly Widow" (1803).

8. SERVANT CHARACTERS
a. The Black

A bit of comedy with a significant realistic touch is presented
in Murduck's "The Politicians" (1798), when three negro servants
belonging to different houses meet and express their political views :

POMPEY. My massa no like English I hate 'em, too drom proud so conceit cox-
comblook like everybody tuhk in e nose.

CAESAR. Ten hundred times better den French, drom fribble, buffoon, ape, monkey;
English, fine, manly fellow ; besides, French come cut our throat ; I like English : English
foreberl

POM. France foreber! France gib liberty to slabe; liberty and France foreber! My
massa for France, so I. Who you for, Sambo?

SAMBO. I go we massa, too.

POM. He for France?

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 69

SAM. No.

POM. For English?

SAM. No.

CAE. Who debil he for den?

SAM. He for he country.

POM. For he country!

SAM. Ah, for he country! Massa say, dam French, dam English; he say, what e debil
business have we do wi two bully nation? he say, let 'em fight and be dom'd. (pp. 20-21.)

CONCLUSION

The realistic presentation of American characters in native
plays written between 1796 and 1805 is as follows :

1. Of more than ninety native plays (one-third of which are
translations and adaptations from the French and German) re-
corded by Wegelin, not more than one-fifth contain characters that
significantly reflect American life.

Bibliography I, although it omits most of the translations and adaptations, contains all
the better original plays of the day.

2. As a rule, three out of every four American characters are
found in the plays that treat historical and political subjects. Two-
thirds of these plays have contemporaneous themes, while the re-
maining third, with few exceptions, deal with the immediate past.

3. Most of the characters that resemble real persons belong in
the political group, although fair examples now and then occur
elsewhere.

The political characters are found chiefly in pieces based on either the past American
history or the political circumstances of the day. The characters of the latter plays are the
more vital, and occasionally decidedly real. From them something of the spirit of the times
is felt.

Before 1796 the life of each decade was so full of happenings and action that authors
rarely looked backward for a subject. In the occasional retrospective plays of this decade there
is some attempt at reproducing the actual.

4. Yankee and Indian characters are almost wholly neglected
during these years.

5. Fashionable society characters are seldom realistic to a
noteworthy extent.

6. The best examples of native realism are often discovered
in plays not well adapted to the stage.

The elements of a distinctive American nationality are far
from obvious in the realistic dramatic characters of this time.

Characters, however, that may deserve a moment's notice in this connection are General
Warren (in "Bunker Hill"), the consecrated, king-hating Patriot; the General (in "Andre"),

70 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

a deliberative, steady-moving, determined Revolutionary leader ; and Crusty (in "The Poli-
ticians"), a blunt, reasoning, independent Federalist who is little concerned about any other
nation than his own.

Ill

The qualities that lend permanence to characterization sel-
dom enter into the American plays of this decade.

The best dramatic writing was done by William Dunlap. His tragedy of "Andre" (1798),
though not a piece of high merit, rises somewhat above the then accepted standards for original
plays, and shows the hand of a professional playwright.

CHAPTER III

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS WRITTEN
BETWEEN 1805 AND 1815

A DECADE OF COMPARATIVE PASSIVITY IN AMERICAN DRAMA

By Dunlap's bankrupty in 1805 the initial managership of the
"father of American drama" came to a close. Although he had not
realized his aspirations, he had nevertheless creditably performed
the part of a pioneer dramatist. 1 During the next ten years Ameri-
can plays show something of a decline. In comparison with the
preceding decade they are less numerous, and at the same time dis-
play fewer attempts at a creative handling of native materials.
Foreign influence seems to have been having even greater effect,
and there was less evidence among the writers of a desire to write
distinctive drama. Since the original production of "The Contrast"
(1787), there had sprung up a pronounced prejudice 2 against
plays of American authorship, so that managers felt sometimes
obliged to announce such plays as the work of English dramatists. 3
Although by the beginning of the nineteenth century this antago-
nism was fully developed, as early as 1829 it had grown less, as
Stone's "Metamora" 4 will witness. Prior to our Second War for
Independence there was too little faith in things American, and
the more or less indifference toward American dramatic works was
but one of many indications. These circumstances, combined with
the fact that little of extraordinary note distinguishes any of the
plays, seem to mark this decade as a time of comparative passivity
in American drama.

With the War of 1812 there came a noticeable lull in native
play writing, and for reasons already given 5 1815 is taken as the
end of the second historical period.

1 See Part II, Chap. II, Introduction.

2 See prefaces to Barker's "Tears and Smiles" (1807) and "The Indian Princess" (1808).
* See Dunlap, 353.

4 One of Edwin Forrest's most popular roles was the Indian chief, Metamora, in John
A. Stone's tragedy of the same name. Forrest paid Stone $500 for this play.
6 See Part II, Introduction.

72 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

Between 1805 and 1815 the native theater kept prospering in
the larger cities, and at the same time extending its activity into
new territory. 6 English actors still continued in possession of the
stage, George Frederick Cooke (1756-1811) coming in 1810 and
Joseph George Holman (1764-1817), in 1812. In 1809 John How-
ard Payne, the "American Roscius," made his debut.

The best American plays of the decade were written by James
Nelson Barker (1784-1858), Charles Breck (1782-1822), Joseph
Hutton (1787-1828), Mordecai Manuel Noah (1785-1851), and
John Blake White (1783-1859).

1. YANKEE CHARACTERS

An interesting representative of the Yankee type is Jonathan
Postfree who gives the title to a farce (1806) by L. Beach. This
Yankee, although assigned some of the current stage-traits, is
after all not far removed from life. Let us, for instance, hear him
give his experience at cattle-driving :

Came down (from Connecticut to New York) by land drove down old 'Squire Herdy's
cattle darn'd ugly creatures to drive almost pestered my heart out ; had one pair of oxen in
good command, or I could never got them here. "Whoa hoy, come hither," says I, and old
Buck would come around as orderly. Only way I had to get them along old Buck knew me,
I s'pose drove him many a day before the plough. The old fellow is as fat as mud make
some fine steaks for your York gentry 'Squire'U make them pay for it, too, I warrant, (p. 23.)

After Jonathan arrives we see him, with long whip in hand, lock-
ing the gate to the stock-yard and remarking :

There, darn your skins! I have got you here at last there now butt one another as
much as you please; you'll not come out again to pester a body, I guess, (p. 10.)

Two more exaggerated examples of the Yankee are to be seen
in Lindsley's "Love and Friendship" (1809). They are Captain
Horner, who has come from New England to peddle notions in
Charleston, S. C., and his serving man, Jonathan :

(Enter Capt. Horner, Jonathan following with a basket on one arm, containing some
apples and potatoes; in one hand, a string of dried apples and onions; in the other, a piece
of cheese and a bottle.)

CAPTAIN HORNER. Come along, I say, Jonathan ; what dewe you walk so nation
slow for? Staren' and gapen' at everything you see, I s'pose, bayn't you? .... Ayn't we got
as fine things in Boston and Newport as any on 'um here? And then there's New- York out-
strips 'um all; she's the cap-sheaf. Take special care of the examples and don't lose none on
'um, Jonathan.

JONATHAN. Why, Capun Horner, you walk so tarnation fast the old dragon couldn't
keep up with you ; I'm sure I kayn't ; and no wonder 'f I dewe lose sonthen' why, you'd beat
daddy's old leaden boss all holler ; darn my skin, 'f you wouldn't dewe it, clear as mud.

CAPTAIN HORNER But we're got enemost up tewe the shops, and it's time for

'um tewe open; and 'f I sell my notions well, Jonathan, we'll buy a dram. (pp. 7-8.)

SeDunlap, 327-75.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 73

Jonathan further reveals himself in a later speech :

Here I am, slick 'nough, and where to go next, be cust 'f I know. This must be Broad-
street, and broad 'nough 'tis tewe, by gum! I've been walken' up it this good fifteen min-
utes, and darn'd 'f I've got acrost it yit. I must keep tewe eyes 'bout me, or I shall b

intewe King-street, and the black-barded Jews'll shave the hair off my teeth This

here Charleston's such a rotten hot place, there's no liven' in 't ; then there's sich a tarna-
tion sight 'f negurs black as the old feller 'imself, a body kan't stir but they has 'um at their
nose or their heels. It beats all nater ! Never fetch me, 'f I don't wish I was t'hum agin,
with all my heart, (p. 36.)

The foregoing is of course broad caricature ; yet there can be
little doubt that it but veils a type of real Yankee that then not in-
frequently visited the South with his wares. 7

Other Yankee Characters

Nathan Yank (serving man; little more than a stage-character), Barker, "Tears and
Smiles" (1807).

Robert (humble farmer of the neighborhood of Philadelphia), Breck, "The Trust" (1808).

Mrs. Polemic (illiterate, unfeeling, whimsical foster-mother), Watterson, "The Child of
Feeling (1809).

Ploughby and Robert (farmer and son), Button, "Fashionable Follies" (1809).

2. INDIAN CHARACTERS

A half-dozen examples of the Indian are presented in Barker's
"The Indian Princess" (1808). An "advertisement" at the begin-
ning of the play states :

The principal materials that form this dramatic trifle are extracted from the General
History of Virginia, written by Captain Smith, and printed in London, folio, 1624 ; and as
close adherence to historic truth has been preserved as dramatic rules would allow.

Powhatan possesses paternal love, and has a disposition to be
honorable and loyal in his relations with the colonists; but when
once aroused through the representations of the tribe-priest, he
bcomes traitorous and revengeful. He is obstinate in his opinions,
has a settled belief in an Indian future life, and introduces much
natural imagery into his speech.

The character of Pocahontas, the heroine, seems to be largely
drawn from the imagination. At the beginning we see her sor-
rowing at the killing of a bird, and refusing to use her bow again.
When Miami presents himself as suitor, she receives him with
disdain. Like her brother, Nantaquas, she looks upon Smith as a
divine visitor and, growing horrified at the tribe's decision to kill
him, thereupon resolves to save his life. Her impression upon
others comes out in such phrases as "sweet simplicity," "angel
softness," and "bewitching gentleness." She trusts the English,
and at once feels a fondness for Rolfe. Soon she discovers the "sav-

Cf. Johnston, Connecticut (1887), 367.

74 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

age error" of her past life, begins to abhor the savagery about her,
and feels a craving impulse to live as do civilized people. At last
she is hailed as

Our infant colony's best patroness;
Nay, sir, its foster-mother. (Act II, Sc. 8.)

Other Indian Characters

Nantaquas (Powhatan's son; simple-minded, credulous, humane), Miami (blood-thirsty
Susquehannock brave), Grimnosco (tribe-priest; suspicious and superstitious), and Nina (wild
young squaw), Barker, "The Indian Princess" (1808).

The most realistic characters in Barker's opera are Powhatan, Miami, and Grimnosco.

3. FRONTIER CHARACTERS

a. The Colonist

The permanent Virginia settler is somewhat suggested in "The
Indian Princess."

Walter is one of the less "gentlemanly" members of Smith's
company. He has come to Virginia to stay, and is faithful to the
colony leader in all his projects. The hardships of the forest do
not discourage him, and after a day's work he can sit down and re-
joice. To him a coward or a soft-handed gentleman is a source
of amusement. He says to Larry :

And first, let's to the forest ; the young sparks

In silken doublets there are felling trees;

Poor gentle masters, with their soft palms blistered;

And while they chop and chop, they swear and swear,

Drowning with oaths the echo of their axe. (Act III, Sc. 1.)

Larry is an Irish settler, who does not differ essentially from
Walter. He is good-natured, witty, loyal, and energetic. Alice and
Kate are respectively the wives of Walter and Larry, and have de-
cided to share patiently their husbands' lots in the New World.

4. MILITARY CHARACTERS

Ben Bundle in Dunlap's "Yankee Chronology" (1812), an "in-
terlude" written soon after the victory of the Constitution over the
British frigate Guerriere, is a "true Yankee tar" who has just
come ashore. He thus explains to his father his absence from
home:

It's now two years since I was pressed by the English and put on board his Britannic
majesty's ship, the Outrageous, where I remained till I'd the good fortune to make my escape
and landed in Boston on the first of August ; but I couldn't write then, father, for the brave
Capt. Hull, who had outmaneuvered a whole British squadron and left them in the lurch, was
just on the point of sailing again to try them on t'other tack. To be sure, they told me he'd
neither powder nor ball on board, and was up to nothing but running away, but that I knew
must be all a damned lie, invented by some scribbling English editor, and so I entered a vol-
unteer on board of the Constitution our Constitution and a glorious Constitution we've got I
(P. 6.)

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 75

Speaking of the approach to the Guerriere, he says :

Johnny Bull now showed she wished us to come up, for she lays her main top sail to
the mast, as much as to say, "Come on, my Yankee boys, come on ; we'll soon quit you." We
doused our top gallant sails, stay-sails, and flying gib.

John Bull wanted to play at long shot, but that didn't suit us Yankee boys. "Coolly,
coolly," says our captain, "near her" ; says our captain, "lay her alongside," says our gallant
captain.

After a graphic description of the fight, which the Yankees soon
brought to a successful issue, he concludes :

"Board her, board her," was the word. "No !" says our gallant captain, "she's no
longer an enemy, for don't you see she can no longer defend herself?" She fired a gun to lee-
ward ; we shot ahead and gave three cheers and all was over. 8 Damme, but I thought Johnny
Bull would have stood more than half a glass, (pp. 7-8.)

Other Military Characters

Captain Dorriville (with Decatur against Tripoli), Hutton, "Fashionable Follies" (1809).

5. POLITICAL CHARACTERS
a. The Patriotic Citizen*

A fair example of the patriotic citizen appears in "Yankee
Chronology" (1812). Old Bundle, wrought up over frequent false
reports circulated against the Yankees, exclaims :

It don't signify, and it isn't to be borne with due meekness. So many tarnation lies !
And all for what? to praise our enemies and run down ourselves. Whatever they do is right,
whether it is right or wrong ; and whatever we do is wrong, whether it is wrong or right.

Soon his absent son Ben arrives :

But you young dog, where have you been, and why haven't you wrote me these two
years ?

Ben explains.

And is it true, then ? And were you, Ben, on board of the Constitution ? Tell me, my
dear boy, how it all was.

The young "tar," while telling of the defeat of the Guerriere,
says:

We reefed our top-sail, hauled in our courses, and sent down the royals.
OLD BUNDLE. That's right, Ben ; down with the royals ! That's an old Yankee trick !
Well, my boy, go on ; down with the royals !

After Ben has finished the old man remarks :

My brave boy, I have not had such a glorious day for many years. We have shown the
world that the true friends of peace are best able to chastise an insolent enemy, (pp. 6-8.)

Other Patriotic Citizen Characters

General Campdon (veteran of the Revolution), Barker, "Tears and Smiles" (1807).

b. The Politician

Mr. Polemic in "The Child of Feeling" (1809) represents the
man who has one hobby from which his mind is seldom free and

8 Cf. McMaster, Hist, of People of U. S. (1895), IV :72-77.
8 Sea Part II, Chap. I, Sec. 3, b, for definition.

76 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

upon which he is constantly setting off. Mr. Polemic has a mania
for foreign politics, and entertains his friends by enunciating the
proper policies for the European governments! Suddenly break-
ing off a conversation, he says :

But I can't stay another moment ; must hasten directly to the coffee-house and read the
very important piece of foreign intelligence to my friends, (p. 14.)

A little later he remarks :

The papers from Europe are full of interesting information, and it is absolutely neces-
sary the Americans should see it. I believe, if it was not for me, they would be all involved
in political darkness. Yes, yes, I'm sure of it. (p. 38.)

Displeased with the intimations of another, he exclaims :

Why, rot the fellow; I could have borne anything better than to be called a fool! I
who have thrown so much light on the political science, and have written such energetic and
labored essays in the newspapers to enlighten by countrymen, to be called a fool is really too
bad. But perhaps he don't know what I have done, or how great a politician I am. No, he
don't! no, no, but I always thought so; yes, yes, I always thought so. (p. 62.)

6. MAN OF AFFAIRS CHARACTER

Mr. Dashaway (outspoken, unscrupulous, wealthy business man), Lindsley, "Love and
Friendship" (1809).

7. WORKING MAN CHARACTER

A specimen of the sailor of the day appears in "Love and
Friendship" (1809) in the person of Jack Hardweather. He is a
rough, reckless, impudent fellow, and in the jargon of "tars"
seems to enjoy the sound of his own voice. Being thrown out of
his usual occupation by the Embargo of 1807-09, he seeks employ-
ment on land :

I am Jack Hardweather, a piece of a sailor, d'ye see, but damn me, since the embargo,
I have good reason to be almost tired of your salt sea sprays ; so I am on the look-out for a
dry dock or snug berth on shore, for a cruise, (pp. 6-7.)

Hearing Jonathan give a toast to "Columby's navy," Jack
exclaims :

Well done, brother Jonathan, well said, my blue-skin Presbyterian. Eaton and Decatur
forever! and the Philadelph'a's fate all the world over to every vessel that dares impress our
shipmates, or molest our free commerce, of whatsomdever nation, my hearties ! Pass th
grog, brother blue-skin.

Soon becoming a little intoxicated, he continues:

So to the devil we kick all non non importation acts, dry docks, gunboats, and Car-
ter's mountain, and protect ourselves like men by fortifying our har harbors and building
seventy-fours and frigates to keep a look-out ahead for enemies and foul weather, my boys.
(pp. 38-39.)

8. FASHIONABLE SOCIETY CHARACTERS
a. The Beau

A more or less typical beau is Fluttermore in "Tears and
Smiles" (1807). He tries to avoid in his speech and actions any

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 77

appearance of vulgarity. He was educated in America and left col-
lege with true love of country in his heart. After that he made a
trip abroad, by which everything was changed. He came home a
coxcomb, pale and frivolous, with "a hearty contempt for every-
thing this side the water." The following will illustrate :

The English can't dress, talk, nor cook so well as the French. The Italian opera is a

dev'lish deal finer than anything in the world Then for laws for laws : they are

everywhere better than ours, because everywhere else the bourgeois is kept under, (p. 21.)

Speaking of sensibilities :

But as to raptures and ecstasies and that kind of thing, gad, they're all out; left the
fashionable world long since. Those monopolizers, the novelists, have bought up all the old-
fashioned article, and if you want it now, you must apply to the only shop where 'tis to be
had; savoir, the circulating library, (p. 36.)

To a friend who is thinking of settling down in the country,
he remarks :

I'll tell you. Once a week or so you will emerge from the elegant cares of a counting-
room, to take the benefit of the dust with spousy, to your rural cot on the high road ; and
once a year catch an ague, for the benefit of your health, at some of your brilliant watering-
places. Amiably domestic, you'll play cards for kisses with lovey ; or make one of a tea-
drinking circle in the American taste : staring at each other like a room full of wax-figures,

and gloomy as a Presbyterian synod You don't dance, therefore madam's annual cotillion

is nothing to you; but you'll visit your unparalleled theatre, perhaps once a winter, to see
some delectable American muse, in the shape of a comedy; and end the year merrily at
Christmas by settling your books and collecting your debts, (p. 58.)

Other Beau Characters

Dick (dissipated fop, such as colleges are sometimes reputed to breed), Lindsley, "Love
and Friendship" (1809).

Delany (fop) says:

Formerly, indeed, (gambling and such) were called vices by some silly old puts, but the
word has been expunged from the modern vocabulary. If a blood, sir, was not to frequent the
billiard table, stake at faro, keep a girl and ogle with her at the theatre, he would be hissed
out of genteel society, (p. 20) Button, "Fashionable Follies" (1809).

b. The Lady

Mrs. Ledger (unreasonable, superficial, material-minded wife and mother), Beach, Jona-
than Postfree" (1806).

9. SERVANT CHARACTERS
a. The Black

A somewhat realistic specimen of the slave of the early nine-
teenth century is presented in "Love and Friendship" (1809). This
is a negro boy, Harry, who belongs to a wealthy society family of
South Carolina :

(Enter Harry with a small tea-board, a decanter of gin, pitcher of water, vial essence
of mint, and a punch-bowl.)

HARRY. Eh! he de gone; I s'pose he no could wait. Now if I no de feara ole massa
come and play de debil wid me for true, I do like young massa Dickey, and make little julep
for myself. (Mixes liquor, sugar, etc.) .... Heigho ! bess for me for happy I can; so now
no massa bin here, I 'joy myself, and do de same like massa, on'y I no git drunk, (pp. 13-14.)

78 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

After a few hours "Harry opens the chamber door and Dick
reels in" :

Heighho ! what wicked worl dis white man worl be for true do ! No like de negur coun-
try ; no do sich ting dere ; no hab rum for git drunk and fight. I wish neber bin blige for lef

it. I bin happy dere ; no de hab massa for scole, no Ian bad ting, and hear him ebery

day so much But why me de no happy? He bess be happy I can, now I here poor

slave, and no can git backa my country again, (p. 35.)

10. PROFESSIONAL CHARACTERS
a. The Professional Crank

In the plays of this time there are found some professional
cranks that seem to be caricatures of real persons.

Watterson says in the preface to "The Child of Feeling" (1809)
that he wrote his comedy in order to introduce what he believes
to be an entirely new character, "described, with the addition of a
little caricature, such as he really exists. 'Etymology' is one with
whom many are not acquainted, but whom some, no doubt, have
seen in their intercourse with the living world." The scene of the
play is Philadelphia. A bit of Etymology's dialogue will sufficiently
describe him.

Introducing himself to a lady:

(Bowing.) Your most obedient, ma'am, most obedient; hope I don't intrude. My name's
Etymology, ma'am, well known in this populous city : teach school, sing psalms, write poetry,
understand Latin, and speak Greek. Now I think of it, will teach you any of those branches
at a very moderate price; do you understand, ma'am? (p. 27.)

At another time he meets Mr. Polemic who inquires if he is
looking for some one :

Thank you, sir, thank you ; came here to see Mr. Splash, sir ; have the honor of being
his preceptor: the word preceptor, sir, is derived from hie preceptor, Latin, which signifies a
teacher. Now I think of it, will teach you anything you would wish to learn ; viz., dancing,
fencing, boxing, poetry, history, biography, chronology, ontology, physiology ; only enquire for
Ety, and he'll attend you in a moment. Do you understand, sir?

Upon hearing this, Polemic says aside :

Umph ! This fellow is one of our braggadocios, I see, that teaches more than he knows,
(pp. 62-63.)

Other Professional Crank Characters

Will Heartwell (eccentric scientific scholar), Breck, "The Fox Chase" (1808).
Primeval (self-complacent antiquary), Breck, "The Trust" (1808).

b. The Justice

Catchpay (unprincipled Charleston, S. C., notary), Lindsley, "Love and Friendship"
(1809).

CONCLUSION

The realistic presentation of American characters in native
plays written between 1805 and 1815 is as follows :

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 79

1. Characters that reflect American life are presented in at
least one-third of the more than forty-five recorded native plays of
this decade.

Bibliography I contains a representative list.

2. Most of the realistic characters are found in comedies and
operatic pieces : a smaller number occur in plays on historical and
political subjects.

The plays of this time show a good deal of variety. Those of realistic importance are
nearly all suitable for the professional stage.

3. Although the decade presents no particularly predomi-
nant realistic characters, the Yankee type seems somewhat to lead.

The Yankee, revived after two decades following the original presentation in 1787 and
found in at least seven plays of this decade, seems in general less natural and more of a
stage-clown in comparison with the same role of the earlier pieces.

4. Indian characters, in many ways idealized, are just be-
ginning to claim favorable notice.

The only important Indian play of this time is Barker's "The Indian Princess" (1808).

5. Characters reflecting the day's political and national af-
fairs appear in comparatively small numbers.

Fewer than twenty percent of the forty-five or more plays above mentioned touch upon
the political events of the time, seven of which are "The Embargo" (1808; in MS), "Love and
Friendship" (1809), "Yankee Chronology" (1812), "The American Captives" (1812; in MS),
"She Would Be a Soldier" (1813), "The Festival of Peace" (1815; in MS), and "Battle of
New Orleans" (1815; in MS).

6. There are few significant fashionable society characters.

II
Suggestions of American nationality are negligibly lacking.

Ill

Nothing of the universal enters into the realistic dramatic
characters of this time.

Evidences of superior ability are seen in the plays of James Nelson Barker.

PART III

THE REALISTIC PRESENTATION OF AMERICAN CHAR-
ACTERS IN THE NATIVE AMERICAN PLAYS OF
THE PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT AND
PARTIAL INDEPENDENCE
1815-1870

The chief benefit that the people of the United States derived
from the second war with Great Britain was "the consciousness of
nationality." l On every hand there were signs of a national awak-
ening. In literature, other than dramatic, Irving, Bryant, and
Cooper were making a "literary declaration of independence,"
while in American drama, less gloriously of course but by no means
less surely, Payne, Harby, Noah, and a few others were transcend-
ing their dramatic predecessors. Our cultured citizens were be-
ginning to patronize the histrionic art more generally, and were re-
warded by the opportunity to see all the celebrated players of Eu-
rope. This new-born interest, among manifold movements toward
national supremacy, was doubtless responsible in a large sense for
the advent of Edwin Forrest.

Forrest began to attract attention as an actor in 1826, and for
nearly a half -century was one of the most potent influences in the
development of the American drama and theater. He popularized
the Indian as a stage-character, established the Forrestian school
of actors, convinced Europe that the United States also had the-
atrical talent, and on account of repeated encouragement to Ameri-
can playwrights 2 became the acknowledged patron of much of the
superior dramatic activity of the period. He and his English con-
temporaries cultivated among Americans a taste for the Eliza-
bethan drama, and at the same time gave stimulus to the compo-
sition of literary plays. Among the productions of this class might
be named Stone's "Metamora" (1829), Brown's "Sertorius" (1830),
Bailey's "Waldimar" (1834), Bird's "The Gladiator" (1837), Con-
rad's "Jack Cade" (1839), Willis's "Tortesa" (1839), Longfellow's

iHart, The Amer. Nation, XIII :193.
See Rees, B, 414.

84 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

"The Spanish Student" (1842), Boker's "Calaynos" (1848), Miles's
"Mohammed" (1850), and Boker's "Francesca da Rimini" (1853).
By the middle of the century legitimate drama, especially through
the compositions of Boker, had been raised considerably above the
level of mediocrity.

The progress in tragedy, however, was hardly surpassed by
the advancement in comedy. While Forrest was interpreting the
emotions of Metamora, Jack Cade, and Othello, James H. Hackett
was winning favor in the roles of Solomon Swop, Colonel Nimrod
Wildfire, and Falstaff. American comedy came into its rights dur-
ing the second quarter of the nineteenth century, and as the ac-
knowledged head of the comedians stood the versatile Hackett.
His impersonations of exaggerated yet typical American charac-
ters were skillfully done, and because of the successes of himself
and his followers native authors were induced to put into comedy
all the more conspicuous types of American character, particu-
larly those of the less refined order. Further development along
the line of low comedy may be seen in the frequent local New York
plays ; also, in the realm of vitalized burlesque where the irrepres-
sible John Brougham held sway.

Along in the early forties a definite new movement began to
be observed in American drama. This was in the form of high
comedy which attempted to deal somewhat realistically with the
fashionable society and business phases of American life. The first
important play of this species was "Fashion," written by Mrs.
Anna Cora Mowatt and produced in 1845. Joseph Jefferson calls
it "the first American comedy worthy of the name." 3 Although it
was obviously imitative in its technique, it nevertheless showed
originality in its subject matter and in the manner of presenting the
same. Many pieces of similar type were written during the next
quarter-century.

As the cloud of the Civil War began to arise its aspects were
mirrored forth in the plays of the day. One of the most famous
pieces with a far-reaching political significance was Aiken's drama-
tized version (1852) of "Uncle Tom's Cabin." Other plays of a
more or less political coloring followed, and it would not be im-
possible to trace much of the history of the Civil War by a study of
the contemporary dramatic works.

'Bates, XIX :5.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 85

The Civil War, however, as should be expected, tended to put
a check upon the acting and writing of plays in the United States.
Although from time to time a few indifferent pieces appeared, on
the whole the decade beginning with 1860 made small contribution
to native drama. It was in reality a time of transition, for when
American play-goers once more began to give notice to plays and
players they found conditions somewhat changed from those of
antebellum days. During the late sixties and early seventies the
Robertsonian "cup and saucer school" had taken hold upon Amer-
ica; the play of many scenes, soliloquies, and asides, written for
presentation by a "star" actor on a platform-stage, was being su-
perseded by the play of fewer scenes and devices, intended for pro-
duction by players of the new "combination" system, with the aid
of a more elaborate setting; 4 and, furthermore, in certain quar-
ters there were observed signs of a more serious endeavor "to set
on the stage the salient characteristics of American life."

"In dealing with American life in the drama, practically and
realistically," 5 the real pioneer was Bronson Howard. His first
success, "Saratoga," was produced by Augustin Daly in 1870. It
was later presented on the European stage, and was adapted by
Paul Lindau into the German a recognition perhaps never before
given to an American play. 6 "Saratoga" proved but the beginning
of a long series of triumphs for Howard, who showed exceptional
power in "The Young Mrs. Winthrop" (1882), "The Henrietta"
(1887), and "Aristocracy" (1892). Professor Brander Matthews
says, "His plays, all of them, from first to last, are essentially
American in theme and outlook." 7 Hamilton W. Mabie writes :
"The vital movement in American drama may be said to have be-
gun with that expert playwright and charming man, Bronson How-
ard His plays were American to the core He was well

equipped for the writing of comedy, for he had inventiveness, vi-
vacity, humor, keen insight, and knowledge of contemporary so-
ciety." 8 Bronson Howard has been styled the "dean of American
drama," and there seems to be every reason for his meriting the
title. With him and his successors there came into native drama

See Matthews, A, 284-85.
Ibid., 293.

See Matthews, A, 282.
Ibid., 289.

Mabie, Outlook, 102: 947.
8 See Moses, 73 ff.

86 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

a new era, more distinctively American, more genuinely creative,
and more thoroughly professional. It seems appropriate, there-
fore, to regard the year 1870 as the closing date of the period of
development and partial independence.

The period of American drama, denned by the years 1815 and
1870, permits of four fairly logical divisions. The first subperiod,
embracing the dramatic pieces between 1815 and 1829, may be
called a time of awakening in American drama ; the second, cover-
ing the productions between 1829 and 1845, seems to be an epoch of
growth for legitimate drama and plays treating native themes;
the third, extending from 1845 to 1860, is an epoch of significant
creative activity in native dramatic writing; and the last, the ten
years opening with 1860, I have considered as a decade of transi-
tion. The purpose of the following chapters is to show the realis-
tic presentation of American characters in the plays of these sub-
periods.

CHAPTER I

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS WRITTEN
BETWEEN 1815 AND 1829

A TIME OF AWAKENING IN AMERICAN DRAMA

The successful issue of our Second War for Independence early
in 1815, followed soon by the "Era of Good Feeling," effected "a
more perfect union" of our citizens and compelled a less qualified
recognition of our government by the great world powers. Every-
where there were evidences of renewed vigor conditions that
likewise characterized native dramatic and theatrical l activity.
Belonging to the decade and half which followed, more than one
hundred native plays (including several adaptations and imitations)
are recorded. 2 The best of these is John Howard Payne's (1791-
1852) "Brutus," acted in London, 1818, and now considered the
first specimen of really meritorious drama by an American author.
Other superior plays of the time were written by Isaac Harby
(1788-1828), John Neal (1793-1876), Mordecai Manuel Noah
(1785-1851), James Kirke Paulding (1779-1860), Richard Penn
Smith (1790-1854), John Blake White (1783-1859), Samuel Wood-
worth (1785-1842), and Frances Wright (1795-1852). In spite of
a prevalence of foreign subjects, treated after approved methods,
the prospects of American drama were nevertheless brightening.

During this era of prosperity the literary and cultured public
first began to feel a genuine interest in the drama. The most cele-
brated English actors now paid their first visits to our shores,
among whom came Edmund Kean in 1820, Junius Brutus Booth
in 1821, and William Charles Macready in 1826. Between 1813
and 1832 the talented John Howard Payne was sojourning in Eu-
rope and distinguishing himself as both actor and playwright.
America was encouraging high dramatic art, and at the same time
contributing something to it.

One of the most important occurrences of this time from the
standpoint of the American theater and drama was the rise to fame

1 See Clapp, 142ff ; Wood, Chap. X.

2 By Wegelin.

88 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

of Edwin Forrest. This native actor experienced his first triumph
at the Park Theatre, New York, 1826, in the role of Othello, and
from then on for nearly half a century he was recognized not only
as the supreme American tragedian but as one of the greatest of
his day. He exerted marked influence upon the American stage 3
and became the champion of national drama. His first attempt to
encourage native talent was in 1829, when he offered the sum of
five hundred dollars for the best tragedy on American history.
John A. Stone submitted a piece founded on the Indian sagamore,
King Philip, and entitled "Metamora." This play was awarded the
prize, 4 and presented at the Park Theatre, December 15, 1829. The
title role, that of the chief Metamora, became one of Forrest's
most successful performances. 5 With it he won a fortune and much
distinction, popularized the Indian play, 6 and gave additional im-
petus to native creative effort of a higher order. 7 The year 1829,
therefore, may be taken as the beginning of a new chapter.

1. YANKEE CHARACTERS

Between 1815 and 1829 the Yankee continued to be a favorite
stage-character, especially during the decade of the twenties. From
then on for many years the Yankee was one of the parts most fre-
quently acted in American theaters.

Samuel Woodworth in his romantic drama of "The Forest
Rose" (1825) which was received with favor both here and
abroad presents Jonathan, a shop-keeper and farmer. This Yan-
kee is of the stage variety and, like the others cited below, is only
now and then given touches of the actual. The following alludes to
his inquisitive and stingy tendency, and also illustrates his man-
ner and dialogue :

JONATHAN. (To Bland, a city fop, who at first does not notice him.) Too darned
proud to speak to a body in homespun coat. This must be one of them city chaps that come
over here a-gunning. I say, mister servant, sir.

BLAND. Tell me, my good fellow, how far am I from the Eagle Tavern?

JONATHAN. You don't belong to these parts, I calculate?

BLAND. Of course I do not. Will you answer my question?

JONATHAN. May be you are from New York? How does buckwheat sell?

BLAND. Will you direct me to Major Butler's, who keeps the stage-house at the sign
of the Spread Eagle?

See Winter, A, 44-45.

4 See Clapp, 244

5 See Winter, A, 87.
See Button, A, 13.

7 Se Rees, B. 96-102 ; 412-431.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 89

JONATHAN. You a'n't acquainted with the major, are you? He trades at my shop.

BLAND. So you are a shop-keeper, then ?

JONATHAN. A little in the marchant way, and a piece of a farmer, besides.
BLAND. What do you sell?

JONATHAN. Everything: whiskey, molasses, calicoes, spelling-books, and patent grid-
irons, (p. 13.)

After accepting a bribe Jonathan's conscience troubles him
somewhat :

I don't calculate I feel exactly right about keeping this purse ; and yet I believe I should
feel still worse to give it back. Twenty-three dollars is a speculation that a'n't to be sneezed
at, for it a'nt to be catched every day. But will it be right to keep the money, when I don't
intend to do the job? (p. 26.)

"The Bucktails" (written soon after the War of 1812) con-
tains a Yankee servant, Jonathan Peabody, who has accompanied
two refined American citizens to England. Although overdrawn,
he possesses many of the traits of Yankees who have just "licked"
England for the second time. Plain, democratic, and blunt-witted,
he also has much originality and common sense. He acknowledges
no superior, and says with reference to his employer, "I've no mas-
ter, I calculate." He whistles Yankee Doodle, and boastfully de-
clares, "I'm half horse, half alligator, and a little of the Injen, I
guess." He uses "by gum," "I swow," "guy hang it," and like
phrases.

Other Yankee Characters

Daniel Briggs (Yankee booby), Woodworth, "The Deed of Gift" (1822).

Bloom and Herman (Yankee saw-mill builders), Hawkins, "The Saw Mill" (1824).

Welcome Sobersides (Green Mountain sergeant of the Revolution), Finn, "Montgom-
ery" (1825).

Solomon Swop 8 (Yankee servant in England), "Jonathan in England" (1828; alteration
from Colman's "Who Wants a Guinea?").

Jonathan Doolittle (tricky teamster) and Leather Stocking (Yankee scout and Indian
fighter; borrowed from J. F. Cooper), Dunlap, "A Trip to Niagara" (played, 1829; published,
1830; Dunlap's last published play).

Industrious Doolittle (talking, speculating Yankee), "The Times" (1829).

Rip Van Winkle (lazy, drunken, long-suffering but good-hearted Dutchman; represented
as using the Yankee dialect:

RIP. (Speaking in his sleep.) Mother Van Winkle, Dame Van Winkle, what are you
arter? Don't be always badgering; will you never allow poor Rip a moment's quiet? Curse it!
Don't throw the hot water about so ; you'll scald one's eyes, and, so you will darnation ! And
no mistake, so you have! (He awakens in sudden emotion.) Eh, by crikey I What's all this?
(p. 42). Kerr, "Rip Van Winkle" (1829).

2. INDIAN CHARACTERS

During the decade preceding the production of "Metamora"
(1829) Indian characters are somewhat frequently encountered in

8 First Yankee character that established the reputation of an actor in this line ; the
actor was J. H. Hackett. See Matthews and Hutton, 162.

90 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

native drama. At least a half-dozen pieces, all of indifferent qual-
ity, are known to contain such.

Joseph Doddridge in an inferior play entitled "Logan" (1821)
presents several Indians, none of whom seems especially exag-
gerated. Logan and Shahillas will serve as examples.

The former is meant to be historically accurate. He is chief
of the Cayuga nation, and by choice is peace-loving, generous, and
honorable. But after a merciless massacre of Indians in 1774, near
Wheeling, W. Va., he resolves upon revenge blood for blood. Su-
perstitious and melancholy, he imagines that the spirits of the dead
demand such a course; so he broods over the execution of their
supposed wishes.

Shahillas, chief of the Ottoways, is the leading character of
the play, and personifies mature Indian wisdom. He is deliberate,
far-seeing, and experienced; he sees the dangers of war, and con-
sequently prefers peace; although calm and just, in the fight he be-
comes furious.

Correct coloring is given the Indian dialogue in such expres-
sions as "Long-knives" (as a name for the English), "big rifles
which make thunder and lightning," and "for ten snows and ten
ears of corn you have governed."

Other Indian Characters

Tawatees (hostile, blood-thirsty chief of the Shawnees), Kuhn (chief of the Wyandots ;
similar to Tawatees), Queeta (old squaw), Sheba (boy), and Young Squaws Doddridge, "Lo-
gan" (1821).

Altamah ( wild-natured squaw), Finn, "Montgomery" (1825).

Pontiac (chief; much the same as Rogers' Ponteach 9 ), Augushaway (chief who follows
Pontiac), Otscheo (priest of regular type), and Ultina (converted Indian woman; friendly to
the whites), Macomb, "Pontiac" (1826).

Menawa (chief who regards Washington as favored by the Great Spirit. Failing to kill
Washington at the time of Braddock's defeat, he in 1772 visits the colonel, who is surveying
on the Kenhawa river, and makes a prophecy :

WASHINGTON. I offer you the calumet of peace and friendship.

MENAWA. No smoke with you

WASH. Chief, I drink to our better acquaintance.

MENA. No drink with you yet Menawa was born a chief Now Menawa bows

before a chief whom the Great Spirit favors

WASH. Chief, we will eat together; white and red men will associate as brothers.

MENA. Menawa no eat with you Menawa is a chief and the ruler over many

tribes Menawa is old and soon will be gathered to the Great Council fire of his

Fathers ; . . . . but before he goes, there is something here which bids him speak in the voice
of Prophecy. Listen ! The Great Spirit protects that man, and guides his destiny. He will
become the Chief of Nations, and a people yet unborn hail him as the Founder of a mighty
Empire! 10 (pp. 34-35), Custis, "The Indian Prophecy" (1828).

See Part I, Chap. I, Sec. 1.

10 An actual occurrence. See Custis, Recollections of Washington.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 91

3. FRONTIER CHARACTERS

Two captains of the Ohio and Virginia frontier of 1774 are
presented in Doddridge's "Logan" (1821) Captain Furioso and
Captain Pacificus. The former is a restless, unfeeling leader of
the whites, considers Indians mere beasts of prey, and is bent on
their complete destruction. The latter, as his name indicates, is
humane and deliberate, and the antithesis of Furioso.

Other Frontier Characters

The Unknown (regicide, hiding in America from Charles II), Isabella and Charles
(daughter and grandson of the regicide; both are accused of sorcery), Ravensworth (unfeeling,
superstitious accuser, and leader of the witchcraft-believers), Mary (daughter of Ravensworth;
her love for Charles is interpreted as a magic spell he has worked), a bigoted judge, and be-
nighted villagers Barker, "Superstition" (1823).

Major Rogers 11 (Provincial officer; well acquainted with Indian nature; advises counter-
plot and prompt measures; distrusts the Indians, and is somewhat unfeeling in his attitude),
Captain Freeman and Lieutenant Brheme (Colonial officers who defend American blood, and
think that American bravery surpasses British discipline), and Father Pierre (French priest
of good repute), Macomb, "Pontiac" (1826).

4. MILITARY CHARACTERS

A few hints concerning the United States army of the period
may be found in Smith's "The Eighth of January" (1829), which
is based on the battle of New Orleans (1815). In the play there
appears General Jackson, who was still living. He is represented
as "straight and tough as a hickory," shrewd of mind, and pure of
motive. He has a charitable disposition, believes that right will
prevail, and sacrifices all private good for his country's welfare.
He admires rugged honesty and bravery, and holds that all men
are created with equal rights. 12

Charles Bull in the same play is a Tennessee rifleman, 13 known
as one of the "dirty shirts," and a brave, loyal, resourceful fol-
lower of Jackson. He is over six feet tall, and wears a rifle-shirt
and cap. Another character is a Kentucky rifleman who, though
of a wild, abrupt nature, is a never-missing marksman.

Other Military Characters

Commodore Intrepid (of U. S. ; releases American citizens from captivity in Algiers),
Smith, "The Siege of Algiers" (1823).

Colonel Washington (historical; revered by the Indians), Woodford (captain of Colonial
rangers, 1755; settler of Western Virginia), and Bishop (old soldier body-servant of Col. Wash-
ington), Custis, "The Indian Prophecy" (1828).

11 Rogers wrote the first play on Pontiac, 1766.

1 2 See McMaster, Hist, of the People of U. S., IV : 188.

iCf. Hart, The Amer. Nation, XIII: 213-14; Bassett, The Life of A. Jackson, II: 700ff.

92 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

5. POLITICAL CHARACTERS

A few of the political characters in the plays of this time are
obviously realistic, particularly those of the patriotic citizen and
politician groups.

a. The Public Official

Consul and Lady Tribute Smith, "The Siege of Algiers" (1823).

b. The Patriot

Marion in Noah's superior drama of the same name (1821)
is "a captain of volunteers in the American service." He stands
as the most zealous type of Patriot leader, and is resolved to win
freedom or suffer death. The ardor of his feeling is shown in such
speeches as :

We would be free, sir free as air free as our native mountains free as we were born.
(P. 28.)

He is daring, possesses a commanding personality, and willingly
sacrifices all for his country's cause.

Other Patriot Characters

Caleb (refined farmer of means, who supports the Patriot cause), Nicholas (poor, illit-
erate, patriotic Whig), Emma (spirited Patriot wife of Tory parentage), and Catherine (heaven-
trusting, liberty-loving rural wife), Noah, "Marion" (1821).

Geffrey (blunt, faithful old Patriot soldier), Adam Bothel (farmer Patriot leader; frank,
brave, and just), and Mey Bothel (daughter of Patriot family), Judah, "A Tale of Lexing-
ton" (1823).

c. The Tory

Mrs. Fitzhenry (large-hearted Tory mother) and Beverly Fitzhenry (generous youthful
Tory soldier), Noah, "Marion" (1821).

d. The Patriotic Citizen

Henry Tudor in Paulding's "The Bucktails" (written soon
after the War of 1812) is supposed to represent a substantial Amer-
ican citizen of the time. Although he is idealized, he does possess
such qualities and opinions as many true Americans have liked to
assume to themselves. He is frank, unaffected, sensible, and patri-
otic. He is unable to trace back his ancestry further than his
grandfather, and furthermore does not wish to bother with such
kind of distinction. "Man can't remove one step from man," he
says, "his nature fixes him." He detests the dissipation of English
society, thinks that Europeans "consider their daughters as trades-
men do their wares," and remarks that American women "do not
marry to come out into the gay world, but to retire from it." He
prefers living close to nature, for the results are honesty and hap-

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 93

piness. He defends the American scorn of social convention, and
says, "When hearts are pure, an hour's acquaintance is equal to an
age of hypocritical contest, who shall deceive the other." Genuine
Americans, he believes, should look upon European manners with
fear and contempt, and should measure manhood by education,
morals, and solid worth.

Other Patriotic Citizen Characters

Frank Tudor (brother to Henry Tudor), Paulding, "The Bucktails."

Zachariah Meanwell, somewhat refined Massachusetts farmer), Woodworth, "The Deed of

Gift" (1822).

Huger (spirited son of American colonel; traveling in Europe), Woodworth, "La Fay-

ette" (1824).

e. The Politician

A comedy, written by L. Sawyer, 1824, and entitled "Black-
beard," contains realistic scenes among politicians and voters at a
county election in Virginia :

TURPIS. (A common people's candidate for representative to the state assembly, to a
constituent.) I'll stand to it, I want no better friend than this jug, with what little I can
put in slyly between drinks. The bottle's the best electioneerer, after all . . .

MULEY. That's right, stick to the bottle. Treat the children with cakes, and their
mothers with .... punch : it will set their tongues running in your praise .... If you can
gain the women, you are sure of the men, as the head of a ship is steer'd by the stern, or .

TURPIS. Or as a butcher steers a calf by the tail. Yes, I think we shall get the ad-
vantage of Candid, eh, Muley? For though he has got more book knowledge, I have got

more impudence, which will stand me in its stead with a majority Have you seen

old Roughy ? We must gain him ; for he has more influence than any man in the county. His
sons, and brothers, and uncles, and their connections could nearly elect a man of themselves.

But do you have me a jug or two of whiskey on the ground. Zounds; I can't afford to
give away brandy : it would cost six pence a vote, but with whiskey I can get them for half
that. (p. 7.)

Turpis wins the election.

Other Politician Characters

First Countryman and Second Countryman (voters) and Sheriff (at a county election),
Sawyer, "Blackbeard" (1824).

6. RURAL CHARACTERS
a. The Farmer

Two Massachusetts farmers appear in "The Deed of Gift"
(1822) with now and then a suggestion of the real. Old Barton is
an aged father who foolishly surrenders his property before death
to an ungrateful son. He is credulous and puritanic, and while not
always honorable is inclined to justice. The second is Nathaniel
Barton, the son. He is a deacon in the church, but in spite of his
office is intemperate, and practices various kinds of hypocrisy.

94 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

Other Farmer Character

Mrs. Barton (whimsical wife of N. E. farmer; uneducated, but having come into wealth
tries to appear learned; speaks in proverbs; is always citing Webster as an authority; calls
the actors of plays infidels; makes her presence felt in the home; forces her aged father-in-
law to give over his property, then assigns him quarters in the garret), Woodworth, "The
Deed of Gift" (1822).

b. The Country Girl

Mary Moreland (N. E. village girl; dutiful daughter; ingenious; of no narrow prej-
udices; insists upon personal liberty), Woodworth, "The Deed of Gift" (1822).
Harriet (slightly suggests reality), Woodworth, "The Forest Rose" (1825).

7. MAN OF AFFAIRS CHARACTERS

Several examples of the day's men of affairs are introduced into
Mead's "Wall Street" (1819). Three of the more important ap-
pear in the following excerpts :

OLDTIMES. What a busy, merry place this Wall Street has got to be.

HARDRUN. Is this you, Mr. Oldtimes?

OLD. Why, yes, it was me some thirty years ago, but things have so changed within

that time, that I hardly know whether it is myself or not I remember when there

were no Banks, no Bankers, no Shavers, and no running about to borrow money; ....
when instead of Shavers, Sharpers, and Speculators, honest men lived here. But how is this?
.... Banks make money, Brokers buy money. Here's "Stock and Exchange Brokers," here's
"Premium for Dollars," here's "Outlandish money exchanged," Insurance Companies, Lot-
tery Offices, and the Devil knows what alL Egad, they are all shavers but Saunders he only
cuts hair. This is no place for me. (pp. 9-11.)

When we see Mr. Oldtimes again he is at the bank with a
check, both of which are strange to him :

What a crowd here is, pushing and shoving, and counting money paper rags. I can re-
member when good old gold and silver were all the money we had ; and then every man was
his own banker. But, now, we have banks, and brokers, and shinners, and shavers, and along
with them your merchant tailors, and your merchant shoemakers, and your merchant this
thing and that thing.

To an acquaintance whom he meets at the bank he says :

I am looking at this bustle of young upstarts behind the counter, with fine ruffles on
their shirts And what do they find to do after three o'clock? (pp. 32-33.)

It is explained that "they visit the hotels and the theatre, and play
billiards, and cards, and dice, and ride and walk Broadway, and
drink brandy and water, and hot whiskey punch, and so on." There-
upon the old gentleman with irrepressible contempt asks, "And who
pays?"

Mr. Hardrun, being unable to borrow money elsewhere, is
obliged to go to the detested brokers :

HARDRUN. I must have some money.
BROKER. I don't believe I can supply you.

HARD. You must; I have been everywhere, and can't raise the wind, and it's now only
ten minutes before three !

BROK. How much do you want?

HARD. I can do with 750, and then I shall have just $15 over.

BROK. I could have lent any amount to-day at $2 on the thousand.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 95

HARD. I never saw such hard times for cash in my life. 14

BROK. Can't you do with $500?

HARD. I must have 750, and should like 800.

BROK. I expect I have drawn more than I have funds already.

HARD. I have not a moment to spare; give me a check.

BROK. When will you return it?

HARD. Tomorrow.

BROK. I shall have to go out and borrow it, if I let you have it ; and I must charge
you a high premium.

HARD. Let me have it and charge what you please.

BROK. Draw your check, dated tomorrow, for 803, (drawing checks.) and I will give
you mine for 800. (Passing checks). (pp. 30-31.)

Skinflint, a money-lender in "Blackbeard" (1824), is more
than a bit of fiction. The following scene will disclose his character :

SKINFLINT. (To a man who calls for a loan and mentions "North Carolina state-
notes," starting.) Don't show me a North Carolina bank-note I'd as lief have your note. They
cover the land like the locusts of Egypt; I should never get my change again.

The borrower suggests that there is a way to force payment:

SKIN. They can't pay all, and therefore they pay none. As to recovering it by law,
you might as well undertake to bail out the sea with an oyster-shell. Justice follows the largest
purse; and how could my thousand (bless me, I had like to expose myself) how could I long
hold out against their reams of paper? They'd retreat into chancery, and keep me at bay for

life There is no doubt that they employ agents to buy up their own notes with the

very money they promise to pay them in, and at a large discount.

Skinflint insists that he has no money to let out, until there is
mention of "twenty-five percent and mortgage" :

SKIN. Here, I say, stop a little, friend Roughy ; I reckon I must try and make some

shift to serve you, even if I have to stint myself I think you said something about a

mortgage and twenty-five percent ?

ROUGHY. Yes, I did.

SKIN. Will you renew, interest and all, if not paid in three months?

ROUGH. Certainly. . . .

SKIN. I think I recollect now ; I believe my old woman has as much as you want ; she
had been saving it to buy some negro women. Walk in. (pp. 29-31.)

Other Man of Affairs Characters

Mr. Easy, Mr. Shinner, Mr. Shaver, Mr. Merchant, Mr. Borrower, Mr. Bankrupt; Presi-
dent, Cashier, and Directors of a Bank Mead, "Wall Street" (1819).

Jacob (shrewd banker) and Simon Dubius (dissatisfied holder of Jacob's bills), Taylor,
"Things As They Will Be" (1819).

Citizen Yankoo (U. S. Merchant whose cargo is sacrificed by Algerine intrigue), Smith,
"The Siege of Algiers" (1823).

Mordaunt, Sr. (wealthy, well-intentioned merchant, who because of his absorption in
business neglects his home life, to his sorrow), White, "The Forgers" (1825).

8. WORKING MAN CHARACTERS

Cartman and Labourer (working men having bank-notes which they are anxious to cash),
Taylor, "Things As They Will Be" (1819).

9. FASHIONABLE SOCIETY CHARACTERS

The portrayal of fashionable characters in some of the plays
prior to 1829 shows a certain divergence from the usual dramatic
convention.

See McMaster, Hist, of the People of U. S., IV :484-521.

96 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

a. The Beau

Ridgeford (devotee of fashion, gambler, and atheist; wealth, his chief interest; cunning
and revengeful), White, "The Forgers" (1825).
Broadway Lounger "The Times" (1829).

b. The Lady

Although examples of the lady of fashion are numerous in na-
tive plays, those drawn directly from American life are found only
now and then. Most of the characters mentioned below seem par-
ticularly real.

"Wall Street" (1819) presents a society mother and daughter,
Mrs. Hardrun and Julia Hardrun, whose prototypes were surely
known to the author. They are best characterized by their conver-
sation with Mr. Hardrun:

MRS. H. (Accompanied by her daughter, hastening into her husband's place of business.)
What a shame it is the street is so lumbered up with boxes.

HARD. My dear, you must expect it where business is done.

JULIA. Papa, my mamma has promised me a new dress for the assembly.

HARD. I can not help what your mamma has promised.

MRS. H. But, my dear, we must not disappoint Julia.

HARD. Why, it is hardly a week since, that I purchased her a new dress. And here
are the bills for your extravagant party the other night, amounting to $200, and now you
must have your dresses, and your assemblies, and your .

MRS. H. My dear, how can you say so? Our party was not so splendid as our parson
gave the other evening, and you know he is a good Presbyterian.

HARD. Ah, he is a salary-man he can afford it.

MRS. H. But, my dear, Julia must have the dress. She is to have young Mr. Auctioneer

for a gallant, whose father is very rich We must support the fashions we must live

in style.

HARD. But at this rate I am afraid I shall support the fashions by becoming a bankrupt.

JULIA. Papa always talks so when mamma wants money.

HARD. How much money must you have?

MRS. H. Sixty or seventy dollars will answer.

HARD. I have not so much by me at present.

MRS. H. Give me a check, then. (pp. 14-16.)

Returning an hour or so later :

JULIA. Well, Papa, I have bought me an elegant dress, some ornaments, and trifling
things, for all which you are to pay only eighty-three dollars.

HARD. I am busy.

MRS. H. My dear, it is a beautiful dress and very cheap.

HARD. I can't attend to you; it is now two o'clock, and I have my bank account to
make up.

JULIA. Papa, the parcel will be sent here ; will you please to bring it home when you
come to dinner? (Exeunt Mrs. H. and Julia.)

HARD. (Alone, after receiving a statement of his daughter's purchases.) My family
must not be so extravagant. Dinners, parties, balls, assemblies, evening entertainments, dresses,
and all this for the fashions. If my family knew of my situation, they would think of some-
thing else besides dress, (pp. 26-28.)

Other Lady Characters

Mrs. Pembroke (vain society mother), Sawyer, "Blackboard" (1824).
'Mrs. Mordaunt (indulgent mother), White, "The Forgers" (1825).

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 97

Mrs. Carlton (wife of young American merchant in London) and Jane Warfield (attrac-
tive American heiress, visiting abroad), Paulding, "The Bucktails."
The last two characters contain many realistic touches.

10. SERVANT CHARACTERS
a. The Black

Job Jerryson (servant who has caught the spirit of independence; uses snuff, pretends
to be any man's equal, and speaks of "the gentlemen and ladies of color"), Dunlap, "A Trip
to Niagara" (1829).

11. PROFESSIONAL CHARACTER

Justice Moreland (stern, material-minded, just; leading citizen in a N. E. village),
Woodworth, "The Deed of Gift" (1822).

CONCLUSION

The realistic presentation of American characters in native
plays written between 1815 and 1829 is as follows:

1. There are included in the Wegelin bibliography between
1815 and 1829 the titles of about one hundred American plays. Not
more than one-third of these treat American subjects, or contain
noteworthy American characters.

Bibliography I contains a representative list.

2. The majority of the American characters are found in
the historical-political plays, about one-third of them in the vari-
ous pieces of comedy, and a scattering few in a half-dozen or more
Indian dramas.

3. Of the dramatic characters that possess something of
realistic importance the leading types are the Yankee and the
political.

The Yankee type now for the first time begins to be a generally accepted stage-character.
The role of Jonathan in Woodworth's "The Forest Rose," first played by Simpson, 1825, was one
of the earliest successes. In 1828 the comedian J. H. Hackett first produced Solomon Swop, a
character in which he won a reputation. The Yankee as presented by the comedians of the day
is said to have been notably true to life; the part as it appears in the plays, however, seems
greatly overdrawn and only now and then exactly true to originals. Of course, much of the
fidelity to nature of a character can only be expressed in the acting.

The political characters are somewhat in the majority. The most of them appear in
plays on past United States history, while several others occur in pieces on contemporaneous
history, politics, and society. Only occasional characters seem wholly real.

4. Indian characters begin to appear with some frequency
during the decade of the twenties.

This evident interest in Indian life may have offered a suggestion to John A. Stone who
in 1829 wrote "Metamora" for Edwin Forrest.

5. Now and then an inferior piece contains characters taken
from the commercial activities of the day.

These are some of the earliest attempts to dramatize American business situations.

98 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

6. Only a small number of fashionable society characters are
encountered that are true to life.

In a few of the plays of this time there seems to be an effort
to draw characters that are distinctively American.

The blunt-witted, democratic, level-headed Yankees are a product of native soil ; General
Jackson (in "The Eighth of January"), who is the rugged, shrewd, honest, equality-loving "Old
Hickory" of United States history, embodies true American traits; and Henry Tudor (in "The
Bucktails"), the substantial citizen who cares little about pedigree, scorns the hypocrisy of
foreign society, and measures men by their own abilities and solid worth, has in many respects
the correct republican attitude. Other less prominent characters with a native stamp could also
ba named.

Ill

Almost without exception the more finished dramas of this
time treat subjects that forbid the realistic presentation of Ameri-
can characters.

The best play written between 1815 and 1829 was "Brutus" (1818) by John Howard Payne.
This tragedy is a masterful production. Its plot, situations, and literary language have kept it
on the stage almost down to the present, and in its leading role such actors as Edwin Forrest
and Edwin Booth have appeared. It was the first great play by an American author.

CHAPTER II

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS WRITTEN
BETWEEN 1829 AND 1845

AN EPOCH OF GROWTH FOR NATIVE LEGITIMATE DRAMA AND PLAYS
TREATING NATIVE THEMES

The subperiod between 1829 and 1845 may be called an epoch
of growth for native legitimate drama and plays treating native
themes. It was during these years that Edwin Forrest was triumph-
ing both at home and in England, not only in famous Shakespearean
parts but in the tragedy roles of superior American plays which had
been written at his instance. 1 Forrest was a leader of the "native
American movement" of the half -century preceding the Civil War,
and was particularly desirous of helping to create a dignified Amer-
ican drama. 2 Among the better plays that were written under his
encouragement and in which he acted with success were Stone's
"Metamora" (1829), Bird's "The Gladiator" (1837), and Conrad's
"Jack Cade" (1839) . 3 During this epoch there appeared several
other plays on the Elizabethan model, which also showed definite
development in native drama. Without doubt these were largely
called forth by the splendid art of the Forrestian school 4 and the
many visiting English actors. This activity all made for the growth
of a pure American drama.

The tragedy of "Metamora," the leading character of which is
an Indian chief, came out in 1829. Although Indian plays had fre-
quently occurred earlier, it was not till Forrest's masterful acting
in "Metamora" that the type became popular. 5 Such pieces were
much in evidence on the native stage for the next decade and a half.
Although they had the merit of handling American themes, within
a few years the public grew tired of them. 6

1 See National Cyclopedia of Amer. Biography, V :i

2 See Rees, B, 414.
Ibid., 412-431.

4 See Winter, A, 44-45.

5 See Hutton, A, 13.
*lbid., 18.

100 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

One of the noteworthy contemporaries of Forrest was the
comedian James H. Hackett. In truth, the rise of distinctive Ameri-
can comedy may be in no small way attributed to him. 7 He had
already become a favorite in Yankee roles, particularly Solomon
Swop in "Jonathan in England" (1828) ; he soon after added to his
repertory the part of Rip Van Winkle, a character which he acted
most humanly for thirty-five years; and a little later he imperso-
nated with unbounded success Colonel Nimrod Wildfire, a Kentucky
backwoodsman, in Paulding's "The Lion of the West" (1831).

The majority of the best native plays of this epoch as the
case had been, and continued for many years to be are on foreign
subjects. Among the best writers should be named John J. Bailey,
David Paul Brown (1795-1875), Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
(1807-1882), Robert Montgomery Bird (1803-1854), George Pope
Morris (1802-1864), Epes Sargent (1813-1880), and Nathaniel
Parker Willis (1806-1867). In a few of the plays of this time it is
noticed that certain political and social forces are beginning to find
expression.

Native actors, other than Forrest and Hackett, that came
into prominence during these years were Henry Placide (1799-
1870), a finished comedian, 8 Charlotte Cushman (1816-1876), long
considered America's greatest actress, 9 and Charles Burke (1822-
1854), who later won distinction in the role of Rip Van Winkle. 10
Noted English players on our stage, besides Macready and Booth,
were James William Wallack, Clara Fisher, Charles Kean, Frances
Anne Kemble, and William E. Burton.

As the closing date of this chapter the year 1845 is taken. By
this time definite changes, new movements, and more or less inde-
pendent composition are to be observed in American drama.

1. YANKEE CHARACTERS

Although the examples of the Yankee given below are all ex-
aggerations, at the same time they remind one of real persons and
conditions.

Major Joe Bunker (Yankee officer, ably played by Hackett), "Down East" (1830).

Seth Sage (Yankee Patriot; postmaster, justice of the peace, inn-keeper, and captain of
militia ; says "I calculate we shall give the reg'lars a pretty considerabel damned smart drub-
bing"), Glover, "The Cradle of Liberty" (1832).

7 See Matthews and Hutton, 159 ff.

8 See Matthews and Hutton, 146 ff.
See Winter, A, 177.

1 /bid., 93-94.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 101

Jonathan Seab right (boatswain on the frigate Constitution; patriotic and alert; says,

Ay I make any sacrifice to preserve the Union, save going to war about it. War is dis-
union and not union; and disunion can't be union, smite me! (p. 37) Stevens, "The Patriot"
(1834).

Solon Shingle (country teamster; droll, homely-witted, and good-natured; says, "darter,"
"caliker," "pester," and "apple sarse" ; wears old-fashioned surtout with capes, gray trousers,
lead-colored, striped vest, cow-hide boots, and broad-brimmed, low-crowned hat), Jones, "The
People's Lawyer" (1839).

One of "Yankee" Hill's successes.

Horsebean Hemlock (Connecticut Yankee captain), Jones, "Captain Kyd" (1839).

Obediah Whitcher (Yankee servant to a Scotch baron), McLellan, "The Foundling" (1889).

Chipps (raw, ignorant voter), Heath, "Whigs and Democrats" (1839).

Hiram Dodge (broadly caricatured peddler who sells "inions, wooden cheeses, leather
hams, pepper canisters, sassingers, mustard, pocket-books, and rat-traps" ; quick-witted and
tricky) and Jerusha (plain servant girl from Connecticut), Barnett, "Yankee Peddler" (1841).

Calvin Cartwheel ("drum-major in the Varmont Militia" with the Polish rebels), Steele,
"Tha Brazen Drum" (1842).

Deuteronomy Dutiful (Yankee wool-dealer), Logan, "Vermont Wool-Dealer" (1844).

2. INDIAN CHARACTERS

More than two centuries had elapsed since the original intro-
duction of the Indian into drama written in American territory. 11
More than a half-dozen Indian plays had appeared since the pro-
duction of Ann Hatton's opera of "Tammany" in 1794. Yet it was
not till Edwin Forrest's surpassing impersonation of the chief
Metamora that Indian drama really came into its own. 12 This was
in 1829, and for the next decade and a half there was a steady run
of Indian plays. A complete bibliography of this time would show
a score or so of such pieces, some of which possess special merit.
Interest in aboriginal drama seems to have declined during the late
forties, owing principally to excessive production. It is also noticed
that at about the same time plays of a social, commercial, and po-
litical stamp were beginning to claim attention.

The examples of the Indian here given are not at all exhaust-
ive, but are intended to be representative.

The principal Indian character of Stone's tragedy is the saga-
more Metamora. This name is a modification of Metamocet (King
Philip) , the last of the Wampanoag tribe. He is represented with
general historical accuracy, 13 possessing natural magnanimity, a
haughty, resolute spirit, a deep sense of patriotism and justice, and
a remarkable fidelity to friends and his duty as a tribe-leader. He
is too proud a warrior and loves liberty too well to suffer the en-
croachments of the whites, or join in the advance of civilization ;

11 See Part I, Chap. I, Sec. 1, note 1.

12 SeeHutton, "The American Play," Lippincott'a, 87: 293.

1S Cf. Bancroft, Hist, of U. S., 1 :466-66.

102 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

he therefore feels a merciless vengeance against the intruders, op-
poses them with a desperate determination, and fearlessly dies pro-
nouncing a curse upon them.

Nahmeoke, the wife of Metamora, is also an important char-
acter of this piece.

Another superior Indian play that contains something of the
realistic is Custis's version of the Pocahontas story (1830.) The
character of the princess is obviously idealized, resembling too
closely a civilized maiden. Powhatan, the chief, seems to prefer
peace, yet because of his wild, suspicious nature gives countenance
to treachery against the distrusted pale-faces. He, however, is less
revengeful than Matacoran, his chief counselor. Matacoran feels
an implacable hatred toward the newcomers, proves himself a
crafty, diplomatic adviser, possesses an unconquerably wild spirit,
cherishes savage tradition, and fights for unmolested liberty and
glory. Namontac, although he has visited Europe, still prefers the
life of the forest; the priest superstitiously interprets the will of
the divine Okee ; Mantea is the simple-minded Indian wife of a white
settler; and Omaya is an airy, imaginative young squaw.

Other Indian Characters

Carabasset (chief of the Norridgewoks in 1724; convert of Father Ralle ; resents the mis-
treatment and duplicity of the whites ; can hardly understand the doctrine of good for evil ;
reflects his contact with nature) and Taconet and Saugus (warriors), Deering, "Carabasset"
(1830).

Tecumseh 14 (chief; high-tempered and fearless; bitterly resents a supposed wrong;
scorns fatigue and cowardice ; reveres beliefs of his ancestors ; relies upon his weapons and
prowess; speaks in fanciful terms), Prophet (Tecumseh's brother; superstitious and imagina-
tive ; believes in ghosts, sees the Great Spirit in all nature, approves of the sacrifice, and uses
conjuration), and Maypock (impulsive, credulous, cold-blooded warrior), Emmons, "Tecumseh"
(1836).

Pocahontas (artless Indian girl, reflecting the beauty, simplicity, and purity of her nat-
ural environment; possesses gentleness, faith, justice, and fidelity), Nomony (Pocahontas 'a
sister), Powhatan (sachem; similar to Custis's Powhatan, but somewhat less hostile, revenge-
ful, and crafty), Maccomac, counselor, and Powah, priest (suspicious, imaginative, custom-
bound creatures), and Paspaho (guileless, humane young chief), Owen, "Pocahontas" (1837).

All the Indians of this excellent play are carefully drawn, and exhibit much of the
sensitiveness, superstition, simple-mindedness, and general wildness of nature of the race.

Two Indian Chiefs Bacon, "The Bride of Fort Edward" (1839).

Tecumseh (chief of the Shawanos and skillful warrior; shrewd, honest, eloquent, haughty,
brave ; dislikes the encroachments of the whites ; feels a strong native patriotism ; scorns the
continuous greed of the "Yanghees" ; hopes for a union of the tribes ; has faith in "Manitou"
God ; is not cruel by nature ; possesses a superior intellect, and remains faithful to all the best
traditions of his tribe), Elkswatawah (Prophet of the West; hypocritical twin-brother of Te-
cumseh), Stone-Eater (Shawanee chief), Melindah (female chief of the Ottawah), and four
others Jones, "Tecumseh and The Prophet of the West" (1844).

Jones's characters are largely products of the imagination.

Cf. Adams, Hist, of U. S., II :78 ft.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 103

Although the characterizations of this section range from the
actual to the idealistic, in the majority of cases they are essentially
true to Indian nature.

3. FRONTIER CHARACTERS

Virtually all the frontier characters are found in pieces treat-
ing historical subjects. One notable exception, however, is Colonel
Nimrod Wildfire, a backwoodsman in Paulding's "The Lion of the
West" (1831). The colonel is an unpolished but generous son of
"Old Kentuck," and always keeps "primed for anything, from a
'possum-hunt to a nigger funeral." If he fails to find a fight every
ten days he begins to feel "mighty wolfy about the head and shoul-
ders." His sweetheart, Miss Petty Snag of Salt Lick, possesses a
similar nature :

There's no back-out in her breed, for she can lick her weight in wild-cats, and she shot
a bear at nine years old. 15

The redoubtable Nimrod is an exaggerated specimen of a
class that really existed at the time.

An historical piece exhibiting further realism of the Kentucky
frontier is Emmons's "Tecumseh" (1836). Here are presented three
expert riflemen, Ralph, Arthur, and Franklin. They all drink whis-
key, but seldom become intoxicated except on the Fourth of July
and Washington's birthday. They feel an aversion to missionaries
and "church-religion," but claim to have a religion of their own.
This is, "not to stop the mail, to mind their own business, and to
let others alone." They attend neighborhood gatherings such as
log-rollings and political speeches. Ralph declares himself "part
horse, part alligator, a touch of the steamboat, and a sprinkling of
an earthquake," and when he attempts anything he always "goes
the whole hog."

Other Frontier Characters
(Historical)

Guy of Godalmin (English refugee, who took part in condemnation of Charles II), Sir
Arthur Vaughan (English loyalist who, after the execution of his royal master, retires in dis-
gust to the colonies), Church (leader of colonial troops), Wolfe (blunt colonist), Horatio
(Vaughan's long lost son), and Oceana (white maiden, befriended by Metamora), Stone,
Metamora'' (1829).

Ralle (French Catholic missionary; although accused of inciting the savages against the
English, is in reality an earnest, God-serving man who has softened the Indians' asperities)
and Agnes (settler's wife), Deering, "Carabasset" (1830).

Smith and Rolfe (as known to history) and Barclay (survivor of an earlier colonizing
party; having an Indian wife, and children, prefers to remain among the natives whose ways
he has adopted), Custis, "Pocahontas" (1830).

16 See New York Mirror, IX :102.

104 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

Laydon (Virginia colonist who has come to stay; supports Smith, sees good in the
Indians, and feels certain of his opportunities), Anna Barras (female colonist, similar to
Laydon whom she marries), and Gabriel Archer (faint-hearted, rebellious, untrustworthy mem-
ber of Smith's council), Owen, "Pocahontas" (1837).

George Gray (young Patriot colonist of vicinity of Lake George), Mrs. Grey (widow of
clergyman, and Patriot mother of the frontier), and Annie Grey (Patriot girl), Bacon, "The
Bride of Fort Edward" (1839).

4. MILITARY CHARACTERS 18

Rigby (Bunker Hill veteran; mourns for his son who fell at the battle of Bunker Hill;
although he is stiff of limb, wears green glasses, and has a wandering mind, he still keeps an
erect stature), Stevens. "The Patriot" (1834).

Col. R. M. Johnson (democratic American officer at the Battle of the Thames), Emmons,
"Tecumseh" (1836).

Generals Arnold and Schuyler, and American Soldiers (soldiers, ragged ; many discour-
aged ; some still hopeful), Bacon, "The Bride of Fort Edward" (1839).

General Benedict Arnold (turns traitor because of a desire for money and revenge),
John Smithson (plain American soldier and serving man of Arnold; refuses to be bribed), and
John Paulding, David Williams, and Isaac Van Wert (plain, loyal countrymen who capture
Andre), Breck, "West Point" (1840).

General Washington and Colonel Knowlton (historical), Trumbull, "The Death of Nathan
Hale" (1842).

CoL Richard Johnson (commander of riflemen) and Capt. Donald (old sergeant of
"Wayne's Army"), Jones, "Tecumseh and The Prophet of the West" (1844).

5. POLITICAL CHARACTERS

Some of the most realistic characters of the plays between 1829
and 1845 are found in the frequent political pieces.

a. The Public Official

General Harrison (Governor of Indiana; noble, just, and God-fearing; insists that th
Indians shall keep off the lands of the whites ; demands respect for the laws ; admires Tecum-
seh's principles of honor), Jones, "Tecumseh and The Prophet of the West" (1844).

b. The Patriot

Ralph (native of Boston and zealous Patriot leader), Mike Mainsail (Yankee sailor;
rough but patriotic), Job Pray (degenerate, who is a Patriot because the townspeople are),
Doolittle (gawky Patriot sergeant), Agnes (sensible Patriot girl), and Nab (half-crazed woman,
who is a friend of the people), Glover, "The Cradle of Liberty" (1832).

Adelaide (patriotic American maiden; niece of Mrs. Arnold), Breck, "West Point" (1840).

c. The Patriotic Citizen

Jack Moreton (son of a '76 hero, to whom he makes repeated reference; strong advo-
cate of the Bunker Hill monument and anything that will keep the Revolutionary fathers' mem-
ory fresh) and Colonel Laurel (aged veteran of the Revolution; urges the people of the day
not to disrupt the union which their fathers fought to form), Stevens, "The Patriot" (1834).

d. The Politician

Two important political plays in which the politician is realis-
tically presented are Heath's "Whigs and Democrats" (1839) and
Mathews' "The Politicians" (1840).

16 Since the military, frontier, and political characters of historical plays are often re-
lated, it has seemed best to include here only such as clearly belong to the military class.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 105

Heath states in the preface to his comedy that he has "at-
tempted to demonstrate that dramatic interest may be sustained
by the delineation of simple, natural, every day circumstances,"
and that one of his motives is "to hold up to ridicule the despica-
ble arts of demagogism .... which are now practiced to such a
frightful extent in our country." His Major Roundtree is drawn
from real life. The major passes as a thorough-going democrat,
by his enemy is styled "a low pot-house politician," and controls all
the illiterate voters of his neighborhood. He is unmannered and
whimsical, believes in the virtues of bribery and liquor, and is
sought by candidates whose election seems doubtful. The following
excerpt will further characterize him :

MAJOR ROUNDTREE. (To his wife). I'm a county court magistrate, and have read
the greater part of the Virginia Justice; a Major of Militia, and have studied considerable of
military tactics ; keeper of the Hickory Tree Ordinary, and know how to cast accounts ; and
last, though not least, Post Master under the Federal Government, and leader of the democ-
racy which last responsibility forces me to take at least three newspapers in order to keep
my ideas constantly bright and perpendicular on politics.

MRS. R. If you'd only send off these lazy louts of the neighborhood who come here to
listen to the newspapers and swill your liquor at free cost, we should hear less about Kate's
bill for edication.

MAJOR R. Don't you know that newspapers are the very sunshine of democracy the
people's spy-glasses, by which they find out those muskrat politicians who are continually boring
under the constitution? (p. 8.)

General Fairweather, in the same play, is a late democratic
Member of Congress and candidate for re-election. In reality he is
a "purse-proud aristocrat," but for political effect wears the mask
of a common people's man. He is a finished palaverer and has per-
fected a system of political tactics. He says that a man should have
two opinions : one for the people, and another for the closet ; that a
person should never quarrel with his bread and butter; that he
should "learn to chime in with men's humors, prejudices, and de-
lusions" (p. 26) ; that true charity begins at home; that it is well
always to denounce good men when they are one's opponents ; and
that "it is one of the electioneering arts, to appear confident of suc-
cess with the certain prospects of defeat" (p. 33) .

Mr. Worthington is the general's opponent, and a staunch
Federal Whig ; although of aristocratic tastes, he considers voting
a citizen's highest duty and privilege. Rowdie, Slang, and Bangall
are specimens of the ignorant countrymen whom Roundtree con-
trols. They give their votes to the man who pays them the most
and treats them the best.

Mathews' comedy of "The Politicians" (1843) presents poli-
ticians as they were in New York.

106 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

Brisk, a candidate for alderman, and his political agent, Crow-
der, are fundamentally of the same character. They practice all
kinds of knavery and double-dealing to effect their purposes, and
consider the cost of keeping a soul and conscience much too high
in their day. Brisk seeks the support of vagabonds, and to win it
wears slovenly apparel and goes unshaven. Vote-getting is his
single aim, and to realize his aspirations he avoids nothing but an
open breach of the law. Below is an example of their political
machination :

BRISK. How about the Revolutionary veteran? That's capital too good to be wasted.

CROWDER. He deposits the first vote on our side, and we think of bandaging one of
his legs and placing a patch over his eye, to make the spectacle more imposing.

BRISK. If we could fix it to have his vote challenged by the other party, it would tell
amazingly in our favor, and we would get out a placard at once "Disgraceful! an old soldier
dishonored I" and so forth.

CROWDER. It would afford a good opportunity to call our opponents ruffians, libelers,
and miscreants, which should not be lost. (p. 12.)

Other Politician Characters

Col. Hardfare and Maj. Dauntless (Revolutionary veterans who complain against the re-
form system of President Jackson of "Yankee Doodle Court," and who would seek the glori-
fication of Henry Clay), Botsford, "The Reign of Reform" (1830).

Sir Roderick Makefuss, Elder Lovely, Parson Raw-Limbs, 'Squire Deal-He-Knows,
Farmer Dobbin, Major Hardface, Master Slander, General Hoax-'Em, and others (members of
the Anti-Mason party of Vermont ; they are represented as declaring that the book of a certain
Morgan truthfully divulges all of the secrets of Freemasonry, and that this fraternity attempts
to withstand justice, defy the law, set at naught the principles of self-government, and seize
all the offices for themselves; the Anti-Masons are shown to be making use of this adverse
sentiment, to dislodge Mason office-holders. Kendall, "The Doleful Tragedy of the Raising of
Jo. Burnham" (1832).

Gudgeon (vain, superstitious, dishonest, coxcomb-like candidate for alderman), Botch
(Gudgeonite paragrapher), Glib (spread-eagle haranguer), Old Crumb (elderly man who pre-
tends not to care for the honor of office, yet easily persuades himself to become a candidate),
Bill Baffin (stevedore, who controls riffraff votes), Joe Surge (ex-convict, with a certain fol-
lowing), and citizens (voters), Mathews, "The Politicians" (1840).

Planters (harsh masters who consider slaves chattels), Overseer (flogs, chains, and col-
lars the slaves; denies that they have a soul), Captain (returns fugitive, for reward), 1st By-
stander and Professor (maintain that all respectable churches support slavery), and Philander
(philanthropist and Christian; imprisoned and branded for helping the slaves to freedom;
identified as Jonathan Walker of Harwich, Mass.

From the branding scene, the prisoner in a pillory :

1ST BYSTANDER. There, the executioner raises the iron it is down hear it hiss
down how red the hand looks. Now, the laws are revenged. Did he make a noise?

2ND BYSTANDER. I heard a low, suppressed groan, that's all.

(A planter comes forward and speaks to a man in rags.)

PLANTER. I will give you ten dollars to tear the handkerchief from the criminal's face
and throw eggs at him. 17 I could drink his heart's blood.

POOR MAN. You may drink it, if you like, and fire your rotten eggs in the bargain ;
I don't want to insult a poor man in distress, let him be where he will.

(Planter turns to a black boy.)

PLANTER. You will do it, sirrah? I'll pay you.

17 Said to be a fact. See p. 41 of play.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 107

BLACK BOY. No, tank ye, Massa; my heart aches bad enough now. Little, "The
Branded Hand" (1845).

6. RURAL CHARACTERS
a. The Farmer

A scene of Vermont farm-life of the day is presented in "The
Doleful Tragedy of the Raising of Jo. Burnham" (1832) :

(A farm-house kitchen in the evening. Farmer Credulous reading Morgan's book [against
Freemasonry]. Judy, his wife, paring apples in the corner. Aunt Debby, knitting, and Ichabod.)

CREDULOUS. Why, bless my body, what a set of varmints the Masons be. If one on
'em tell anything, the rest cut his throat in a giffin.

AUNT DEBBY. Oh dear, yes they are the vilest set of critters that ever lived. I won-
der they hav'n't killed one another all off, before this time.

JUDY. They would, if they hadn't hired a great many to join 'em. A'n't you glad, old
man, they never got you into their plaguy hampers?

CRED. That I be. If they had got hold of me when neighbor Meanwell joined 'em, they
would cut me into mince-meat before now plague take 'em.

(Enter Farmer Hawkeye. )

HAWKEYE. Good evening, neighbor; what are you poring over there, pray?

Credulous explains, and Hawkeye begins to defend the frater-
nity. The conversation turns to the master Mason's oath :

JUDY. And that's all contrived on purpose to catch him, for you know a body can't
keep a secret forever; and if he should only tell his wife, which would be entirely right, you
know they'd strip out his gullet for him.

HAWK. But you know the women have nothing to do with Masonry, and no prudent
man would disclose its mysteries to his wife ; neither would a prudent wife ask her husband
to do it.

AUNT D. A prudent man wouldn't tell his wife? A pretty story, that! Do you s'pose,
Mr. Hawkeye, that if my old man (heaven bless him) had joined the Masons I should let him
had one minute's peace, till he told me all about it?

HAWK. Perhaps not

AUNT D. And who's a better right? I've no notion of having these plaguy Masons get-
ting together nights and have such high times, and keep so darn'd sly about it.

CRED. Ichabod, bring up a bowl-full of the best apples, and a pitcher of cider. (Act
II, Sc. 1.)

And the discussion continues.

Other Farmer Characters

'Squire Fuller easy-going plantation owner of Virginia ; enjoys tobacco, liquor, and sports ;
particularly interested in horse-races), Barnett, "Yankee Peddler" (1841).

b. Other Rural Characters

Major Roundtree, Mrs. Roundtree, and their daughter Catha-
rine in the comedy of "Whigs and Democrats" (1839) seem to be
reproductions of real persons. The following conversation between
the parents, just after the return of their daughter from boarding-
school, will reveal the character of all three :

MRS. R. Your're an obstinate, contrary man, Mr. Roundtree that you are. Our poor
Kate has been at home three days from school, and there's nothing but constant grumbling
about the trifling expense of her edication. It is barbarous treatment in you and so it is.

MAJOR R. Trifling expense, did you say? Why, a whole year's clear profit of the
Hickory Tree Tavern would hardly pay the huzzy's bills. And then, what's the good of ic all?

108 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

She went away a snug, tidy country girl, ready to put her hand into any and everything
could either make a pudding or mend a stocking and now she's come back a town flirt, with
her head cram'd full of aristocratic notions about botany, natural philosophy, and all that.
I'm sorry I didn't keep her at house-work, instead of sending her away to a Whig town to
be corrupted.

MRS. R. Stuff! stuff! I tell you, Kate was quite an awkward thing when she left
home, and hadn't a particle of learning except what she got from Mr. Supine. And what is
she now but quite an accomplished young lady. Doesn't she talk French, play on the piany,
dance like a top, draw and paint pretty landscapes, and understand all about the natur' of
flowers? What more would you want? I'm astonished at your ignorance, Mr. Roundtree.
(PP. 7-8.)

7. MAN OF AFFAIRS CHARACTER

Winslow (dishonest merchant; hard-hearted and mercenary; assumes a "gentleman's"
airs ; oppresses the dependent ; uses his clerks as tools ; thinks that a tender conscience never
acquires wealth), Jones, "The People's Lawyer" (1839).

8. WORKING MAN CHARACTERS

Cowpens (tavern-keeper of Virginia; complains about hard times and poor business;
jealous of his neighbor, and wishes him ill success), Barnett, "Yankee Peddler" (1841).

9. FASHIONABLE SOCIETY CHARACTERS

The plays of this time contain comparatively few fashionable
characters that are realistically significant.

a. The Beau

Charles (polished wooer), Barnett, "Yankee Peddler" (1841).
Capt. Oakley (fop), Logan, "Vermont Wool-Dealer" (1844).

b. The Lady

Maria (Virginia belle), Barnett, "Yankee Peddler" (1841).

Mrs. Gudgeon (vain wife of a superficial politician ; humors her husband's foolish no-
tions ; becomes involved in questionable society affairs) and Kate Brisk (daughter of a tricky
politician; longs for the wholesomeness of country life), Mathews, "The Politicians" (1843).

10. SERVANT CHARACTERS

Cato (servant of a late Member of Congress; having been in Washington, affects the de-
portment of a gentleman), Heath, "Whigs and Democrats" (1839).

Virez, Irvan, Beder, Fidelio, Mother,, Ellenore (slaves of cruel masters), Little, "The
Branded Hand" (1845).

11. PROFESSIONAL CHARACTERS

Slate-Stone (landlord, who is also a justice; unscrupulous, and ignorant of law), Long-
Jaw (pettifogger, allied with Slate-Stone), and Demurrer (honest, well-informed lawyer), Ken-
dall, "The Doleful Tragedy of the Raising of Jo. Burnham" (1832).

The court-scene 18 of Kendall's play is largely realistic, and intended as a thrust at cer-
tain lower Vermont courts.

Howard ( "the people's lawyer" ; has faith in laws, judges, and jurors ; puts men above
position; considers work dignified; champions the cause of the oppressed), Jones, "The Peo-
ple's Lawyer" (1839).

Supine (school master, of marked formality; somewhat opinionated; uses maxims, and
quotes Latin; indulges himself with snuff and liquor). Heath, "Whigs and Democrats"

is See pp. 43-44, of the play.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 109

CONCLUSION

The realistic presentation of American characters in native
plays written between 1829 and 1845 is as follows:

1. Of about one hundred plays recorded by Wegelin and Roden
for this epoch, at least twenty-five have some realistic significance.

Bibliography I contains all the important pieces.

2. Nearly half of the plays reflecting American life are based
on past historical events. Most of the other half, which are prin-
cipally comedies, have a certain political import.

3. The predominant realistic characters belong to the Yan-
kee, the Indian, the frontier, and the political groups.

The numerous Yankee characters, while they are virtually all broad caricature, at the
same time seem to reproduce existing persons with essential verity.

Indian characters, both idealized and real, appear in large numbers. Fundamentally they
seem as true to life as a general personal acquaintance or the best historical information would
make possible. Of course, the dramatic Indians often speak and act as natives would not; yet
one can not help feeling that the characterizations are fairly accurate, especially for a time
when declamatory acting was in favor.

Frontier characters are found in nearly all of the Indian plays. What has just been
said about the realism of the Indians will apply for the most part to the frontier specimens.

Special interest was shown also in a backwoodsman type of what was then the West.
The best representative is Col. Nimrod Wildfire, found in Paulding's "The Lion of the West"
and excellently impersonated by J. H. Hackett.

The political characters, especially those of the politician type, are drawn with a good
deal of fidelity to the real.

4. Realistic fashionable society types are seldom presented.

When fashionable characters do appear, they are usually of the stock variety.

5. The playwrights of these years show small interest in the
realism of commercial life as a source of play-material.

While something of American nationality is to be observed in
the frontier, the rural, and the political groups, there appears no
single character that seems to combine our distinctive national
traits sufficiently.

The plain, good-natured, yet "primed for anything" Colonel Nimrod Wildfire bears the
American stamp; the firm, dependable, just General Harrison (in "Tecumseh and The Prophet
of the West") represents certain American elements; Major Roundtree, the unpolished pot-
house politician, and General Fairweather, the purse-proud political palaverer (in "Whigs and
Democrats"), are not more indigenous to some other land; and the simple-natured farmer
Credulous (in "The Doleful Tragedy of the Raising of Jo. Burnham") has had numerous
American prototypes.

110 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

III

This epoch can hardly be said to have produced any realistic
plays of highest quality.

Stone's "Metamora" was long successful, but most of the credit falls to the tragedian
Edwin Forrest. Custis's "Pocahontas" was well received in its day, and Owen's "Pocahontas"
shows mastery in composition, but both are forgotten. Mathews' "The Politicians" deserves more
attention than it has received.

CHAPTER III

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS WRITTEN
BETWEEN 1845 AND 1860

AN EPOCH OF SIGNIFICANT CREATIVE ACTIVITY IN
AMERICAN DRAMA

The fifteen years just preceding the Civil War contributed
more to native drama in a creative and constructive way than any
others that had gone before. Owing partly to the intellectual ad-
vancement on every hand and partly to patriotic aspirations for
the United States along lines of art-development, there seemed to
be forming among all classes of native authors an increasing con-
viction of the need of a more original, more professional, and more
finished American drama. Such a movement had been gathering
force ever since the War of 1812, and had already produced not a
few meritorious plays. Among the pieces that had grown in popu-
lar favor was an extended series of Indian dramas, although as
early as 1845 a reaction had evidently set in against such.

A noteworthy occurrence of these late antebellum days was
the rise of a native species of high comedy which undertook to set
on the stage with considerable verisimilitude the more striking
characteristics of the fashionable society and business life of the
time. The first superior play of this kind was Mrs. Anna Cora
Mowatt's (1822-1870) "Fashion," produced at the Park Theatre,
New York, in 1845 and repeated for many seasons with signal
success. 1 Numerous other pieces of like nature soon followed, among
which should be mentioned Mrs. Sidney F. Bateman's "Self"
(1856), a comedy which exhibits clear characterization, easy dia-
logue, and skillful technique. Many of these society plays show
the touch of constructive craftsmen in the manipulation of the
subject matter, and were doubtless preparatory to the more sig-
nificantly realistic pieces treating American subjects, which made
their appearance a few years after the Civil War.

The climax in native dramatic composition of really original
and artistic quality was reached in the finished tragedies of George

See Hutton, A, 53-60.

Ill

112 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

Henry Boker (1823-1890), especially in his "Calaynos" (1848) and
"Francesca da Rimini" (1853). These two dramas, while they are
well adapted to acting, are also of recognized merit as literature.
They are the best of some score of ambitious American plays since
John Howard Payne's "Brutus" (1818), most of which contain a
certain acting and literary excellence and are largely indebted to
the Forrestian school and contemporary actors for their inspira-
tion and vigorous execution.

In the realm of native low comedy definite progress was also
being made. Though Yankee characters, which still kept a strong
hold upon the stage, were almost the exact portraiture of their
predecessors, new and clever ideas were shining forth in other
quarters. Beginning with 1848 and continuing down to the present
there was staged a long list of plays which had their setting in
New York and reproduced to the life well-known New York types
of the less refined order. The most conspicuous of these local char-
acters, in the beginning, was Mose, one of the volunteer fire-boys,
who was a profane bully, always "bilin' over for a rousin' good
fight." The comedian Chanfrau was the master interpreter of
Mose's character, and made the early local pieces successful beyond
expectations. 2 Another actor, who at the same time was an excel-
lent playwright, was the Irishman John Brougham (1810-1880) . He
came to the United States in 1842, and thereafter for the rest of
his life closely identified himself with the American theater and
exerted upon it an influence altogether wholesome. "He was the
first author to put life into the playbills, besides being one of the
best comedians of the day, and though he was born an Irishman his
work was essentially American, especially his inimitable burlesques,
Pocahontas and Columbus." 3

Another feature of the American drama prior to 1860 was
the common utilization of it for political purposes. Headed by the
dramatization of Mrs. Stowe's "Uncle Tom's Cabin" (1852), fre-
quent plays and these more often adaptations from novels 4 that
championed the cause of the abolitionists were put on the boards

2 See Hutton, A, 48-51.

* The New International Encyclopedia, VI :442.

* It is interesting to note that about this time the dramatization of novels was becom-
ing a prevalent practice, a custom which has continued and which has undoubtedly been
"stifling rather than stimulating" to the drama of our own day. See A. H. Thorndike, The
Americana, VII : Drama-America.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 113

and became an immediate cause of the breach between the North
and the South.

Between 1845 and 1860 some of the abler American play-
wrights besides those already named are Dion Boucicault (1822-
1890), Thomas Halley Chivers (1807-1858), Julia Ward Howe
(1819-1910), Oliver S. Leland, Cornelius Mathews (1817-1889),
George Henry Miles (1824-1871), William Gilmore Simms (1806-
1870), and Edward G. P. Wilkins. Noteworthy American and Eng-
lish actors not previously mentioned are E. L. Davenport, John
McCullough, and Edwin Booth, in tragedy ; Joseph Jefferson, Lester
Wallack, Edward A. Sothern, and John T. Raymond, in comedy.
Excellent actresses of the time were Mrs. Mowatt, Matilda Heron,
Laura Keene, and Maggie Mitchell.

1. YANKEE CHARACTERS

The Yankee as a stage-character continued to keep the stage
down to the outbreak of the Civil War. Between 1845 and 1860
the type appeared in many pieces of low comedy, and was in the
repertory of the leading American comedians. In general, the
character remains the same as in earlier years, being usually a
broad caricature and often little more than a theatrical clown of
native origin. In spite of exaggeration, however, there is much
that seems to suggest the real. The following are representative
examples taken from the plays written after 1845; the Yankee
roles of earlier comedies were also frequently represented.

Jedediah ("clear grit" captain), Bannister, "Putnam, the Iron Son of *76" (1845).

Adoram Snubb and Tibitha Bruce (Yankee Shakers), Johnson, "The Shaker Lovers"
(1849).

Our Jemimy (Connecticut girl; plain, homely, and vulgar; full of ideas and schemes),
Conway, "Our Jemimy" (186-).

Zachary Westwood (wealthy, democratic New York farmer ; honest, cheerful, shrewd ; of
good sense and dry humor) and Jemima Chase (servant girl; characterizes self thus:

I am a free American girl, and my folks is respectable. I can keep my character and
earn my living, and don't allow myself to be inferior to nobody.) p. 53, Pardey, "Nature's
Nobleman" (1851).

Hiram Hireout (servant), Conway; "Hiram Hireout" (1852).

Gumption Cute (Vermont overseer of Southern plantation; tricky, sharp-witted, and al-
ways looking for a speculation ; harsh toward the slaves ; travels with a bundle on a stick) and
Ophelia (Yankee old-maid housekeeper; energetic, easily vexed, and puritanic; dislikes negroes,
yet urges Southerners to treat them better; has little use for sentiment), Aiken, "Uncle Tom's
Cabin" (1852).

Truman Smelts (policeman who will not arrest a man that votes his ticket), Chase, "The
Young Man About Town" (1854).

Jasper Slack (Yankee Patriot in the Boston Tea Party), Brougham, "The Irish Yankee"
(1856).

Neighbor Jackwood (Vermont farmer and abolitionist; stands for humanity, and assist
the negro fugitives), Enos Crumlett (speculating Vermonter), Mrs. Jackwood ("a gre't fret-
ter"). Grandmother Rigglesty (crotchety grandmother, with a "crick in her back"), and Ma-

114 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

tilda Fosdick (raw Yankee girl), Trowbridge, "Neighbor Jackwood" (1867).

Seth Swap (Maine Yankee, returning from Mexican silver mines ), Ballou, "Miraldi"
(1858).

Salem Scudder and Jacob McCloskey (Yankee overseers of Southern plantation ; the lat-
ter b a political demagogue). Boucicault. "The Octoroon" (1859).

2. INDIAN CHARACTERS

Although a feeling of revolt had set in against Indian drama
after less than twenty years (1829-46) of prominence, during the
decade of the fifties there also appeared a few dramatic pieces con-
taining Indian characters.

Oneactah (chief; just, generous, and fatherly; imaginative and visionary; resents mis-
treatment, with a vengeance) and Naragantah (virtuous, wild-natured girl), Bannister, "Put-
nam, the Iron Son of '76" (1845).

Conanchet (chief of the Narragansetts) and Uncas (impetuous chief of the Mohicans),
"The Wept of the Wish-Ton-Wish" (1850?).

Dahcomah (chief of the Kioways ; alert and cunning ; admires bravery ; never forgets a
kindness; fears the U. S. soldiers), English, "The Mormons" (1853).

Tonawaha (chief whose lands have been seized; says:

Pale-faces come, take our land, and drive us away. Pale-faces give us hot red-water,
which make our heart feel bad and burn us up. Ugh ! Den dey bring us good book, to tell
"bout Great Spirit, and make us good. p. 59) Preuss, "Fashions and Follies of Washing-
ton Life" (1857).

Wahnotee (treacherous, rum-loving, blood-thirsty Indian), Boucicault, "The Octoroon"
(1859).

3. FRONTIER CHARACTERS

Frontier characters are seldom found in the plays of this time,
and such as do occur seem to be largely incidental. Of more than
ninety plays examined fewer than a half-dozen contain frontier
characters of any realistic significance.

Phineas Fletcher ( rough, fearless, witty, generous Kentuckian ; uses tobacco and whiskey
freely; decides slavery is wrong, frees his slaves, and helps the fugitives to escape), Aiken,
"Uncl Tom's Cabin" (1852).

Gideon Bodish and Ambla Bodish (son and mother accused of witchcraft), Thomas Tops-
field, Deacon Perfect Gidney, Justice Fisk, Jarvis Dane, Goodwife Prawl, and others (accusers,
with various motives), Mathews, "Witchcraft" (1852).

These characters are merely suggestive of the witchcraft fanaticism of the late 17th
century.

Ambrose Woodville, Lucy Woodville, and Mary Blandford (credulous, well-meaning
prairie people, who almost become victims of Mormonism), Catherine Nogg (Mormon wife, re-
signed to her condition), Godfrey Blair, Joe Brown, Skinner Hyde (outlaws, who have become
Danites), Walter Markham (trapper, of high principle; enemy of Mormonism), and Whiskey
Jake (alert scout of the plains ; faithful to friends, unmerciful to enemies ; scoffs at Mormon-
ism, has an original mind, and speaks Western lingo; addicted to whiskey and gaming), English,
"Th Mormons" (1853).

Pike County Jess 6 ( rough, uneducated miner of the South and West ; just, generous, de-
pendable ; speaks Western dialect, and favors Western justice), John Wilson (honest poor man
who went to California in "49, found Westerners hospitable, became wealthy), Cash and Dice
(outlaw gamblers of Sacramento; impose upon greenhorn miners; shoot a man, if they can
not cheat him out of his money ; think a "shooting" will soon "blow over" ; want no preaching ;
give up without a murmur, when overpowered), Mary Wilson ("the live woman in the mine";
honest, kind-hearted wife; sees the good qualities of the rough miners). High Betty Martin

s cf. Schouler, Hist, of U. S.. V :133 ff.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 115

("Amazonian of the Western plains"; very illiterate, resourceful, fearless; indomitably perse-
vering, expert with the pistol, jealous of her lover), postmaster, printer, express-rider, and
others "A Live Woman in the Mines" (1857).

Black Jim (border ruffian, stabbed by John Brown), Swayze, "Ossawattomie Brown"
(1859).

4. MILITARY CHARACTERS

A number of plays based on United States history were writ-
ten between 1845 and 1860, and among the more favored subjects
the Arnold and Andre incident seems to have taken the lead. Be-
low I mention four such pieces. General Washington and other
well-known Patriot officers were also frequently represented. Now
and then we find examples of contemporary military types. The
realism of all these characters is for the most part negligible.

Major Putnam (blunt, fearless Patriot ; sympathetic, honest, faithful ; impatient with the
faint-hearted) and General Washington (great-souled Patriot leader; prudent, merciful, fair-
minded; relies upon his countrymen), Bannister, "Putnam, the Iron Son of '76" (1845).

Colonel Howard (U. S. Army officer; good-natured and straightforward), Mowatt, "Fash-
ion" (1845).

Colonel Diamond ("colonel of militia candidate to Congress, foe to all monarchs,"

etc.), Raux, "The Road to Fortune" (1846).

Major Arnold (impetuous officer), Paulding, Van Wert, and Williams (plain but loyal
countrymen), and other American officers Hubbell, "Arnold" (1847 ; Orton, "Arnold" (1851) ;
Holland, "The Highland Treason" (1852) ; Lord, "Andre" (1856).

Captain Cannon (U. S. officer; courteous, firm, direct; prefers action to words) and
Sergeant McFajin (patriotic Irish-American), English, "The Mormons" (1853).

Generals Washington, Mercer, and Conway, and other officers Brougham, "The Miller
of New Jersey" (1856).

General Washington, Burnett, "Blanche of Brandywine" (1858).

Major MacMuddle (U. S. officer of the day; his air and attitude come out in the fol-
lowing :

Major MacMuddle, his friend Smirkton, and Senor Valiente, a rich Mexican, are present
at a fashionable New York ball.

MAC. Let's roast the Mexican.

SMIRK. Don't spoil the supper don't be rude.

MAC. Rude? I rude? MacMuddle rude? Stand aside. Just let me take him down an

inch or two. No fear of a row. There's no fight in the whole nation (Fronting Valiente.)

You gave ma the back of your uniform a while ago, Senor. Is that still your habit with

American officers? (Aside.) You see, Smirk, I do it delicately Senor, how did you ever

happen to let Scott, Taylor, and the rest of us lick you so damnably? You see, Smirk, I do it
delicately. pp. 24-25), Miles, "Senor Valiente" (1858).

5. POLITICAL CHARACTERS

Political characters are numerous in the plays of this time.
They are as various as they could easily be, ranging from Colonial
types down to the politicians of the late fifties. A few are very
real, although the most are simply meant to suggest actual persons.

a. The Public Official

John Sharker (rascal government clerk) and Bill Sly (petty government official; poor man
who "got a 'pintment"; tool of Sharker), Preuss, "Fashions and Follies of Washington Life"
(1857).

116 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

b. The Patriot

Nathan Hale (Patriot captain of true stamp; dies saying, "Would that I had another
life to give thee, O my country!"), Deacon Hale (God-trusting, self-denying, hopeful Patriot
father; resolves to "lay my son, my Isaac, on my country's altar"), Alice (Patriot girl, be-
trothed to Hale), and Scholars of Hale, Trumbull, "The Death of Captain Nathan Hale" (1842).

Edward Stanton (Patriot soldier of refined type), Ebenezer O'Donahoo (fighting Irish
Patriot), and Emma Rutland (true-hearted, serious, sensible Patriot girl), Brougham, "The
Irish Yankee" (1856).

Seth Peabody (Miller and Yankee bush-fighter, opposing the Hessians), Hiram Pea-
body (bush-fighter, who becomes a captain), Mrs. Peabody (mother, who gives sons to cause
of liberty), and Judith Wilson (almost crazed wife whose husband has suffered torture from
British), Brougham, "The Miller of New Jersey" (1856).

Franklin (self-made philosopher, statesman, philanthropist, and Patriot; plain and di-
rect in manner and speech; puts economy, common sense, and practicality into everything;
moralizes and uses pithy phrases; scorns sham), Brougham, "Franklin" (1856).

Captain Walter Armstrong (genuine Patriot) and Rose Elsworth (Patriot girl; ingeni-
ous, independent, frank; conscious of her individual powers), Bunce, "Love in '76" (1857).

Randulf (Patriot leader), John Walford (quiet Patriot helper), Krout (awkward, rum-
drinking Pennsylvania German, but loyal follower of Washington), and Blanche (spirited Patriot
girl), Burnett, "Blanche of Brandywine" (1858).

c. The Tory

Adkins ( Tory ; satisfied with a king ; fears England's power ; objects to being called a
rebel; thinks first of all of himself and preferment), Trumbull, "The Death of Captain Nathan
Hale" (1842).

Harry Stanton (Tory officer; honestly believes Patriots wrong), Brougham, "The Irish
Yankee" (1856).

Lieutenant Harry Elsworth (Tory, with some feeling for the Patriots), Apollo Metcalf
(Tory school teacher, who lives among his patrons; has rebellious pupils), and Kate Elsworth
(Tory daughter, who thinks the Patriots boors), Bunce, "Love in '76" (1857).

d. The Patriotic Citizen

John Flitch (champion of republicanism), Raux, "The Road to Fortune" (1846).

Mr. Erskine (N. Y. millionaire who is proud of his citizenship; considers it American
to be frank, direct, and not too polite ; builds on honesty and common sense ; opposes foreign
marriages; is glad to be "under the froth and above the dregs") and Doctor Stubbs (somewhat
solid American who ridicules the native "mushroom gentry"), Gould, "The Very Age!" (1850).

Mr. Felix Umbraton (good citizen; sensible, frugal, independent, and considerate of
others ; finds happiness in a clear conscience and a peaceful, honest life ; detests the shams of
fashion ; enjoys luxury to the extent good sense and his purse will allow ; measures men by
mind, morality, and merit), Walcot, "A Good Fellow" (1854).

e. The Politician

Characters of the true politician type appear in the following
taken from Preuss's "Fashions and Follies of Washington Life"
(1857) :

Colonel Delaney, an elderly Whig government clerk, engages in earnest political argu-
ment with his bosom friend, Captain Jack Smith, who is a retired politician, something of an
old fogy, and a zealous Jacksonian Democrat.

COL. D. Now, I should like to know if we wouldn't have gone to the devil long ago,
if it hadn't been for the old Federal party?

CAPT. S. Gone to the devil? All I have to say is, that those who believe in Federalism
had better keep its company for that certainly has gone to the devil!

COL. D. There you are again dodging the point ; why, what was the condition of the
country after the Revolution ? No money in our coffers a heavy debt no credit or respect
abroad a weak, rickety government at home, falling to pieces because it hadn't the strength

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 117

of Hamilton, who taught the doctrine of union and consolidation. It was through Hamilton and
the old Federal party that the General Government was made strong enough to "walk alone."

CAPT. S. Walk alone? Yes, and that was about all it ever could do under Federalism
but it was the Jeffersonian Democracy, sir, that infused new life into her, that enabled her
not only to walk alone, but to run alone ay, sir, to fly alone, until her proud eagle now flaps
its wings in the very palaces of European despots ! Yes, sir, Jeffersonian Democracy has done
this; if it hasn't, I'll swallow my head!

Soon a dispute arises over the virtues of Clay and Jackson :

CAPT. S. Do you dare to compare General Andrew Jackson with a man who has sold
his body and soul for an office?

COL. D. It's false, sir! false as the heart that fabricated it! Henry Clay was too pure,
too great a man for that and mark my words, Jack Smith, posterity will seal my verdict!
No, sir ! Henry Clay is one of nature's noblemen ; his reputation is not like a dandy's coat or
a woman's bustle made up of cotton padding! He never dodged his foe behind cotton bales!

CAPT S. Cotton bales! blood and thunder! Who dare say that General Jackson dodged
behind cotton bales?

COL. D. I dare say so ! When he fought Packenham at New Orleans.

CAPT. S. It's a lie a damned lie! Leave my house, sir! (pp. 11-13.)

They finally drink and make up, before parting.
Other Politician Characters

Norman Maurice (rising politician and lawyer of Missouri ; champion of the common
people ; trusts in God, and stands for justice in all things ; refuses to be bullied by corrupt
politicians ; adopts the following creed :

I will not seek for office on conditions

Adverse to right and manhood. I will never

Become the creature of a selfish party

Never use wealth or fraud to rise to power

Never use power itself to keep in power,

Nor see in him who favored my ascent

A virtue not his own ! Nor can I offer

One tribute to the vulgar vanity !

I will not bow, nor smile, no deference yield,

Where justice still withholds acknowledgment. p. 81.)

and Colonel Blasinghame ("fire-eater" and political "boss"), Simms, "Norman Maurice" (1851).
Mr. Wilson (negro sympathizer, who opposes law-breaking, yet aids the fugitives to
escape), Aiken, "Uncle Tom' Cabin" (1852).

Marcus Tullius Cicero (Northern Senator who vigorously opposes slavery), Poltroonius
Servilius (craven-hearted Southerner who in the Senate assaults Tullius "with his bludgeon"),
Anchises, Publius Quixot, Gigantius Sancho, Mundsonius, Mendacious (Southern supporters of
Poltroonius), Henricus and Wadensius (Northern Senators who called the assault "brutal, mur-
derous, cowardly"), Spittelius (Northern delegate who believes Tullius has really been too out-
spoken), and Hannibal Chollops (Southern orator, who proclaims Poltroonius King of Palmatia
and Exemplar of Palmatian Chivalry), Head, "Poltroonius" (1866).

John Brown (represented as a high-purposed abolitionist leader; his "sole object was to
free the slaves, from motives of philanthropy" p. 25), Swayze, "Ossawattomie Brown" (1859).

/. Other Political Characters

Cowardly 'Squire, Fearful Lawyer, and Solid Farmer ( colonists ), Trumbull, "The Death
of Nathan Hale" (1842).

6. RURAL CHARACTERS
a. The Farmer

Cabbageall (cowardly countryman, willing to be either Tory or Patriot according to
prospects of safety) and Mrs. Cabbageall (shrew-wife, who though attached to her husband,
enjoys quarreling with him), Bannister, "Putnam, the Iron Son of '76" (1845).

Cf. Elson, Hist, of U. S., 689-90; McMaster, Hist, of the People of V. S.. V 111:243 ff.

118 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

Adam Trueman (somewhat refined Yankee farmer from Catteraugus ; blunt, shrewd,
witty ; economical, independent, well-to-do ; scorns the sham of fashion ; prefers modesty, open-
ness, and common sense ; says "critter," "plaguy," "turned in," and "on the spot" ; advises
Tiffany, the merchant, thus :

The next time you choose a confidential clerk, take one that carries his credentials in his
face. p. 19, Mowatt, "Fashion" (1846).

St. Clare (wealthy, refined, easy-going, kind-hearted slaveholder; likes negroes about him,
and considers them a blessing; is somewhat intemperate), Aiken, "Uncle Tom's Cabin" (1852).

b. Other Rural Characters

William Gilmore (youthful Shaker, determined to rescue self and sweetheart from hypoc-
risy of Shaker faith), Martha Hilson (innocent Shaker girl who wants to do right and suf-
fers under the restraint of a deluded sect), and Abigail Disbrow (elderly Shaker sister, who is
painfully pious), Johnson, "The Shaker Lovers" (1849).

Abundance Skunk (plain, prolific country mother), "The Wept of the Wish-Ton-Wish"
(I860?).

Deacon Perry (stiff, puritanic, hypocritical N. E. deacon; abhors contact with negroes),
Aiken, "Uncle Tom's Cabin" (1852).

Mrs. Franklin (Benjamin Franklin's mother; sensible, old-fashioned lady; economical,
practical, and hospitable; uses terse expressions), Brougham, "Franklin" (1856).

Deacon Peek (postmaster of New Canaan; knows everybody and everything; refers to the
"good old days"; sells brandy), Conway, "Our Jemimy" (185-).

7. MAN OF AFFAIRS CHARACTERS

Mrs. Mowatt's "Fashion" containing Mr. Tiffany, the upstart
New York merchant, was first produced in 1845. Prior to this
time there are few instances of the use of American business char-
acters in native drama. Though commercial life in the United
States had been long developing in an interesting way, it had seldom
before proved attractive to dramatists. But during the fifteen
years leading up to the Civil War plays presenting business and in-
dustrial types occurred by dozens. This is more interesting when
it is recalled that later, during the last quarter of the nineteenth
century, the business play was to become one of America's most dis-
tinctive forms of dramatic writing. 7

The following characters amply illustrate the man of affairs
type of antebellum days.

Mr. Tiffany, as seen in "Fashion," is chiefly engaged in "mak-
ing money on the true American high-pressure system." He is
stingy and sordid, grumbles at the demands of his fashionable
family whose extravagance has made him a bankrupt, and in his
financial difficulties does not scruple to act dishonorably.

An excellent comedy which contains four fairly realistic busi-
ness men is Bateman's "Self" (1856). The first is John Unit, a
retired banker. He is plain, honest, generous, prudent, and high-
motived. "Does it pay?" usually determines his course of action.

See Matthews, A, "Bronson Howard."

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 119

He believes in the virtue of work, thinks for himself, advises freely,
and hates all folly and pretention. He speaks with telegraphic
brevity, and often uses proverbs. A sample of his dialogue follows :

CYNOSURE. (A traveled American.) I don't care who knows that my father was a
successful tailor. It is quite fashionable in Paris to laugh at pedigree, and talk about merit
and not money, and all that sort of thing eh oh ! ya-as !

UNIT. That is the first Parisian fashion I ever thought worth following. But that is
too vulgar a theory for us Republicans. Upstarts here make money by cheating government in
contracts, swindling Indians with glass beads and bad whiskey lucky investments in old cab-
bage-gardens all ends in the same thing children grow up and are the "first people" ride in
carriages with livery servants take daughters to big hotels, Saratoga and Newport, on exhi-
bition, to be knocked down to the highest bidder! Sons are idle spendthrifts, and bring the
family down again to poverty! .... No, sir, never can be made to pay! (p. 29.)

Mr. Apex, the second character, represents a merchant, bank-
rupt by the social life of his second wife and step-son. He is proud,
liberal, and covetous of attention. Although he does not counte-
nance excesses, he is greatly pleased with his wife's fine appearance.
He complains about his reverses, especially since he has an inordi-
nate desire for social position. Mr. Promptcash is a self-made dry-
goods merchant who keeps his eye centered on the dollar. Being
mercenary and dishonest himself, he takes a distrustful attitude
toward others. He is plain of speech and manner, and loses patience
with customers who merely come to look. Mr. Ellwide passes as
the dishonest, crafty, flattering merchant. He studies the whims
and fancies of his customers, then conducts his business accordingly.

Other Man of Affairs Characters

Peter Legrand (business man ; disgusted with fashion ; brought to bankruptcy by the
extravagance of his family), Raux, "The Road to Fortune" (1846).

Robert Hollybush (retired N. Y. merchant; frank, clear-headed, serious; has a horror
of debt, and distrusts young men who have nothing to do ; politically, stands for anti-slavery
and free-trade) and Duperu (honorable broker), McCracken, "Earning a Living" (1849).

Haley and Legree (slave-traders, representing business men of degraded character. They
are hard-hearted, material-minded, and immoral; feel an interest in only such people as are
likely to become profitable customers ; use religion for commercial purposes ; and follow the
slave-traffic with a devilish delight), Aiken, "Uncle Tom's Cabin" (1862).

Mr. Granite (greedy, hard-hearted merchant) and Mrs. Grimgriskin (cold, grasping land-
lady; her principle, "Business is business"), Brougham, "Temptation" (1856).

Uncle John (slave-holder; rough, but "jolly, good-hearted old trump"; old-fashioned and
frank ; is not a professed Christian, and occasionally swears and blusters ; thinks a layman
often has more religion than a Christian ; complains about the politics of the times ; is some
what harsh with the negroes, and has no patience with "poor white trash"), Brougham, "Dred"
(1856).

Skinneflynte Codfishe, Esq. (purse-proud business man and "lion-hunter"; speculates upon
the earnings of the poor while pretending sympathy), Brougham, "Life in New York" (1856).

Jacob Milledollar (bank president; vain parvenu) and Peter Funk (speculator ; "deter-
mined to be a millionaire, has driven smart bargains, travelled everywhere, done everything,
shaved notes, joined churches, squeezed his best friends"), Mathews, "False Pretences" (1856).

Mr. Ten-per-cent (retired merchant; addicted to note-shaving; wants to go to Congress;
afflicted with a fashionable wife), Mr. Airy Froth, A.B. ("Napoleon of Blowers"; agent for
politicians, artists, and such), and Mr. Nutgalls (critical editor of the "Daily Scorcher"),
Wilkins, "Young New York" (1856).

120 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

Gideon Bloodgood (calculating, iron-hearted banker and so-called financier; reduces sal-
aries because other employers do ; does not fear any disgrace from bankruptcy, for Americans
soon forget such; though rich, is scorned by the best wealthy society) and Captain Fair-
weather (retired, well-to-do business man, of noble character), Boucicault, "The Poor of New
York" (1857).

Arthur Morris (selfish business man; leaves wife at home alone most of the time; when
with his family, buries himself in a newspaper, or falls asleep ; is attracted by women inferior
to his wife), Hurlbert, "Americans in Paris" (1868).

Flintleigh (Wall Street man of affairs), Miles, "Senor Valiente" (1858).

8. WORKING MAN CHARACTERS

Industrial characters seldom appear in native plays before
1845, but following this date they are encountered frequently. In
some instances it would seem, as in Brougham's "Life in New
York" (1856), they are used with the object of giving a hint of ac-
tual conditions among working people. In the majority of cases,
however, they occur rather incidentally in pieces that treat phases
of business life, fashionable society, or political conditions.

Snobson (clerk; raw, surly, bullying; speaks slang, uses liquor, and stoops to any mean-
ness) and Gertrude (governess; virtuous, sensible, and honest; original, courageous, and in-
dustrious; hates so-called society; prefers the freedom of nature), Mowatt, "Fashion" (1845).

Mose (New York volunteer fire-boy; known as "one of the b'hoys" ; referred to as "fightin*
Mose" ; chews tobacco, spits frequently, and is always "bilin* over for a rousin' good fight" ;
has "a peculiarly sardonic curve of the lip, expressive of .... impudence, self-satisfaction,
suppressed profanity, and general cussedness" ; 8 stands by his fellow-fire-boys, and delights in
outracing the other fire-engines ; speaks in a distinctive fashion, illustrated by the following :

I've made up my mind not to run wid der machine anymore. There's that Cornell Ander-
son, don't give de boys a chance. Jest 'cause he's Chief Ingineer he thinks he can do as he
likes, (p. 9.) He denies by saying "No sir-reel", addresses a friend as "old hoss," and uses
such expressions as "If you want my company, you'll have to hurry up your cakes" (p. 25),
and Newsboys (saucy, loud, and tricky), Baker, "A Glance at New York" (1848).

Mose, as played by Chanfrau, was a success of many seasons.

Sterling (faithful, untiring old clerk who has sacrificed his whole life to his employer's
interest), Tom Bobolink (truckman; happy in a humble home, yet envious of the rich;
wants to be honest, though often tempted to be otherwise) and Polly Bobolink (plain, honest,
sunny-faced wife of Tom), Brougham, "Temptation" (1856).

John Cripps (speculator in sundries, and general trader in a small way ; specimen of
Southern "poor white trash" ; has a big family ; calls education "a Yankee hoax" ; sells patent
medicines, and believes in their virtue; complains that the world is unkind; possesses a sort
of generosity), Mrs. Cripps (John's wife; patient and long-suffering; believes in churches and
schools ; dies from ignorant, brutal treatment of her good-for-nothing husband ) , and Ben
Dakin and Jim Stokes (slave-hunters; use dogs, and quarrel about the quality of the canines;
think "business is business, and religion will have to wait"), Brougham, "Dred" (1856).

Fanny (poor sewing girl; honest, industrious, ambitious; because of dependence, often
insulted by wealthy men) and Four-Cent Man, Apple Woman, and Newsboys, Brougham,
"Life in New York" (1856).

Paul (honest clerk who is willing to work but can not find it), Puffy (baker; ignorant
but honest, generous, and resigned to hard times),, Dan (well-intentioned blunderbuss of a
laborer), and Edwards (dependent, machine-like clerk), Boucicault, "The Poor of New York"
(1857).

The time of Boucicault's play is supposed to be the commercial panics of 1837 and 1857.

Dickson (brutal pursuer of fugitive slaves; a "kidnaper"), Trowbridge, "Neighbor Jack-
wood" (1857).

8 Button, A, 51.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 121

Newsboy and Hackman, Wainwright, "Wheat and Chaff" (1858).

Colonel Pointdexter (business-like auctioneer, who knows how to lay baits for bidders),
Boucicault, "The Octoroon" (1859).

Reporter (for New York paper; visits John Brown in prison). Swayze, "Ossawattomie
Brown" (1859).

9. FASHIONABLE SOCIETY CHARACTERS

Between the production of "Fashion" (1845) and the opening
of the Civil War there were more American plays written which
contain native fashionable-society characters in varying degrees
of fidelity to the real than any other kind. Of some sixty pieces
examined that introduce noteworthy American characters, more
than a third present fashionable society types. So much can not
be said for the other groups, although political and commercial
characters are numerous. While society characters of some realis-
tic importance are found in the plays of almost every decade from
the middle of the eighteenth century, it was not until the popularity
of "Fashion" and similar succeeding pieces that the society play
as a genre could be recognized. The predominating types of this
time and the extent of their realism appear in the following ex-
amples. Few of these characters are wholly real, although nearly
all seem to bear a resemblance to actual persons.

a. The Beau

A fair specimen of the American fop is introduced into Bate-
man's "Self" (1856) in the person of Charles Sanford, a step-son.
He is not naturally bad, but perverted by wrong rearing. He speaks
of his step-father as "the governor," flatters his mother for money,
refuses to do work, drinks and gambles, suffers dismissal from col-
lege, and aims solely at fine appearance and a place among the dan-
dies. Below he appears in his characteristic manner :

CHARLES. Mother, you look very handsome this morning ! Did old Tulle Rubon manu-
facture that bonnet? It gives you the air of a girl of eighteen. I say, mother, let me have
some money. The Governor grows stingier every day, and I can't keep up an appearance by
the side of fellows like Cy, without two or three hundred dollars at my disposal.

MRS. A. (His mother.) Dear Charles, you know I can't bear to deny you anything,
but I gave you four hundred last week you are really too bad!

CHARLES. Just as you please. It's all up, though, my being able to persuade Cy
into marrying Mary, the only thing we require to make our family the richest in New York,
for he is worth at least a million, and can talk familiarly about all the crowned heads in Eu-
rope. Of course I can't be his bosom friend, and all that, and be hampered for a few paltry
dollars, (pp. 8-9.)

In McCracken's "Earning a Living" (1849) other interesting
characters of the beau-type occur. Rupert Hay and Hartington are
"young sharks" who are engaged in business. Glumley is a maga-
zine editor and at the same time a first-class beau who claims to be

122 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

seeking a marriageable fortune. He is a flatterer, loves society ex-
posures, and writes a dozen articles for his own magazine over dif-
ferent signatures.

When the three persons above mentioned and Jacob Hollybush,
a bachelor friend, are obliged to wait together for a few minutes,
their conversation takes a true-to-life turn :

G. (to J. H.) Here is the Herald.

J. H. Thank you; I've read it through twice.

G. Mr. Hay, was that a Philadelphia!! I saw talking to you to-day, in Wall Street?

HAY. Before the Exchange?

G. Yes.

HAY. Yea.

G. I thought so. I can always tell them.

J. H. How?

G. Oh, they look so band-boxy; that is, you know, the society men, the stars of Chest-
nut Street.

HAY. Yes; Philadelphia is the only place I know where the men of fashion are gen-
erally dandies.

G. Yes; that's the word dandies ; men that look rigged, that seem to be thinking about
their clothes.

J. H. Every city has its peculiarities.

HART. What are ours?

J. H. Oh, this is the metropolis. I mean the provincial cities.

G. In Boston it is the inner man that they rig.

HAY. And the inner woman?

G. Oh, certainly! Logic and Latin, instead of ruffled skirts; and transcendentalism, in-
stead of Miss Lawson's hats and feathers.

J. H. Well, I think I can always tell a Boston woman when I hear her talk.

HART. So can L

G. They are so well informed, and so informing; so sure of what they say, and so pre-
cise and emphatic.

J. H. Even so. (p. 41.)

Other Beau Characters

Augustus Fogg (drawing-room appendage; indifferent to weather, operas, verses, and
flowers, but not to dinners), Mowatt, "Fashion" (1845).

Alfred Spooney (dandy, just returned from the "grand tour" six weeks in Europe; wears
his hair and mustache long, and keeps the latter well oiled; regularly says "eh," "really 'pon
my honor," and "when I was in Europe"), Gould, "The Very Age!" (1850).

Mr. Rushton Sunnyside ("good fellow"; unpractical, insincere, selfish, never serious;
spendthrift of small honor and low motives ; pretends to be a man of affairs, but shuns real busi-
ness, and will not pay his debts; gives dinners to fools and scamps, just to be known as "a
good fellow" ; is intemperate, goes to Saratoga, has a passion for fine horses ; hates sermoniz-
ing, and while refusing a poor widow five dollars gives one hundred dollars to help a society
criminal out of prison), Walcot, "A Good Fellow" (1864).

Cypher Cynosure (traveled nonentity ; rich booby ; has great regard for public opinion ;
considers anyone fortunate who can create an American sensation ; thinks gentlemen can live
in Paris, while they merely exist in America; ends his remarks with "eh ah ya-as"), Bate-
man, "Self" (1856).

Mr. Frederick Augustus Carson (elderly bachelor; rich and extremely polite; educated
in the manners of the opera ; likes eating and drinking, fine clothes, splendid houses, and a good
time; imagines he is still sought by the fair sex) and George Emmons ("pink and white,"
sentimental, money- wise young beau), Brougham, "Dred" (1856).

Bob Logic (young man about town, who knows society well), and Cubbe Codfishe and
Shinn Shanghai (specimens of "Young America"; sensual, unprincipled, prodigal; gamble,

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 123

drink champagne, wear ridiculous clothes, call their father "governor," and use slang freely),
Brougham, "Life in New York" (1856).

Like characters are found in Raux, "The Road to Fortune" (1846) ; Mathews, "False Pre-
tenses" (1856) ; Wilkins, "My Wife's Mirror" (1856) ; Wilkins, "Young New York" (1856) ;
Preuss, "Fashions and Follies of Washington Life" (1857) ; Boucicault, "The Poor of New
York" (1857) ; Brougham, "The Musard Ball" (1858) ; Miles, "Senor Valiente" (1858) ; Wain-
wright, "Wheat and Chaff" (1858) ; Boucicault, "The Octoroon" (1859) ; and in many other
American plays of the time.

b. The Lady

"Fashion" (1845) presents Mrs. Tiffany, a lady who imagines
herself fashionable. She is of low extraction, and having become
wealthy emulates the fashionable women about her. She is a slave
to anything French, and speaks the French language most shock-
ingly. An example of this is : "Jenny says quoi" and "ee-light."
She is vain and extravagant, believes that success lies in keeping up
appearance, and is anxious for her daughter to marry a nobleman.
Anything American she considers vulgar. The following remark is
characteristic :

Mr. Tiffany, you are thoroughly plebeian, and insufferably American, in your grovelling
ideas! And, pray, what was the occasion of these mal-ap-pro-pos remarks? Merely because I
requested a paltry fifty dollars to purchase a new style of head-dress a bijou of an article just
introduced in France, (p. 27.)

Mrs. Tiffany's daughter, Seraphina, is a true product of her
mother's rearing. She is a light, rash, thoughtless coquette, and
chiefly interested in what is "all the rage."

Prudence, in the same piece, represents a meddling, supersti-
tious maiden lady, who likes to keep people in suspense, often says
"I told you so," and is still looking for a husband.

In the comedy of "Earning a Living" (1849) there are a num-
ber of fashionable ladies. Mrs. Campion is the "fond mamma" who
occupies her mind with nothing but beaux, balls, and the surest
way of marrying off her daughter ; Miss Dubarre is a homely, dis-
satisfied, talkative heiress whose $50,000 alone renders her attract-
ive ; and Charlotte and Mary pass as fashionable daughters of the
day. The following dialogue between the two daughters, after a
shopping trip, seems real :

M. I can't bear to deal with women. They are so mean, such hard bargainers, and BO
disobliging. They get out of patience, and won't show you anything.

C. And they cheat in the change, and give you short measure.

M. I wish we had some good lady's shoemakers.

C. We shall never have boots made here like the Paris boots; look at these they are
too large, and yet they pinch me. Those are your French ones.

M. Yes, they are perfectly easy ; and yet, my foot lookj as small again as it does in
the others.

C. What a bazaar that shop of Stewart's is.

M. Yes, I hate to go there now. It is crowded and busy as a great market-place.

C. And they are learning market-place manners. They have so much to do that they
can't atop to be civil. One does not meet the attention we used to, in Johnson's time. (pp. 23-24.)

124 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

Mrs. Apex in "Self" (1856) is another devotee of society who
brings her husband to bankruptcy. She is a victim of social thral-
dom, and is willing to barter health, happiness, and love for a su-
perficial position. She grows indulgent, unprincipled, and two-
faced ; likes to make herself envied of others ; and considers Ameri-
can but a synonym of vulgar. She finally sees the hollowness of the
world and wishes to reform. Her rival in fashionable life is Mrs.
Radius. This lady is very envious, inconsistent, and unfeeling. She
is a professional scandal-monger, and delights in wounding the
feelings of others.

The following extract will further characterize the two. The
scene is in Promptcash and Ellwide's store, where both ladies are
interested in the same gown :

MRS. R. Oh, Mr. Ellwide, I thought I should never be able to get here! I wish they
would arrange some other street for the canaille, and not permit them to obstruct Broadway.
Do you know, I had to wait three-quarters of an hour, because a dray-load of emigrants (dirty,
dreadful wretches!) ran against a wagon full of barrels; the horses slipped on the Russ pave-
ment ; some of the people were thrown down and hurt ; three of the animals were killed, and
I was obliged patiently to wait until they removed the bodies a most provoking circumstance
for I was dying to get here before Mrs. Apex, as I hear you have something very handsome,
and I am resolved, at any rate, to have the refusal of it !

ELL. I am sorry, but she has been here beforehand with you. The seven hundred dollar
velvet is gone.

MRS. R. Has the creature been here already? and has she made such a purchase, when
her husband's probable insolvency and her son's dissipation have become the talk of the town ?
That woman's extravagance is .

(Turns and sees" Mrs. Apex. Mrs. R. and Mrs. A. meet.)

Mrs. R. Ah ! my dear Clemanthe ! how are you after last night's excitement ? ( Kisses
her. ) . . . . You look pale, dear ! Ah ! no wonder ; you must be very anxious about your son,
Charles. He was quite tipsy last night ; it was the talk of the party, and very naturally grief
is written upon your face today.

MRS. A. Not at all, love; Charles was with friends, whose position in society insures

respect, even in their excesses (Aside.) Deceitful monster! but she is too fashionable

to quarrel with Show Mrs. Radius the dress I just purchased, Mr. Ellwide.

(Ellwide displays dress. Mrs. R. laughs.)

MRS. R. Now that's too droll! It is an exact fac-simile of the one I wore last season,
when the style was most fashionable! Yes, love, it was quite pretty when it was what was
worn!

MRS. A. Impossible! This is certainly new was woven expressly for Eugenie, and ex-
hibited at the Great Industrial Fair, this season! (pp. 6-7.)

Other Lady Characters

Mrs. Jenkins (anxious to be distinguished as a "match-maker" ; does not scruple to do
anything that society might sanction), Mrs. Spriggins (emulates the corrupt society women of
Europe), Mrs. Spooney (pert widow who enjoys scandal), and Clara Erskine (millionaire's
daughter; somewhat independent; thinks she wants a count), Gould, "The Very Age!" (1850).

Marie (peevish, helpless, hard-to-p lease Southern wife; afraid of exertion; thinks self
very weak and dependent), Aiken, "Uncle Tom's Cabin" (1852).

Mrs. Sunnyside (society wife and "dragon-fly"; makes fashion her chief interest; is
never troubled about how she shall pay her debts ; has no knowledge of business ; glad to see
others follow her example ; depends on servants to keep her house ; goes to church to be seen ;
hates long and pointed sermons ; scorns good counsel and economy ; gads, flirts, and finally

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 125

leaves her bankrupt husband, for a part of whose misfortu e she is responsible), Walcot, "A
Good Fellow" (1854).

Mrs. Corderoy Codliver (wealthy vulgarian and parvenue ; ignorant, gluttonous, grumb-
ling widow; has imaginary afflictions, and is always taking and recommending patent medi-
cines; speaks after the manner of Mrs. Malaprop) and Miss Sallie Simper (shop-visitor; wishes
to look over many goods; buys nothing, or small amounts; often returns goods), Bateman,
"Self" (1856).

Nina Gordon (amiable, sympathetic, fashionable Southern heiress; expects little of ne-
groes who are kept in ignorance; knows nothing of business; likes to look pretty and be ad-
mired; chooses her husband deliberately) and Madame Gordon (gentle, humane Southern lady),
Brougham, "Dred" (1856).

Clementina Victorina Codfishe and Celestina Eugenia Codfishe (upstart daughters ; seek
foreign husbands ; pound a piano and squall a duet ; blunder through Italian and French ; lan-
guish for Saratoga), and Mrs. Codfishe (upstart society mother and "lion-hunter"; dresses more
gaudy than tasteful; is always fearing that her daughters will compromise their character),
Brougham, "Life in New York" (1856).

Similar characters appear in Raux, "The Road to Fortune" (1846) ; Chase, "The Young
Man About Town" (1854) ; Mathews, "False Pretenses" (1856) ; Wilkins, "My Wife's Mirror"
(1856) ; Wilkins, "Young New York" (1856) ; Preuss, "Fashions and Follies of Washington
Life" (1867) ; Boucicault, "The Poor of New York" (1857) ; Brougham, "The Musard Ball"
(1858) ; Hurlbert, "Americans in Paris" (1858) ; Miles, "Senor Valiente" (1858) ; Boucicault,
"The Octoroon" (1859) ; and in numerous other American pieces of the day.

c. The American Girl

Caroline Dalton (heiress; daughter of an American merchant who made money "for the
excitement of the thing" but who "excited himself out of the world before his time" ; along
with her formal education has been taught usefulness ; somewhat out of sympathy with for-
eign convention, and satisfied with American democracy ; marries an English lord, but not for
his title), Pardey, "Nature's Nobleman" (1851).

Caroline Morton ("Our Gal"; accomplished, independent, self-advising Yankee heiress;
will choose her own husband, and thinks herself capable of choosing), Johnson, "Our Gal"
(1866).

d. Other Fashionable Society Characters

Mrs. Umbraton (good wife, of domestic turn; tries to make a complete home; occa-
sionally wishes to go into fashionable society, when in touch with such, but by her husband's
kind counsel sees the folly of it all), Walcot, "A Good Fellow" (1854).

Mary Apex (plain, sensible, dutiful, home-loving, true-hearted daughter; shows sim-
plicity in manner and dress; practices economy, enjoys work, and lives modestly and usefully),
Bateman, "Self" (1856).

Aunt Jemimy (old maid of sixty-two, who still feels young ; wishes to marry a young
man, and thinks her chances good; is precise in manner and speech; has traveled as far as
New York and Boston; hates negroes; is proud of her small foot), Conway, "Our Je-
mimy" (185-).

10. SERVANT CHARACTERS

Most of the realistic servant characters of the antebellum
plays are negroes who appear in dramatized novels. The servant
received more attention as a stage-character between 1850 and
1860 than during any previous decade.

a. The Black

Zeke (footman), Mowatt, "Fashion" (1846).

Uncle Tom (slave ; steady, capable, honest, pious, and resigned ; loves his master and
will die for him, if necessary, yet has a desire for freedom; possesses a visionary nature),
George Harris (alert, industrious mulatto; feels he has a natural right to freedom, and be-

126 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

comes a fugitive; ingenious, determined, and desperate in effort to free self and' family),
Eliza (educated mulatto fugitive), and Topsy (mischievous type of slave; brought up by a
speculator ; thinks she is necessarily wicked, because a negro ; yields to kind treatment and
love), Aiken, "Uncle Tom's Cabin" (1852).

Aunt Chloe (nurse; honest, faithful, devoted as a mother to master's children; innocent
and affectionately familiar; has ideas, makes homely comparisons, and is prone to advise;
longs for "ole Virginny," puts faith in colored preachers, and refuses to let her mistress work),
Bateman, "Self" (1856).

Harry (educated, capable mulatto overseer of a plantation; believes self worthy of
freedom), Old Tiff ("poor old black" who works hard, loves his master, trusts in heaven, and
keeps patient; serves as gardener, coachman, cook, and housekeeper), Dred (outlaw runaway;
bitter of feeling; aids fugitives to escape), Tomtit (incorrigible, wild, untutored negro), Old
Hundred (consequential old coachman; feels above the slaves of the poor whites), and Lisette
(dutiful mulatto slave-wife), Brougham, "Dred" (1856).

Tom Scott (converted servant of a retired army captain ; often shares his master'*
liquor ; his toast :

Peace at home, pleasure abroad,
Lub your wife, and sarve de Lord. ) ,

Preuss, "Fashions and Follies of Washington Life" (1857).

Camille (Mobile fugitive, being helped to escape by Vermont Yankees), Trowbridge,
"Neighbor Jackwood" (1857).

Old Pete (lovable old "uncle"; feels self-important; admonishes the younger negroes),
Paul (indulged negro boy, not set to work), Dido (old negro "aunty"; considers self wise;
thinks "doctors don't know nuffin" ; has an unconscious drollery), and Zoe (octoroon; beauti-
ful, refined, gentle, just, patient, honorable, and resigned), Boucicault, "The Octoroon" (1859).

11. PROFESSIONAL CHARACTERS

A few incidental dramatic characters, corresponding in some
respects to living originals and forming a broadly denned profes-
sional group, are found in the plays of this epoch.

Pardey's "Nature's Nobleman" (1851) contains Hopkins
Crayon, Esq., who is intended to represent an American literary
aspirant. He has a special fondness for character-sketching, but
sees in his countrymen a stronger taste for dollars than for works
of an artistic order. The following shows him in conversation with
Mr. Furleigh, who has just returned from abroad:

CRAY. Talk of dramas you went to the theatres, of course? How I should like to
see a French play !

FUR. Be satisfied, sir ; you have seen a hundred.

CRAY. Eh?

FUR. Almost all the neat, interesting dramas of the day are French in scene and origin.

CRAY. Yes, the scene laid in France.

FUR. And the plot made there also. English playwrights are arrant thieves, and we
are the receivers. We go to the theatres, not to see our own character and social life portrayed,
but to witness the obsolete peculiarities of wigged baronets and square-skirted counts.

CRAY. I am sure I have done my best. I wrote a native comedy, but because there
were eight scenes in the last act, the manager said it was fitter for the closet. I sent a tragedy
for the Forrest prize; I felt sure that my "Christian Knight" would come off conqueror, but
somehow or other the infidel committee had more faith in "Mahomet." 8

FUR. Let the "Christian Knight" come before the public and challenge the infidel.

CRAY. Oh! I'll think of it. (pp. 27-28.)

9 This refers to Miles's "Mohammed" (1850) which won over seventy other plays a prize
of $1000 offered by Edwin Forrest.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 127

A lawyer with perhaps certain realistic touches is found in
Miles's "Senor Valiente" (1858). This is Chiselby, "born in Ver-
mont and bred in New York, sir; never fear me." He dresses in
plain clothes, moves and talks with a rush, rubs his hands fre-
quently, and swallows his wine at a gulp. He charges his wealthy
clients large fees, for they seem to be better pleased, and takes spe-
cial care that no prospective clients escape him. Something of his
character is revealed in the following soliloquy, as he examines his
friend's library:

(Rubbing his hands.) Here's money thrown away. I guessed as much not a law book
among 'em. (Contemptuously.) Petrarch Tasso Camoens Longfellow Tennyson Lope de
Vega stuff trash twaddle fiddle-de-dee! Great reading for a man of sense. 'Gad, I wonder
if people ever do read 'em. (Throws himself back in an arm chair.) Two nights' travel
Southern cars used up, of course. Whoever breaks my sex horas sotn.no must pay accordingly.
.... (Rubbing his hands, rising, and inspecting the busts.) Fine head Coke, may be Coke
wore a wig, though. (Reading the inscription.) Julius Caesar? I knew it was some great
lawyer, (p. 16.)

Other Professional Characters

T. Tennyson Twinkle (modern poet; enthusiastic, and anxious to read his verses to
others; occupies his mind with things classical), Mowatt, "Fashion" (1845).

Elder Moses (elderly Shaker; narrow-minded and set in his ways; trusts the judgment of
old people, but has little faith in youth), Johnson, "The Shaker Lovers" (1849).

Marks (scheming, cowardly, unprincipled lawyer; does anything for money, and nothing
without it), Aiken, "Uncle Tom's Cabin" (1852).

Brigham Young 10 (Mormon prophet; ambitious, sensual, hypocritical, hard-hearted,
traitorus; keeps authority by dire threats; defies U. S. government, and pledges his priests
against it; aspires to found an independent empire) and Parley P. Pratt (Mormon elder, and
follower of Young), English, "The Mormons" (1853).

Mr. Clayton (philanthropist among the slaves), Brougham, "Dred" (1856).

Mr. Rukely (Vermont abolitionist preacher; while advocating obedience to law, will still
aid the fugitives), Trowbridge, "Neighbor Jackwood" (1867).

Nicodemus Straightjacket (hypocritical philanthropist; gives alms ostentatiously, robs
widows by soliciting death-bed bequests, favors marble-front churches, and practices fashionable
follies), Chase, "The Young Man About Town" (1854).

12. CHARLATAN CHARACTERS

Jake (street swindler; preys on country fellows, by trading them gold-plated watches)
and Mike (Jake's companion; works "the pocket-book game," and "smugs dogs"), Baker, "A
Glance at New York" (1848).

Azariah Higgins ("black sheep" of the Shaker community; masks under his office as
elder, to perpetrate wrongs), Johnson, "The Shaker Lovers" (1849).

CONCLUSION

The realistic presentation of American characters in native
plays written between 1845 and 1860 is as follows:

10 See McMaster, Hist, of the People of U. S. f VIII: 374 ft.

128 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

1. Of some one hundred and seventy-five plays recorded by
Roden between 1845 and 1860, at least one-third are found to re-
flect American life more or less realistically.

Bibliography I gives a. fully representative list.

2. The plays containing realistic native characters are almost
equally divided among various pieces of comedy and dramas based
on American history.

Since historical subjects of the day or of the immediate past are frequently treated, the
attempted realism of such pieces is more pertinent.

3. The most important realistic characters of the time are
found in the following groups : the Yankee, the military and politi-
cal, the man of affairs and working man, and the fashionable
society.

The Yankee type still keeps a strong hold upon the stage, without any marked change
in characterization from that of the quarter-century preceding. The type usually represents
a broad caricature, and is often little more than a native theatrical clown. In spite of these
exaggerations, however, fundamentally the portrayal strongly suggests the real.

Military and political characters are among those most frequently encountered. In the
majority of cases they appear in pieces based on native historical subjects of the day and of
the past. A few are found in the regular comedies. Now and then the political characters
are very real, although the most simply suggest actual persons.

The rise to prominence of man of affaire and working man characters is especially note-
worthy. These characters, while never wholly, seem essentially true to the day's commercial
and industrial life.

The fashionable society group furnishes more realistic characters of importance than
any other. Society comedy as a native genre came into existence with the production of
"Fashion" in 1845, although native fashionable characters had frequently appeared in the
American plays of the preceding hundred years. These characters, in spite of their obvious
stage-attributes, are sufficiently realistic to give a fair idea of the society life before the Civil
War, particularly in the metropolis.

4. A significant falling off in the use of Indian characters is
to be noted.

5. Frontier characters, both contemporary and historical,
seem to receive but indifferent attention.

6. The negro slave is somewhat realistically put into several
plays of this time.

7. A few professional characters of minor realistic interest
may be pointed out.

The typical American as it is believed he has existed for many
years fails to find complete exemplification in any of the dramatic
characters of this epoch.

John Unit (in "Self") possesses much of the directness, prudence, and material-minded-
ness of the American business man; Adam Trueman (in "Fashion") embodies some of the
shrewdness, economy, bluntness, independence, and general common sense of the successful

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 129

American farmer; and Mr. Erskine (in "The Very Age!") and Mr. Felix Umbraton (in "A
Good Fellow") seem to have some of the substantial qualities of a patriotic American citizen.
Again, we can clearly detect American traits in John Wilson, the "forty-niner," and Pike
County Jess, the Western miner (in "A Live Woman in the Mine") ; in the aggressive Major
MacMuddle (in "Senor Valiente") ; in Colonel Delaney, the confirmed Whig (in "Fashions and
Follies of Washington Life") ; in Colonel Blasinghame, "fire-eater" and "political boss" (in
"Norman Maurice") ; in St. Clare, the refined, easy-going slave-holder (in "Uncle Tom's
Cabin") ; in Arthur Morris, the unsocial creature of business life (in "Americans in Paris") ;
in Mose, "the fightin' fire-boy" (in "A Glance at New York") ; in Mrs. Tiffany, the parvenue
(in "Fashion") ; in Charles Sanford, the American fop (in "Self") ; in Caroline Morton, the
independent American heiress (in "Our Gal") ; in Chiselby, the New York bred lawyer (in
"Senor Valiente") ; and in Mr. Rukely, the abolitionist preacher (in "Neighbor Jackwood").
All of these characters and many others taken from the drama of the day are assigned Ameri-
can traits, yet in no one of them are there enough distinctive qualities assembled to make a
fully representative American citizen.

Ill

The high-water mark of American drama prior to 1870,
whether considered from the realistic, theatrical, or literary stand-
point, was reached during this epoch. Yet in spite of relative su-
periority not one of these plays holds the stage to-day, or is often
read except by students of American drama. These facts alone
prove the absence of universal elements such as make dramatic
works enduring.

George Henry Boker's "Calaynos" (1848) and "Francesca da Rimini" (1853) are the
most finished plays of the time. They possess positive merit as literature, and are also well
suited to stage-presentation. In the latter pieces both E. L. Davenport and Lawrence Barret
acted successfully. But, unfortunately, both plays treat wholly foreign subjects. The same is
true of virtually all the stronger American plays, until some time after the Civil War.

Pieces of high comedy showing creditable workmanship and at the same time portray-
ing American characters more or less realistically are Mrs. Anna Cora Mowatt's "Fashion"
(1845) and Mrs. Sidney F. Bateman's "Self" (1856). Of many plays of a certain realistic im-
portance, which also surpass earlier comedies in artistic excellence, these two are probably the
most meritorious.

CHAPTER IV

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS WRITTEN
BETWEEN 1860 AND 1870

A DECADE OF TRANSITION IN AMERICAN DRAMA

The decade of the Civil War was not propitious for American
drama. As soon as hostilities began, theatrical and dramatic ac-
tivities rapidly declined. Many theaters closed their doors, foreign
actors departed for their homes, and native playwrights and pro-
ducers, for the most part, either occupied themselves with other in-
terests or awaited the return of more peaceful times. In the larger
cities, where the theaters remained open, the foreign domination
continued, and whenever native composition was undertaken it
was as a rule either imitative or sectional.

There is a marked lull in the production of American plays
between 1860 and 1865, and the few pieces belonging to these years
usually breathe of the atmosphere in which they were conceived.
Following 1865 native drama began gradually to revive, although
it came at once under the influence of the English T. W. Robertson.
The most important dramatic writing of the decade was Augustin
Daly's (1838-1899) "Under the Gaslight," brought out in 1867, al-
though this play is not wholly original and in some ways common-
place. As a matter of fact, the decade makes but little addition to
the strength of native drama and furthermore presents few realis-
tic characters of significance. Such as do appear are principally
those portrayed in the war-plays.

Among the better dramatic writers of the day, in addition to
Daly, might be named Mrs. D. S. Curtis, Dion Boucicault, Henry
Wadsworth Longfellow, James Dabney McCabe (1842-1883), and
John Savage (1828-1888).

In certain respects the years between 1860 and 1870 represent
a decade of transition for the drama in America. When it began
to attract attention again, a few years after the restoration of
peace, it was being written for a new audience, under different con-
ditions, and by a more creative order of genius. The partisan note
had undergone modification; the former legitimate drama was be-

130

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 131

ing neglected in consequence of a newly developed taste for mirth-
making, spectacular shows; 1 the play constructed of many-scene
acts, produced on a platform stage, was being supplanted by the
play of one-scene acts, presented on a picture-frame stage; the
pieces reflecting American life with only a certain verisimilitude
were being superseded by pieces which attempted to depict on the
stage the most characteristic phases of actual American society;
and finally the drama of the New World, after more than a century,
was being regenerated into a less servile, more dignified existence
by the advent of a professional playwright who possessed not only
self-confidence and bright ideas, but a fair measure of genuinely
creative power.

This man was Bronson Howard. He gave to the dramatic
world the American business play, in which it is believed he most
completely expressed himself. 2 He was familiar with the people of
his time, he aimed at reproducing them, their shortcomings and
their problems upon the stage, and with the aid of his ingenuity,
insight, and happy self-expression he surpassed all his predeces-
sors, blazed the trail for his successors in American realism, and
won for himself the distinction of being our first really creative
dramatist.

1. YANKEE CHARACTERS

Tarbox ("seedy" down-East farmer, just returned from the war; was drafted into serv-
ice, and grew sick as soon as the fighting began), Curtis, "A Change of Base" (1866).

Hiram Beers (teamster and village oracle), Daly, "A Legend of Norwood" (1867).

2. INDIAN CHARACTER

Tituba (mysterious Indian woman), Longfellow, "Giles Corey of the Salem Farms"
(1868).

3. FRONTIER CHARACTERS

Christian, Edith, Wharton, and others (persecuted Quakers of 1665), Longfellow, "John
Endicott" (1868).

4. MILITARY CHARACTERS

Arthur Douglas (spirited Confederate; captain of Guerrillas), Major General Fremont
(U. S. officer; represented as greatly annoyed by the Guerrillas; reports victories at Wash-
ington, when he has really met defeat; considers himself a philanthropist, although he pos-
sesses a debased character), and Colonel Bradley (cowardly Union officer), McCabe, "The
Guerrillas" (1862).

"The Guerrillas" was the first original drama produced in the Southern Confederacy. It
was played at Richmond, December 22, 1862, and was received with enthusiasm. "It was the
design of the author to show, in its true light, the condition of affairs in the western portion
of Virginia" (from introduction).

iSee Bates, XX:88.
3 See Matthews, A,

132 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

General Washington, Major-General Arnold, Colonel Hamilton, Sergeant Briggs, Pauld-
ing, Van Wert, and Williams, and others (historical American characters), Calvert, "Arnold
and Andre" (1864).

5. POLITICAL CHARACTERS

Now and then the plays of the decade of the Civil War present
political characters that reflect the times.

a. The Public Official

Policeman 9-9-9, Daly, "Under the Gas Light" (1867).

Governor Endicott (Colonial governor; proud of his office) and Merry (tithing-man ;
petty official, anxious to use his authority), Longfellow, "John Endicott" (1868).

John Hawthorne (magistrate; will convict without evidence those accused of witchcraft),
Longfellow, "Giles Corey of the Salem Farms" (1868).

b. The Patriot

Joshua Smith (friend of General Arnold; staunch Patriot) and Mrs. Arnold (although of
Tory birth, a Patriot sympathizer), Calvert, "Arnold and Andre" (1864).

c. The Confederate

A true embodiment of Confederate opinion is presented in Mc-
Cabe's "The Guerrillas" (1862), in the character of Henry Doug-
las, the grandfather of a Confederate captain. The old gentleman
has always tried to be a loyal American, and even now stands for
what he believes to be right. He says :

Now a new danger threatens us, and I must count as foes the sons of those who fought
with me. Alas ! that it must be. My blood helped to build up and hallow the Union, and I loved
it well. But now that Northern tyranny would fasten upon us chains worse than Britain
forged for us I scorn and curse it. I am a Southerner, a Virginian. This sword has never
been drawn, save in the cause of freedom, (p. 10.)

d. The Politician

Wolverine Griffin (old-maid suffragist), Mrs. Badger (assessor, in the woman's party),
and Judge Wigfall (feminine leader of the woman's party), Curtis, "The Spirit of '76" (1868).
"The Spirit of "76" is an extreme satire on women in politics.

6. RURAL CHARACTERS

Deacon Marble (New England villager), Tommy Taft ("old salt"; witty, rough Yankee;
good-hearted, but keeps putting off repentance and conversion), Mr. Turfmold (mercenary vil-
lage undertaker ; has buried people for more than thirty years ; likes to have a fine coffin and a
large crowd for each funeral), "The Boy from Hardscrabble" ("genus New England; species
Hardscrabble" ; tough village chap, but brave fighter for the Union), Agate Bissell (puritanic
maiden lady), Polly Marble (long-faced wife of N. E. deacon; visits the sick, and tells them how
badly they look), and Mother Taft (grandmotherly nurse), Daly, "A Legend of Norwood"
(1867).

Giles Corey (N. E. farmer of 1692; credulous, superstitious, religious, and honest
domineers his wife, and works his farm-hands hard, on small wages; becomes greatly de-
pressed; loves his cattle, boasts of his strength, and likes to outdo the younger men at mow-
ing) and Martha (Corey's wife; good, patient, and sensible), Longfellow, "Giles Corey of the
Salem Farms" (1868).

7. MAN OF AFFAIRS CHARACTERS

William Nickelbury (opulent merchant; ambitious, blustering, somewhat blunt; much
addicted to his newspapers ; believes "young men will be young men" ; seeks a rich son-in-law ;

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 133

says "Love is all moonshine") and Philip Sharpe (accomplished rogue in business; his creed:
"With money a man may buy anything : honors, position, comfort, and luxury ; without it he
may die in the gutter, despised by the world"), Hollenius, "Dollars and Cents" (1869).

Cole (hypocritical landlord; keeps his cow on the common, and has a seat in the new
meeting-house) and Kempthorn (sea-captain; superstitious, witty, and good-natured; drinks,
smokes, and swears), Longfellow, "John Endicott" (1868).

Richard Gardner (sea-captain; of generous heart and good sense, but a disposition to
carouse), Longfellow, "Giles Corey of the Salem Farms" (1868).

8. WORKING MAN CHARACTERS

Newsboys (making capital of war-news) and Postman (meeting Major May:

Ah, Major May, good morning I I was on my way to your house ; have a letter for
you, sir.

MAJ. M. (Receiving the letter.) Chalk it down, Post; I've no change now.

POST. All right. (Aside.) Chalk it down! I am doing a thriving business in the
chalk line. Good many good men very little small change.), Price, "Kissing a Soldier" (1863).

9. FASHIONABLE SOCIETY CHARACTERS

a. The Beau

Captain Dashwood (gallant, patriotic Union captain, just returned from service), Cur-
tis, "A Change of Base" (1866).

Ray Trafford ("one of the New York bloods") and Demilt and Windel ("of the rising
Wall Street generation"), Daly, "Under the Gaslight" (1867).

b. The Lady

An example of the Southern lady, with something of her atti-
tude during the Civil War, is presented in "The Guerrillas" (1862).
This character is Rose Maylie, who becomes the wife of a Confed-
erate officer. Having been captured by General Fremont, a Union
officer, she refuses to give information :

J3. I will not aid the enemy of my country.

GEN. F. (Coldly.) Your country is the Union.

ROSE. (Indignantly.) Tis false; we have cast it off forever; we scorn and trample
on the Union.

GEN. F. (In great astonishment.) Can it be possible! Even the women and children
of this infernal rebel land are mad with treason.

ROSE. (Proudly.) We are proud of that which you call treason. Go back, General
Fremont, to those that sent you, and tell them that they can never conquer the South. You
may kill every man and boy in our land, but you will then have to meet the women; and woe
to you when that day comes (carried away by her enthusiasm). We will conquer we will
drive you from th land. (p. 30.)

Othev Lady Characters

Miss Prim (maiden lady; careful to be extremely sensible; envies a pretty face, and
thinks girls need experience before marrying), Curtis, "A Change of Base" (1866).

Laura Courtland (amiable New York belle), Pearl Courtland (pretty, heartless belle;
hates everything but larks), and Mrs. Van Dam, Sue Earlie, and Lizzie Listen (society scandal-
mongers), Daly, "Under the Gaslight" (1867).

Victorine Wigfall (daughter of a suffragist; somewhat disgusted with "the woman
idea"), Curtis, "The Spirit of '76" (1868).

Mrs. Augustus W. Shybold (widow of forty-five, "angling for a husband"; affected, ig-
norant, vain, and coquettish; resembles Mrs. Malaprop), Hollenius, "Dollars and Cents" (1869).

134 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

c. The American Girl

Flora Fayaway (romantic American girl; wants a man who will marry her for herself;
not especially concerned about position, antecedents, and money ; plays, sings, makes calls,
plays croquet, attends parties, and sometimes goes to the opera), Curtis, "A Change of
Base" (1866).

Evelyn Nickelbury (daughter of an American merchant; romantic, but sensible and lady-
like; sees somewhat beyond mere money; says:

Do you know we American girls are quite satisfied with a plain mister?), Hollenius,
"Dollars and Cents" (1869).

10. SERVANT CHARACTERS

a. The Black

A fairly realistic servant of a Confederate master appears in
"The Guerrillas" (1862) in the character of Jerry. Having pro-
tected his master's wife against insult by a Union colonel, Jerry is
given his freedom as a reward :

JERRY. (Starting back in surprise.) Marse Arthur, you'se a jokin'.

ARTHUR. (His master.) No, Jerry, I am serious. You are free.

JERRY. (Indignantly.) A free nigger? I don't want to be free.

ARTHUR. But, Jerry, you can go North if you wish to do so, and be as good as the
white people there.

JERRY. De Norf ! Ain't dat whar de Abulishuners live?

ARTHUR. Yes.

JERRY. (Indignantly). Marse Arthur, I'se s'prised at you, 'deed I is. (Drawing him-
self up proudly.) I tank he good Lord I 'siders myself heap better dan any abulishuner dat
eber libed. What I want to be free for? (With feeling.) Marse Arthur, I bin in your family

eber since I bin born If you'se tired of old Jerry, j>s' take him out in de field and shoot

him, but don't send him away from you; don't set him free. Please don't, Marse Arthur, (p. 24.)

Other Black Servant Characters

Sam ("colored citizen ready for suffrage when it is ready for him"), Daly, "Under the
Gaslight" (1867).

Pete Sawmill (gentle-hearted darkey), Daly, "A Legend of Norwood" (1867).

b. The White

Betsey (chambermaid; pert and vivacious; says "Law!" "Ain't he a swell!" and "She's
awful sweet on your boss."), Hollenius, "Dollars and Cents" (1869).

11. PROFESSIONAL CHARACTERS

Splinter (crafty attorney of the Tombs police court), Daly, "Under the Gaslight" (1867).

John Norton (orthodox N. E. preacher of 1665; believes that he is God's own mouth-
piece; represents the high tide of intolerance), Longfellow, "John Endicott" (1868).

Cotton Mather (N. E. minister of 1692; shows a certain degree of tolerance), Longfellow,
"Giles Corey of the Salem Farms" (1868).

12. MISCELLANEOUS CHARACTERS

Jeremiah Austen ( Quaker of the old school ; believes in strict conformity to the estab-
lished discipline, and in isolation from the world; is satisfied with a uniform costume, form-
less meetings, and singsong speaking from the rising-seats; banishes the piano from the par-
lor, and Shakespeare from the library), Congdon, "Quaker Quiddities" (1860).

Byke and Judas (riffraff characters who know how to evade the law), Daly, "Under the
Gaslight" (1867).

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 135

CONCLUSION

The realistic presentation of American characters in native
plays written between 1860 and 1870 is as follows :

1. The Roden bibliography mentions about fifty plays of the
decade of the Civil War. Not more than one-third of these signifi-
cantly reflect American life.

A representative list is given in Bibliography I.

2. The realistic characters occur in pieces that treat Ameri-
can history, political and social questions, and situations arising
from the Civil War.

3. Although political and fashionable society characters are
somewhat the more numerous, there can hardly be pointed out any
predominant group.

4. Owing to this decade's being an epoch of national chaos and
a time of transition and comparative inactivity in American drama,
the realism of the dramatic characters is almost negligible. The
only characters of realistic significance are those in the war-plays
that reflect party spirit and political conditions.

There are presented no characters of importance that tend to
suggest American nationality.

Ill

The decade of the Civil War contributed little of permanence
to native drama.

Two successful plays of the time were Augustin Daly's "Under the Gaslight" (1867), an
"original and picturesque drama of life and love in these times." and Mrs. D. S. Curtis's "The
Spirit of "76" (1868), a parlor piece satirizing the woman's rights movements. Neither piece
possesses enduring qualities.

GENERAL CONCLUSION
THE PERIOD OF SPONTANEITY

In the native plays written between 1751 and 1787 the realis-
tic presentation of American characters is as follows:

1. Characters that reflect real American life appear in about
sixty percent of the some forty recorded plays of this period.

By actual count, moreover, the total number of native characters represented is found
to be larger than the number of foreign or fictive.

2. Of the pieces presenting realistic characters about four-
fifths deal with historical and political subjects.

3. The predominant realistic characters of this period belong
to the military, the political, and the fashionable society groups.

4. All the dramatic characters and situations are closely re-
lated to the real people and conditions of the time. Frequently well-
known individuals are so directly copied that their identity is rec-
ognizable. The play characters are animated and essentially au-
thentic memorials of most of the chief interests and issues of the
period.

5. There are presented no satisfactory Yankee characters,
and a surprisingly small number of Indian parts.

6. The dramatic characters between 1751 and 1787 suggest
the rise of a fashionable class in America.

In the drawing of the realistic characters there seem to be re-
mote hints of some of the distinctive elements of American na-
tionality.

These, for the most part, occur in the Patriot characters.

Ill

None of our Colonial and Revolutionary plays, whether con-
taining realistic characters or not, possesses enduring qualities.
These pieces are virtually all circumscribed by conditions of time
and place, and ceased to have a reason for being along with the
civilization that fostered them.

136

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 137

THE PERIOD OF EXPERIMENT AND DEPENDENCE

In the native plays written between 1787 and 1815 the realis-
tic presentation of American characters is as follows :

1. Characters bearing something of an American stamp are
found in less than thirty percent of the nearly one hundred and
seventy-five recorded plays (of which about forty are translations
and adaptations) that belong to this period.

2. Of the pieces presenting realistic characters the greater
number treat historical and political themes of the day or of the
immediate past; a smaller number consists of pieces of low, high,
and operatic comedy on native subjects and usually of a certain
political significance.

3. The predominant realistic characters of this period are
the Yankee, the political, and the fashionable society.

The native Yankee, caricatured but in many particulars true to life, was first inten-
tionally introduced into American dramatic writings in Tyler's "The Contrast" in 1787. The
type is presented in about a half-dozen plays between 1787 and 1789, but seldom reappears un-
til nearly two decades later. As found in the pieces written between 1806 and 1816 the char-
acter seems somewhat less natural and more of a stage-fool.

Political characters that authentically remind us of the leading historical and political
situations from 1787 to 1815 are more frequently encountered than any other. Several politi-
cal characters, also, are found in plays based on the past American history. Such retrospective
plays were seldom written prior to 1796, owing partly to the nearness or unattractiveness of
the past and especially to the dramatic possibilities of the events with which the writers were
constantly surrounded. In the various political characters much of the spirit of the times is
preserved. The political characters grow less numerous toward the end of the period.

Characters drawn from the contemporaneous fashionable society are now and then found
throughout the period. As types they are evidently imitated from English drama, although
from them a fair idea of certain phases of American society is also gained.

4. The dramatic use of Indian characters is for the most part
negligible prior to 1815.

In 1794 Ann Hatton's "The Songs of Tammany" was produced in New York; in 1802
Croswell published at Boston "A New World Planted," an historical drama containing Indians;
and in 1808 Barker wrote "The Indian Princess," which was successfully played in both Phila-
delphia (1808) and New York

5. Characters from the industrial and commercial life of
the period are almost wholly lacking.

6. Many of the better specimens of realistic characters occur
in plays not well suited to theatrical presentation.

Such pieces are "The Politician Out-Witted" (1788), "The Better Sort" (1789), "Occur-
rences of the Times" (1789), "The Politicians" (1798), "Rural Felicity" (1801), "The Sprightly
Widow" (1803), "Jonathan Postfree" (1806), "The Child of Feeling" (1809), and others.

138 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

The elements of a distinctive American nationality, while often
recognizable, are not prominent in the dramatic characters of this
period.

The Yankee characters of "The Contrast" (1787) and its immediate successors seem to
embody some of the traits of a typical American citizen, such as material-mindedness, "opti-
mism, accessibility, ready approach to his fellows, venturesomeness, self-reliance." 1 Some of
these qualities are also found to distinguish a few of the political characters, especially those
taken from the plays of the last decade and a half of the eighteenth century. The plays of
the decade preceding the War of 1812 contain little that tends to suggest a national mind.

Ill

Although the plays of this period show a greater breadth of
appeal and a higher quality of workmanship than those of the pre-
ceding, still none of them possesses sufficient merit to perpetuate it.

The best plays of the time were probably "The Father" (1788) and "Andre" (1798) by
William Dunlap and "The Indian Princess" (1808) and "Marmion" (1812) by James Nelson
Barker. These dramatic works were all favorably received in their day, and even now will
bear more than cursory inspection. They, however, like others of the stronger plays, contribute
less to native realism than the inferior pieces.

THE PERIOD OF DEVELOPMENT AND PARTIAL INDEPENDENCE

In the native plays written between 1815 and 1870 the realis-
tic presentation of American characters is as follows :

1. Characters that realistically or otherwise significantly re-
flect American life are presented in about thirty percent of the some
four hundred and twenty-five recorded plays of this period.

2. Of the pieces containing realistic characters fully two-
thirds either deal with American history, usually of the past, or
treat certain phases of American politics or subjects that necessi-
tate the portrayal of political characters.

3. The most important realistic characters are the Yankee,
the Indian, the frontier, the political, the man of affairs and work-
ing man, and the fashionable society.

The Yankee began to be an established stage-type during the decade of the twenties, and
continued in constant favor until the new dramatic movements that followed the Civil War.
Two of his greatest impersonators were James H. Hackett and George (Yankee) Hill, whose
performances were claimed by New Englanders themselves to be faithfully done. Others who suc-
cessfully acted the part were Danforth Marble, Charles Burke, George Spear, and John E.
Owens.

From the foregoing it seems that at least a part of the time the Yankee must have been
represented with much of his actual bluntness of speech, drollery of manner, and independence
of air ; his propensity to scheming and calculation ; his careful concern about the main chance ;

1 Suggested by Prof. E. A. Ross of the University of Wisconsin, in a letter under date of
April 29, 1915.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 139

his awkward dodging of profanity; his optimistic good humor; and his large endowment with
practical common sense. As found in the numerous plays, however, the character seems greatly
overdrawn, being only now and then wholly like a living person and not infrequently little
more than a native stage-clown. Yet, underlying all the distorted externals there is much of
reality to be discovered. The living type is always- clearly suggested by the dramatic and, as
far as fundamental traits are concerned, I am disposed to think, with sufficient verity. The
portrayal remains essentially the same throughout the period.

The Indian, although found in a few of the earliest American plays and from time to
time in the productions of the early nineteenth century, was not given a recognized place on
the stage till 1829 when Edwin Forrest began playing in "Metamora." Indian drama became
at once the vogue, continuing in favor for nearly twenty years. The decade preceding the
Civil War shows a falling off in production.

Virtually all the Indian characters appear in historical plays, and are both idealized and
real. Although the dramatic Indians often speak and act in impossible ways, fundamentally
they seem about as true to life as the authors could draw them from perhaps an imperfect
personal acquaintance, reported information, or historical accounts.

Frontier characters occur in various plays throughout the period. Although the most of
them are in pieces treating past American history and are therefore usually of secondary im-
portance as far as realism is concerned, a few on the other hand represent frontiersmen of
the day. A notable example of the latter class is Colonel Nimrod Wildfire, a Kentucky back-
woodsman, in Paulding's "The Lion of the West" (1831). The realism of such characters is
comparable to that of the stage- Yankees. Toward the end of the period frontier characters
become fewer.

Political characters are more frequently encountered than those of any other group.
They show marked variety, many occurring in the frequent historical plays, others in dramas
written around American political situations, and not a few in the numerous pieces of light
comedy that have some political import. While it may be too much to claim that United States
history from 1815 to 1870 can be satisfactorily followed in the dramatic works of these years
to say nothing of the many plays based on the events of earlier American history it would
nevertheless seem correct to assert that most of the historical events and political conditions
which deeply stirred the American public mind and which have since found a place in our
national annals were dramatized at some time or other during the period, and in many in-
stances with a vitality and genuineness of spirit that render them valuable. A few of the
political characters are like photographic reproductions, although as a whole they are not
especially real, and seem to suggest rather than exactly to reproduce. That the American
nation was still in the making may be easily inferred from the tone of these native dramatic
pieces.

Realistic characters from our commercial and industrial life, such as the man of affairs
and the working man, are rarely presented in the earlier American drama, and even during the
thirty years following the War of 1812 they are all but wholly neglected. Beginning with 1845
this condition began to be somewhat modified. As soon as the wealthy upstart families of the
larger cities came to be suitable material for the playwrights, then the source of such society
the commercial life of the land had to be dealt with. In short, from the presentation of Mr.
Tiffany in "Fashions" (1845) plays containing business men and other industrial characters
were brought out in large numbers. This is especially interesting in view of the fact that dur-
ing the last quarter of the nineteenth century the business play was to become one of America's
most distinctive contributions to dramatic literature. The man of affairs and working man
characters of the antebellum plays are seldom wholly real, although they usually embody the
most distinguishing traits of their prototypes.

Characters from the fashionable society of the first half of this period seem to have had
no particular appeal to playwrights. Although native fashionable characters had regularly
appeared in American plays for three-quarters of a century, the American society play as a
genre did not definitely come into existence till the production of "Fashion" (1845). This play
is neither wholly original nor highly wrought, yet it helped to establish a new mode and stand-
ard for American drama by making use of well-known society types of the metropolis. Be-
tween 1845 and the Civil War there were more society pieces written than any other kind.
The characters are often conventional, and seldom exact copies in every particular of their
originals. Yet if one sets aside the theatrical limitations and looks for distinctive attributes,
one feels convinced that the characters give a fair idea of the real society of the day.

140 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

4. The negro slave is somewhat realistically put into several
plays of the fifteen years preceding the Civil War.

5. A few incidental professional characters of minor realistic
importance occur from time to time during the period.

6. Of the plays reflecting real American life about two-thirds
were produced on the stage.

Characters possessing some of the distinctive qualities of an
American citizen may be discovered in the plays of each decade
between the War of 1812 and the Civil War. Examples of these,
with their distinguishing traits, have been given in the chapter-
conclusions. Taken as a body, these characters apparently have
most of the attributes that go to make up that composite individual,
a typical citizen of the United States, in whom the sectional pecu-
liarities of the East, the South, the Middle West, and the Far West
shall find a happy union. But if one looks for some single charac-
ter that exemplifies well, or even fairly well, the individual mind
that is indigenous, national, and wholly distinctive, then one must
experience disappointment. There can be but one conclusion : dra-
matic characters that are correctly and satisfactorily national,
even for their own period, had not been done up to 1870.

Ill

Between 1815 and 1870 there were written a small number of
American plays that are worthy of serious consideration. Although
hardly one of these was able to survive its century and none may
be ranked among even the lesser world-masterpieces, nevertheless
there could perhaps be named a half-dozen 2 that possess adapta-
bility to acting, contain many of the qualities of good literature,
and exhibit unmistakably the marks of professional craftsmanship
and creative genius. But of these stronger plays, unfortunately,
scarcely one has any realistic significance a fact that proves how
completely American realism was divorced from dignified American
drama. Indeed, prior to 1870, native drama that constructively
dealt with wholly American materials had made nothing more than
a small beginning.

* See introduction to Part III for a suggested list.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 141

AMERICAN DRAMA PRIOR TO EIGHTEEN SEVENTY

Concerning the realistic presentation of American characters
in native American plays prior to 1870 the following general con-
clusion may be made :

1. Of some six hundred and fifty broadly representative
American plays prior to 1870, about thirty percent are found to
reflect American life realistically or otherwise significantly. The
extent, the manner, and the fidelity of this realism, just as it actu-
ally occurs in the plays, form the content of the preceding chapters.

But after all, what is the exact nature of the character-real-
ism found in the first century and a quarter of American drama?
It seems to be this : American playwrights in their numerous and
diversified dramas have portrayed hundreds of characters that
were either directly copied from real American prototypes or, in
the broader outlines and more elemental traits, were directly Sug-
gested by living persons ; yet, when it comes to characters that are
wholly and satisfactorily true to life, both in the conception and
representation of them, the number is exceedingly small and would
include for the most part the minor and incidental characters of
minor plays. In other words, I should feel safe in saying that there
are abundant examples of native realism which present many of
the essentials of their originals, but that there are very few which
reproduce distinctive types of American people with an exact and
complete verisimilitude.

The reason for this condition lies chiefly in the dramatic and
theatrical domination of the different epochs. Prior to 1787, before
many native plays were produced on the professional stage, there
was twice as much attention given to native characters as in the
later periods. Furthermore, throughout all three periods, many of
the most genuinely realistic characters appear in plays either not
acted or not well suited to acting. The truth is, that the influence
of the theater was away from realism, and this is not at all sur-
prising when we recall that during the late eighteenth century and
most of the nineteenth Kotzebue, Scribe, and Sardou, in their turn,
were our accepted masters. During the same years, also, the de-
clamatory school of acting held sway, being represented by such
distinguished players as Cooper, Kean, Macready, Forrest, the
Booths, and Davenport. All of the influences tended to suppress

142 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

realism : they set clever, romantic plots above characterization that
copied life, or encouraged the writing of dramas on conventional
and classical subjects, to the neglect of American materials. The
result was, that the strongest plays were usually least realistic.

2. Of the some two hundred plays in which varying degrees
of native realism occur, fully two-thirds either deal with American
history, or treat the manifold phases of American politics or sub-
jects which require portrayal of political characters.

This is a meaningful observation, for it proves that the highest
concern of the American republic until after the Civil War the
business of building a nation finds almost ample expression in na-
tive dramatic writing. From 1751 to 1870 the leading events of
American history can be clearly traced in the drama of the same
years, and can frequently be viewed with much of their original
spirit and relation to contemporaneous conditions. This is especially
true of the Revolutionary pieces.

3. Since historical and political themes are most frequently
used, it naturally follows that political types of character are pre-
dominant. These are almost as diversified as the political personnel
of our national history has been, ranging from the groveling vote-
seller up to the first citizen of the land. Of all the native dramatic
characters some of the most realistic are found in the political
group. They occasionally represent a minute and vitalized por-
traiture. They are not often intended to appeal to the aesthetic
faculty in this respect, resembling the plays in which they ap-
pear but rather to good-humored, plain-thinking, open-souled hu-
manity. The realistic American plays up to 1870 are not a highly
wrought drama for ease or intellectuality, but the hurried, un-
adorned self-expression of a practical people who view Old- World
aristocracy askance and look to unstinted democracy as the summum
bonum of worthy Americans.

4. The importance and development of other groups and types
of realistic characters may be best seen by examining the chapter
and part conclusions in consecutive order.

The extent to which elements of a distinctive American na-
tionality appear in the realistic characters of American drama is
indicated in the chapter and part conclusions.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 143

III

Realistic American characters in native drama, prior to 1870,
that possess universality of human interest are virtually wanting.

BIBLIOGRAPHY I 1

A LIST OF REPRESENTATIVE AMERICAN PLAYS
WRITTEN PRIOR TO 1870

In compiling: this chronological bibliography the aim, has been, first, to record as far
as possible all noteworthy native dramatic pieces that in any manner present aspects of Amer-
ican life, and, secondly, to make these a part of a widely representative list of native plays
that show the evolution of dramatic writing in America. Several minor plays, never printed,
and nearly all adaptations are excluded.

Each play is listed under the date of its composition when this is known ; otherwise,
under the earliest known date of its publication, or production on the stage. Asterisks (*)
before titles indicate, as far as could be ascertained, those plays containing characters which
realistically or otherwise significantly reflect American life. Capital letters after titles designate
well-known libraries owning copies of the plays, according to the following table : B A, Boston
Athenaeum ; B P, Boston Public ; B, Brown University ; H, Harvard University ; L C, Library
of Congress; N Y P, New York Public, and P, University of Pennsylvania.

PART I, CHAPTER I
1751

The Suspected Daughter; or, Jealous Father. Farce, in Three Acts, both Serious and Comic,
by T. T. Boston: 1751.

Wegelin thinks this probably the first play by a native American. 2

1753

*Le Pere Indien. Tragedy, founded upon an incident in the history of the Calapissa Indians,
by Le Blanc de Villeneuve. In MS.

Played in 1753 by a company of amateurs in the Governor's Mansion, New Orleans.

1759

The Prince of Parthia. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by Thomas Godfrey. Philadelphia: 1765. L C.
Written, 1759 ; performed by the Douglas professional troupe, 1767 ; said to be the
earliest American tragedy. It treats a foreign subject.

1762

The Military Glory of Great Britain. Entertainment, given by the late candidates for the
Bachelor's Degree at the close of the anniversary commencement, held in Nassau-Hall,
N. J., Sept. 29, 1762. Author unknown. Philadelphia: 1762. N Y P

1766

*The Conquest of Canada; or, The Siege of Quebeck. Historical Tragedy, in Five Acts, by
George Cockins. London; 1766; Philadelphia: 1772. P

Contains little of native interest; was performed in Philadelphia, 1773.

*Ponteach; or, The Savages of America. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by Robert Rogers. London:
1766; Caxton Club ed., Chicago: 1914. L C

Date of action. 1763: place, Colonial frontier.

1 See Wegelin and Roden for a more inclusive compilation of titles. These two bibliographies
are arranged alphabetically according to authors, and each has an index to plays.

2 The first dramatic piece published in America was "Androboros." A B(i)ographical
Farce, in Three Acts, viz. The Senate, The Consistory, and The Apotheosis. By Governor
Robert Hunter. Printed at Monoropolis since August, 1714.

This piece is very rare. It is a severe criticism of the clergy, members, and others of
Trinity Church, the principal among whom was Dr. Vesey. See Wegelin, 59-60 ; Ford, A, 675-76.

144

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 145

1767

*The Disappointment; or, The Force of Credulity. Comic Opera, in Three Acts, by Andrew
Barton (perhaps Col. Thomas Forrest's pen-name, according to a MS note on the copy
in the library of Philadelphia). New York: 1767; another ed., revised and corrected,
with large additions, Philadelphia: 1796. L C

Rehearsed but not played by the Douglass company, because of a too personal
characterization.

Reasons offered for publication: "1. The infrequency of dramatic composition in
America. 2. The necessity of contributing to the entertainment of the city. 3. To put
a stop (if possible) to the foolish and pernicious practice of searching after supposed
hidden treasure."

1770

*The Monthly Assembly. Farce. Author unknown. Boston: 1770.

1771

Hodge Podge Improved ; or, The Race Fairly Run. Tragic Comedy,' by J. Macpherson. In
"A Pennsylvania Sailor's Letters," Philadelphia: 1771.

The author has published only extracts of the piece because of sympathy for a
certain innocent woman.

1773

*The Adulateur. Tragedy, in Five Acts, as it is now acted in Upper Servia (Massachusetts),
by Mrs. Mercy Otis Warren. Boston: 1773. L C

1774

*A Dialogue between a Southern Delegate and his Spouse, on his return from the Grand Con-
tinental Congress. A Fragment. Author unknown. Printed, 1774. N Y P

1775

A Cure for the Spleen ; or, Amusement for a Winter's Evening. Being the Substance of a
Conversation on the Times, over a Friendly Tankard and Pipe, (probably) by Jonathan
Mitchell Sewall. America : 1775 ; New York : 1775. N Y P

BEFORE THE REVOLUTION

*The Candidates; or, The Humors of a Virginia Election. Comedy, in Three Acts, by Colonel
Robert Munford. Petersburg: 1798.

The author died, 1782 ; the play was published, 1798. The prologue, written by
a friend, contains the following:

I boldly answer, how could he mean you,

Who when he wrote about you nothing knew?

The state of things was such in former times,

Ere wicked kings were punish'd for their crimes.

This, along with the theme, makes it seem probable the piece was written before the
Revolution.

"The piece entitled 'The Candidates' is intended to laugh to scorn the practice of
corruption and falsehood of which too many are guilty in electioneering." From preface.

PART I, CHAPTER II
1775

The Group. Farce, in Two Acts, As lately acted and as to be reacted to the wonder of all
superior intelligences, nigh head-quarters at Amboyne. By Mrs. Mercy Otis Warren.
Boston: 1776; New York: 1775. L C

1776

The Battle of Brooklyn. Farce, in Two Acts, as it was performed on Long Island on Tuesday,
the 27th. day of August, 1776, by the Representatives of the Tyrants of America as-
sembled at Philadelphia. Author unknown. New York: 1776; reprinted Brooklyn:
1873. L C

146 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

The Battle of Bunker's HilL Dramatic Piece, in Five Acts, by Hugh Henry Brackenridge.
Philadelphia: 1776.

A school piece.

*The Blockheads; or, The Affrighted Officers. Farce, in Three Acts, attributed to Mrs. Mercy
Otis Warren. Boston: 1776. L C

Called forth by General Burgoyne's farce, "The Blockade of Boston."

*A Dialogue between the Ghost of General Montgomery just Arrived from the Elysian Fields
and an American Delegate, in a Wood near Philadelphia. By Thomas Paine. Phila-
delphia: 1776; New York: 1865. N Y P

*The Fall of British Tyranny ; or, American Liberty Triumphant. The First Campaign.
Tragi-Comedy, of Five Acts, as lately planned at the Royal Theatrum Pandemonium at
St. James's. The Principal Place of Action in America. Attributed to John Leacock.
Philadelphia; another ed.. Providence: 1776. L C
Played by amateurs.

1777

*The Death of General Montgomery in Storming the City of Quebeck. Tragedy, by Hugh
Henry Brackenridge. Philadelphia: 1777. L C
A school piece.

1779

The Motley Assembly. Farce, in One Act. Published for the Entertainment of the Curious.
Attributed to Mrs. Mercy Otis Warren. Boston: 1779. H

DURING THE REVOLUTION

Americana; or, A New Tale of the Genii. Allegorical Mask, in Five Acts. Author unknown.
Baltimore: 1802. L C

Treats the theme of America's triumph over tyranny.

The Blockheads; or, Fortunate Contractor. Opera, in Two Acts, as it was performed at
New York. Author unknown. New York: reprinted, London: 1782. N Y P

"It embodies in light colloquial form * * those satirical views of the French
alliance which were then sincerely cherished by the Loyalists in New York and elsewhere." 1

The Patriots. Comedy, in Five Acts, by Colonel Robert Munford. Petersburg: 1798. L C

"The play of 'The Patriots' is a picture of real and pretended patriots." From
preface.

1783

A School for Soldiers; or, The Deserter. Dramatic Poem, by John Henry. Kingston (Jamaica) :
1783.

First played at Kingston; produced at the John St. Theatre, N. Y., 1788.

1784

The Ladies of Castile. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by Mrs. Mercy Otis Warren. Boston: 1790. L C
Written not later than 1784.

The Patriot Chief. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by Peter Marcoe. Philadelphia: 1784. P
Foreign fable; patriotic theme.

Virginia. Pastoral Drama, on the Birthday of an Illustrious Personage and the Return of
Peace, February 11, 1784, by John Parke. Philadelphia: 1786; 1789. B P

Thought by Wegelin to be the first attempt to celebrate Washington's birthday.

1785

Sans Souci, alias Free and Easy; or, An Evening's Peep into a Polite Circle. Entire New
Entertainment, in Three Acts. Author unknown. Boston: 1785. B A

iTyler, B*. 227.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 147

The Mercenary Match. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by Barna Bidwell. New Haven: 1785? L C
Performed by Yale students. Scene, Boston.

"Our author bids me just appear and say.

The characters which he unfolds to view

Are not sublime, although he thinks them true.

But shows the miseries of a man and wife,
A simple circumstance of common life."

From prologue.

1787

Columbia and Britannia. Dramatic Piece, by a Citizen of the United States. New London ;
1787. B P

"Improvement in elocution, for a select number of students, at a public school,
was one principal design of the author." From preface.

PART II, CHAPTER I
1787

Th Contrast. Comedy, in Five Acts, by Royall Tyler. Philadelphia: 1790; New York:
1887. L C

First played, John St. Theatre, N. Y., April 16, 1787. The title results from the
contrast between Manley, Maria, and Jonathan, with native characteristics, and Dimple.
Charlotte, and Jessamy, who imitate foreign manners.
The Convention; or, The Columbian Father. Pageant, by John Henry. In MS.

John St. Theatre, N. Y., 1787.
May-Day in Town; or, New York in an Uproar. Farce, by Royall Tyler. In MS.

John St. Theatre, N. Y., 1787.

The Modest Soldier ; or, Love in New York. Comedy, in Five Acts, by William Dunlap. In MS.
Written, 1787 ; never acted ; Dunlap 'a first play.

1788

The Father ; or, American Shandyism. Comedy, in Five Acts, by William Dunlap. New York :
1789 ; 1887. L C

Written, 1788 ; performed at the New Theatre, N. Y., 1789 ; one of Dunlap's most
successful plays.

The Politician Out-Witted. Comedy, in Five Acts, by Samuel Low. New York: 1789. N Y P
Written, 1788; published by the author after rejection by the John St. Theatre
managers.

1789
The Better Sort; or, The Girl of Spirit. Farce, in Ten Scenes. Author unknown. Boston:

1789. H
Darby's Return. Comic Sketch, by William Dunlap. New York: 1789; 1899. L C

First played at the New Theatre, N. Y., 1789.
The Fair American. By Mrs. Carr. In MS.

John St. Theatre, N. Y., 1789.

Occurrences of the Times; or, The Transactions of Five Days. Farce, in Two Acts. Author
unknown. Boston: 1789. H

1790

The Battle of Eutaw Springs. Drama, in Five Acts. Author unknown. Charleston: c. 1790.

There is a play of similar title by William Joor.
The French Revolution. Drama. Author unknown. New Bedford, Mass.: 1793.

"Exhibited in the United Fraternity at Dartmouth, 1790."
The Sack of Rome. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by Mrs. Mercy Otis Warren. Boston: 1790. L C

148 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

1792

The Generous Thief. Tragedy, by James Norval. Montreal: 1792.

Thought by Wegelin to be the only original play published in Canada prior to 1831.
The Yorker's Stratagem ; or, Banana's Wedding. Farce, in Two Acts, by J. Robinson. In MS.

John St. Theatre, N. Y., 1792.

1793

The Wedding. Comedy, by William Dunlap. In MS.
John St. Theatre, N. Y., 1793.

1794

Death of Louis XVI. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by William Preston. Philadelphia: 1794. L C
Acted in Boston, 1797.

*The Embargo; or. Everyone Has His Own Opinion. Afterpiece. Author unknown. Never
printed.

Played by the Philadelphia company, 1794.

The Fatal Deception ; or, The Progress of Guilt. Tragedy, by William Dunlap. New York : 1807.
Park Theatre, N. Y., 1794.

The Female Patriot. Farce, by Mrs. Susanna Rowson. Philadelphia (?) : 1794.
Played in Philadelphia, 1795.

Slaves in Algiers ; or, A Struggle for Freedom. Play, interspersed with songs, in Three Acts,
by Mrs. Susanna Rowson. Philadelphia: 1794.

Played at the New Theatres in Philadelphia and Baltimore.

The Songs of Tammany; or, The Indian Chief. Serious Opera, by Ann Julia Hatton. New
York: 1794.

Played, John St. Theatre, N. Y., 1794.

BEFORE 1795

The American Soldier. Comedy, by John Henry. In MS. In library of "The Players," N. Y.
True Blue; or, The Sailor's Festival. Farce, by John Henry. In MS. In the library of "The
Players," N. Y.

1795

Belisarius. Tragedy, by Margaretta B. Faug6res. New York: 1795. N Y P
Declined by managers of John St. Theatre.

*Medium; or, Happy Tea-Party. Comedy, attributed by Seilhamer to Royall Tyler. Never
printed.

Played in the Boston Theatre, 1796.

The Triumphs of Love; or, Happy Reconciliations. Comedy, by J. Murdock. Philadelphia:
1795. B

Played by the Philadelphia company, 1796.

Virtue Triumphant. Comedy, in Five Acts, by a Lady. Boston: 1798. L C

Played, Federal St. Theatre, Boston, 1795, under the title, "The Medium."

The Volunteers. Farce, by Mrs. Susanna Rowson. Philadelphia: 1796.

Played in Philadelphia, 1795 : founded on the Whiskey Insurrection in Pennsyl-
vania.

1796

The American Captive. Farce. Author unknown. In MS. Altered from "The Sultan."
John St. Theatre, N. Y., 1796.

Americans in England. Comedy, by Mrs. Susanna Rowson. Boston : 1796.
Acted in Boston as the author's farewell to the stage, 1797.

The Archers; or, Mountaineers of Switzerland. Opera, in Three Acts, by William Dunlap.
New York: 1796. N Y P

Played at Park Theatre, N. Y., 1796.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 149

PART II, CHAPTER II
1796

Edwin and Angelia ; or, The Banditti. Opera, in Three Acts, by Elihu Hubbard Smith. New
York: 1797. B A

Played at the John St. Theatre, N. Y., 1796.
*The Traveller Returned. Comedy, in Five Acts, by a lady. Boston: 1798. L C

Pub. in Murray's "The Gleaner," III: 116-63; played in Boston, 1796.

1797

*Bunker Hill; or, The Death of General Warren. Historic Tragedy, in Five Acts, by John
Daly Burk. New York: 1797; Baltimore: 1808; New York: 1817. L C

First played, Haymarket Theatre, Boston, 1798.

Death of General Montgomery. Tragedy, by John Daly Burk. Philadelphia: 1797.
The Georgia Spec; or, Land in the Moon. Comedy, in Three Acts, by Royall Tyler. Boston:
1797.

Performed in Boston ; written to ridicule the speculation in wild Yazoo lands.
The Man of Fortitude; or, The Knight's Adventure. Drama, in Three Acts, by John Hodgkin-
son. New York: 1797. L C

Played at the John St. Theatre, 1797. Dunlap claims that the play is based upon
one of his manuscripts, which had been previously submitted to Hodgkinson.
The Man of the Times; or, A Scarcity of Cash. Farce, by Mr. Beete, Comedian. Charleston:
1797. N Y P

Played at the Church St. Theatre, Charleston, S. C.
West Point Preserved. Drama, by William Brown. Not printed.

Played at Haymarket Theatre, Boston, 1797; first of many Andre plays.

1798
All in a Bustle; or, The New House. Prelude written for and acted at the opening of the

Park Theatre, N. Y., Jan. 29, 1798, by Wm. Milns. In MS.

Almoran and Hamet. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by William Munford. Richmond: 1798. L C
American Tars. Author unknown. In MS.

Park Theatre, N. Y., 1798.

Andre. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by William Dunlap. New York; 1798.
First played at the New Park Theatre, N. Y., 1798. L C
Flash in the Pan. Farce, by William Milns. In MS.

Park Theatre, N. Y., 1798.
The Lad of Spirit; or, The Fool of Fortune. Author unknown.

Park Theatre, N. Y., 1798.

The Politicians; or, A State of Things. Dramatic Piece, in Two Acts, by John Murduck.
Philadelphia: 1798. L C

1799
The Federal Oath; or, Americans Strike Home. By John Williams. In MS.

Park Theatre, N. Y., 1799.
The Italian Father. Comedy, in Five Acts, by William Dunlap. New York: 1810. L C

Park Theatre, N. Y., 1799.

Rudolph; or, The Robbers of Calabria. Melodrama in Three Acts, by John D. Turnbull.
Boston: 1799, 1807. L C

Performed at the Boston Theatre.

The Temple of Independence. Pageant, in honor of Washington's Birthday, by William
Dunlap. In MS.

Park Theatre, N. Y., Feb. 22, 1799.

1800

Columbia's Daughters. Drama, by Mrs. Susanna Rowson. In MS.
Played at Mt. Vernon Gardens, N. Y., 1800.

150 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

Daranzel; or. Th Persian Patriot. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by David Everett. Boston:
1800. B A

Performed at the Theatre in Boston.
Fayette in Prison; or, Misfortunes of the Great. Modern Tragedy, in Five Acts, by S. Elliot.

Boston: 1800; Worcester: 1802. B P

Preservation; or, The Hovel of the Rocks. Play, by A. J. Williamson. Charleston: 1800.
Reparation; or, The School for Libertines. Dramatic Piece, in Three Acts, by Thomas Pike
Lathy. Boston: 1800. L C

Performed at the Boston Theatre.

1801
Edwy and Elgiva. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by Charles Jared Ingersoll. Philadelphia: 1801. L C

Performed at the New Theatre, 1801.

Federalism Triumphant in the Steady Habits of Connecticut Alone; or, The Turnpike Road
to a Fortune. Comic Opera or Political Farce, in Six Acts. Author unknown. Printed,
1802. B

As performed at the Theatres Royal and Aristocratic at Hartford and New Haven,
October, 1801.
Jefferson and Liberty; or, Celebration of the Fourth of March. Patriotic Tragedy; Picture

of Corrupt Administration, in Five Acts, by "Nichols." Boston ( ?) : 1801. B A
Peter the Great; or, The Russian Mother. Play, in Five Acts, by William Dunlap. New York:

1814. Park Theatre, N. Y., 1801. N Y P
Rural Felicity. Comic Opera, in Three Acts, by John MinshulL New York: 1801. L C

1802

A New World Planted; or, The Adventures of the Forefathers of New England who landed
in Plymouth, December 22, 1620. Historical Drama, in Five Acts, by Joseph CroswelL
Boston: 1802. B P

The Retrospect. Patriotic Pageant, by William Dunlap. In MS.
Park Theatre, N. Y., Monday, July 6, 1802.

1803
Liberty in Louisiana. Comedy, by James Workman. Charleston: 1803.

Charleston Theatre. 1803.

The Sprightly widow, with the Frolics of Youth; or, A Speedy Way of Uniting the Sexes
by Honorable Marriage. Comedy, in Five Acts, by John MinshulL New York: 1803. L C

1804

The Merry Dames; or, The Humorist's Triumph over the Poet in Petticoats, and the Gallant
Exploits of the Knight of the Comb. Comedy, in Three Acts, by John MinshulL New
York: 1804. L C

"As performed at the Summer Theatre."

PART II, CHAPTER III
1805

Blow for Blow. Tragedy. Author unknown. Baltimore: 1806.

1806

Foscari; or. The Venetian Exile. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by John Blake White. Charleston:
1806. N Y P

Performed at the Charleston Theatre.

Jonathan Postfree; or, The Honest Yankee. Musical Farce, in Three Acts, by L. Beach.
New York: 1807. L C

Written for the stage in 1806 but never played.

Julia; or, The Wanderer. Comedy, in Five Acts, by John Howard Payne. New York:
1806. N Y P

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 151

Played as "The Wanderer" at Park Theatre, New York, 1806; Payne's first play
written at age of 14.

Manhattan Stage; or, Cupid in His Vagaries. Pantomimic Melodrama, by John Williams.
In MS. Park Theatre, N. Y., 1806.

1807

*The Battle of Eutaw Springs, and Evacuation of Charleston; or, The Glorious 14th. of
December, 1782. National Drama, in Five Acts, by William Joor. Charleston : 1807. B A

Played in the Charleston Theatre.
Bethlem Gabor, Lord of Transylvania; or, The Man-Hating Palatine. Historical Drama, in

Three Acts, by John Daly Burk. Petersburg: 1807. N Y P
The Fatal Error. Tragedy, by Aaron W. Leland. Pittsfleld: 1807: Petersboro: 1810.

Played at Williams College, 1807.

The Female Enthusiast. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by Miss Pogson. Charleston: 1807. L C
Mysteries of the Castle; or, The Victim of Revenge. Drama, in Five Acts, by John Blake

White. Charleston: 1807. N Y P

Tears and Smiles. Comedy, in Five Acts, by James Nelson Barker. Philadelphia: 1808. L C
Performed at the Theatre, Philadelphia, 1807.

1808

*The Embargo ; or, What News ? By James Nelson Barker. In MS.

Adapted; played in Philadelphia, 1808.
*The Fox Chase. Comedy, in Five Acts, by Charles Breck. New York: 1808. L C

Played in the Theatres of Philadelphia and Baltimore.
The History of the Falcos. Comedy, in Four Acts, by Noah Bisbee, Jr., Walpole, N. H.,

1808. N Y P

The Indian Princess ; or, La Belle Sauvage. Operatic Melodrama, in Three Acts, by James
Nelson Barker. Philadelphia: 1808. L C

Performed in Philadelphia, 1808; New York, 1809.

The School for Prodigals. Comedy, in Five Acts, by Joseph Button. Philadelphia: 1808. L C
Performed at New Theatre, Philadelphia, 1809; at Chestnut St. Theatre, Phila-
delphia, 1808.

*The Trust. Comedy, in Five Acts, by Charles Breck. New York: 1808. L C
Wood Daemon ; or, The Clock Has Struck. Drama, by John D. TurnbulL Boston : 1808. N Y P

1809

Alberta and Matilda. Drama, by N. W. Eaton. Boston: 1809.
The Child of Feeling. Comedy, in Five Acts, by George Watterston. Georgetown: 1809. B A

Written to be played, but was not.

Fashionable Follies. Comedy, in Five Acts, by Joseph Button. New York: 1809; Phila-
delphia: 1815. B
Harlequin Penatahah ; or, The Genii of the Algonquins. Author unknown. In MS.

Park Theatre, N. Y. 1809.

Love and Friendship ; or, Yankee Notions. Comedy, in Three Acts, by A. B. Lindsley.
New York: 1809. L C

Performed, probably 1809, the author taking a part.

The Wounded Hussar; or, Rightful Heir. Musical Afterpiece, in Two Acts, by Joseph Button.
Philadelphia; 1809. N Y P

Played in Philadelphia at the New Theatre and Chestnut St. Theatre, 1809.

1810

The Clergyman's Daughter. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by William Charles White. Boston:
1810. L C

Played in Boston.
The Orphan of Prague. Drama, in Five Acts, by Joseph Button. New York: 1810. L C

152 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

1812

The American Captives; or, The Siege of Tripoli. By James Ellison. In MS.

Played in Boston. 1812.

Marmion; or. The Battle of Flodden Field. Drama, in Five Acts, by James Nelson Barker.
New York: 1816. L C

Played at Park Theatre, N. Y., 1812. Adapted from Scott's Marmion; performed
with success for many years.

Modern Honor; or, The Victim of Revenge. Tragedy, by John Blake White. Charleston: 1812.
Paul and Alexis; or, The Orphans of the Rhine. Melodrama, in Two Acts, by Mordecai
Manuel Noah. Boston 1821.

Played at Charleston, 1812.

*Yankee Chronology ; or, Hurrah for the Constitution ! Musical Interlude, in One Act, by
William Dunlap. New York: 1812.

Played at Park Theatre, N. Y. 1812. L C

1813
The Rescue; or, The Villain Unmasked. Farce, in Three Acts, R. D'ElvWe. New York:

1813. N Y P

The Russian Banquet. Drama, by "H. Snapdragon." Boston: 1813.

She Would Be a Soldier: or, The Plains of Chippewa. Historical Drama, in Three Acts, by
Mordecai Manuel Noah. New York: 1816. N Y P

Performed in Philadelphia, 1813; New York, 1819.

1814

Alexis, the Czarewitz. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by A. Eustaphieve. Boston: 1814. B A
Played in Boston, 1814.

1815
Battle of New Orleans. By William Dunlap. In MS.

Played at Park Theatre, N. Y. 1815.

The Downfall of Buonaparte. Tragedy, by Edward Hitchcock. Deerfield: 1816 (?).
The Festival of Peace. Patriotic Allegory. Author unknown. In MS.

Played at Park Theatre, N. Y., 1816.
The Yankey in England. Comedy, in Five Acts, by David Humphreys. Connecticut: 1815. B A

Dunlap tried to have it produced but failed.
Zamor. Tragedy, by James G. Percival. New Haven: 1820.

Played at Yale Commencement, 1815. B A

PART III, CHAPTER I

SOON AFTER 1812

*The Bucktails; or, Americans in England. Comedy, in Five Acts, by James Kirke Paulding.
Philadelphia: 1847. N Y P

1816

The Battle of New Orleans. By C. E. Grice. In MS.
Played at the Park Theatre, N. Y., 1816.

1818
Alberti. Play, in Five Acts, by Isaac Harby. Charleston: 1819. L C

Played at the Charleston Theatre, 1818. At the second representation in Charles-
ton, 1819, President Monroe was present.

Brutus; or. The F.all of Tarquin. Historical Tragedy, in Five Acts, by John Howard Payne.
London: 1818-19; New York: 1819. B A

First acted at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, London, 1818. First acted in the
U. S., Park Theatre, N. Y., 1820. This is the first drama of superior quality by an
American author.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 153

Inductum Parliamentum. Farce, in One Act. Author unknown. Published in 1818.

Refers to a law enacted by the New York Legislature, on the petition of a Shaker

woman to have the marriage between herself and husband dissolved.
*The Knight of the Rum Bottle and Co. ; or, The Speechmaker. Musical Farce, in Five Acts,

by Daniel Rogers. New York: 1818. B

1819
Altorf. Tragedy, by Frances Wright. Philadelphia : 1819 ; New York : 1819. L C

First represented in the Theatre of New York, 1819.
Catherine Brown, the Converted Cherokee. Missionary Drama, by a Lady. Author unknown.

New Haven: 1819. N Y P
Otho. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by John Neal. Boston: 1819. L C

Written for Cooper, the tragedian.
The Sea Serpent; or, Glouster Hoax. Dramatic, Jeu d'Esprit, in Three Acts, by William

Crafts, Charleston: 1819. N Y P
*Things As They Will Be ; or, All Barkers Are Not Biters. Farce, in Three Acts, by V. Taylor.

New York: 1819. B
*Tricks of the Times ; or, The World of Quacks. Farce. Author unknown. New York : 1819.

Satire on New Yorkers of the day.
Triumph of Liberty ; or, Louisiana Preserved. National Drama, by John Blake White.

Charleston: 1819.

Wall Street; or, Ten Minutes before Three. Farce, in Three Acts, by Mead. New York:
1819. L C

1820

The Forest of Rosenwald ; or, The Travellers Benighted. Melodrama, in Two Acts, by J. Stokes.
New York: 1832. N Y P

Played at the Park Theatre, N. Y., 1820.
The Mountain Torrent. Melodrama, in Two Acts, by S. B. Judah. New York: 1820.

Performed at New York Theatre, 1820.

The Night Watch; or, the Pirate's Den. Melodrama, by a Gentleman of Boston. Boston: 1820.
Percy's Masque. Drama, in Five Acts, by James Abraham Hillhouse. New York: 1820. N Y P
Siege of Tripoli. By Mordecai Manuel Noah. In MS.
Acted at Park Theatre, 1820.

1821

*Logan, The Last of the Race of Shikellemus. Dramatic Piece, in Four Acts, by Dr. Joseph
Doddridge. Buffaloe Creek, Va. : 1823. L C

First recited at the Buffaloe Seminary, 1821.

*Marion; or, The Hero of Lake George. Drama, in Three Acts, by Mordecai Manuel Noah.
New York, 1822. L C

Played at Park Theatre. New York, 1821.

Onliata; or, The Indian Heroine. By F. Deffenbach. Philadelphia: 1821.

The Prophecy; or, Love and Friendship. Drama in Three Acts, by Manly B. Fowler. New

York: 1821. N Y P

Therese, The Orphan of Geneva. Drama, by John Howard Payne. New York: 1821. B A
Acted at the Anthony St. Theatre, New York, 1821.

1822

Adeline; or, Seduction. Melodrama, in Three Acts, by John Howard Payne. New York:
1822. N Y P

Performed at Park Theatre, N. Y., 1822.

*The Deed of Gift. Comic Opera, in Three Acts, by Samuel Woodworth. New York : 1822. L C

Performed at the Boston Theatre.
The Expelled Collegian. Farce, by Charles Powell Clinch. In MS.

Played at the Park Theatre, N. Y., 1822.

154 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

The Grecian Captive; or, The Fall of Athens. Drama, by Mordecai Manuel Noah. New York:

1822. N Y P

Played at the Park Theatre, N. Y.. 1822.
Th Green Mountain Boys. Author unknown. In MS.

Played at the Park Theatre, N. Y., 1822.
Philip ; or, The Aborigines. Drama. Author unknown.

New York: 1822.

Rosa. Melodrama, in Three Acts, by W. G. Hyer. New York: 1822. L C
The Rose of Arragon ; or, The Vigil of St Mark. Melodrama, in Two Acts, by Samuel
Benjamin Herbert Judah. New York: 1822. L C

Played at the Park Theatre, N. Y., 1822.
SouL Mystery, by Arthur C. Coxe: New York: 1822.

*A Tale of Lexington. National Comedy, in Three Acts, by Samuel Benjamin Herbert Judah.
New York : 1823. L C

Performed, 1822.

1823
The Avenger's Vow. By Charles Powell Clinch. In MS.

Played at the Park Theatre, N. Y., 1823.
Clari, The Maid of Milan. Opera, in Three Acts, by John Howard Payne. New York : 1823 B A

First performed at the Theatre Royal, Covent Garden, London, 1823. "Home
Sweet Home" was sung for the first time in this opera.
The Enterprise. Opera, by Colonel Hamilton.

Played in Baltimore, 1823.
The Fall of Iturbide; or, Mexico Delivered. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by Henry K. Strong.

Pitts field: 1823.

Merlin. Drama, by Lambert A. Wilmer. Philadelphia: 1823.
The Siege of Algiers. Tragi-Comedy, in Five Acts, by Jonathan S. Smith. Philadelphia:

1823. L C

Superstition. Tragedy, by James Nelson Barker. Philadelphia: 1823. B
Played in Philadelphia, 1824.

1824

Blackboard. Comedy, in Four Acts, by Lemuel Sawyer. Washington: 1824. L C
Charles the Second; or, The Merry Monarch. Comedy, in Two Acts, by John Howard Payne.
London, n. d. ; Philadelphia: 1829. B A

Performed at the Park Theatre, N. Y.. 1824.

Lafayette ; or, The Castle of Olmutz. Drama, in Three Acts, by Samuel Woodworth. New
York: 1824. L C

Acted at the Park Theatre, N. Y., 1824.

The Saw Mill; or, A Yankee Trick. Comic Opera in Two Acts, by Micah Hawkins. New
York: 1824. B

Played at the Park Theatre, 1826.

1825
Briar Cliff; A Tale of the Revolution. Drama, by George Pope Morris. In MS.

Chatham Theatre, N. Y., 1825.

The Forest Rose; or, American Farmers. Pastoral Opera, in Two Acts, by Samuel Wood-
worth. New York: 1825. L C

First acted at Chatham Theatre, N. Y., 1825; Simson was the original Jonathan
of the piece.
The Forgers. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by John Blake White. Published, 1857. L C

Performed at the Charleston Theatre, 1825.

Haddad. Dramatic Poem, by James Abraham Hillhouse. New York: 1825. N Y P
Montgomery; or, The Falls of Montmorency. Drama, in Three Acts, by Henry James Finn.
Boston: 1825. L C

Acted at the Boston Theatre.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 155

Phelles, King of Tyre ; or, The Downfall of Tyranny. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by Reuben Potter.
New York, 1825.

Performed at the Park Theatre, N. Y., 1826.
The Widow's Son. Play, by Samuel Woodworth. New York: 1825.

Acted at the Park Theatre, N. Y., 1825.

1826
King's Bridge Cottage. Drama, in Two Acts, by Samuel Woodworth. New York: 1826.

Revolutionary piece; performed at the Amateur Theatre.

*Pontiac ; or, The Siege of Detroit. Drama, in Three Acts, by Alexander Macomb. Boston :
1835. L C

Produced at the National Theatre, Washington; probably written, 1826.

Richelieu ; or, The Broken Heart. Domestic Tragedy, by John Howard Payne. New York : 1826.
Performed at Covent Garden, London.

1827

Captain Morgan ; or, The Conspiracy Unveiled. Farce, in Two Acts, by Charles Talbot.

Rochester: 1827. N Y P
The Intolerants. Three First Acts of Things Among Us. Author unknown. Philadelphia : 1827.

1828
The Female Spy. By J. O. Phillips.

Played in New York, 1828.

Gloriana; or, The Enchantress of Elba. Drama, by Lambert A. Wilmer. Philadelphia: 1828.
Giordano. Tragedy, by James Lawson. New York: 1832. N Y P

Played at the Park Theatre, N. Y., 1828.
The Hero of Two Wars. Drama, in Five Acts. Author unknown. Cincinnati: 1828. N Y P

A political attack on Andrew Jackson.

The Indian Prophecy. National Drama, in Two Acts, by Geo. W. Parke Curtis. Georgetown,
D. C. ; 1828. B

Performed in Philadelphia and elsewhere.

Jonathan in England. Comedy, in Three Acts. Adapted from Colman's "Who Wants a
Guinea?" by J. H. Hackett. Boston. L C

Performed at the Park Theatre, New York, 1828.
Rip Van Winkle; or, The Spirits of the Catskill Mountains. Author unknown.

Played at Albany, N. Y., May 26, 1828. Thomas Flynn acted "Rip;" said to be
the first production of this play.

1829

The Eighth of January. Drama, in Three Acts, by Richard Penn Smith. Philadelphia:
1829. L C

Performed in Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Washington.
The Fair Maid of Perth. By D. V. Bell. In MS.

Played at the Lafayette Theatre, N. Y. ; also at the New Bowery Theatre, N. Y.
1829.

Kathleen O'Neil; or, A Picture of Feudal Times in Ireland. Melodrama, in Three Acts, by
George Pepper. Philadelphia: 1832. L C

Performed at the Lafayette Theatre, N. Y., not later than 1829.
The Times; or, Life in New York. Comedy, Author unknown. Never printed.
Played at the Park Theatre, N. Y., 1829.

PART III, CHAPTER II
1829

The Manhattoes. Indian Drama. Author unknown. In MS.

Played at the Park Theatre, N. Y., 1829.

Metamora ; or, The Last of the Wampanoags. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by John Augustus Stone.
In MS.

156 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

First played at the Park Theatre, N. Y., December 15, 1829. Long and success-
fully played by Edwin Forrest, who gave the author $500 for the play.

Rip Van Winkle: or, The Demons of the Catskill Mountains. National Drama, in Two Acts,
by John Kerr. Philadelphia: n. d. B.

Played at Park Theatre, N. Y., 1829, with Hackett in the title role.

A Trip to Niagara; or, Travellers in America. Farce, in Three Acts, by William Dunlap.
N. Y. : 1830. L C

Played at the New Bowery Theatre, N. Y., 1829.

The Usurper. Historical Tragedy, by Dr. James McHenry. Philadelphia: 1829.
Played at the old Chestnut St. Theatre, Philadelphia.

1830

Carabasset. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by Nathaniel Deering. Portland: 1830. L C
*Down East; or, The Malitia Training. Farce. Author unknown. In MS.
Played at Park Theatre, N. Y., 1830.

The Fall of Tecumseh. Drama, by Wm. H. C. Hosmer. Published, 1830.

First of May in New York ; or, Double or Quit. Farce, by Charles Powell Clinch. In MS.
Played at Park Theatre, N. Y., 1830.

The Indian Wife. Author unknown. In MS.

Played at Park Theatre, N. Y., 1830.

Irma: or, The Prediction. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by James H. Kennicott. New York:
1830. B P

Performed at the American Theatre, New Orleans, 1830. This play gained a
prize of $300 which was offered by James H. Caldwell, manager of the American Theatre,
New Orleans.

Miantonomah and Narrahmattah. From Cooper's "Wept of Wish-Ton-Wish." New York
and London.

Played at Park Theatre, N. Y.. 1830.
Paul Clifford. By J. O. Phillips.

Played at Park Theatre, N. Y., 1830.

Pocahontas; or, The Settlers of Virginia. National Drama, in Three Acts, by George Wash-
ington Parke Custis. Philadelphia: 1830; 1839. L C

First acted at Park Theatre, N. Y., 1830.
The Reign of Reform ; or, Yankee Doodle Court. By Mrs. Margaret Botsford. Baltimore :

1830. L C

Sertorius ; or, The Roman Patriot. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by David Paul Brown. Philadelphia :
1830. L C

1831

The Evil Eye. Melodrama, in Two Acts, by Jonas B. Phillips. New York: 1831. N Y P

Performed at the Bowery Theatre, N. Y.
The Gladiator. Play, in Five Acts, by Robert Montgomery Bird. Philadelphia: 1837.

First produced in Philadelphia, 1831 ; one of Forrest's chief American plays.
The Lion of the West. Comedy, by James Kirke Paulding. New York: 1881.

Repeatedly acted with success.

The Magdalen Report. Farce, by "Peter Pendergrass, Sr." New York: 1831.
Oraloosa; or, The Last of the Incas. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by Robert Montgomery Bird.

Played in Philadelphia, 1831.

1832

The Cradle of Liberty; or, Boston in 1776. Adaptation from Cooper's "Lionel Lincoln," by

Captain Stephen E. Glover. New York. L C

First played at the Tremont Theatre, Boston, 1832.
The Doleful Tragedy of the Raising of Jo. Burnham ; or, The Cat Let Out of the Bag. Comedy,

in Five Acts, by B. F. Kendall Woodstock, Vt. : 1832. L C

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 157

1833

Camillus ; or, The Self-Exiled Patriot. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by Jonas B. Phillips, New York :
1833. L C

Performed in Philadelphia, 1833.

1834
The Broker of Bogota. Tragedy, by Robert Montgomery Bird.

Played in New York, 1834.

Euphemia of Messina. Tragedy, by Mrs. Elizabeth Ellet. New York: 1834.
The Hunter of Monadnoc. Author unknown. Dedham : 1834.
The Patriot; or, Union and Freedom. Drama, in Three Acts, by George Lionel Stevens.

Boston: 1834. L C

The Six Degrees of Crime; or, Wine, Women, Gambling, Theft, Murder, and The Scaffold.
Melodrama, in Six Parts, by Frederick S. Hill. New York. L C

First played at the Warren St. Theatre, Boston, 1834.
Waldimar. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by John J. Bailey. New York: 1834. L C

Played in New York and Philadelphia by Chas. Kean.
Yankee Land. Comedy, by C. A. Logan. New York.
Played at Park Theatre, N. Y.? 1834.

1835

David and Uriah. Drama, in Five Acts. Author unknown. Philadelphia: 1835.

Imola. Tragedy, in Five Acts. The Three Milanese. Tragedy, in Five Acts. Author unknown.

New York: 1835.
Orlando; or, A Woman's Virtue. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by Horatio N. Moore. Philadelphia:

1835.
Teresa Contarini. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by Mrs. Elizabeth Ellet. Philadelphia: 1835. N Y P

Performed at Park Theatre, N. Y., 1836.
The Wag of Maine. Comedy, by C. A. Logan.
Played, 1835.

1836

The Bride of Genoa. Play, in Five Acts, by Epes Sargent. Boston: 1836.
Gaulantus. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by Nathaniel H. Bannister. Cincinnati: 1836.
Oluph. Tragedy. Author unknown. New York: 1836.

The Prophet of St. Paul's. Play, in Five Acts, by David Paul Brown. Philadelphia: 1836.
*Tecumseh ; or, The Battle of the Thames. National Drama, in Five Acts, by R. Emmons.
Philadelphia: 1836. N Y P

1837

England's Iron Days. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by Nathaniel H. Bannister. New Orleans: 1837.
Pocahontas. Historical Drama, in Five Acts, by Robert Dale Owen. New York : 1837. N Y P
Velasco. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by Epes Sargent. Boston: 1837; New York: 1839. N Y P
Played at the Tremont Theatre, Boston, 1837.

1838

The Critique of the Vision of Rubeta. Dramatic Sketch, in One Act, by Laughton Osborn.
Philadelphia: 1838.

Written to call attention to his satirical epic, "The Vision of Rubeta."
Ernest Maltravers. Drama, in Three Acts, by Louisa H. Medina. New York: 1867. N Y P

Played in Boston, 1838.

The Gentleman of Lyons; or, The Marriage Contract. Play, in Five Acts, by Nathaniel H.
Bannister. New York: 1838. B A

1839

Athenia of Damascus. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by Rufus Dawes. New York: 1839. N Y P
Aylmere; or, The Bondman of Kent. Tragedy, by Robert Taylor Conrad. Philadelphia:
1852. L C

158 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

Originally written in 1835 as "The Noble Yeoman;" rewritten in 1839 for For-
rest as "Aylmere ; or, The Kentish Bondman ;" published in 1852 as above given ; re-
published in 1868 as "Jack Cade, the Captain of the Commons."
Bianca Visconti ; or, The Heart Overtasked. Play, in Five Acts, by Nathaniel P. Willis, New

York: 1839. N Y P

*The Bride of Fort Edward. Dramatic Story, in Six Parts, by Delia S. Bacon. New York:
1839. L C

Founded on an incident of the Revolution.

"Captain Kid; or, The Wizard of the Sea. Drama, in Four Acts, by Joseph Stevens Jones.
New York. N Y P

Played at the National Theatre, Boston, 1839.
*The Dish of Frogs. Dramatic Sketch, by "M. Soupetard." New York: 1839.

Political satire.

The Dwarf. Dramatic Poem, in Ten Scenes, by James Rees. New York: 1839. L C
The Foundling; or, Yankee Fidelity. Drama, in Two Acts, by R. C. MacLellan. Philadelphia:

1839. B
Hannah, the Mother of Samuel the Prophet and Judge of Israel. Sacred Drama, by Mrs.

L. J. Hall. Boston: 1839. B A

Moll Pitcher ; or, The Fortune-Teller of Lynn. Drama, in Four Acts, by Joseph Stevens Jones,
Boston: 1855. N Y P

Produced at the Boston National. 1839.

Solon Shingle; or, The People's Lawyer. Comedy, in Two Acts, by Joseph Stevens Jones.
Boston: 1856; 1890. N Y P

First played at the National Theatre, Boston, 1839.

Tortesa, the Usurer. Play, in Five Acts, by N. P. Willis. New York: 1889. N Y P
Whigs and Democrats ; or, Love of No Politics. Comedy, in Three Acts, by James E. Heath.

Richmond: 1839. L C
Zula. Tragedy, in Four Acts, by a Kentuckian. Philadelphia: 1839. B P

1840

Bluebeard. Story, in Five Acts, by John Lothrop Motley. New York: 1840. Published in

vols. 29 and 30 of the "New World." B P

Count Julian. Tragedy, by George Henry Calvert. Baltimore: 1840. N Y P
The Politicians. Comedy, in Five Acts, by Cornelius Mathews. New York: 1840. L C
Ramanzo, The Conscience-Striken Brigand. Tragic Play, in Five Acts, by John N. Smith.

New York: 1840.
West Point; or, A Tale of Treason. Historical Drama, in Three Acts, by Joseph Breck,

Baltimore: 1840. L C

Dramatized from Ingraham's Romance of American History.

1841

Yankee Peddler; or, Old Times in Virginia. Farce, in One Act, by Morris Barnett. New
York. L C

First played in St. Louis, 1841.

1842

The Brazen Drum ; or, The Yankee in Poland. National Drama, in Two Acts, by Silas S.
Steele. Philadelphia: 1846. B

Acted at Philadelphia, 1842.
The Death of Nathan Hale. Drama, in Five Acts, by David Trumbull. Hartford: 1845. L C

Played at Yale commencement, 1842.

The Maid of Saxony; or, Who's the Traitor? Opera, in Three Acts, by George Pope Morris.
New York: 1842, 1843, and 1854. N Y P

The Spanish Student. Play, in Three Acts, by Henry W. Longfellow. Cambridge: 1843. L C
First published in serial form, 1842.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 159

Zamba ; or, The Insurrection. Dramatic Poem, in Five Acts, by Mrs. Elizabeth Ricord. Cam-
bridge: 1842. N Y P

Scene, the West Indies.

1843

D Lara; or, The Moorish Bride. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by Mrs. Caroline Hentz. Tuscaloosa,
Ala.: 1843, N Y P

Awarded a prize of $500 offered by Pelby of the Boston Theatre.
Macbeth Travestie. By W. K. Northall. New York: 1847.
First played, 1843. N Y P

1844

Charlotte Corday. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by Amos C. Morey. New York: 1844.
The Guests of Brazil; or, The Martyrdom of Frederick. Tragedy, by Gurdon Huntington.

New York: 1844. N Y P
The Last of the Plantagenete. Tragic Drama, in Three Acts, by Caroline M. Keteltas. New

York: 1844.

The Spanish Exile. Play, in Three Acts, by Augustus J. Requier. Charleston: 1844.
*Tecumseh and The Prophet of the West. Original Historical Israel-Indian Tragedy, in Five

Acts, by George Jones, London: 1844. L C
Vermont Wool-Dealer. Farce, in One Act, by C. A. Logan.
Played in Cincinnati, 1844.

1845

*Anthony Wayne. National Drama, by James Rees.

Played in Philadelphia, 1846.

*The Branded Hand. Dramatic Sketch, Commemorative of the Tragedies at the South in the
Winter of 1844-45, by Mrs. Sophia Little. Pawtucket: 1845. B

PART III, CHAPTER III

1845

*Fashion; or, Life in New York. Comedy, in Five Acts, by Mrs. Anna Cora (Ogden)
(Mowatt) Ritchie. New York: 1854. L C

First played, March 24, 1845, at Park Theatre, New York.
Leonora. Lyrical Drama, in Three Acts, by J. R. Fry. Philadelphia: 1845.
*Putnam, the Iron Son of '76. National Military Drama, in Three Acts, by Nathaniel H.
Bannister. Boston: 1859. N Y P

Played in N. Y., 1845.

The Silver Head. Comedy, by Laughton Osborn. New York: 1867.
Written, 1845.

1846

*The Road to Fortune. New American Comedy, in Five Acts, by Eugene Raux. Philadelphia:
1846. B

1847

Armand; or, The Peer and the Peasant. Play, in Five Acts, by Mrs. Anna Cora (Ogden)
(Mowatt) Ritchie. New York: 1861. L C

First played, 1847, Park Theatre, N. Y.

Arnold; or, The Treason of West Point. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by Horatio Hubbell. Phila-
delphia: 1847. L C

The Candid Critic. The Lampoon. Dramatic pieces, by Epes Sargent, Boston: 1847.

Metamora; or, The Last of the Pollywogs. Burlesque, in Two Acts, by John Brougham.
Boston. L C

Played at the Adelphi Theatre, Boston, 1847; burlesque on J. A. Stone's Meta-
mora (1829).

160 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

1848

Calaynos. Tragedy, by George Henry Boker. Philadelphia: 1848. L C

A Glance at New York. Local Drama, in Two Acts, by Benjamin A. Baker. New York:
1867. B P

First Produced, 1848.

1849

Alfred and Inez; or, The Siege of St. Augustine. Drama, in Five Acts. Author unknown.
Mobile: 1849.

Founded on the invasion of Florida by the Carolinians in 1702.

The Attorney. Drama, in Three Acts. Author unknown. Fall River, Mass.: 1849.
Earning a Living. Comedy, in Five Acts, by J. H. L. McCrackan. New York: 1849. B P
The Shaker Lovers. Drama, in One Act, by Samuel D. Johnson. Boston: 1867. L C
First played, 1849, at the National Theatre, Boston.

BEFORE 1850

The Wept of the Wish-Ton-Wish. Drama, in Two Acts. Dramatized from Cooper's novel
New York: 1856. N Y P
Adapted before 1860.

1850

Anne Boleyn. Tragedy, by George Henry Boker. Philadelphia: 1850. L C
Fiesco. Tragedy, by William Elliott. New York: 1850. N Y P
The Immortal. Dramatic Romance, by James Nack. New York: 1850. L C
Mohammed, The Arabian Prophet. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by George Henry Miles. Boston :
1850.

Miles received $1000 for this play from Edwin Forrest who pronounced it the
best original tragedy submitted to him in a play-writing contest.

Our Jemimy; or, Connecticut Courtship. Farce, in One Act, by H. J. Conway. New
York. L C

Performed at Broadway Theatre, N: Y.

The Outlaw. Dramatic Sketch, by Eliza G. Lewis. Brooklyn: 1850. L C
Riego; or, The Spanish Martyr. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by John Robertson. Richmond:

1860. N Y P
Rip Van Winkle. Romantic Drama, in Two Acts. Adapted by Charles Burke. N Y P

Author acted "Rip" in Philadelphia: 1860.

The Romance of the Ring. Drama, in Three Acts, by James Nack. New York: 1850.
The Roman Tribute, Tragedy, by Mrs. Elizabeth Smith. New York: 1860. L C
The Very Age! Comedy in Five Acts, by Edward Sherman Gould. New York: 1860. L C

1851

Abrak, The Conspirator. Tragedy, by J. S. Moore. Washington: 1851.

Arnold. Drama, by James R. Orton. New York; 1851. L C

Bozzaris. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by Nathaniel Deering. Portland: 1851. B A

Caius Gracchus. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by Mrs. Louisa S. McCord. New York: 1861. N Y P

The Compact. Mask, by Charles J. Cannon. New York: 1851.

Leonor de Guzman. Tragedy, by George Henry Boker. Boston : 1857. L C

Written, 1851.
Nature's Nobleman. Comedy, in Five Acts, by Henry O. Pardey. New York: 1854. L C

First played, 1851, in N. Y.
Norman Maurice; or, The Man of the People. American Drama, in Five Acts, by William

Gilmore Simms. Richmond: 1861. L C

Rizzio. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by Charles J. Cannon. New York: 1861.

Shandy Maguire ; or, The Bould Boy of the Mountain. Drama, in Two Acts, by James Pilgrim.
Boston: 1855. L C

First played in Philadelphia, 1851.

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 161

1852

The Highland Treason. Revolutionary Drama, in Five Acts, by Elihu G. Holland. Boston:

1852. L C

*Hiram Hireout; or, Followed by Fortune. Farce, in One Act, by H. J. Conway. Chicago:

1852.

The Mistake on Both Sides. Petite Comedy, by Mary Sanderson. New York : 1852.
Uncle Tom's Cabin ; or, Life Among the Lowly. Domestic Drama, in Six Acts, dramatized

by George L. Aiken. New York: N Y P

First played at the Troy Museum, 1852.
Witchcraft. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by Cornelius Mathews. New York: 1852. L C

BEFORE 1853

Yankee Land, Comedy, in Two Acts, by C. A. Logan. Boston.

1853
Calmstorm, the Reformer. Dramatic Comment, probably by Cornelius Mathews. New York:

1853. N Y P

Franceses da Rimini. Tragedy, by George Henry Boker. Boston: 1857. L C

Written in 1853. First produced in 1856.

The Mormons; or, Life at Salt Lake City. Drama, in Three Acts, by Thomas Dunn English.
New York: 1853. L C

Performed at Burton's Theatre, N. Y., 1858.
The Oath of Office. Tragedy, by James Cannon. New York: 1854. N Y P

Written, 1853.

Old New York; or, Democracy in 1689. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by Mrs. Elizabeth O. Smith.
New York: 1853. L C

1854

Blondel. Historical Fancy, in Two Acts, by George E. Rice. Boston: 1854. B A
The Golden Age to Come. Sacred Drama, by J. J. Austin. Boston: 1854. N Y P
A Good Fellow. Comedy, in One Act, by Charles M. Walcot. New York: 1856. L C

Played at Wallack's Theatre, N. Y., 1864.

Guttle and Gulpit. Farce, in Two Acts, by "Tally Rhand." New York: 1854. L C
Kathleen O'More; or, The Pledge of Love. Drama, in Three Acts, by Alfred Walker. Utica:

1854.

The Priestess. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by Epes Sargent. Boston: 1864.

The School for Politics. Dramatic Novel, by Charles E. Gayarre. New York: 1864. N Y P
The Spanish Wife. Play, in Five Acts, by Samuel M. Schmucker. New York: 1864.
Woman's Witchcraft; or, The Curse of Coquetry- Dramatic Romance, by Carinne L'Estrange.

Philadelphia: 1854.
The Young Man About Town. Comedy, by L. B. Chase. New York: 1854. B

1855
The Christian Slave. Drama, on part of "Uncle Tom's Cabin," by Harriet B. Stowe. Boston:

1855.

Henry IV of Germany. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by Thomas J. F. Kelley. New York: 1856.
Morca, the Blind Page. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by Henry Hooper. Cincinnati: 1866.

1856

Andre. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by William W. Lord. New York: 1856. L C

Andy Blake; or, The Irish Diamond. Comedy, in Two Acts, by Dion Boucicault. New York:

1856. L C

The Double Deceit. Comedy, by Laughton Osborn. New York: 1867. Written 1866.
Dred; or, The Dismal Swamp. Play, in Five Acts, dramatized by John Brougham. New

York: 1856. L C

Played at the Bowery Theatre.

162 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

Fab* Pretenses ; or, Both Sides of Good Society. Comedy, in Five Acts, by Cornelius Mathews.
New York: 1866. L C

As performed at Burton's Theatre.
Franklin. Historical Drama, in Five Acts, by John Brougham. New York. Copyright,

1866. L C

Grimaldi ; or, The Life of an Actress. Drama, in Five Acts, by Dion Boucicault. New York :
1864. L C

Played in N. Y., 1866.
The Gun-Maker of Moscow. Melodrama, in Three Acts, by John Brougham. New York:

1856. L C

Hiawatha; or, Ardent Spirits and Laughing Water. Musical Extravaganza, in Two Acts,
by Charles M. Walcot. New York: 1856. N Y P

Played at Wallack's Theatre, 1866.

The Irish Yankee ; or, The Birthday of Freedom. Drama, in Three Acts, by John Brougham.
New York: 1866. L C

First played at the St. Charles Theatre, New Orleans.

The Italian Bride. Play, in Five Acts. Author unknown. Savannah: 1856.
Life in New York; or, Tom and Jerry on a Visit. Comic Drama, in Two Acts, by John

Brougham. New York: 1856. L C

Like unto Like. In Three Acts, by George Henry Calvert. Boston: 1866. N Y P
The Miller of New Jersey; or, The Prison Hulk. Historic Drama Spectacle, in Three Acts,
by John Brougham. New York: 1869. L C

Performed at the Bowery Theatre, 1856.
My Wife's Mirror. Comedy, in One Act, by Edward G. P. Wilkins. New York. L C

Played at Laura Keene's Theatre, N. Y., 1856.
The Montanini. Comedy, by Laughton Osborn. New York: 1868.

Written, 1856.

Our GaL Farce, in One Act, by S. D. Johnson. New York. Copyright, 1856.
Pocahontas ; or, The Gentle Savage. Extravaganza, in Two Acts, by John Brougham. New
York: 1866 (?). L C

Performed at Wallack's Theatre.
Poltroonius. Tragic Farce, in One Act, by Edward F. Head. Boston: 1856. B

A satire on Brooks's assault of Charles Sumner in the Senate.
The Red Mask; or, The Wolf of Lithuania, Melodrama, in Three Acts, by John Brougham.

New York: 1856. L C
Self. Original Comedy, in Three Acts, by Mrs. Sidney F. Bateman. New York: 1856. L C

First performed at Burton's Chamber St. Theatre, Oct. 27, 1856.
Sibyl Tragedy, by John Savage. New York: 1865. L C

Played at St. Louis, 1858; written, 1866.
The Streets of New York. Extravaganza, in Three Acts. Author unknown. Published,

1856. L C

Tan-Go-Ru-A. Historical Drama, by H. C. M. Philadelphia; 1856. N Y P
Temptation ; or, The Irish Emigrant. Comic Drama, in Two Acts, by John Brougham. New

York: 1856. L C

The Wife of Seaton ; or, The Siege of Berwick. Historic Tragedy, in Five Acts, by Eliza
Townsend. Boston: 1856. L C

The Will and the Way. In Five Acts, by George Henry Calvert. Boston: 1866. N Y P
Young New York. Comedy, in Three Acts, by Edward G. P. Wilkins. New York. N Y P
Played at Laura Keene's Theatre, 1856.

1857

Beatrice; or, The False and the True. By Oliver S. Leland. Boston; 1858. L C
Played in Philadelphia, 1867.

The Betrothed. Play, by George Henry Boker. Boston: 1857. L C

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 163

The Buccaneer. Tragic Opera, in Three Acts, by George W. Stratton. Manchester, N. H. ; 1857.
Caprice; or, A Woman's Heart. Comedy, in Three Acts, by Oliver S. Leland. Boston:

1857. L C

*Columbus el Filibuster I Extravaganza, in Two Acts, by John Brougham. New York:

1858. L C

Performed at Burton's Theatre, 1857.

Cortez, the Conqueror. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by Lewis F. Thomas. Washington: 1857. L C
Duthmarno. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by Albert T. S. Barnitz. Cincinnati: 1857.
Flora; or, The Gipsy's Frolic. Pastoral Opera, in Three Acts, by Thomas Ward. New York:
1858. N Y P

First played, 1857.
Fashions and Follies of Washington Life. Play, in Five Acts, by Henry Clay Preuss.

Washington: 1857. L C
The Golden Eagle; or, The Privateer of '76. National Drama, in Three Acts, by J. Bur-

dette Howe. B A
Leonore; or, The World's Own. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by Julia Ward Howe. New York:

1857. N Y P

*A Live Woman in the Mines ; or, Pike County Ahead. Local Play, in Two Acts. Author
unknown.

Played at Laura Keene's Theatre, 1857.

Neighbor Jackwood. Domestic Drama, in Five Acts, by John Townsend Trowbridge. Boston :
1857. N Y P

Founded upon the novel of the same name; produced at the Boston Museum, 1857.
Nothing to Nurse. Original Farce, in One Act, by Charles M. Walcot. New York: 1857. L C

Played at Laura Keene's Theatre, 1857.

Old and Young; or. Both Alike. Comedy, in Two Acts, by John Salmon. Boston: 1857. L C
The Poor of New York. Drama, in Five Acts, by Dion Boucicault. New York: 1857. L C

Performed at Wallack's Theatre.

Saul. Drama, in Three Parts, by Charles Heavysege. Montreal: 1857; Boston: 1869. N Y P
The Sons of the Night. Drama, in Three Days, by Charles Gayler. New York: 1857. N Y P

First produced at the Broadway Theatre, N. Y., 1857.

Wanted A Widow, with Immediate Possession. Farce, in One Act, by Dion Boucicault and
Charles Seymour. New York: 1857. L C

Performed at Wallack's Theatre.
The Widow's Marriage. Comedy, by George Henry Boker. Boston: 1857. L C

1858

Americans in Paris; or, A Game of Dominoes. Comedy, in Two Acts, by Wm. Henry Hurl-
bert. New York: 1858. L C

Performed at Wallack's Theatre.

Blanche of Brandywine. American Patriotic Spectacle, in Four Acts, dramatized by J. G.
Burnett from George Lippard's romance. New York: 1858. L C
Played at Laura Keene's Theatre.

Desert Deserted; or, The Last Days of Brigham Young. Comedy, in Four Acts, Author un-
known. New York: 1858. L C

Performed at Wallack's Theatre.

The Great Tragic Revival. Dramatic Absurdity, in One Act and Several Tableaux, by John
Brougham. New York: 1858. L C
Performed at Burton's Theatre.

Hippolytus. Tragedy, by Julia Ward Howe. New York: 1858.

Horseshoe Robinson; or, The Battle of King's Mountain. Legendary Patriotic Drama, in
Three Acts, by C. W. Tayleure. New York : 1868. N Y P

164 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

Jessie Brown ; or, The Relief of Lucknow. Drama, in Three Acts, by Dion Boucicault. New

York: 1868. L C

Mary's Birthday: or, The Cynic. Play, in Three Acts, by George Henry Miles. Boston:

1868. L C

Miraldi; or, The Justice of Tacon. Drama, in Three Acts, by Maturin M. Ballou. Boston:

1869. L C

Played at the Howard Athenaeum, Boston, 1868. L C

*The Musard Ball ; or, Love at the Academy. Extravaganza, in One Act, by John Brougham.
New York: 1868. L C

Performed at Burton's Theatre.
Neptune's Defeat; or, The Seizure of the Seas. By John Brougham. New York: 1868. L C

Played at Wallack's Theatre.

The Queen's Heart, Comedy, by John Williamson Palmer. Boston: 1858. N Y P
The Sons of Usna. Tragic Apotheosis, in Five Acts, by Thomas Halley Chivers. Philadelphia:

1868.

*Take Care of Little Charley. Farce, in One Act, by John Brougham. New York : 1858. L C
Viola. Play, in Four Acts, by Edward Maturin. New York: 1858. L C
Wheat and Chaff. Comedy, in Five Acts, by D. Wadsworth Wainwright, M. D. New
York: 1858. L C

Played at Wallack's Theatre.
White Lies. Drama, by Mrs. Elizabeth F. Ellet. New York: 1868.

1859

Art and Artifice; or, Woman's Love. Original Drama, in Five Acts, by John Brougham.
New York: 1859. L C

Performed at the Metropolitan Theatre.

My Friend Isaac. Original Comedietta, in One Act, by Daniel K. Ford. Boston: 1859. L C
The Octoroon ; or. Life in Louisiana. Play, in Five Acts, by Dion Boucicault. L C

First played at the Winter Garden Theatre, N. Y., 1859.

Ossawattomie Brown; or, The Insurrection at Harper's Ferry. Drama, in Three Acts, by
Mrs. J. C. Swayze. New York: 1869. L C

Performed at the Bowery Theatre.

Senor Valiente. Comedy, in Five Acts, by George Henry Miles. Baltimore: 1859. L C.
Valentia. Play, in Five Acts, by J. Sea well. Mobile: 1869.

The Veteran; or, France and Algeria. Drama, in Six Tableaux, by J. Lester Wallack. New
York: 1859. L C

Performed at Wallack's Theatre.

1860

The Calleen Bawn ; or, The Brides of Garryowen. Domestic Drama, in Three Acts, by Dion

Boucicault. New York: 1860. L C

First performed at Laura Keene's Theatre, 1860.
Count Filippo; or, The Unequal Marriage. Drama, in Five Acts, by Charles Heavysege.

Montreal: 1860.

The Elopement ; or. Love and Duty. Play, in Three Acts, by Robert Morris. Philadelphia : 1860.
Ireland As It Is. Drama, in Three Acts, by J. A. Amherst. New York: 1860. L C
Mortara ; or, The Pope and His Inquisitors. Drama, by H. M. Moos. Cincinnati : 1860. N Y P

PART III, CHAPTER IV
1860 -

Quaker Quiddities; or, Friends in Council Colloquy, by James B. Congdon. Boston:
1860: L C

REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS 165

1861

Liddesdale ; or, The Border Chief. Tragedy, by James Lawson, New York : 1861 ; Yonkers :
1874. N Y P

Playing With Fire. Original Comedy, in Five Acts, by John Brougham. London: 1861. L C

1862

The Doctor of Alcantara. Opera Bouffe, in Two Acts. Libretto by Benjamin Woolf. Boston:
1862.

First; performed, Boston Museum, 1862.

*The Guerrillas. Original Domestic Drama, in Three Acts, by James D. McCabe. Richmond:
1863. L C

Played at Richmond Varieties, Dec. 22, 1862.

1863

Kissing a Soldier! Drama, by T. B. Price. Baltimore: 1863. B
Love's Ambuscade ; or, The Sergeant's Stratagem. War Drama, in Three Acts, by J. J.

Delchamps. Mobile: 1863. B A
The Royal Ape. Dramatic Poem, by Win. Russell Smith. Richmond: 1863. B A

Concerning official life at Washington, at the time of the battle of Bull Run. B A
Thomas a Beckett. Tragedy, by Alexander Hamilton. New York: 1863. N Y P

1864

*Arnold and Andre. Historical Drama, by George Henry Calvert. Boston: 1864. L C
Helemah ; or, The Fall of Montezuma. Tragedy, by Mrs. Estelle A. B. Lewis. New York : 1864.

1865
*A Supper in Dixie. Farce, in One Act, by James Triplet. New York; 1866. L C

McVicker's Theatre, Chicago.

Depreciation. Play, in Four Acts, by Charles A. Sumner. San Francisco: 1866 (?).
*Rip Van Winkle. Adaptation, by Dion Boucicault, for Joseph Jefferson.

Played in London, 1865.
The Tipperary Warbler. Play, in Three Acts. Author unknown. Rochester: 1866.

1866

A Change of Base. Play, in Two Scenes, by Mrs. D. S. Curtis. Boston: 1868. L C
Written, 1866.

1867

Calvary. Virginia. Tragedies, by Laughton Osborn. New York: 1867. N Y P

The Harp Without the Crown ; or, Mount Cashel's Fair Daughter. Irish Historical Drama,

in Four Acts, by William Kelley. New York: 1867.

Jephthah's Daughter. Drama, in Five Acts, by Mrs. Adelia C. Graves. Memphis: 1867.
The Legend of Norwood; or, Village Life in New England. Comedy, in Four Acts, by
Augustin Daly, New York: 1867. L C

Founded on a novel by Henry Ward Beecher.

Under the Gaslight. Drama, in Five Acts, by Augustin Daly. New York: 1867. L C
Played at the New York Theatre.

1868

Cromwell. Tragedy, in Five Acts, by Alexander Hamilton. New York: 1868. N Y P

John Endicott. Tragedy, in Five Acts; *****

Giles Corey of the Salem Farms. Tragedy, in Five Acts. By Henry Wadsworth Longfellow.

Published as "The New England Tragedies." Boston: 1868. L C
Mariana; or, The Coquette. Comedy, by T. H. Morris. Baltimore: 1868. B
The School for Critics. Comedy, by Laughton Osborn. New York: 1868. L C
Sappho. Tragedy, by Mrs. Estelle A. B. Lewis. London: 1868; 1876, N Y P

166 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

*The Spirit of Seventy Six ; or, The Coming Woman. Prophetic Drama, in Three Acts, by
Mrs. D. S. Curtis. Boston: 1868. L C

1869

Dollars and Cents. Original American Comedy, in Three Acts, by L. J. Hollenius. New York :
1869. L C

First performed at the Union League Theatre, 1872.

The Fair Truant Operetta, in Two Acts, by Thomas Ward. New York: 1869.
The Fifth Wheel. Comedy, by Henry L. Williams, Jr. New York: 1869.

1870

Saratoga; or, Pistols for Seven. Comic Drama, in Five Acts, by Bronson Howard. New
York. L C

First played Dec. 21. 1870 at Daly's Fifth Avenue Theatre, N. Y.

BIBLIOGRAPHY II

A LIST OF BIOGRAPHICAL, HISTORICAL, CRITICAL, AND REFERENCE

WORKS CONTAINING INFORMATION ABOUT THE PLAYS,

PLAYWRIGHTS, THEATERS, AND ACTORS OF

AMERICA PRIOR TO 1870

This bibliography, giving a fairly inclusive list of the available and most illuminative

works on the subjects above mentioned, includes nearly all the books that I have consulted,

though but few of the magazine articles. The latter may be found in the standard magazine

indexes. Names in parentheses are the key to footnote-references.

Alger, W. R., Life of Edwin Forrest. Philadelphia: 1877.

The Americana, ed. by F. C. Beach. 22 vol. New York: 1912.

American Plays and Poetry in the Collection of C. F. Harris. Providence: 1874.

Appletons' Cyclopaedia of American Biography. 6 voL New York: 1887-89.

Bates, Alfred, ed., The Drama: Its History, Literature and Influence on Civilization. 22 vol.
19 and 20 on American drama. 1903-04. (Bates)

Berg, A. E., The Drama, Painting, Poetry, and Song. New York: 1884.

Booth, Junius Brutus, The Life of, by his Daughter. New York: 1870.

Brown, T. A., A History of the New York Stage, 1732-1901. 3 vol. New York: 1903.

Brown, T. A., History of the American Stage, 1733-1870. New York: 1870.

Burton, R., The New American Drama. New York: 1913.

Clapp, H. A., Reminiscences of a Dramatic Critic. Boston: 1902.

Clapp, W. W., A Record of the Boston Stage. Boston: 1863. (Clapp).

Clarke, A. B., The Booths. Boston: 1882.

Coleman, J., Players and Playwrights I have Known. English Stage, 1840-80. 2 vol. Phila-
delphia: 1890.

Cowell, J., Thirty Years Among the Players. New York: 1844.

Crawford, M. C., The Romance of the American Theatre. Boston: 1918.

Daly, C. P., The First Theatre in America. Dunlap Society pub., n. s. 1. New York: 1896.
(Daly).

Davidge, W., Footlight Flashes. New York: 1866.

The Dunlap Society Publications. 1st and 2nd Series. New York: (beginning) 1886.

Dunlap, W., A History of the American Theatre. New York: 1832.

Duyckinck, E. A. and G. L., Cyclopaedia of American Literature. 2 vol. Philadelphia: 1876.

Falconbridge, , Danforth Marble; a Biographical Sketch. New York: 1861.

Fennell, J., An Apology for the Life of, by Himself. Philadelphia: 1814.

Ford, P. L., Beginnings of American Dramatic Literature. New England Magazine, n. s. IX;
673-87. (Ford, A).

Ford, P. L., Washington and the Theatre. Dunlap Society pub., n. s. 8. New York: 1899.
(Ford, B).

Frohman, D., Memories of a Manager. New York: 1911.

Gould, T. R., The Tragedian ; an Essay on J. B. Booth. New York : 1868.

Harrison, G., Life of John Howard Payne. Philadelphia: 1885.

Haskell, D. C., A List of American Dramas in the New York Public Library. New York : 1916.

Herford, C. S. A., Two Thousand Years of Comedy. New England Magazine, 63: 441.

Button, L., Curiosities of the American Stage. New York: 1891. (Hutton, A.)

Hutton, L., Plays and Players. New York: 1875. (Hutton, B)

Ireland, J. N., Mrs. Duff. Boston: 1882.

Ireland, J. N.. Records of the New York Stage, 1760-1860. New York: 1866.

Jefferson, J., Autobiography. New York: 1889.

167

168 REALISTIC CHARACTERS IN AMERICAN PLAYS

Johnson, J. G., Southern Fiction Prior to 1860. Charlottesville, Va. : 1909.

Keese, W. L., A Group of Comedians. Dunlap Society pub., n. s. 16. New York : 1901.

Keese, W. L., William E. Burton: Author, Actor, and Manager. New York: 1885.

Kemble, F. A., Records of a Girlhood. New York: 1880.

Leman, W. M., Memories of an Old Actor. San Francisco: 1886.

Ludlow, N. M., Dramatic Life As I Found It. St. Louis: 1880.

Mabie, H. W., American Plays Old and New. The Outlook, 102: 945"-55.

Marble, A. R., Heralds of American Literature. Chicago: 1907.

Matthews, B., and Button, L., Actors and Actresses of Great Britain and the United States.

New York: 1886. (Matthews and Button).

Matthews, B., The American on the Stage. Century, 18: 321-33.

Matthews, B., Gateways to Literature and Other Essays. New York: 1912. (Matthews, A)
Matthews, B., Studies of the Stage. New York: 1894. (Matthews, B.)
Moses, M. J., The American Dramatist. Boston: 1911. (Moses)
Moses, M. J., Famous Actor-Families in America. New York: 1906.
Mowatt, A. C., Autobiography of an Actress. Boston: 1854.
Murdoch, J. E., The Stage. Cincinnati: 1884.

The National Cyclopaedia of American Biography. New York: 1898-1906.
Neidig, W. J., The First Play in America. Nation, 88: 86-88.
Northall, W. K., ed., Life and Recollections of Yankee Hill. New York: 1850.
Owens, Mrs. J. E., Memories of John E. Owens. Baltimore: 1892.
Pemberton, T. E., A Memoir of E. A. Sothern. London: 1889.
Phelps, H. P., Players of a Century. 2nd ed., New York: 1890. (Phelps)
Pollock, F., ed., Macready's Reminiscences. New York: 1876.
Rees, J., The Dramatic Authors of America. Philadelphia: 1845. (Rees, A)
Rees, J., The Life of Edwin Forrest. Philadelphia: 1874. (Rees, B)
Reignolds-Winslow, C. M., Yesterdays with Actors. Boston: 1887.
Richardson, C. F., American Literature, 1607-1885. 2 vol. New York: 1887-91.
Roden, R. F., Later American Plays, 1831-1900. Dunlap Society pub., n. s. 12. New York : 1900.
Seilhamer, G. O., History of the American Theatre, 1749-97. 3 vol. Philadelphia: 1889.

(Seilhamer)

Smith, S. F., Theatrical Management in the West and South. New York: 1868.
Stone, H. D., Personal Recollections of the Drama. Albany: 1873.
Theatrical and Circus Life. St. Louis: 1882.

Tompkins, E., and Kilby, Q., History of the Boston Theatre, 1854-1901. Boston: 1908.
Tyler, M. C., A History of American Literature. 1607-1765. 2 vol. New York: 1881.

(Tyler, A)
Tyler, M. C., The Literary History of the American Revolution, 1763-1783. 2 vol New York:

1897. (Tyler, B)

Vandenhoff, G., Leaves from an Actor's Notebook. New York: 1860.
Wallack, L., Memories of Fifty Years. New York: 1889.
Wegelin, O., Early American Plays, 1714-1830. Dunlap Society pub., n. s. 10. New York:

1900. Another ed., 1905.

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