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'^f'UCT

Recent

Cotton Mill Construction
AND Engineering

Joseph Nasmf

LIBRARY

^NSSACHOs^^

1895

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RECENT

COTTON MILL CONSTRUCTION
AND ENGINEERING.

JOSEPH NASMITH,

EDITOR OF THE "TEXTILE RECORDER"; AUTHOR OF "MODERN COTTON
SPINNING machinery"' AND "THE STUDENTS' COTTON SPINNING."

JOHN HEYWOOD,

Deansgate and Ridoefield, Manchesteb.

2, AMEN CORNER, LONDON, E.G.

22, Paradise Street, Liverpool.

33, Bridge Street, Bristol.

IX VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY,
NEW YORK.

ur.

n%^

PREFACE.

fTlHE following pages are in great part a reproduction of a
special article which appeared in the Textile Recorder
for May, 1894. It had been represented to the author that
there was need of some article from which accurate informa-
tion relating to modern methods of mill construction could
be obtained. This led to the work being done, and the
manner in which a large edition of the Textile Recorder
was taken up demonstrated the interest felt in it.

No claim is made for originality in the treatment of the
subject, the book being avowedly a compilation of facts
derived from actual practice. While this is so, it is, how-
ever, claimed that no similar collection has been made,
and that the facts, being based upon personal and
communicated observation, have not previously been
put into a shape likely to be serviceable. It is perhaps
necessary to say that the book is chiefly intended as an
aid to those practically engaged in the cotton trade, and
not for architects or engineers. Several of the tables have
been specially calculated by the author. Since its appearance
in the Textile Recorder the article has undergone con-
siderable amplification.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGE

CHAPTER I.— Introductory 7

„ 11. — Constructional Details 17

„ III. — Slow Burning and One-storeyed Buildings 35

,, IV. — Cost, Strength, and Firk Rfsistance of

Floors 46

„ V. — Fire Appliances : Sprinklers 58

„ VI. — Lighting , 76

., VII. — Heating, Ventilation, and Humidity 84

,, VIII. — Calculation of Machines IN Mill lOd-

., IX. — Recent Examples OF Mills 109

„ X. — Steam Boilers 134

., XL— Boiler Appliances 153

,, XIL — Steam Engines — General Remarks 166

,, XIIL — Do. Recent Examples 174

XIV.— Do. Do. 187

,, XV. — Lighting Engines AND other Accessories... 207

XVL— Turbines 224

„ XVII. — Gearing — Toothed Wheels 233

XVIIL— Do. Belt Driving 237

XIX.— Do. Rope Driving 243

,, XX. — Shafting AND Bearings 255

INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS 273

LIST OF TABLES 276

GENERAL INDEX 277

RECENT COTTON MILL CONSTRUCTION
AND ENGINEERING.

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTORY.

Perhaps in no other branch of textile work has a
more marked advance taken place than in the
character of the buildings used. As in other cases,
the development has run concurrently with improve-
ments in other directions, the result being obtained
by the action of various forces at different times.
There are well defined stages in the gradual evolu-
tion of the present type of mill building which can
be very clearly ascribed to the influence of certain
factors. In the early stages of the factory, as a
separate place of manufacture, it was naturally
located near the only source of power then available
— a running stream of water. In this country the
flow of water available is considerable and constant,
but it rarely happens in any of the districts suitable
for manufacture that the fall is considerable. In
the early days of organised manufacturing, how-
ever, the factories which sprung up were all of small
size, and the only motor available was the cum-
brous water wheel, which was only capable of
giving off" a comparatively small power. Further,
up to 1820, the machines were generally of
limited dimensions, which can easily be under-
stood when their partially manual character is
remembered. Mills were, therefore, narrow and
low, and were generally of a light construction.
The ceilings were only from six to eight feet
high, and the windows of small dimensions,

containing a number of little panes of glass.
The illustration given in Fig. 1, representing
Messrs. Swainson, Birley and Co.'s mill at Preston,
which is reproduced from Baines's History, shows
the best type prevailing so late as 1835. Until
recent years there were a number of these old mills
existing in Lancashire, but they have gradually
become obsolete and disappeared. In Derbyshh*e,
there are still some of them existing along the course
of the Derwent, but as an element in the factory
life of to-day they may be considered to be extinct.
It is, however, an interesting fact to note that
Messrs. Horrocks, Crewdson, and Company, Limited,
of Preston, have two mills adjoining one another
bearing dates a century apart, the later mill
having been recently erected.

With the advent of the steam engine a new era
began. The choice of situation became freer, and
a millowner was able to locate his factory in any
place convenient alike for himself and his operatives.
The invention of the self-acting mule, which was
entirely power driven, placed a new instrument in
the hands of the spinner. By this time the whole
of the machinery required to make cotton into cloth
was adapted for power, and the first step was taken
towards that acceleration of velocities which
has since become so marked. Contemporaneously
with the alteration in the size and character of the
various machines induced by the march of invention,
there began to be introduced new modes of manu-
facturing them. The use of machine tools was
enlarged^ owing to the great changes which took
place in their construction by reason of the work of
Roberts, Whitworth, and Nasmyth. The result was
that machines were more perfectly constructed,
the use of iron being largely extended. The two
forces of greater skill on the part of the operative and
improved constructional methods acted and reacted
upon each other so as rapidly to alter the capacity
and power of the machinery employed. Then there
were the experiments of Mr. (afterwards Sir) Wm.
Fairbairn, directed towards ascertaining the strength

of cast-iron beams, which gave an impetus to the
building of the so-called fireproof mill. Fairbairn
himself built a large number of mills on this
principle, but one or two failures occurred, which
prevented the principle from spreading. Generally
speaking, the English mills of what may be called
the 1825-65 era were constructed with wooden
floors, supported on transverse wooden beams, crossed
by longitudinal joists, on to which two layers of
floor boards were fixed. The ceiling was plastered
on laths fastened to the joists, and the whole floor
was thus a hollow timber construction of an ex-
ceedingly inflammable character. The size of the
mills was, however, increased, and a type was
evolved which, with slight alterations, remained
constant until after the close of the American civil
war.

Just before the year 1870 a beginning was made
with the establishment of joint-stock spinning com-
panies, stimulated by the establishment of the Sun
Mill, Oldham, in 1868. The great success which
attended this venture led to its wide imitation, and for
a few years mills in Lancashire, and especially in Old-
ham, increased with great rapidity. Gradually they
became larger in size, and a call was made on the
machinist to provide machines of greater dimen-
sions. In 1874 the ring-spinning frame was begin-
ning to make its influence felt, and, owing to the
large production possible by reason of the great
speeds at which the spindles could be run, the
necessity for higher velocities of mules became
apparent. Both machines required more careful
construction, and, dating from the introduction
of the ring frame, a complete change has come over
constructive methods. The economic rivalry of
the various limited companies speedily led to the
more complete organisation of their forces. It
was found possible to manage mills containing
many thousands of spindles in excess of those pre-
viously common with the same staff*, and mills
were accordingly designed with this factor in full
view. Gradually the lengths of the machines in-

creased, and the mill wasof necessity correspondingly
enlarged. As a sequence to this there came a con-
sideration of the method of providing light, so that a
room 130ft. wide should not suffer in that respect.
Gradually the ceilings became loftier, and the window
area of greater importance. Thus, at the present
day, in England, the cotton mill is distinguished by
the enormous ratio of the window^ area to that of
the wall. This will be fully demonstrated at a later
stage. Nor did the whole consequence of the prac-
tices named end here. It being desirable to place
the mules or frames transversely of the building, it
was requisite that no obstruction from any internal
cause should exist. Especially in the case of
mules it was desirable that in the space in which the
carriages ran — the "mule gate" — no pillars support-
ing the floors should be found. The rapid increase
in the production of wrought-iron — and latterly
steel — rolled girders placed in the hands of the mill
architect a means which he was not slow to use,
and restored the fireproof method of construction to
the place it had partially lost. By skilful design, a
floor has been evolved, which, while of large and
comparatively unbroken area, is yet well supported,
and, as will be demonstrated by actual examples,
is well fitted for the purpose for which it was
intended.

Thus, since the year 1870 there have been at
work three factors of importance: — (1) The in-
creased competition, arising from economic causes,
tending to the enlargement of the size of machines
so as to correspond to the limit of the operative's
capacity. (2) The improvements in the construe- -^
tive methods of machinists, resulting in the pro- ^-^
duction of machines capable of running with^^^
steadiness at high velocities. (3) The provision o^;^)
building materials which lend themselves to the-^
construction of mills of large size. Each of these"^
factors has played its part in the evolution of th»-
type of cotton-mill building which it is hoped ^
illustrate in a very complete manner. r^

A similar process has been in operation with tbfe

machinery employed for the production and trans-
mission of the motive power. Early in the century
the type of steam engine used was, in most
cases, the beam, which worked at very low steam-
pressures. Gradually the latter rose, until a
maximum of about 601bs. to the square inch was
used. The compound principle of using steam
was generally adopted, but it is within quite recent
years that the science of steam using has been
adequately understood. The la.te Mr. Daniel
Adamson experimented with quadruple expansion
engines as applied to cotton mills many years
before the possibility of its successful application
became apparent. He failed because he had not
the means of obtaining a sufficient steam pressure,
but it is a high tribute to his prescience that he
became the pioneer in the use of a material destined
to place the required pressures within the reach of
the engineer. As mild steel became improved its
employment for boiler plates gradually grew, and
the success of triple expansion engines in marine
work turned the minds of mill engineers in
the same direction. With the material at hand
boilers were made to stand much higher pressures,
and these were gradually introduced. The type of
engine which superseded the beam, and was for
many years the favourite, was the horizontal side-
by-side compound, but this has slowly given
way to the tandem type, either single or double,
when triple or quadruple expansions are used with
pressures ranging up to 200lbs. per square inch.

The change in the type of engine used is
accompanied by a considerable variation in the
character of the gearing employed. Up to the
year 1876 it may be said that in Lancashire, with
the exception of a few mills which were driven by
belts, almost all the gearing employed was toothed.
To-day all that is changed, and nearly every
new mill is provided with rope gearing. It is
not necessary to inquire at this point into the
reasons for this procedure, which will be dealt with
hereafter, and it is sufficient to note the fact. One

point may, however, be mentioned. The use of rope
gearing has led to a considerable change in the
arrangement of the modern mill, in which it is now
The rule to make the rope race a dividing space
between the main body of the mill and the scutching
or blowing room. The reason for this procedure is-
twofold. First, the complete character of modern
mixing and scutching machinery renders it desirable
to arrange it so that the various machines will
work conveniently together; and second, it is in
this department that the risk of fire is greatest, sa
that it is an advantage to have a complete or partial
separation of the two parts of the building. It will
be shown, therefore, that in modern mills the rope
race forms a division between the mixing and spin-
ning departments.

In order that the improved methods of design
and construction of mills may be fully appreciated,
a brief description of some of the chief features and
leading dimensions of one or two typical mills
erected at different periods is given. In Dr. Ure's
well-known work "The Cotton Manufacture of
Great Britain" an illustration and description is
given of a mill erected at Stockport in 1834
by a Mr. Orrell. This mill contained 12,498
throstle spindles, 14,928 hand mule spindles, and
7,984 self-actor spindles, in all 45,860. There were
in addition 1,100 power looms and the necessary
pieparatory machines for both spinning and weaving.
The building consisted of one main block with
transverse wings at each end. The dimensions of
the main spinning rooms were 280ft. long and 50ft.
wide, and the height from floor to floor lift. 6in.y
leaving a mean height from floor to ceiling of 10ft.
Each of the floors in the building was fireproof,
and consisted of a series of _L cast-iron beams,
passing transversely of the mill and sustained about
half way across by cast-iron pillars. From t he-
transverse beams brick arches were sprung. These
arches formed only a segment of a circle, and were
about 9in. thick. Upon them the floor was laid,
and was constructed of timber. The window

openings were 7ft. high by 5ft. wide, the sill being
3ft. 6iD. from the floor level, but the lintel level
with the ceiling. The windows were separated by
brick piers 5ft. wide, so that the window area was
in the ratio of about 1 to 4*5 of the wall surface.
The mill was built with six storeys and an
attic, the loom shed being of the usual tjpe, and
placed behind the main building. The engines
used were each of 90 horse-power nominal, and the
shafts in the various rooms were driven by an up-
right shaft running 58 '8 revolutions per minute.
The speed of the line shafts is not given, but would
not exceed 120 revolutions.

The India Mill, at Darwen, erected by Messrs.
Eccles, Shorrocks and Co., about 1870, was at that
time considered to be one of the finest types of
mill architecture. It was described in Mr. Evan
Leigh's book, from which the particulars are ex-
tracted. It consisted of one main building, with
six storeys, and was 330ft. long, 99ft. wide, and 90ft.
high. It was, and is, distinguished by a chimney
■of a highly ornate character. It accommodated 48
pairs of mules, each containing 708 spindles, in all
67,968 spindles, with, of course, the whole of the
preparatory machinery. The plan of the mill, as
then arranged, provided for the blowing and scutch-
ing machines being placed on the ground floor.
These comprised 2 openers, 8 scutchers each with
3 beaters and with lap machines combined, and 8
finishing scutchers with 2 beaters each. The first
and second floor each contained 84 carding engines
with 2 rollers and clearers, and 44 self-stripping
flats, 6 drawing frames each 4 heads of 6 deliveries,
8 slubbing frames each of 90 spindles, 12 inter-
mediate frames of 130 spindles each, and 24 roving
frames of 180 spindles each, double geared. Each
of the spinning rooms contained 12 pairs of mules,
the remaining 12 pairs being placed in two small
rooms at the end of the card room. It is only
necessary to specially note that in this, a compara-
tively recent mill, the card room is divided, a
practice which is now generally abandoned. The

character of the driving will be dealt with later;
but it may be mentioned that the boilers were of
the Galloway type, and of steel.

The windows used had an area of 45 square feet
in the two card rooms, 40 square feet in the first
and second spinning rooms, and 35 in the third
spinning room. The wall space between the
adjoining window frames was 5ft. for the floors from
the second to the fifth inclusive. The construction
was of the fireproof type, the floors being supported
on shallow brick arches sprung from transverse iron
beams, supported by pillars, arranged in three rows
longitudinally of the building. The distance of
the pillars in each row from each other was lOft,
and between those in adjoining rows 22ft., a similar
distance intervening between the pillars and the
walls. This mill has been at work continuously
since its erection, having been enlarged within the
past few years, and the whole of its driving arrange-
ments remodelled, but as it is a comparatively
recent specimen of mill architecture of a now
abandoned type, the above details will be of
interest.

There is no feature in a modern cotton spinning
mill more noticeable than the tendency which exists
to get all the card-room machinery on one floor.
When the number of spindles is large, this is only
possible if the dimensions of the mill building are
considerable, and it is often necessary and advisable
to place alongside the card-room a small one-storey
shed in which the machinery is partly placed. Thus,
to cite as an example, a recently erected mill con-
taining 73,052 spindles, the length of the entire
structure is 245ft. and its width 134ft. 6in. The
building is practically divided into two parts by the
rope race, leaving the larger block 173ft. by 134ft.
6in. In this space the whole of the preparatory
machinery is placed, excluding the mixing and
scutching machines and four roving frames, each of
252 spindles. These, however, are placed on the
same floor. It is obvious that no good end would be
served by adopting this course if the mules became

so long as to necessitate extra attendance to mind
them, but owing to the improvements in construction
this is not the case. In the mill instanced the mules
are made to contain as many as 1,304 spindles, l-|iii-
gauge, going a total length of 127ft. 6in., which fit
easily within the walls. A pair of mules of this
length can be tended by a spinner and two piecers,
who would be required if the mules contained only
1,000 or 1,100 spindles each.

There are many things which affect the design of
a spinning mill. Among the determining features
are (1) the counts of yarn to be spun ; (2) the type
of machine used for spinning ; (3) the character of
the site and its locality ; (4) the water supply avail-
able for all purposes ; (5) the facilities for handling
and transporting the raw material and finished pro-
duct ; (6) the character of the materials available
for buildiug ; (7) the style and construction adopted
with reference to fire ; (8) the prime motor adopted ;
and (9) the class of gearing used. It may be true
that each of these points are affected by other cod-
siderations, all of which require weighing before a
decision is come to, but it is not the purpose of this
book to deal with all the reasons for taking a certain
course, it being sufficient to define the essentials.
One word, however, may be said in warning on the
third point. The projector of a factory building
ought to satisfy himself as to the soundness of the
land prior to purchase, as any difl&culty with the
oundations of a mill of the great weight now erected
may prove a very costly matter.

We must assume, however, that the whole of
these points have been considered and settled, and
that a mill of a defined type has been determined
on. It may, perhaps, be safely said that at present
there are two main types of factory buildings, viz.;
the English and the American. In some features
they approximate, while in others they vary con-
siderably. The difference arises mainly from the
different theory of construction adopted in order to
avoid or diminish the risk of damage by fire. In
each case the prevailing type has arisen naturally

out of the circumstances existing, but the results
are widely diverse. The more recent type of
English spinning mill is based upon what is known
as the "fire-proof" constructive principle, while in
the United States the construction adopted is that
which is known as the " slow burning." Some par-
ticulars of each type will be given, and it will be a
convenient course to deal first of all with the English
mill. It may, perhaps, be pointed out before dointj
so that, with the necessary modifications to suit
local circumstances, the English type is being-
adopted in many other countries, while some of its
details are even incorporated into American designs.
A general form will first be described, and will be
followed by detailed explanations.

CHAPTER II.

CONSTRUCTIOXAL DETAILS.

Looking then at Fig. 2, which is a partial vertical
section of an ordinary type of mill, it will be seen that,
as previously named, it consists of six storeys — a
basement, ground floor, and four upper floors. It
is surmounted by a flat roof with a parapet, and is
provided with a tower holding a water tank for the
sprinkler installation. The engine and boiler house
are usually built out from the main buildings, but
the rope race is used to divide the mixing and
blowing rooms from that part of the mill intended
for spinning. The basement floor is ordinarily used
fur storing yara, and is arranged to act as a *' condi-
tioning" chamber. That portion of it which forms
part of the blowing room building is utilised for mis-
cellaneous storage, which sometimes includes cotton,
but this is not an advisable or general practice.
The ground floor forms in the main building the
card room, and in the subsidiary building the
scutching room. The first floor in the main building
is a spinning room, and in the smaller one a mixing
room. If the upper floors are continued in both

blocks they are filled with spinning machines. The
heights of the various rooms are as follow : — Base-
ment, 6 to 7 feet; ground floor, 15 to 17 feet; first
floor, 13 feet; second floor, 12 feet 6 inches; and

Fig. 2.

third floor, 12 feet. For a time there was a tend-
ency towards rooms which were two or three feet
higher than those detailed, but it is now the prac-
tice to go in for a moderate height which, while per-

mitting the proper lightiug of the rooms, does uot
entail an excessive cubic capacity.

The columns which are usually employed in
mill construction are generally similar to those
shown in Figs. 3 and 4. They are ordinarily of cast
iron, and are of a type which may be described as
with flat fixed bases. The lowest of each line is
carried by a cast-iron base plate bedded on a

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.

foundation stone. The plate has a socket bored
at the bottom for the reception of the turned end
of the column, and a raised cross is formed on the
top of the plate fitting into the socket of the column,
and turned on the ends of its arms to size, so
that the column is kept quite steady, being practi-
cally fixed. It is essential that great care be taken
to insist upon the accurate bedding and machining

of each column so that the line of thrust is per-
pendicular and not diagonal. Professor HodgkinsoD,
who, under the direction of Sir William Fairbairn,
conducted a series of experiments, deduced the
following formula for the strength of hollow columns
of this character —

W = 44-34 — — -— — where D = external diameter in

inches, c? = internal diameter in inches, L = length
in feet, W = breaking weight. A table of the values
of the t5'5 power of the diameters and the 1*63
power of the length is given herewith (see Tables 1
and 2).

TABLE 1.

Value — 35 power of diameter.

Diam
Inche

I. Value.

Diam.
Inches

Value.
i.

Diam.
Inches.

Value.

Diam.
Inches

Value,

529-09

1155-35

2187-00

104

3751-13

610-35

1295-85

2407-11

lOf

4073-14

70016

1448-15

2642-61

4414-43

79903

1612-83

2894-12

llj

4775-66

907-49

1790-47

3162-28

114

5175-54

1026-08

1981-66

3447-73

5985-96

TABLE 2.

Valuf

j=l-63 power of

length.

Length in ^^-^^^^ 1
feet.

Length in
feet.

Value.

Length
feet.

^" Value.

6 18-55

42-66

73-82

7 23-85

49-83

82-61

8 29-65

57-42

91-77

9 35-92

65-42

101-30

The above formula, however, is not a very easy
one to remember or work out, and that adopted by
Mr. Lewis Gordon —

P = _Zj? — ^ is much easier. In this P = breaking
1 + a r'

load of a column in tons, s = square inches in
sectional area, r = ratio of length to least diameter,
/ and a constants depending on the strength of the
material. The value of / for round solid or hollow
cast iron columns is 36, and a = ^^. In the case of
mill columns the value of r usually ranges from 8 to

24, and, adopting Gordon's rule, the numbers in the
second column of Table 3 give the breaking weight
per square inch of sectional area of cast iron. These
are extracted from a very valuable book on "The
Design of Structures," by Mr. S. Anglin.

TABLE 3.

Length.

of
Column

Breaking
Weight
in Tons

Length

of
Column

Breaking
Weight
in Tons

Length

of
Column

Breaking
Weight
in Tons

in
Diameters

per
. Sq. Inch.

in
Diameters.

per
Sq. Inch.

in
Diameters.

per
Sq. Inch.

33-0

24-2

16-3

320

230

15-5

31-0

220

14-6

30-0

20-9

14 1

28-8

19-9

13-4

27-6

190

12-8

26-5

18-0

121

25-3

17-1

Thus, if a column is 10ft. long, lOin. diameter,
and lin. thick, its strength is obtained as follows : —
The area of the metal is 28*28 square inches, and
the length being 12 times the diameter, the strength
is 28-28 X 26-5 = 739-42 tons.

A rule which is sometimes observed is to make
the thickness of the metal one-twelfth of the
diameter of the column, and General Morin gives
the following thicknesses : —

From 7 to 10ft. long a thickness of *5in.
„ 10 „ 13ft. „ „ -Gin.

„ 13 „ 20ft. „ „ -Sin.

The deductions made from the table given above,
however, will be found to be reliable. The strength
of a round column is always determined by the
least diameter, which, as columns are often taper,
is important. It is necessary, of course, that the
basement pillars are properly bedded, because, if
they are not, flexure takes place, and the column
is submitted to a double strain. The practice
recommended by some writers of bedding the column
in cement is not advisable where heavy loads are
borne, because the resistance to crushing is much
less than is that of stone. It is much better to

make a firm fouudation for the base stone, and
see that the pillar base plate is properly bedded,
the use of a sheet of lead possessing advantages
where there is any danger of uneven bedding.

As a rule, spinning mills in England are built of
the usual red brick, 9in. by 4Jin.by 3in., a material
which is always accessible, and which can sometimes
be made on the site from the clay there existing.
Well burned brickwork, properly set in mortar, will
stand a load of two tons to the square foot, but if
set in cement, three tons. The weight of a cubic
foot of brickwork is for common bricks from 100 to
1251bs., llOlbs. being a fair weight, lied sandstone
weighs about 1331bs., and Yorkshire stone about
1551bs. per cube foot. 1,000 bricks of English size
make about 23*4 cubic feet of finished work. To
ascertain the number of bricks required for different
thicknesses of walls, let ?i = number of half-bricks
(4Jinches) in thickness of wall, a = superficial area
in square feet, then n x '0053 x a = number of thou-
sands of bricks required. Thus 200 square feet super-
ficial of 9in. wall would take 2 x -0053 x 200 = 2 -06,
or in other words, 2,060 bricks would be needed.
The walls immediately above the footings are made
from 2ft. 9in. to 3ft. 2in. thick between the
windows, that portion of the wall below the win-
dows being much thinner, usually about 12in. It
will be understood that this practice varies in
accordance with the type of window used, as will
be presently shown. After the card room is passed
the piers are made thinner by one brick, 4Jiu.,
so that each spinning room is 9 in. wider than the
one below it.

The main use of the piers in this method of
construction is to carry the ends of the beams
which form part of the floor. There are two or
three methods of forming the latter which may be
here described, the idea being to make a floor of
fireproof construction. The type of floor which
was adopted in many cases is shown in Fig. 5. In
this case the longitudinal cast iron beams used are
15in. deep at the ends near the columns and 20in,

deep in the centre, having a bottom flange 9in
wide and lin. thick, and a top flange of 3 Jin. wide
and lin. thick, the web being |in. thick. These
beams are made in lengths to fit between the
columns, and are semi-circular at each end to fit the
circular nipple of the pillar, the latter being provided
with a flange to sustain the beam. By flanges and
bolts the various beams are fastened together, so as
to form a continuous girder across the mill, properly
secured to and sustained by the columns. In the

Brick on edq
Brick on end

Fig. 5.

best practice the collar on the column and the
girder ends are machined, so as to give a true base ;
and, as the column used for the next floor is socketed
so as to fit on to the nipple of the one below and
rest on the girder, it is easy to see that the machin-
ing is almost a necessity. The columns are circular
and hollow, and vary from Sin. diameter at the
lower end and 7Jin. at the upper, to 6in. and 5Jin.
respectively. The columns used in the basement
are made Sin. diameter throughout and lin. thick,
those in the card room floor being 1 Jin. thick, the

diflference being accounted for by the extra length.
The thickness gradually diminishes in the upper
storeys, but is never less than fin. These dimen-
sions relate to the columns used in the example
illustrated in Fig. 5, and, as shown in other ex-
amples, are subject to variation. The columns
are placed 10ft. 6iu. apart, transversely of the mill,
and 21ft. 6in. longitudinally ; the beams being tied
together by rods at suitable intervals. From the
bottom flange of the beams the brick arches
are sprung. These arches are 9in. at the
flanks, diminishing towards the centre. A layer
of concrete is sometimes used to level the floor,
and wooden battens 4in. by Sin. are secured in it at
distances of 2ft. apart so as to permit of a timber
floor being laid for the reception of the machinery.
In one rather notew^orthy case the floor was laid on
small brick arches sustained on cast iron bearers, as
described, without the intervening spaces between
the arches being filled. The result was that when
a fire did take place the open spaces below the
flooring acted as flues, and the destruction of an
ostensibly fireproof mill was complete. There are
two chief objections to this type of floor. The arches
are heavy and run longitudinally of the building,
and there is a mass of unprotected cast iron work
which is a source of great weakness. There is,
further, the fact that the beams are fitted together
in a way demanding more accurate Avork than is
usually obtained in builders' iron structures. This
type of floor, although there are many excellent
examples in existence, has given way to others
which are constructed with materials of a more
convenient character.

A modification of this form of floor is found in
the employment of longitudinal rolled beams with
transverse beams bolted to them at distances of 3ft.
apart. This permits of the formation of a series of
curved arches, the chord of which is only 3ft. as
against 10ft. 6in. in the cast iron type. The floor
is thus considerably lightened, and the w4iole of the
thrust is taken from the main girders. The same

objection can be made to this floor as to the preced-
ing example, namely, that in one direction the
columns are only 10ft. 6in. apart, which, in a mule
mill especially, is a matter of importance. The
general recognition of the value of an unobstructed
floor, as far as it can be got, has led architects in

21 FT - : 1

13:

TFT-n^

7FT-

V--7T

Fig. 6.

the more recent mills back to forms in which the
greater distance of the pillars apart has again
been restored, or in which the arched form of con-
struction has been definitely abandoned.

Another form of floor with which Messrs. Stott and
Sons are identified is shown in skeleton in Fig. 6, and

has been carried out with success in several large mills
recently erected. It consists in an arrangement by
which the brick arches used are transversely arranged,
and is designed so that it is only necessary to place
columns at intervals of 21ft. each way. The head
of the column (see Figs. 3 and 4) is a broad flange sup-
ported by curved gussets IJin. thick. The sketch
given in Fig. 3 shows clearly the construction of
the column, and is taken from a recent example.
The columns in the basement rest on a flat
baseplate, which is bolted to foundation stones
securely bedded, as has been previously de-
scribed. The upper end of each column car-
ries the girder flange, and the head passes up
between the two girders and fits into a socket in the
next column. The bottom of the socket and face
of the column head are turned true, so that the
columns rest on prepared true surfaces. The ex-
ternal diameter of the head is Jin. less than the
bore of the socket. The columns are each tapered
Jin. in their total length, which varies, of
course, with the height of the room. The centre
of the line shaft is 2ft. 3in. below the face of
the girder flange, the shaft being borne by side
pedestals secured to faces on the column.
Some of the latter, being intended to carry
countershafts only, have narrower faces, only
.5in. wide. Special faces are also prepared
to which to attach the longitudinal girders. The
weight thrown upon the columns is necessarily
great, and it depends upon the character of the
construction how great it is. The area within the
four columns and their attached beams is 441 sq. ft.,
the total load per foot being about 1401bs. Prac-
tically, therefore, the weight upon the basement
columns in a four-storey mill on this computation
would be about 110 tons. A cast iron column
lOin. external dir^ieter, IJin. thick, and 7ft. long
will, if calculated by Table 3, safely carry a
load of 1,031 tons, so that there would be a factor
of safety of 9 '4. A reduction of the area carried by
the columns naturally diminishes the load on them.

Upon each arm of the flange a longitudinal rolled
girder of I section, 16in. deep, with 6in. flanges, of
the weight of 1601bs. to the yard, is placed. This
will carry with a factor of safety of 4 and a span (jf
21ft. a distributive load of 23-2 tons, which is in
excess of that required. These girders are fastened
to the faces shown on the coluncins, and transverse
joists, 13in. by 6in., are fixed to them at a
distance from centre to centre of 7ft. The
arch, which is light but strong, is sprung
from the transverse joists, and the spaces between
the arches are levelled with concrete. The flooring
boards are laid on wooden battens, and in places
where much wear occurs a covering of thin birch
boards is fixed. The total depth of the floor is
19in. This type of floor provides wide bays and
causes no obstruction in the "mule gate," while
the run of the arches is transverse, thus off"ering no
impediment to light. The floor is undoubtedly a
good one, and has been carried out with consider-
able success.

The tendency is, however, growing in favour of
the larger employment of concrete flat floors, with-
out the use of brick arches. There is much to be
said for this construction, which gives a remarkably
substantial and strong floor. The mill of Messrs.
J. and P. Coats, erected in 1886, was perhaps the
first example of importance in this country, and
the architects, Messrs. Morley and Woodhouse,
now Mr. W. J. Morley, of Bradford, deserve the
credit of the thorough construction which they
adopted. The columns in this mill (see Fig. 7)
are of cast iron, and are 21ft. apart longitudi-
nally and 10ft. 6 in. transversely, although this
is not universally the practice throughout the
mill. The heads of columns are flanged to re-
ceive the ends of rolled steel beams, which are
16in. by Gin. A circular nipple is carried above the
flange, and has cast with it two wings or flanges,
one on each side, over which the longitudinal
girders pass and to which they are bolted. The
upper end of the column, as in Fig. 3, forms a socket

above these flanges into which the succeeding column
fits, and tie rods are fixed at this point between
opposite columns. The longitudinal beams, shown
separately in plan, are crossed at right angles
by light steel joints, 4in. by l|in., borne at
their ends by angle steel bearers fixed to the
beams. The space between the joists and above
the beams is filled up with concrete Sin. thick, with
a finish of Val de Travers cement above it. The
concrete used consists of broken brick or stone and
Portland cement in the proportion of 5 to 1.
Wooden battens are laid on the concrete in cement,
and the flooring boards are nailed on to them. The
thickness of the boards is l|in., consisting of a
thickness of lin. deal planks topped with a covering
of American maple boards, Sin. by Jin. thick, which
makes a floor which is extremely durable and solid.
In the twisting mill the columns and ironwork were
plastered with three coats of plaster on wire lathing,
and the method of applying the casing to the
beams is separately illustrated. The columns
used in the mill are of unusual strength, those
in the lower floor being llin. diameter and
2in. thick. The next floor admits of a reduction of
|in. diameter, the thickness being maintained. The
dimensions for the upper storeys are lOin. diameter
by If in. thick ; 9in. diameter and H-in. thick ; 8ii'.
diameter by l^in. thick ; and Gin. diameter by lin,
thick respectively. The strength of the ground
floor columns is 1,181-89 tons.

Another very good type of concrete floor, designed
by Messrs. Potts, Son, and Pickup, of Manchester,
and extensively carried out by them, is shown in sec-
tion in Fig. 8. This firm has persistently pushed this
floor, and to them is largely due its adoption for Lan-
cashire mills. In this case the pillars used are 20ft.
Gin. apart longitudinally of the mill and lift. 9hi.
transversely. The columns sustain steel girders IGin.
deep, with Gin. flanges, between which are fixed, at
distances of 1ft. 9in., steel joists 5 Jin. deep, with
2in. flanges. The joists are carried by angle-iron
bearers fastened to the beams, and at suitable

intervals one is secured to the girders by side
angles and bolts, the concrete holding the rest
securely. The space between the joists is filled

Fig. 8.

in with concrete 6in. thick, on the top of which
is a finish of waterproof concrete lin. thick. The
utility of this finish is tested by allowing the floor
to stand under water for three days, to detect

Fig. 9.

leakage. The concrete is carried below the joist
|in., the total thickness being therefore 7in. The
method of finishing the concrete where it joins the

pillars is clearly shown. Battens are laid in the
concrete to receive the flooring boards, which in
all the spinning rooms are l^in. thick. The
battens are always made wider at the bottom
than at the top, so that the concrete forms a
binder and prevents them from lifting. The joists
extending to the walls are carried when necessary
by the window lintel, constructed of steel, as
shown in Fig. 9. The bottom plate is carried
forward to sustain the joist, and the bolt heads are
covered by a rose. It will have been noticed that
when the transverse brick arch is used, and is
sprung from cross girders 10ft. Gin. apart, a clear
space of that amount between the necessary points
of support is obtained. The support is found
in the piers between the windows, the distance of 10ft.
6in., as shown in Fig. 31 (see p. 77), corresponding
to that from centre to centre of piers. With a
concrete floor such a procedure is not possible,
as it is essential that the transverse joists shall
be much nearer together. It is therefore necessary,
in order to carry the load, to find ample support for
the ends of the joists. This is found in the employ-
ment of the iron lintel, which is carried to the
front so as to complete the latter, the dimensions
being given in milUimetres. This device gives an
admirable support to the joists, and enables the
floor to be well carried throughout. One advantage
of this method of construction is that much of the
thrust upon the walls is obviated, as the joists are
merely sustained by the lintels, and are not built
in. The centre of the frame is filled with concrete.
Another type of floor, shown in Fig. 10, which is
adopted in America and carried out by the Carnegie
yteel Company, is a variation on the ordinary
concrete floor. In this case the vertical pillars are
built of steel and the main girders are duplex, having
joists or cross beams fixed to them by angle irons.
The space between the cross girders is filled in by terra
cotta moulded tiles set in cement w^hile sustained
below by movable stages. They are burnt hard,
and form a light floor quite as impervious to fire as

the ordinary type of concrete. A layer of concrete
or cement two inches thick is laid on the top of
this arch, on which the flooring battens are laid, and
boards fixed as usual. The chief feature of this
construction is that the whole of the weight of the
building is carried by the steel columns, the walls
for each being sustained by the transverse girders,
and acting merely as filling pieces. A new form of
floor has been devised and patented in France and
elsewhere, which is known by the name of the Hen-
nebique system. In its essence it is founded upon
the utilisation of the principal characteristic features
of steel and concrete. The tensile strength of steel
is greater than its resistance to compression, while
on the other hand concrete has little tensile but
great compressive strength. The new system is ac-

FlG. 11.

cordingly designed to utilise to the utmost these
peculiar qualities of each material, and, as shown
in Fig. 11, is characterised by the absence of the
transverse joints which are one of the main features
of the ordinary English floor. As the tendency
towards flexure in concrete puts the material into
compression, the inventor has proportioned the
thickness of the floor to resist the weight put upon
it. Referring, therefore, to Fig. 11 it will be seen
the 3E longitudinal girders are embedded in con-
crete, thus forming a composite beam, the strength
of which is created alike by the resistance to the
tensile stress on the steel girder and that to the
compressive stress put on the concrete. It is well
known that this combination materially strengthens
the resistance of the girders to flexure. As shown,
c

the distance from centre to centre of the beams
which rest upon the pillars is 4 metres 90 centi-
metres, or a little over 16 feet. The thickness of
the concrete web or floor between the beams is
12 centimetres or 4-72 inches. In cases where it is
desired to plank the floor a special skimming of
cement is laid, in which the battens are embedded.
To these the planks are fixed in the usual way. It
will be noticed that the space between the sup-
porting beams has no other strength than that
created by the resistance to compression of the con-
crete, but the maker of this floor, M. Vermont-
Caby, of Lille, states that this is sufficient to stand
the ordinary stresses with ease, and to give a factor
of safety of at least 10 to 1. The floor is said to
be very rigid and strong. Some further remarks
are made a little later.

Referring now to Fig. 2, and to what has been
previously said, the basement floor is less lofty than
those above it, and is used as a conditioning cellar.
In order to fit it for this purpose, it is well
prepared in puddle or concrete, so as to be imper-
vious to water, and is provided with tramways to
facilitate the transport of the skips. These tram-
ways may be commended to the notice of mill-
owners as occupying very little space, and being
readil}'' fixed, they materially reduce the cost of
transportation within the mill. It may be
mentioned here that they are as useful in the card
and spinning rooms as in the basement. Upon the
prepared floor are laid bricks, a short distance apart,
allowing of the floor being covered with water to the
depth of 2 or 3 inches, so as to leave the upper sur-
face of the bricks dry. A special form of brick is
sometimes used, which permits the ascent of the
moisture while making an unbroken floor. This
type of brick is afterwards referred to in dealing
with the subject of humidity. The skips or baskets
containing the cops or bobbins of yarn are thus
kept out of actual contact with the water, while
the heat of the room gradually evaporates the
latter and causes the vapour to find its way

thoroughly into the yarn. Formerly it was the
practice in England to make the roof of a mill of the
ordinary type, timbered, slated, and glazed ; but the
most", recent mills are now made with flat roofs. The
upper surface of these is covered with a layer of
asphalte, so as to form a watertight ceiling. A thin
sheet of water is kept constantly on the roof as a
protection against the eftects of the weather on the
asphalte. The cotton bales are unloaded by a
special bale hoist, which consists of a crab, driven
by power, which is used to hoist the bale and also
to draw in and out a carrier bogie. The latter runs
upon a cat-head, which projects sufficiently far to
enable loading or unloading to be easily conducted.
The bogie carries a chain pulley over which the.
chain passes to the snatch-block, so that the hook
can be placed directly over the load. After the
latter is raised, the bogie is run in, so as to land the
bale in the storeroom.

CHAPTER III.

SLOW BURNING AND ONE-STOREYED BUILDINGS.

Without pausing to consider at present the various
points involved in the constructions described, we
can proceed to deal with the "slow burning" con-
struction adopted in America in lieu of the fire-
proof type adopted here. The manufacturers of the
United States have the enormous advantage of the
counsel and guidance of the Boston Manufacturers'
Mutual Fire Insurance Co., which, through its officers,
collects and collates all kinds of information
bearing upon the construction and preservation of
mills. The present type of mill in that country,
as in this, has been evolved, and the difference
in aim in each case has given correspondingly
varied directions to the constructive policy. In
the United States the aim has been to provide a
building which although not fireproof is not easily
destroyed. In this country brick and iron have
always been cheap; in the United States timber

has been at once easier to obtain and cheaper than
iron. The result is that the eHorts of American
architects have been directed towards the most
complete utilisation of the cheaper material, and a
very admirable construction has been evolved. In
the earlier stages of mill architecture in both coun-
tries the joisted floor was the universal one, but it
was speedily found to be very easily destroyed by
fire. Accordingly the solid floor has been the pre-
vailing type for some years, and where it is un-
broken by apertures for the passage of belts it has
many merits. We are enabled to present a number
of details of this style of construction.

In its chief features it is shown in Fig. 12, which
is a partial transverse section of a mill so con-
structed. The walls are built of brick, and, as in
this country, gradually diminish in thickness as the
building ascends. The floors are carried by strong
transverse timber beams 14in. by 12in., or two beams
14in. by 6in., which rest on wall plates, as shown.
If two beams are used they are placed close together,
but not actually in contact, so as to give a little
ventilation. At 20ft. span these beams will carry
safely a distributed load of 252cwt. At intervals
the beams are supported by columns made of
pine, from 8 to lOin. square. Tests made for
the Boston Company showed that crushing occurred
in pine columns at a pressure of 4:,5001bs. per square
inch, a load of 6001bs. per square inch being therefore
taken as a safe one. It is preferable to use square
columns on account of their greater area. The details
of the method of sustaining the beams and pillars
are given in the illustration. It is the ordinary
practice to form in one piece a cast-iron cap and
base for the upper and lower pillars, and secure them
by a pintle also of cast iron. The base of the
pillar should rest on an iron plate projecting
above the floor level. On the beams are nailed
flooring boards, breaking joints every three feet, and
Sin. thick. The planks are tongued and grooved.
These planks are long enough for two bays, and on
them is spread a layer of cement or mortar fin.

thick, or two thicknesses of asbestos paper, and
above this a second set of hard wood flooring boards
IJin. thick, with broken joints, is fixed. The
nails for securing the boards should be driven
down and not up, as the ends within the build-
ing will condense moisture and drop. The roof
is made nearly flat, and is rendered impervious to
water by careful boarding, being also covered with
waterproof felting. In some cases it is quite covered
with gravel, which acts as considerable protection
against fire. As shown, the roof planks overhang
the walls, so as to weather well. A floor thus con-
structed has been shown to be difficult of destruction,
and is also impervious to water, w^hich, as it is a
common practice to use automatic sprinklers, is a
very important matter. If it is desired to get a
more rigid floor, the top planks can be fastened on
at right angles to those below, so as to act as
braces. One special caution is given with reference
to wooden beams by the Boston Company. It is —
"Wherever and whenever solid beams or heavy
timbers are made use of in the construction of a
factory or warehouse, they should not be painted,
varnished, oiled, filled, or incased in impervious
concrete air-proof plastering or metal, for at least
three years, lest fermentation should destroy them
by what is called dry rot." As the fire protection
of a wooden building is much improved by covering
all exposed timbers with lime plaster, laid prefer-
ably on wire netting, the value of this warning is
obvious.

The most common practice in this country is to
construct weaving sheds with the saw tooth roof,
shown as applied to a spinning mill in Fig. 55.
The construction of a weaving shed is compara-
tively simple, the chief points being light and a
sufficiently good roof to keep out the rain. The
method of construction adopted has the undoubted
advantage of providing a building with a steady
clear light, the incidence of which is such that no
shadow^s are cast. In the northern hemisphere
such a roof would be an-anged so that the windov s

face the north, because in that case no direct sun-
light falls into the shed. The north face of the
roof is therefore, substantially, glass and wood, while
the south face is slated on timber rafters and
principals. It will be noticed, in Fig. 13, that
the glass face is arranged at an angle of
about 30° from the vertical, while the slated
portion is about 60°. The valleys between each
ridge are occupied by cast-iron gutters, which
run transversely across the shed, and are supported
by columns. The pitch of the bays and columns
is usually from 10ft. Gin. to 12ft. Gin. ; but the
shed shown in Fig. 13 has been designed by the
architect, Mr. W. J. Morley, of Bradford, with the
columns 25ft. apart. They sustain longitudinal steel
girders upon which the gutters are carried,
and the latter are so constructed as to per-
form the double function of acting as water-
courses and of beams by which the roof principals
are carried. In the detailed drawings which,
through the courtesy of Mr. Morley, are given,
the method of forming the roof will be readily
understood without much explanation, the aim
being to get wide bays so as not to interfere
with the floor space more than possible. This is a
very important matter.

In some sheds recently designed by Messrs.
Potts, Son, and Pickup for Messrs. Horrocks,
Crewdson, and Co. Limited, and others, a very
successful attempt has been made to obtain a clear
floor space without sacrifice of light. The columns
run in lines at intervals of 22ft., and carry longi-
tudinal I girders. These sustain light girders of
the Warren pattern, which practically form a
frame for the roof, and from which the roof timbers
are sprung. They are the full depth of the roof
from the girder to the ridge, and the window frame
is hung from them. The window is nearly vertical,
and the underside of the slated roof is, of course,
plastered and whitened. But the chief advantage
claimed for this construction is that the distance
between the columns transversely is 44ft., which

gives an unobstructed floor of 938 sq. ft. It will,
of course, be understood that the span of each bay
being lift, one girder is carried iialf way between
each pair of columns. It is obvious that the
angle at which the window is fixed will have a
great influence upon the entrance of the light, and
that when a window is, as in this case, nearly
vertical, much of the light must of necessity be
obtained by reflection. Diff'usion is as important
as direct inlet, and a uniformly clear light without
glare is the desideratum. Vertical windows keep
clean longer than those at an angle, but the matter
is one aff'ecting the whole design. It will be seen
by the next example that in America a vertical light
is relied on, but that it extends to all four sides.

Fig. 1 4.

In the United States a special form of one-storey
mill has been evolved which is very interesting.
It has been named the "Monitor" type, from the
fact that light is obtained by means of a raised
central lantern called a *' monitor." It is illus-
trated in Figs. 14 to 19, the drawings being those
issued by the Boston Mutual Company. There are
two types of this form of mill, one in which the
brick wall is run up to the roof between the windows,
and the other in which it is merely a stool carrying
a wood and glass framing, as shown in Fig. 14.
The basement floor is 8ft. Gin. from floor
to floor, and is lighted by side windows placed

just above groiiDd level, their sills 5ft. 6in.
above the basement floor. The lower floor is carried
by timber beams 16in. deep and lOin. wide, oa
which the flooriDg boards are laid, as shown
in plan iu Fie. 15. The floors consist of

F::

a lower layer Sin. thick, topped by hard
wood planking IJin. thick. The roof (a plan
of which is shown in Fig. 16), which consists of
Sin. timbers, covered by gravel, terne plates, or pre-

FiG. 16.

pared cotton duck, is borne by rafters 16in. deep and
lOin. wide, supported by a knee fixed to the wall. A
slight batter from the monitor outwards is given to
the roof (see Fig. 17), and the monitor can be con-
tinuous. The columns carrying the roof, shown in

detail in Fig. 18, are lOin. square, made of piae, and
resting upon an iron base, which in turn rests on the
head of a cast iron pintle sustained by an iron plate
fixed on the topof abrick pillar in the basement, '24:'m.
by 16in. As shown, the ends of the floor beams are
angled and rest upon the brickwork. The window
frames are also illustrated in detail. They go
right up to the roof, and are of the EngHsh type,
much resembling the window shown in Fig. 31.
From centre to centre of the posts the distance is
Sft., and the height from top to bottom of frame
10ft. The upper sash is divided, and each of them
is hinged so as to swing, as shown in Fig. 18. The

Fic-. 17.

window posts rest upon iron caps or plates anchored
in the wall. The window posts are lOin. square and
are placed between the windows, and by means of
ears, shown in dotted lines in the detailed drawings,
the posts can be secured to the base plates. The
posts are bored through the centre with a Ito-
hole for ventilation, and the rafters are sustained
by an iron cap fixed upon the top of the pillar.

The "monitor" or lantern, shown in Fig. 19, is
sustained by a beam 16in. deep by 5in., which is
born by a knee fixed to the main outer posts and
resting on the iron cap on the pillar. From the
roof, posts 8in. square are carried up, fitting into

3in.Jfmf-PJanA[_

^lo. BaofJ'MiiJLi

Fig. 18.

\3in P/anM

3in~PlanR~, Grooyed andTTbnguec/

Fig. 19.

the rafters of the monitor. The eud rafters are
r2in. by 8iiL, and the others 12 in. by 4in., and
carry the roof timber. The ends of the rafters
project so as to permit the roof to be carried oat
for weathering purposes. Upon the rafters a plank
4Jin. deep by 3iu. thick is secured, on which a
stool 2in. thick and lOin. wide is placed to carry
the window frames. The window sashes can be
hung either as shown on the right of Fig. 19^ or on
the left, and are constructed in the manner illus-
trated in enlarged detail at the left hand bottom
corner, with bevelled edges, so that they fit whether
wet or dry. These details have been given in order
to illustrate an ingenious method of timber con-
struction, which has been very carefully thought
out. It is obvious that the details of construction
can be varied in accordance with the circumstances
and material at the disposal of the constructor, but
there is generally no difficulty. Rubble -walls are
necessarily employed in some cases, and then it is
essential that all caps or pads should be firmly
fixed and anchored, a remark which applies to all
wall boxes for the reception of shaft bearings.

CHAPTER IV.

AND FIRE RESIST

It is obvious that as compared with the American
type of building the English type is much the
heavier. This applies with greater force to concrete
floors made of broken brick or stone and cement,
and in a lesser degree to those in w^hich coke
breeze — that is, the riddled and washed small coke
from gas works — is used. It has been objected
that the latter is not fireproof, and, while this may
be conceded so far as the material itself is concerned,
it has been shown that when the cement is properly
mixed with the breeze in proper proportions, the
concrete so formed is impervious to fire. There is,
of course, the risk w^hich always attends the use of
an inflammatory material, that it may not be

properly protected, and this must be kept iu mind.
On the other hand, the weight of the floor is
considerably reduced. The weight of the solid
timber floor shown in Fig. 12, is said to be about
181bs. per square foot, and its cost in the United
States abont Hd. per square foot. On the other
hand, the weight of the fireproof floor, with heavy
brick arches and cast iron beams, is from 115 to
1201bs. per square foot, and its cost about 18d. per
foot. The substitution of steel girders and cross-
beams reduces alike this weight and cost. The steel
and concrete floor shown in Fig. 8, weighs about a
hundred pounds per square foot, and costs approxi-
mately 16d. per foot. The American type of fireproof
floor (Fig. 10) costs in that country a little more
than the last named, but could be more cheaply
produced in this country, where the steel joists are
lower in price. The cost of this floor for a total
load of 1251bs.5 is stated to be for a floor space of 200
feet, about 15jd. per foot, and its weight 541bs.
per square foot. The Heunebique floor, shown in
Fig. 11, weighs 279 kilos, per square Uietre, or
56*81bs. per square foot, and its cost is said to be
12 francs per metre, or about lid. per square foot.
It is, therefore, clear that while there is no
great disparity in cost between four of these
representative classes of floor, there is a great
diff"erence in the weight per square foot. This, of
course, is not unimportant, as it implies a propor-
tionately heavy load upon the columns, mi>re
especially those on the lower floors, which in the
event of a fire might lead to their breakage if
weakened by heat. In this respect the American
terra-cotta floor has some advantages, and is worthy
of consideration, but much can be done by protect-
ing the ironwork with plaster or cement. The
rigidity of the concrete floor is greatly in its favour,
because it ensures a base for the machine almost
without tremor, and one in which deflection
is practically absent. The strength of the trans-
verse joists when set in concrete is increased
by one-third, which is valuable.

The joists and rolled girders used in this country
are, as have been intimated, of X section, and the
steel is usually capable of standing a tensile strain
of from 26 to 28 tons per square inch of section,
but occasionally rises to 32 tons. The resistance to
crushing is practically equal to the tensile strength,
but the shearing strength is only about three-
fourths of that. Lloyd's test for shipbuilding steel
is a minimum tensile strength of 27 tons to the
square inch and a maximum of 31 tons, with an
elongation prior to breaking of 20 per cent in 8 inches
long. The test strip, after being heated to redness
and cooled in water at a temperature of 82° F.,
must bend double round a curve with a diameter
equal to three times the thickness of the strip.
The French Admiralty test provides for a tensile
strength of 28 tons for plates |in. and upwards
thick, and 28 J tons if thinner; the elongation
being 20 per cent on 8 inches. The tensile strength
of wrought-iron joists is from 20 to 24 tons per
square inch. In Table IV. particulars are given of
steel girders of X section, as made by Messrs.
Dorman, Long & Co., Limited, of Middlesborough,
and calculated by Mr. Myles Cooper, of Manchester.
TABLE 4.

Weight
per foot in

Dimensions, inches.

Distributed Load in tons
carried per foot

in following fractions of
breaking strain.

lbs.
Approxi-

Depth.

Width

of
flanges.

Thickness.

mate,

Web.

Flange.

ird.

ith.

^th.

64-50

-64

•82

649-17

487-41

389-92

-45

-62

422-80

317-10

254-00

-59

-81

541-51

391-97

313-57

-58

-65

322-75

242-66

193-66

45-50

-58

-70

306-35

229-84

183-87

31-50

•41

-66

212-01

159-01

127-20

•42

-56

131-86

98-89

7911

•34

•50

63-21

47-40

37-92

•36

•38

34-69

26-01

20-81

15-25

-40

•46

48-85

36-64

29-31

8-.P.0

•37

•35

19 50

14-60

11-70

For dead loads, such as are common in a mill, not
less than one-fourth the breaking strain should be
taken, but if rolling loads are needed, then one-

fifth should be used. It is not advisable to use
one-thii'd only. Suppose the girders to be borne
at distances of 20'5ft. apart and to be 16in. by 6in.,
the load per foot which they should carry would be

—if one-fourth be taken— ^^^'^^ =23-7 tons. The

20*5

area sustained with columns placed 20ft. 6in. by

14ft. 9in. apart is 302 sq. ft., and if the load be

taken at 1401bs. per square foot the load on the

girders is 18 "75 tons per foot, which is well within

the strength named, and is indeed equal to the load

taken at one-fifth breaking strain. The weight of

wronght-iron rolled joists is about 5 per cent, and the

strength from 2 5 to 30 per cent, less than those of steel.

The preservation of a correct alignment in

spinning machinery is known to be of importance,

and this is secured with much more certainty

in the English than in the American type. In

the instructions issued by the Boston Mutual

Manufacturers' Association, a table compiled by

Mr. C. J. H. Woodbury is given, which is based

upon a deflection to the extent of a curve

with a radius of 1,250ft., assuming the modulus

of elasticity of Southern pine to be •2,000,0001bs.

The calculations made must be based upon

this table, because anything beyond the standard

deflection will affect the working of the machinery.

A portion of the table to suit beams from Sin. to

14in. deep, and of spans from 10ft. to 20ft. is given.

It will be understood that the loads are for each

inch of width in the beam : —

TABLE

Depth of Beam

IN Inches.

Deflection in

n feet.

10 11

inches.

Load in

Pounds per

Foot

of Span.

89 113

154

195

244

•1200

73 98

127

161

202

•1452

62 82

107

136

169

•1728

53 70

116

144

•2028

45 60

100

124

•2352

40 53

108

•2700

35 47

•3072

31 43

•3468

—

27 38

•3888

25 35

•4332

—

22 32

•4800

On this basis the safe load for the span previously
named would be 130 cwts. as against '252 cwts.,
which is the figure if deflection be neglected. On
the other hand, the action of flame upon thick
wooden beams or columns is slow, the charring of the
surface acting as a protection to the centre, so that
a long time elapses before the beam is so weakened
as to be dangerous. As compared with unprotected
ironwork, the solid timber slow-burning floor is
much superior, but in comparison with protected
iron, steel, and concrete floors, it has no such
superiority. Recent figures tend to show that the
difference in cost between timber and fireproof floors
even in America is becoming less, so that there will
be probably a considerable increase in the use of
the latter. While this is so there remains the fact
that in countries where timber is plentiful and cheap
the American method of construction possesses
sufficient advantages to justify its adoption,
especially if applied to buildings of one or two
storeys.

As the question of the load on a mill floor is of
importance, we give a few weights and measures of
various machines and articles which will be useful.
It will, of course, be understood that the figures
given form approximations to the actual, but there
will be slight variations with different machinists.

TABLE 6.

Article.

Gotten bale

„ ,, compressed

Crighton opener, single
„ „ double

Crighton opener, single
combined with single
scutcher

Crighton opener.d'ubl
combined with single
scutcher

Superficial Measurement.

81ft

41ft

12ft. by 5tt. lOin. ...
18ft. 2in. by .^ft. lOin.

24ft. lOin. by 6ft. 9iu,
31ft. by 6ft. 6iu

Weight, Cwts.
of 1121bs.

4-5
4-9

108

150

Table 6 (Continued).

Article.

Superficial Measurement, ^'of il'.,i^s ^•

Scutching and lap ma-
chine for 40in. cards

Single, with feed-j

Double IJ

Carding machines — :
Revolving flat, 38in.!

laps 1

Roller and clearer,!

45in. cylinder, 36

For three laps — ' \

14ft.2in.by6ft.6in.; j

For three laps —
21ft.6in.by6ft. 6iu.

m. on wire

„ 45in. by 40in....;
„ 50in. by 48in....
,, double, 45iu. by

40in

Drawing frames —

Width of frame

Length of gearing...'
Gauges, per delivery

10ft. by 5ft. 6in 45

9ft. Sin. by 5ft. 6in.... 42
9ft. 3iu. by 5ft. lOin. 48
10ft. by 6ft. 6in 52

15ft. 7in. by 6ft. 6in. 62

4ft. to 5ft

2ft. 6in. to 3ft...
1ft. 2in. to 20in.

Combing machines —

6 heads 13ft. 2in. by 3ft. 6in.

8 heads 16ft. by 3ft. 6iu

Lap machines 7ft. by 4ft. 6in.

Derby doublers, 19in.! 12ft. by 6ft. 6iu.

Slubbing machines-
Width of frame.,
Length of gearing.

Gauges

Intermediate frames-
Width of frame

Length of gearing.

4ft. 6in

3ft

4 spindles in 16in.
4 „ „ I8iu.

4 ,. „ 20in.

Per

delivery,
5 to 5i

20
42

fFrom 1-06
I to 1-3 per
I spindle
[ (longest
f ram es
I lightest
L p'r sp'le).

Gauges

Roving frames —
Width of frame . .
Length of frame
Gauges

3ft fFrom 7 to

3ft ... I -9 per

4 spindles in 16in. to J spindle
19iin. ; 6 spindles j (longest

in 18in. to 21in | frames

I I lightest).

3ft

8 spindles in ISin. to
23in

I From -6 to
y -66 per
I spindle.

52
Table 6 {Continued).

Article.

Jack frames —

Width of frames...
Length of gearing

Gauges

Self-acting mule —
Width of headstock..
Width over pair of

mules

Gauges

King spinning frames-
Gearing, one end

„ both ends...
Width, 1 tin roller,..

Gauges

Doubling winding

machine —

Width of frame

Gearing and frame

ends

Gauges for bobbins )

4in., 4^in., 5in. >

lift )

King doubling
machines —

Width of frame

Gearing, one end

„ both ends , .

Cop reel, 40 hanks

Bobbin reel, double 40

hanks

Bundling press ....
Gassing frame —

Width of frame .

Gearing, etc

Gauge „

Superficial Measurement.

3ft

10 spindles in 22^in.
12 spindles in 22in
or 24in

5ft. Sin. to 5ft. 6in...

20ft. 6in

Igiu., l^in., Ifin.
Hin

2ft. 6in

4ft

2ft. 9in

3ft. 6iu

2iin., 2§in., 2^in

3ft. 4in

1ft. 9in

2 bobbins in 6in.
6Jin., 7in

3ft

2ft. Sin

4ft. 9in

24in., 2iin., 3in,, 3|in.,
3iin., 3|in., 4in

12ft. 9in. by 2ft. 7in

13ft. 4in. by 4ft

3ft. by 2ft

3ft. 2iu

2ft. lOin

2 lights in Sjin. ...

Weight, Cwts.
of ll'21bs.

• 53 per
spindle.

( From '14 to
i -22 per
J spindle,
I according
I to gauge
L & length.

From "2 to
^ '22 per
i spindle.

[ '3 to "5 per
( bobbin.

f Dry, -22 per
spindle ;
Scotch,
wet, -23
per spl. ;
English,
wet, -28
per spl. ;
Flyer
frame, '4
per spl.

3-25

•11

•37per light

53
Table 6 (Continued).

Article.

Superficial Measurement.

Weight, Cwts.
of ll21bs.

Cop wiudiog frame-
Width of frame

5ft. to 5ft. 6iu.

Gearing, etc

1ft. 7in

/ -13 to -18

Gauge

4 spindles in 5iu

oft. to 5tt. 6in

1ft. 7in

4 spindles in 5in

3ft. 8in....

( per spindle.

Bobbin winding
frame —

Width of frame

Gearing, etc

|-14 to -19

Gauge

( per spindle.

Drum winding frame —
Width of frame

Gearing, etc

2ft

f "41 to '62

Gauge bobbins, 5in.
lift

6|in

r per drum.

Pirn winding frame —
Width of frame

4ft. 6in

Gearing

1ft. 9in. to 2ft. 6in. ...

2 spindles in i^m. to

43in

•16 to '21

Gauge 1

jper spindle.

Sectional warping
machine

4ft. by 4ft

lift. Sin. by 7ft. 3in..

16ft. by 7ft. 6in

38ft. 6in. by 9ft. 6in.

19ft. by 12ft

Do. with creel

Beaming machine

Slasher sizing machine.

Circular warping ma-
chine—
12yds. swift

18
12-25

20yds. swift

27ft by 20ft

1475

Looms —

Light calico 40in. ...

Drop box 40in

Folding machines

6ft. Sin. by 3ft. 9in...
7ft. 6in. by 3ft. lOin. .
6ft. 9in. by 6ft. 3 in...

13-5
15-5
16

There is, of course, in addition to these weights,
the weight of material in the machines, the work-
people, bobbins and other accessories, and the
shafting. AVith the ordinary number of work-
people and quantity of stock, the weight (neglecting
cotton warehouse and blowing room) will be about
141b. per spindle, so that the total load will run
out about 44rb. per foot in a ring mill and 38 to 40
in a mule mill, this being, of course, exclusive of
the floor and gearing.

The question as to the fireproof condition of a
mill is one which is of the highest importance. It
is obviously a waste of money and worse to go in
for an expensive form of construction, involving the
enormous weight of a modern concrete floor building,
when the building is left in even a partially unsafe
state. There is no fact more capable of proof than
that of the destructibility of buildings in which the
weight is taken by unprotected ironwork. The
whole matter resolves itself into one of the quantity
of combustible material which is present. It is
quite true that modern English machinery, with
the exception of the mule, comprises little wood-
work, but is, on the contrary, very free from com-
bustible material. Thus it may be that the
possible heat which can be attained in a fire is not
enough to so weaken the iron columns as to destroy
the building, but there is always the danger. The
possibility of a stream of water striking one side of
a highly heated column during the progress of a fire
is always present, and a cracked column from that
cause is sufficient to bring the whole fabric down.
A wooden beam or column, 10 or 12in. square or
round, can be burned in for a depth of 2in. without
so seriously weakening it as to imperil the fabric.
So far as the protection against burning out is con-
cerned there is little to choose between the solid
plank and the fireproof floor, except that the weight
of the latter, under the circumstances named, con-
stitutes a danger. This, of course, is subject to
the condition that the solid plank floor is unbroken
by belt holes, which is not always the case in
America, where driving through the floor from
below is a very favourite practice, as shown in Fig.
20. This represents one of the weaving rooms of the
Merrimack Manufacturing Company, at Lowell.
Given, however, the unprotected condition of the
ironwork, then the destruction of the edifice is
rendered more possible. The remedy clearly is,
therefore, to cover all ironwork with some material
which is a bad conductor of heat, and which will
resist alike the effect of fire and water. In Messrs.

Coats' mill, previously mentioned, all the ironwork,
columns included, is protected ; and in the Castle
Mill, at Staly bridge, all the ironwork except the
columns is similarly protected by a coating of plaster
laid on wire netting. Special forms of netting are
made for the purpose, to which the plaster adheres
very tenaciously. The advantages of cast-iron
columns from a constructive point of view are so
great that their use is desirable if they can be
rendered safe, which, with the small amount of
combustibles present, they may be considered to be.
The prevailing type of cast-iron column also
suffers from the fact that it is rarely cast on
end, but nearly always on its side ; and, while
it is true that the result is generally a good one,
it is impossible to guarantee an even thickness
of metal throughout, although the strength is
generally such as to leave a margin of safety. It
is always desirable to retain the right to drill the
columns to ascertain the thickness of metal at
various points. Hitherto no architect has been bold
enough to use in mill construction the built steel
columns which have been employed in other forms of
constructive work. The extra resistance to flexure
possessed by a carefully designed steel column seems,
however, to point this out as the next step to be
taken in fighting fire risks. Another point of some
importance is the question of side-thrust on the
walls in the event of fire. It is contended on
behalf of concrete floors that, owing to the nature
of the material, end-thrust of the beams is obviated,
but this is a matter which has not been determined
by actual experience and cannot be settled authori-
tatively until it has. At the same time experiments,
carefully made with a section of a steel and concrete
floor made exactly like that used for a large mill,
show that the transmission of heat through a floor
of this type is very slow and that its expansion
under a fierce blaze is very slight. It may be
concluded that a concrete and steel floor, sustained
by suitable columns with the whole of the exposed
ironwork protected, gives a construction possessing

on the whole a balance of advantages. It is rigid,
strong, and practically indestructible, but is heavy,
thus necessitating a strong structure. As a matter
of fact, in the economy of a mill in which the
machines used are so long, a rigid floor is practically
an essential. Any deflection or destruction of the
alignment is a fertile source of a loss of power, and
more may be lost in money value in this way than
would repay the extra outlay two or three times.
It is, however, worth considering whether a freer
use of the honeycombed tiles shown in Fig. 10 would
not give as rigid and secure a floor as the heavier
type shown in Fig. 9. In the opinion of the writer
it would, and more especially if joined to the system
of sustaining the w^hole building on protected steel
columns and girders, so that the wall of each floor
is practically independent. The matter is one of
cost simply, and should be so considered.

A minor point in relation to this matter is that
of the construction of the doors. In most mills
these are what are styled fireproof — that is, are
made entirely of iron. Their strength, however,
is such that under a fierce fl-ime they would warp.
In Messrs. Coats' mill, previously referred to, all the
doors were of wood, being completely covered with
tinplate to prevent the direct attack of the flame, a
course which was also followed with the door frames.
The American door is made of two thicknesses of
matchboards, not more than 4in. wide, laid at right
angles and nailed together. They are covered by
tinned plates, lock-jointed and nailed under the
joint, the sheets being bent round the door, so as to
have no seams on the edges. The doors are hung
on sloping rails, and are kept open by fusible
solder attachments which melt at a temperature of
162° F. Doors so formed and protected have been
shown to be practically indestructible with ordinary
fires.

Although not really a part of fire prevention, the
use of iron ladders and landings outside the mill is
one which is widely adopted to facilitate escape in
the case of fire. Analogous to this matter is that of

the material used in the construction of the stairs.
The various plans hereafter given show the position
of these in an ordinary mill, and in Lancashire it is
the practice to make the treads and risers of Roch-
dale flagstones. It is vrell known that under the in-
fluence of heat this speedily splinters, and as the
staircase is well adapted to act as a chimney, a fire
breaking out in any of the lower rooms might have
a disastrous eff'ect in this way. By the adoption of
steel bearers and concrete treads this danger is ob-
viated, and in the case of Messrs. Coats' mill the
concrete is covered by boarding. It may be that
the staircase requires to be employed as a means of
exit, so that it is highly important to ensure its
safety. The cost of a concrete staircase will not
exceed a good flagged one.

CHAPTER V.

FIRE APPLIANCES : SPRINKLERS.

Within the past few years the practice of fitting
mills with devices for extinguishing fires has become
largely extended. In most modern mills a special
service of pipes is laid up the staircases to the
upper floors, and on each floor nipples, on to which
hose pipes can be screwed, are provided. These
pipes are coupled up to a steam fire pump, so as to
be always ready for use. In addition to this, filled
fire buckets are kept in suitable places, although it
is not always noticed that they are filled. According
to Cassier's Magazine, a superintendent in one of the
large New England mills, who had found it difficult
to keep the tire pails full and in good order, some
time ago adopted the following interesting expedient :
The hooks carrying the pails were fitted up with
pieces of spring steel, strong enough to lift the pail
when nearly empty, but not sufficiently so to lift a
full pail. Just over each spring, in such a position
as to be out of the way of the handle of the pail,
was set a metal point connected with a wire from an

open circuit battery. So long as the pails were full,
their weight, when hung on their hooks, kept the
springs down, but as soon as one was removed or
lost a considerable portion of its contents by evapo-
ration, the spring on its hook would rise, coming ni
contact with the metal point, thus closing the battery
circuit and ringing a bell in the manager's office, at
the same time showing on an annunciator where the
trouble was. As the bell continued to ring until the
weight of the delinquent pail was restored, it was
impossible to disregard the summons, and no more
reason was found to complain of the condition of the
fire buckets. But the most modem application, and
the one which is most distinctive, is found in the
extended employment of sprinkler heads. Of these
there are several types, the Grinuel being probably
the most widely known. The principle of the various
sprinklers is generally the same, but their details
vary somewhat.

In arranging an installation of sprinklers, regard
must be had to the country in which they are being
fitted up. Thus, in a climate where extreme cold
is likely to be experienced during a great part of
the year, it is desirable to take special precautions
against freezing, and what is known as the "dry
pipe " system is preferable. If, on the other hand,
a warm climate is the rule, precautions must be
taken to avoid evaporation of the water supply, and
the wet pipe can be used. As a general rule,
sprinklers should be placed at a distance of ten feet
apart, and, as with an ordinary head of water the
spray discharged will cover a radius of eight or ten
feet, 100 square feet will thus be served. Any
specially dangerous places should be provided with
an extra number of sprinkler heads, so that the
danger is minimised, and the first row of sprinklers
should not be more than five feet from the wall.
Owing to recent improvements, not only do the
sprinklers protect the floor, but their discharge is so
arranged that it strikes upwards, and protects the
ceiling also. The most important matter after the
fixing of the heads is the provision of the necessary

ik^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

water supply. It is always considered desirable to
have two sources of supply, but of these an elevated
tank should always be one. This is usually placed
in a tower, the altitude of which is such that the

Fig. 22.

base of the tank is not less than fifteen feet above
the highest sprinkler head, and a minimum pressure
of seven pounds to the square inch is desirable.
The weight of a column of water lin. square and

12in. high being '434, the pressure per square inch
can be calculated by multiplying the head in feet
by that number. This tank should always be kept
filled with water, and arrangements must be made
to ensure this. The following is a table giving
the minimum capacity of the tank for the specified
number of sprinkler heads : —

TABLE 7.

Greatest number of sprinklers on Minimum
any one floor or on corres- capacity

ponding floors of communi- of tank in
eating buildings. gallons.

Exceediug 200 7,500

Not exceeding 200 6.500

150 5,000

50 *

* 100 gallons per sprinkler for the greatest number of sprinklers
on any one floor or communicating floors, but in no case less than
3,000 gallons.

As a secondary source of supply, water from the
town's mains may be used if sufficient to give the
required pressure on the highest floor, or one of the
special automatic pumps, such as the Worthington,
may be used. The chief point to remember is that
it is absolutely requisite to have an ensured supply
under all circumstances. It is necessary to provide
a check valve which shall exclude water from the
secondary source of supply until the pressure from
the primary source has fallen below its normal
amount. The general arrangements of a sprinkler
installation are shown in Figs. 21 and 22, and in
sectional elevations, longitudinal and transverse.
The sizes of pipes to be used for conveying the
water are giv(?n in the following table, which is
the official one : —

TABLE 8.

Size of Pipe. Sprinklers Size of Pipe. Sprinklers

Inches. allowed. Inches. allowed.

I 1 3 46

1 3 3i 78
1:1 5 4 115

II 9 4| 125
If 14 5 150

2 18 6 200
2h 28

The minimum size of the main pipes must be
determined by the greatest number of sprinklers in
any one floor or corresponding floor of communi-
cating buildings. The size of the distributing pipes
must be determined by the number of sprinklers
which each is intended to serve.

The table following is the one adopted by the
Boston Mutual Manufacturer's Company, and it
will be noticed varies from the preceding one, but is
probably better for the American type of building.

TABLE 9.

Diameter „ . ,, „ Loss bv Diameter ^ • ii Loss bv

of Pipe. ^FiV^tin friction in of Pipe. ^P^^'^^f^ friction in
Inches. ^"°^«d- feet head. Diches. ^"^^^^'i- feet head.

f 1 1-3] 24 28 2-6

1 3 2'64 3 46 2-9

1^ 6 2-34 3i 70 3 1.

IJ 10 2-70 4 95 4 1

2 18 2-80

All sprinkler installations are fitted with an alarm
gong, placed outside the building, and so arranged
that on a decrease of the water pressure, such as
that caused by the opening of a siugle sprinkler,
the alarm is sounded. It is necessary that a stop-
cock shall be placed in a suitable position, so as to
be easily closed, and capable of being locked up,
and pressure gauges to show the pressure in tlie
pipes must also be provided. The essential features
in connection with this instrument may be thus
summarised. An unfailing supply of water from two
sources should be provided. A pressure of at least
7 lbs. must be on the highest head. The discharg-
ing capacity of a sprinkler head with an ordinary
orifice can be calculated by the following formula :
"55 ^p ; p = head in pounds per square inch. The
result is the number of cubic feet discharged per
minute. Thus, if the head be 71bs., the dis';harge
would be, assuming the orifice to be |in. with an
area of -IQGSin., -55 ^7 = 1 -45 cub. ft. If the head
be equal to say 401bs., then under the same

conditions the discharge would be 3*48. No greater
distance than 10ft. must exist between adjoining
heads, and this should be less in dangerous places.
The following table was given in a recent article
by Mr. Woodbury in Cassier's Magazine as applied
to the American standard type of construction, one
row of sprinklers being placed in the centre of each
bav : —

TABLE 10.

Water pressure over

Water pressure less than

Bay's

width

201bs. per sq. in.

201bs.

per sq. in.

Medium

Special

Medium

Special

in feet.

hazard.

12 .

. 8 ft. apart.

7ft. apart ...

7ft. apart

6ft. apart

11 .

. 9ft. „

8ft. „ ...

8ft. „

7ft. „

10 .

. 10ft. „

9ft. „ ...

9ft. „

8ft. „

9 .

. lift. „

10ft. „ ...

10ft. „

9ft. „

8 .

. 12ft. „

lift. „ ...

lift. „

10ft. „

A pressure indicator and one showing the height of
water in the tank must be fixed, as also an alarm
gong capable of beings tested. The following are
the requirements for a good sprinkler. It should
be certain and prompt in action, quite free from
leakage under working pressures, have distributing
power over a large area, act at a temperature as
low as is convenient, be simple in construction,
strongly made, so as not to be easily damaged, and
be arranged so as to be readily tested. The evidence
of the past few years has shown sprinklers to be
of the utmost value in the prevention of incipient
fireSf and no mill is properly equipped without
them. With them the wooden floor is compara-
tively safe, without them the fireproof floor is of
lessened value; while, if a mill is built with fireproof
floors and is farther protected by sprinklers, the
danger of serious damage by fire is rendered a
remote one.

The water delivery of any pump can be calcu-
lated easily by knowing first the diameter D of the
plunger in inches, the length of stroke in inches S,

and the number of strokes made per minute N.
The area of the plunger is -7854:0- or A, and the
delivery is in cubic inches per minute A S N, in

cubic feet per minute , , and in gallons per

minute ^ . It is better to have a slow speed

for pumps than a fast one, and anything over 70ft.
per minute is to be deprecated. It will be under-
stood that the formula j ust given applies to a single
pump, and that the results obtained must be
multiplied by two when a duplex pump is used.
The diameter of a pump plunger can be ascertained

/ G
by the formula D = J -q-u s N' ^ "^ number of

/ F
gallons per minute, or / .qq^a^ q >t = number of

cubic feet delivered per minute: G = '16045 cubic
feet, a cubic foot of water weighing 62*321bs.,
and being equal to 6*232 gallons. By means of these
data the delivery and dimensions of a pump can
be easily arrived at. The loss by friction in clean
pipes without bends is •0002961bs. per yard, but
this amount can be rapidly increased if the pipes
are dirty. There is, in cases where water has to be
raised, a certain resistauce to be overcome, and,
irrespective of any power required to account for
friction or resistance within the pump, this must be
allowed for in the case of a pump used either for
fire or sprinkler purposes.

The Worthington fire pump, of which an illus-
tration is given in Fig. 23, has been largely used by
many firms in connection with sprinkler installa-
tions. It is one of that class of pumps which give
a large delivery at a slow piston speed. The steam
valve is an ordinary slide, which for this purpose is
probably the best type to use, as the liability of
sticking is much miniaiised. The valve spindle is
actuated by a vibrating arm worked from a cross

head at the end of the spindle, so that an easy but
effective movement is given to it. The plunger
works through a metallic ring or barrel which is
bored so as to make a good fit, and so fixed in the
pump that it can be easily taken out and replaced
at will. The ring is fitted midway of the ca?ing,
and has a water space all round it. The suction

Fig. 23.

valves are at the lower part of the casing, so that
any grit or mud has a chance to fall before entering
the barrel, thus avoiding damage. The delivery
valves are at the top of the casing, and the course given
to the water is nearly a straight one. The valves are
all of large area, and can be readily examined
and replaced. In the fire pump the speed can be

increased to a large extent if desired without in any
way leading to knock or concussion, owing to the
absence of tappets and the peculiar action of the
steam valve. It is made with two cylinders, and
each steam valve is opened by the action of the
adjoining piston, so that the water valves have time
to close prior to the delivery of the water. Thus it
is a duplex double acting pump, with the cylinders
and barrels placed side by side, and each controlled
by its fellow. In applying this fire pump to a mill
where it is desired to have it act automatically, a
pressure regulator is provided, which maintains in
the pipes a uniform pressure, a slight fall in which,
owing to the opening of a sprinkler head, at once
admits steam to the valve and starts the pump.
The pressure fixed is in most cases a little below
that in the town's mains, if these are used for one
source of supply, and as the pump has no dead
centres it starts readily at any point. An auto-
matic drainage attachment is also fitted to the
steam cylinders to avoid accidents. These pumps
can be made to deliver from 80 to 1,270 gallons per
minute, according to size, or from '4 to 5*15 gallons
per stroke of each plunger.

The Meri-yweather Vertical Mill Fixed Steam
Fire Engine, illustrated in Fig. 24, has been sup-
plied to the Staines Linoleum Company for the
protection of their new works. It is specially suit-
able for fixing in mills and factories provided with
steam power, the size of the cylinders being such
that the full power of the pump may be obtained
when using steam at as low a pressure as 20 to
30 lbs. per square inch. Thus the engine is available
for use during the night or on Sundays, when the
fires are banked up and the boiler pressure has
fallen. It is constructed on the lines of Merry-
weather and Sons' Steam Fire Engine as used in
the London Brigade, but arranged vertically, thus
economising space. The pump is direct acting, and
has a long stroke and a heavy flywheel, whereby a
very even motion is secured. It is cast in one
piece with the frame, the barrels and valve seats

Fig. 24.

beiDg of gun metal and the valves of india-rubber
of special form, as used in the '' Greenwich "
engines. The whole of the interior of the pump
may be quickly examined by removing four nuts.
The suction and delivery outlets may be arranged
to suit the position in which the pump is placed.
The pump may be connected direct to the fire main
throughout the building, and screwed outlets for
the attachment of hose may also be provided.

Fig. 25.

The Grinnell automatic sprinkler, Figs. 25
and 26, which is the most extensively used and
widely known, has the peculiar feature of a spring
diaphragm, forming the valve seat. The
opening of the Grinnell is half an inch in diameter,
and the flexible diaphragm surrounds it. The
valve was until recently formed with a pad of
soft metal, which is pressed against the lip of
the diaphragm, and so closes it. The valve was
kept in position by a stirrup and lever, the

stirrup being fulcrumed on the oval yoke, and
the lever fixed to the yoke at its lower end
by fusible solder. Many hundreds of thousands
of Grinnell sprinklers made in this way have
been put into use and proved useful on occa-
sion, but the exposure of rolled brass levers to
the influences existing in mills where gas is used as
an illuminant was found to result unfavourably.
Accordingly the valve now consists of a hemispherical

Fig 26.

disc of glass, which is made to fit tightly on to the
spring diaphragm by a thin ring of Babbitt metal
placed round the orifice. To avoid corrosion and
adhesion, the diaphragm is made of German silver.
The valve is held in position by a strut, also
made of German silver, which consists of three
metallic pieces soldered together and sustained
by the yoke. The latter carries the deflector
or splash plate, and the strut is entirely pro-
tected by solder, so that every moving part of

it is rendered proof against corrosion. There are
two features in the Grinnell sprinkler which at the
time of its introduction were novel and valuable
improvements. The one is the large orifice pro-
vided, which was in striking contrast to the practice
previously followed, and ensured an ample discharge
from each head. The next point is the use of
the deflector or splash plate, which provided in a
simple but effective manner a means whereby the

Fiu. 27.

water was distributed evenly over a large area. By
the adoption of this deflector in some form or other
most sprinklers have since been distinguished, and
by slightly altering its shape the direction of the
spray can be determined. The distinctive feature
of the Grinnell, however, is found in the elastic
diaphragm, which, owing to the fact that the water
can pass behind it, always remains tight, being in
fact tightened by an increase of pressure. Further,
if water hammer occurs, this, it is claimed, is

entirely taken up and cannot cause a strain on
the strut. It ought not to be forgotten that these
features stand to the credit of Mr. Grinnell.

The Witter sprinkler, shown in Figs. 27 and 28,
consists of a body A, the upper part of which is tubu-
lar, and is closed by a valve B held up to its position
by a screw E pressing against the underside of the
valve spindle. The bridge C is detached, being
arranged so that one end rests upon a shoulder

Fig. 28.

formed in the lever F and the other upon a cross-
piece D fastened in the case. F and H are two
levers, each pivoted .at one end, and soldered
together by fusible solder at their free ends N. A
set-screw E is fixed in the bridge C, as shown, and is
set so that when the toe of C rests upon the
shoulder in F the valve B is pressed against its
seat and closes the orifice. The action is as follows : —
When the fusible solder melts, F and H drop away
and C falls from under the valve B. The water

then rushes through the orifice into the chamber G
and finds its way through the holes formed at the
top and bottom of the chamber surrounding the
tubular portion of A. By a deflector K L the spray
is distributed. It is claimed for the Witter that
the strain on the solder is diminished, and the
sprinkler can be tested when desired, which is a
feature of some importance.

The Wall worth sprinkler (Fig. 29) made in this
country by Mr. S. Walker, of RadclifFe, has its valve

Fig. 29.

seat formed of a flat upper disc, having a special com-
position beneath it, and also acting as a deflector.
The valve spindle is guided by a cross-bar attached
to the frame, and is in two parts, screwed one within
the other, so that it can be lengthened as desired.
Its lower end is hollowed, so as to engage readily
with the hollowed end of a lever pivoted at the
lower part of the frame of the sprinkler. When the
lever is rotated on its centre the hollowed end acts
as a cam and forces the valve on its seat. The lever

has a long leg, which, when in a vertical position,
has its upper extremity above the valve orifice. A
fixed horn is formed on the sprinkler body, and
when the lever is raised a link can be passed over
it and the horn, so securing it. The link is in two
pieces, secured together by fusible solder, and as the
lever is a little in tension when the solder is melted,
the spring is sufficient to release the valve instan-
taneously. The Wallworth has two advantages :
(1) its efficiency can be at any time tested by a spirit
lamp, which can be used to fuse the link, and so
prove the sprinkler to be in condition ; (2) the
pressure on the valve can be accurately adjusted.
Further, the solder seal being above the water level
is not subject to any chilling from this cause.

The Titan Sprinkler, which is made by Messrs.
Geo. Mills and Co., of Radcliffe, is shown in Fig.
30 as closed. It consists of a cylindrical body, in
which IS fixed a collar bored in the centre, through
which the spindle of the deflector passes. The
lower end of the body is formed into a valve seat,
and the inside of the deflector is filled with a soft
metal which closes the aperture well. A dished
cap is screwed on to the lower end of the body,
which serves the purpose of covering the deflector
and valve, and at the same time acts as a support to
the levers holding up the valve. An internal flange
or lip is formed on the lower part of the cap, and
on this cap one end of a channel-shaped lever rests,
the other end resting on a second straight lever,
which is also fulcrumed on the lip, but at the other
side. The second lever passes through a gap cut
in the cap and rests on a shoulder or flange of a
small collar through which a tube passes. The
tube has a flange at its upper end which rests upon
a small bracket formed on the outside of the cap.
The flange of the tube rests on a boxwood washer,
and the outer collar is soldered to the tube by
fusible solder, a second boxwood washer being inter-
posed between the end of the lever and the sealed
collar. The proportions of the two levers are
such that the strain on the fusible solder is but a

small fraction of the weight on the valve, this
forming one of the features of this sprinkler. The
other chief feature is found in the employment of
the boxwood washers, which, being non-conductors,
prevent the joint from being affected by the

chilling action of the water increasing its sensitive-
ness. When the tubular jouit is melted the support
is taken from the deflector, which immediately falls
and allows the water to flow. The deflector spindle
has a collar on its upper end which supports it on
the collar fixed in the body.

76
CHAPTER VI.

LIGHTING.

The question of lighting is a most important one,
and deserves a good deal of attention. In England
the light is usually grey, and it is very rarely that
there it is bright and clear, such as is usual in other
parts of the world. The necessity which, there-
fore, exists for a large window area in this country
does not prevail in all others. At the same time it
may be said that when the very wide rooms named
are used, some extra provision for lighting is neces-
sary. In the United States, for instance, there is
an approximation to the English type of window,
which is also being adopted on the Continent in
some measure. Lighting is not the only thing to
think about in designing a window. There is, in
addition, the very important matter of the radia-
tion of heat which takes place from glass. For in-
stance, in Russia and other countries where excessive
cold exists, double windows are the rule, and it is
very easy to see why this should be so. The radia-
tion from a large window is necessarily great, and
when the external temperature is very low, the loss
of heat must be proportionate. On the other hand,
in countries where ample sunshine and intense heat
prevail, as in India, the window area must be con-
tracted to limit the quantity of heat passed into
the room, as otherwise the conditions would become
intolerable. The size of the windows used is, there-
fore, limited in two ways, each of which, however,
affects the problem of planning. This matter is
further referred to at some length in the next
chapter. With reference to the quality of the glass
used, this is ordinarily either sheet or rough plate,
each of which entails the loss of a considerable per-
centage of the available light. Messrs. Coats used
in their mill polished plate, which is probably the
best medium available. At the same time, there are
some kinds of rolled plate which are very useful in
producing a diffused rather than a bright light, and

thus avoiding shadows. There is, therefore, plenty
of room for the exercise of thought on the subject,
and in giving two or three sketches of windows com-
mon in this country, it must be understood that they
may possibly require altering if used elsewhere.

Figs. 31 and 32.

The window shown in Fig. 31 is a very common
English type. It will be noticed that the windows
are separated by brick piers 3ft. by 3ft. 2in., which
project outwards, the window itself being 7ft. wide

and from 7ft. to 1 1 ft. high. It is carried up, as shown,
practically to the level of the ceiling, so that the
light can travel easily across the room. One point
may be specially mentioned If the transverse sec-
tion in Fig. 32 is looked at, it will be noticed that
the brick piers are arranged so as to have an in-
ternal "reveal." In other words, the window frame
is fitted into its place from without, and not from
within the building, and is received by the project-
ing brick provided for the purpose. The reason for
this procedure is found in the enormous area of the
window^, which, when subjected to the pressure of a
high wind, would, it is urged, be liable to blow in if
fixed from within. On the other hand, there are
many windows with outside reveals and large areas,
which are securely fixed. The upper sash of
the w^indow is made as a transom, so as to be easily
opened for ventilating purposes.

The window designed by Messrs. Potts, Son, and
Pickup for their latest mills is shown in Fig. 33.
as arranged for the end wail. It will be seen that
it consists of an iron or wood frame 9ft. 3in. wide,
with the wmdow head square, and having above
it the iron lintel previously referred to. The pier
between the window frames is, in this case, 5ft. Gin.
wide and about 3 ft. thick, and carries the end of
one of the longitudinal beams, which are placed
14ft. 9in. apart. Lengthwise of the mill the special
construction of the lintel, previously referred to,
enables the cross joists, carrying the floor, to be
sustained at any point where necessary. The height
of the window depends, of course, upon that of the
room ; but assuming it to be applied to a room
15ft. high, then the window area w^ould be 139
square feet. This area, it wall be seen, is not so
much broken as the example in Fjgs. 31 and 32,
the stanchions being of comparatively small
size. The window sill, as shown, ^ forms a
string course around the building. A flat-headed
window, such as this, is naturally best when used
in conjunction with a flat concrete floor, and when
so used gives an admirable diffusion of light through-
out the room.

A new system of construction, called the '^Praray,"
is being introduced into the United States, by Mr. C.
R. Makepeace, of Providence (Rhode Island), which
has for its object the provision of a large window
area. This is obtained by the employment of an
angular window and a reduction of the brick piers,
which practically makes them merely pilasters, as
shown in Figs. 34 and 35, and the difficulty with
which the constructor is at once met in this case is
that of carrying the upper floors entirely indepen-
dently of the walls. As shown in Fig. 12, the ordi-
nary American construction provides for the ends of
the main timbers being carried by the walls, and of
necessity this involves the provision of piers of
sufficient strength. In the Praray construction the

Fig. 34.

floors are carried on independent columns, which are
placed, as shown in the plan view in Fig. 35, in the
angle of the window. The brick piers may be solid,
or, as shown, hollow so as to serve for ventilating or
heating flues, and the window frames are angularly
disposed, so that the light freely enters from either
direction. In the arrangement as proposed the
window is the entire height of the room, which ap-
pears to the writer to be alike unnecessary and
detrimental, as there is no need of light near the
floor level, while the danger of breakage is increased.
If the window terminated about 3ft. 6 in. from the

floor all necessary purposes would probably be
served. As designed, however, 86 per cent of the
wall area is glass and only 14 per cent of brick,

Fig. 35.

which it will be admitted is an unusual proportion.
The section given, Fig. 36, shows clearly the arrange-
ment of a two-storey building, the hot air flue being
in the right hand corner.

With regard to artificial light the most customary
one is gas, but the employment of the electric light
is gradually being extended in this country and
elsewhere. It is admittedly a better light for

the purpose, and in cost is said to have proved
as cheap as gas for large installations. The fol-
lowing are the principal rules which are laid down
by the insurance offices, in carrying out electrical
lighting installations. The dynamo must be fixed in
a dry place, and must not be exposed to dust or fly.
It must be left quite clean and the bearings well
oiled. The coils and conductors must be perfectly
insulated, and, if possible, the dynamo itself should
be on an insulating bed. All the conductors must
be well and firmly supported, be laid so as to be
conveniently got at for inspection, and should be
marked in some way for identification. It is cus-
tomary to lay the conductors in troughs and
cover them by flat wooden strips. The switch-
boards must be made of slate, and all the
switches and commutators so constructed that
they can, after being moved, be left without pro-
ducing a permanent arc or heating. The main
circuits must each be provided with a fusible safety
catch. The proportioning of the wires must be so
carried out that they are correct for the current and
for the changes of current from larger to smaller.
Safety catches, firing at 1 50° F. must be provided
and enclosed in cases formed of incombustible
material. The heating of wires is a sign that they
are too small for their work. The permissible
limits of safe current for lighting is fixed by the
Fire Risk Committee at 1,000 amperes per square
inch of sectional area. The ampere is the unit of
current, and is obtained by dividing the electro
motive force by the resistance of the conductor, or
technically, the volts by the ohms. The intensity
of current wanted by an ordinary 16-caudle power
lamp is equal to from about '6 to 1 ampere, and
in cases where a number of lamps are in circuit, it
is more convenient to use a conductor with a
number of strands. All the circuits should be
complete in themselves, and must not be made
up by the use of gas and water pipes. Outside un-
covered metallic wires must be insulated for two
feet on each side of each supporter, which is also

insuLated, and if they are carried over roofs must
be seven feet clear above the ridge. All the
joints must be made perfect, bath electrically and
mechanically. Underground cables must be easy
of access for inspection and repairs, and all the
wires laid inside must be efficiently insulated.
Where a wire passes through a partition or is
liable to be abraded, it must be protected by a
special casing, and all wires laid out of sight must
be protected, and their position indicated. Arc
lamps must be guarded by globes, which are them-
selves protected by wire netting.

The lamps which are most usually employed for
the purpose of lighting cotton mills are of the incan-
descent type, usually 16 caudle power, and are sus-
pended from the ceiling by the conducting wires.
The following description of a recent installation
will supplement the foregoing abstract of the rules,
and will give some idea of the method of carrying
them into effect.

As a recent example, a description of an electric
installation put in by Messrs. J. H. Holmes and
Sons, of Newcastle-on-Tyne, is given. In all,
800 incandescent lamps of 16 candle power
have been fitted within the mill, 132 in each
spinning room, 80 in each cardroom, and 50 in the
mixing and reeling rooms, and 400 lamps of 200
candle power without it. A "Castle" dynamo,
with an output of 57,500 watts, and capable of
supplying 900 16-candle power lamps, is driven
from the shafting by a friction clutch at a speed of
450 revolutions per minute, which is slower than
that sometimes run. A small pilot dynamo, with
an output of 25,200 watts, and capable of supplying
395 lights, and driven by an independent engine,
is also fixed. The electrical efficiency of these
machines is 96 per cent, and the commercial effi-
ciency 92 per cent. The dynamos are compound
wound, and the electrical pressure is the same for
any number of lamps. This provides the power for
three circuits, which light the engine and boiler
houses, the offices, staircases and passages, and

about one-third of the lamps in each room. By a
special arrangement of switchboard, any room in
the mill can be put into circuit with the pilot
dynamo, which is capable of fully lighting two
rooms. The main use of the latter, however, is to
provide light prior to starting and after stoppage.
The main switchboard, which is made of polished
slate, is near the dynamo, and there are eight main
switch connections taken to a corresponding number
of cut-outs, which act if an excess of current of
150 per cent over the normal occurs. The mains
are carried on each side of the mill, so as to give a
uniform pressure, and wherever a branch wire is
placed a cut-out is inserted. Each row of lights
has a separate switch. The wires are laid in
wooden grooved cases and covered with a wood
capping, and the lamps are suspended from the
ceiling.

CHAPTER VII.

HEATING, VENTILATION, AND HUMIDITY.

The necessity for some improved method of heat-
ing, ventilating, and humidifying the atmosphere of
mills is becoming yearly more admitted. The neces-
sity is greater abroad than in England, where there
is, as a rule, a sufficient amount of humidity in the
air. But as competitive conditions become more
intense it is found that it is as essential to have a
uniformity in this respect as in others. While the
readings of a hygrometer during a week will show, if
an average be taken, the relative humidity to be,
say, 85, a detailed examination of the record will
demonstrate that there will be a variation in the
same day of as much as 12 degrees. Thus there mav
be prevailing during that period conditions w^hich
are widely divergent, and as there must be some
definite amount which is the best, it follows that
all these conditions cannot be so. What is
desired, therefore, is uniformity in the relative
humidity, and it is this factor which is causing

the wide adoption of instruments for this pur-
pose in Great Britain. Where a dry air prevails,
so that the relative humidity averages less than
that required to produce the best results, it
becomes more imperative to employ some arti-
ficial means of obtaining it. In most cases it
has been the practice to be conteat with simply
injecting or discharging into the room the required
amount of moisture, but the method of combin-
ing it with a similar discharge of the required volume
of fresh air is slowly coming into vogue. The
large range of temperatures which exists in the
United States has probably led to more drastic
treatment of this problem than has hitherto been
adopted here. The more common practice in heating
is to employ high-pressure steam, conveyed in ranges
of wrought-iron pipes suspended from 7 to 8 feet
above the floor level. Ti>ese pipes use steam at a
pressure of from 60° to 100° F , and are capable of
giving off a large amount of heat. The area which
it is necessary to provide to heat a room of any given
capacity naturally varies according to circumstances.
One rule which is given is to provide one square
foot of heating surface for each 100 cubic feet.
Another is to provide one square foot for each 10
square feet of glass or for each 120ft. of wall space.
The rule laid down by the Boston Mutual Company
is one lineal foot of l:|in. pipe for each 70 cubic feet of
air. These rules are obviously subject to adjustment
to suit various circumstances, and are only approxi-
mate. The advantage of high-pressure steam lies
in the fact that the condensation per square foot is
greater than with lower pressures, which implies
the emission of more heat units per square foot.

There is necessarily a certain loss from the trans-
mission of heat through the avails and windows of
any building, the amount varying directly with the
difference between the temperature within and with-
out the building. The German Government have
gone into this question with the usual Teutonic
thoroughness, and have laid down a rule and a
number of coefficients which are of high importance.

The formula they use are as follows : H = SC (T - ^)
where H = heat lost ; S = transmitting surface in
square feet ; C — coefficient of transmission ; T = tem-
perature inside building in degrees Fahrenheit ; and
t = temperature outside building in degrees Fahren-
heit. The coefficients C are as follows, dealing only
with those applicable to mill buildings. For each
square foot of wall, 9in. thick, 043 ; 14iu. thick,
0-29; 18in. thick, 0-24; 23in. thick, 0-21 j 24in.
thick, 0*20. For 1 square foot of wooden floor of
American type, as ceiling, 0'104 ; 1 square foot of
fireproof floor boarded as ceiling, 0*1 45 ; 1 square
foot of single window, 0'776 ; of siugle skylight,
1-118; of double window, 0-518; of double sky-
light, 0-621 ; and of door, 0-414. These are co-
efficients which are correct when the conditions are
normal, but can with safety be increased if there
are certain exposures, or if the building is only
occasionally heated. These necessary allowances
range from 10 to 50 per cent, and are greatest when
during cold weather the building is heated inter-
mittently. Assuming, however, that we are
dealing with a spinning room, with a temperature of
85° F., and an outside air temperature of 25° F., a
difference of 60° F., then, by our formula, if the
number of square feet in a single window be as in
the case of Fig. 33, the amount of heat trans-
mitted is H = 139 X -776x60 =-6471 -84 units. In
this way the transmission through the walls, ceil-
ings, and floors could be calculated, and it would
be thus easy to ascertain how much heat must be
supplied in order to recoup the loss. The case
taken is, of course, a severe one, but worse are
likely to arise elsewhere. An examination of
the coefficients will show how large a part in cold
countries thick walls, double windows, and small
window areas play in the conservation of heat.
There is another matter which requires mention on
this head, viz., the fact that ceiling transmission
may play an important part in the abstraction of
heat. For instance, in a slate roofed weaving
shed with nothing on the bare slates, within or

■without, the temperature would soon be diminished
by radiation through the roof only ; and when to
this is added the large glass area always present, it
will be seen that the area of heating surface re-
quired is greatly increased. In a spinning mill,
where the various rooms are kept practically of the
same temperature, the transmission through the
ceilings and floors may be neglected except in the
top floor ; but it is obvious that the abstraction of
heat through the windows and walls cannot be
neglected. It follows, therefore, that this trans-
mission requires the careful attention of designers,
and although the empirical rules given previously
will probably be sufficient for practical purposes, the
coefficient stated will prove the absolute necessity
for discretion in constructing and an*anging plants
for heating.

The quantity of air which can be heated by lib.
of steam, condensed into water and discharged at
any temperature, can be calculated by the follow-
ing formula. The specific heat of air is relatively
to water "2379, whence 4-20341bs. of air can be
heated at the same expenditure of heat as lib. of
water.

Let T = Heat units contained in lib. of steam at any abso-
lute pressure.
^ = Heat units in lib. of water of condensation.
"\V = \Yeight of one cubic foot of dry air at initial

temperature.
V = Volume of air which can be heated by lib. of

steam.
X = Number of degrees air must be raised.
X = Volume of air raised required number of degrees
by lib. of steam.

Then i:?2iylz^ = VaudX=^X
VV N

Having obtained the value of X, the number of lbs.
of steam which are needed to heat any given space
can be easily obtained. Thus, assuming that steam
at lOOlbs. absolute is used, containing 12134 heat
units and condensed, the water then containing
212-9 heat units ; that the initial temperature of
the air is 40° F., at which the weight of one cubic

foot is •07941bs. ; and that it is desired to raise it
to 80° F., or 40° in all, then the formula works
^^^ 4-2034 (1213»4-2129)^,,,gg ^^^^ 52966^

•0794 40

1324*15 cubic feet of air raised through 40° F. by
the condensation of lib. of steam. If now 50,000

cubic feet are to be warmed ^-—^ — -— = 37 'Gibs, of

132415

steam are required for the purpose. The value of
high pressure, as compared with low pressure, steam
as a heating medium, depends entirely upon the
additional condensation per hour from each square
foot of surface. This is obtained by multiplying
the difference in temperature between the air and
steam at initial pressure, or between the terminal
temperature of the condensed water and the initial
temperature of the steam, by the number of heat
units passed per square foot of surface per hour at
any given temperature of the air, and dividing the
product by the latent heat of steam at atmo-
spheric pressure. It will be found that this
amount rises with the initial pressure of the
steam. With reference to the amount of heat
emitted. Dr. Anderson gives a formula as follows :
T = temperature of air, t = difference in temperature
between steam and air, m = co-efficient of radiation,
and ^i = total heat units emitted per square foot.
The value of m for a coil of 2m. galvanised wrought-
iron pipes is 270*9, and for a coil of 4in. cast-iron
pipes, 121-7. Then u = mx 1 •00427'^(1 '00427* - 1)
-I- 2853 X J '233. It has been shown that the
emission of heat from a cast-iron pipe 4ins. dia-
meter, Jin. thick, and with an area of 1 '309 square
feet per lineal foot is 664 thermal units into air at
62° F., with a condensation of •991bs. of steam at
115lbs. absolute. The rule given by Mr. Eobert
Briggs for open pipe radiators is 1*8 unit per
hour per square foot of heating surface per de-
gree difference in temperature between the steam
and air. Thus each square foot of wrought-iron
pipe would, with steam at lOOlbs. absolute pressure,

at a temperature of 327*7°, if cooled to 80° F., yield

247-7 X 1-8 units per hour = 444'86. Dividing this

by the latent heat at atmospheric pressure, we get

444*86

„-, - = •461bs. of steam condensed, which will
yoD'T

enable the quantity required to be ascertained.

The water of condensation is sometimes passed

away by the employment of a steam trap of the

usual construction, but is more often returned to

the boiler by means of a special form of trap. In

order to facilitate the necessary calculations, Tables

24 to 26 are given at the end of the volume,

showing the properties of saturated steam, the

w^eight, etc., of air, and the heat units in water.

Table 11 gives the surface areas of various diameters

of tubes per foot run : —

TABLE 11.

SuRFACR OF Tubes in Square Feet per Ltkeal Foot.

rJiam.

Thickness in Inches.

Inches.

1 \ h

■i

•0327

•0654

•0982 -1309

•1636

•1963

•2291

•2618

•2945

•3272

•3600 1 -3927

•4^254

•4581

•4909

•5236

•5563

•5890

•6218 ^6545

•6872

•7200

-75-27

•7854

•8181

•8508

8836 ^9163

•9490

•9817

1-0145

1-0472

1^0799

1-1126

1^1781 1-1781

1-2108

1-2435

1-2763

1-3090

1-3417

1-3744

1-4399 1 1-4399

1-4726

1^5053

1-5381

Instead of adopting the plan of heating by
suspended steam pipes, the practice of forcing
into a factory air which has been previously
heated and, if necessary, humidified, is being
adopted. It entirely depends upon the source of
supply whether any improvement is made in the
ventilation or not. If the air is drawn in from
without it is obvious that a complete change of
that within the room will take place. If, on the
other hand, the same air is used over and over
again, the injection of moisture does not affect the
ventilation. No delusion is greater than that
which infers the establishment of healthy ventila-

tion merely by the presence of a large cubic area
within a room. The removal of foul, and the re-
placement of it by fresh, air is absolutely essential
to ventilation. This is recognised by the Cotton
Cloth Factories' Act, and the plan generally
adopted is to place air propellers in suitable positions
throughout the room so as to extract the foul air.
The usual method of fixing these is shown in Fig-
37, which is an illustration of the use of a " Black-
man " propellor. The exit trunk is made of wood,
and is provided with doors so hung that they close
automatically, thus avoiding back draughts. The

Fig. 37.

usual size of propellor for each 2,500 square feet of
floor surface is 14in. diameter, and this will move
from 1,000ft. to 1,500ft. of air per minute. The
cost of providing air-propellors, including fixing and
belting, ranges from <£6 to £Q 10s. each in this
country. The ventilation of a sizing room is spe-
cially arranged, there being hoods over the drying
cylinders, by which the steam is confined and con-
ducted to an exit trunk fitted with bafiles to pre-
vent down currents. So far as spinning mills are
concerned, the only rooms dealt with are the card-
rooms, where in some cases air-propellors are fixed
in the window near the cards to extract the fibre.

Although this tends to improTcment, it is neither
so scientific or effective as the more modern
principle, which forces the air into the room.
It is well known that the capacity of air
for the reception and retention of moisture is
greater when the air has been previously heated.
Accordingly the practice is increasing of in-
jecting air which is both warmed and charged
with humidity. In Fig. 38 some sketches are
given of an arrangement designed by the Stur-
tavant Company for application to a modern
American mill. Although this is only devised to
deal with the injection of heated air, it is perfectly
easy to introduce into the air the required amount
of humidity. In this way a perfect ventilation is
obtained, and the air of the room kept at an even
temperature.

The reason for the commencement of humidifying
in this country was to enable tiie easier weaving of
the heavily-sized calicoes. In the United States of
America, and other districts where there is a preva-
lent dry atmosphere, the practice of introducing
humidity into the air has long been known. Further,
it has been discovered that there are certain places
where the extra dryness of the air seriously militates
against successful manufacture. In spite of this
the growth of scientific methods of humidifying has
been very slow. The flooding of the floors of
spinning and weaving rooms with water is a
recognition of the necessity for some provision of
the sort, the operation here being a slow evaporation
arising from the heat of the rooms. All these plans
are crude and unsatisfactory, alike from the point
of view of efi'ectiveness and economy, and it is not,
therefore, surprising that other modes were sug-
gested. The first plan adopted was to inject
steam into the room with pipes carried across, but
the humidity necessary was obtained only at the
cost of a largely increased temperature combined
with the extensive deposition of moisture. As
a result of the opposition to the injection of
steam the Cotton Cloth Factories' Act was

passed, and fixed by its provisions the quan-
tity of air to be supplied per head, and the
maximum amount of humidity which was permis-
sible. Six hundred cubic feet of fresh air per
person was fixed as the air supply, and a schedule
of maximum humidities was also drawn, which has
been since slightly amended, the amended table
being given as Table 12. The importance of the
introduction of fresh air arises from the fact
that it improves the condition of the atmosphere
from a sanitary point of view, a considerable
reduction in the volume of carbonic acid being
effected. At this point it may . be well to
give a word of warning as to the form of hygro-
meter used. A standard instrument is made
by Messrs. John Davis and Sons, Derby, of which
Mr. Osborn says : " This firm has produced an ex-
cellent hygrometer, in which the glass of the tube
magnifies the mercury column, so as to render the
errors in taking the readings which arise from the
ordinary thread-like columns impossible with ordi-
nary sight." The essence of a correct hygrometer
is the entire separation of the reservoir of water
from the dry bulb thermometer, and it should be
not less than 4 inches away. In many instruments
sold for this purpose the construction is such that
the position of the reservoir must affect the dry
bulb thermometer. One form is sold in which a
reservoir for cold water is provided between the two
thermometers, thus exercising a decidedly chilling
effect. Care must be taken to keep the resei-voir of
the wet bulb thermometer filled with water.

It should be carefully noted that the figures
in Table 12 (see page 94) indicate the
maximum limits, and do not mean that they
must always be worked to. In all practical
appliances for producing humidity in weaving sheds,
therefore, there are two factors to be kept in view,
the introduction of the defined volume of air, and
the charging of it with the requisite moisture. For
spinning rooms, the introduction of the air is not so
essential. It can now be seen how it is proposed
to effect these objects.

TABLE 12.
Maximum Limits of Humidity of Atmosphere at given
Temperatures.

> O !^

ol2

go's

•5 .

iji

Go .2
^ 1

1 Grains of vapour
per cubic foot
of air.

bS bb

O .'H

III

1-9

6-6

2-0

6-9

2-1

2-2

68-5

85-5

2-3

2-4

2-5

70-5

81-5

2-6

7-65

71-5

81-5

2-8

8-0

2-9

8-0

73-5

3-1

8-25

74-5

77-5

3-2

8-55

75-5

77-5

3-3

8-6

3-4

8-65

76-5

3-5

8-85

77-5

3-6

8-9

3-8

9-2

3-9

f.3

9-5

9-55

80-5

4-2

9-9

81-5

4-4

10-25

82-5

4-5

10-3

10-35

83-5

4-9

107

84-5

11-0

85-5

5-2

111

5-4

l]-5

5-6

11-8

5-8

11-9

88-5

65-5

6-0

12-0

6-2

12-3

6-4

127

100

There are two principal opposing schools on this
subject, who each employ a special set of appliances.
There are first, those appliances which produce a
spray by the action of an air or water jet under
pressure against an emerging stream of water ; each
appliance being practically complete in itself and a
series of the instruments being disposed about the
room. In America, these are called with admirable
directness "atomisers." In the second place there
is that class of apparatus w^hich charges the air
with the moisture prior to injecting it into the
room and distributes it by means of pipes.

The Drosophore, which is one of the first type,
produces the necessary subdivision by the action of
two water jets. Two nozzles (see Fig. 39), one des-
cending and the other ascending, are placed exactly
opposite each other. The aperture in the lower
nozzle is slightly smaller than that in the upper
one, but both are fed from the same source, with
w^ater at about lOOlbs. pressure. The water emerging
from the larger aperture is met by the ascending
jet, and forced into a fine spray, while the force of
the downw^ard current is sufiScient to create a rapid
current of air, which, with the atomised moisture is
discharged into the room, being distributed by the
action of a dished plate. The method of arranging
these instruments about a room is shown in Figs.
40 and 41, as applied to a ring spinning room and
weaving shed respectively. The Drosophore has
been largely adopted, and is made in two forms,
one of which can be easily fixed into the windows,
(see Fig. 40) so as to act, if necessary, as a venti-
lating apparatus. The water used can, if desired,
be heated.

The second class of humidifying apparatus takes
two forms. In the first a steam nozzle is fixed at
the entrance to a tube connecting either to the
outer air or to the room to be treated, and by
means of which a combined mixture of steam and
air is injected into the building. Mr. Iloger Pye,
of Blackburn, makes an appliance of this nature
(see Fig. 42), and in his case he distributes the

combined air and vapour into the room by maiu
pipes and branches from them (see Fig. 43). The
pipes are made of zinc, and are provided with out-

lets, the area of which can be closed by small
slides in order to regulate the distribution. This
device is simple and under control, and a water jet
is supplied by which, if desired, a small quantity of

.-^^

T i T

A i Jc

■Wl-

■:

•w

;

*—'

3.
1 <

A--

water can be injected. A test of the air of a
weaving shed provided with this appliance before

Fig. 42.
and after it was fitted showed 18 8 parts of C0._, per
10,000 before, and 7*6 after. A second shed pro-
vided with two fans per 1,000 looms, showed 14 1

S KCTt O r^ ffrroujlh A. b.

Fig. 43.

100

parts before, and 7 parts after application ; and a
spinning room with two fans to 22,000 spindles
showed 15 "7 before, and 6*2 afterwards. This is a
fair sample of the purification obtained by the
introduction of fresh warmed air, and must have a
great influence upon the health of the operatives.

Another form adopted by Messrs. Jas. Howorth
and Co., of Farnworth, is Lofthouse's apparatus,
which is of the absorption type, and shown in Fig. 44.
This consists, first, of a cylindrical vessel B, into
which the air is drawn by the suction of a fan C placed
beyond it. In this chamber the air can be heated
by steam as it passes through. The hot or cold
air, when taken from this chamber, is discharged
by a pipe passing down the centre of a cylindrical
vessel D. The pipe discharges a little above the
bottom of the vessel, in which is always kept a
certain depth of water, regulated by means of a ball
tap, as shown at E. At the upper part of this
vessel the discharge pipe leaves and is conveyed
through the room which is being treated. In this
pipe are placed the requisite number of discharging
orifices, for each of which a small distributor is
provided. The distributor is given a rotary move-
ment by the passage of the air, and ejects it in
all directions. The efi'ect of this arrangement is
that, whether heated or not, the air is sent with
great force into the water, and produces in it a
considerable disturbance, being practically passed
through it. The result is that it is charged with
moisture very thoroughly, and, when it leaves the
vessel, contains a mixture of air and vapour in an
intimate condition. The height of the second
vessel is such that no drops of water can be carried
over. It is quite true that there is a slight
deposition of water which has not been absorbed by
the air, but it is not great, and, what is important, it
takes place in the conveying tubes, and the water does
not find its way through the distributors. In connec-
tion with this apparatus it may be mentioned that
by means of a special indicator it may be set so as
to fix the quantity of moisture injected per hour.

101

Messrs. Howorth also make an apparatus of the
spray type, which, however, in some respects
partakes of the principle of the "Lofthouse." It
consists of a cylindrical vessel, at one side of which

is a fan, and within which is a sprayer consisting of
a drum provided with fins or vanes. This revolves
at a quick speed, and as it dips into water at each
revolution it produces a very fine and copious spray.
The water is kept at a constant level by means of a

102

tank and ball tap. By means of a steam coil the
water can be heated to any extent which may be
desired, and the result is that as the air is driven
through the spray it takes up a large volume of
moisture, thus acting as an absorber. The humid
mixture is then driven forward by a tube, and is
delivered into the air by a sort of distributing tray,
forming it into a broad current which rapidly
spreads over the room. Although the water is
heated to a considerable extent occasionally, the air
enters the room at the ordinary temperature. This
is very remarkable, and enables the apparatus to be
used as a heating and ventilating device as well as
a humidifier. The apparatus is arranged to be fixed
to a wall so as to be out of the way, and will deliver
up to five gallons of water per hour, all of which can
be ejected into the room.

A very simple plan has been adopted by Messrs.
Potts, Son, and Pickup in some recent examples.
Beneath the floor, in lines extending under the
looms along the shed, small trenches or culverts
are formed, which are kept full of water. The
culverts are made by a specially moulded brick, in
the underside of which a semicircular groove is
formed which is kept filled with water. The
distance between the crown of the groove and the
top of the brick is small, and it is found that the
porosity of the brick allows the water to ooze
through it, and thus be gradually absorbed by the
air in the room. Two of these bricks are placed
side by side, and as they come underneath the loom
the moisture immediately affects the warps. It is
obvious that this system is difficult to apply to
a spinning room, but there are many other uses to
which it is admirably suited. It involves, of course,
the preparation of the floor, but the results have
been found satisfactory. This system is also appli-
cable to conditioning rooms.

The value of humidity in a textile factory is that
it preserves the natural moisture in the fibre being
treated, and enables it, as far as possible, to
maintain its original condition. The heat of

103

spinning-rooms iti cotton mills, for instance, is
such that unless there was some vapour contained
in the air, the amount of natural moisture, which is
about 8 per cent, would very speedily be diminished.
On the other hand it is equally necessary that the
temperature of working should be high, in order to
soften and render flexible the natural coating of wax
surrounding the fibre.

It has been pointed out that there is a difficulty in
maintaining an even degree of humidity if natural
means only are employed ; and, further, the usual
method of heating mills has the disadvantage of
drying the air. The presence of heated steam pipes
in a room, especially if they are filled with high
pressure steam, speedily leads to a drying of the
air. This property has an immediate effect upon
any fibres which are dealt with in such an atmo-
sphere. In cotton an electrical condition is created,
which causes the fibres to project outside the thread
or roving, and thus escape being twisted into the
yarn, wbich is weakened thereby. To avoid this
trouble — which is greater abroad than in this
country — humidification is absolutely necessary. It
has been proved by repeated observations that when
a uniform relative humidity is maintained the
evenness of the weight and substance of the yarn
is better obtained, and tliis is a matter of supreme
importance.

As to the exact amount of humidity to be produced
in any room, this is a point upon which nothing
definite can be said. The amount needed is often
lower than is sometimes thought to be necessary,
but there are so many circumstances which affect
the problem that it is quite impossible to give even
an approximate rule. If, however, the form of the
humidifier be determined on, then the ascertain-
ment of the exact conditions is easy, and requires
little, if any, trouble, The only thing to be noted
is that the advantage of artificial humidity is that
the required degree can be obtained with exacti-
tude independently of the ordinary meteorological
fluctuations. Accurate records which have been

104

kept demonstrate that when a proper degree of
humidity is maintained, not only does the evenness
of the thread produced improve, but the amount of
waste made by the clearers is less. On the other
hand, an excess of humidity causes licking, and tells
against economical work.

CHAPTER VIII.

CALCULATION OF MACHINES IN MILL.

To illustrate for the guidance of readers the
method of planning a cotton spinning mill for any
particular counts, the following example is given : —
The calculation is affected by two factors, the draft
given in the various machines and the spindle speeds
adopted. The production is affected by each of
these, so that they must be fully considered. As-
suming that 32's twist is to be spun, and that a
start is made from a drawn sliver of '16 hank,
then the hank slubbing being -625, intermediate
roving 1*75, and roving 4 hank, the calculation for
the machines would run out as follows : — With a
spindle speed of 600 revolutions and a roller speed
of 161 the production per hour would be l*61b.
In like manner the intermediate frame spindles
with a velocity of 800 revolutions and a front roller
speed of 132 would each produce '561b. per hour,
and the roving spindles running 1,000 revolutions
with a front roller speed of 119 would each pro-
duce 'IQlb. per hour. Putting the production of
the mule at "01 81b. per hour, and of the ring frame
at 'OSllb. per hour each, with a spindle speed of
7,000 revolutions, then we are enabled to formulate
the number of machines required to produce a given
weight. To produce 30,0001bs. per week of 56
hours or 535-71bs. per hour, 29,761 mule spindles or
17,358 ring spindles would be required. To pro-
duce the roving for these, allowing for waste say
5*31bs. per hour, making altogether 5411bs. of
roving wanted, 2,847 roving spindles are required.
Now making an allowance of lOlbs. for waste,

105

5511bs. of intermediate roving is required, thus
necessitating the use of 984 intermediate spindles.
If Ulbs. be considered to be a fair allowance for
waste^ then to produce 551 + 11 = 562]bs. hourly
340 slubbiug spindles are needed. Plus waste
121bs., 5741bs. of drawn sliver are required from the
finishing head, so that with a production of IS'Slbs.
per hour the number of finishing deliveries of drawing
required are 30. If three passages are made 90
heads in all are required. Coming to the carding
engines and allowing for the waste there made,
which would not be less than 281bs., w^e get the
need for 6021bs. of carded sliver per hour. As-
suming the production to be 8501bs. per week, or
151bs. per hour, 40 carding engines are required.
We have thus got the following as the needs of a
mill of the capacity named. 29,761 mule spindles
or 17,358 ring spindles, 2,847 roving spindles, 984
intermediate roving spindles, 340 slubbing spindles,
90 drawing heads, and 40 carding engines. To pre-
pare the cotton for the carding engines three
finishing and three breaking scutching machines
would be sufficient, and by running an opener at
its full capacity one vertical opener would suffice.
In addition to these machines the usual bale
breaking and mixing machines would be required.

Having got the above particulars, the next thing
is to settle the size of the machines used, so as to
get a convenient mill. Taking the mules, 28, each
containing 1,095 spindles, could be used. These,
if Ifin. gauge, would be 131ft. long, and would
necessitate a room of 137ft. internal width.
Seven pairs of mules being in each room, its length
would be about 165ft., so that the card room and
basement would be 165ft. by 137ft., and in that
space the cards, drawing frames, and all roving
frames want disposing. This is a matter of planning
which can be easily worked out from the known
spaces occupied by the various machines.

If ring frames are employed instead of mules the
planning will be affected, because the 17,358 ring
spindles would have to be arranged so as to give

106

the most profitable results. As a rule in this
country, at the ordinary high speeds, from 600 to
650 ring spindles can be attended to by one
minder with the aid of the doffers. As there is
a passage between each pair of machines, this
means that the attendant could best manage the
spindles on two adjoining frames. Thus a frame
of 300 to 325 spindles would fulfil this condition,
and these would occupy— if 2|in. gauge— about
35ft. 6in. and 38ft. respectively. Placing two
frames across the room, and allowing 8ft. for alleys,
would give a building 79 or 84ft. wide. This will
obviously affect the planning, and would probably
render it necessary to have two card rooms instead
of one. It will, of course, be understood that these
instances are only given as examples to illustrate
the procedure of planning. There are many other
considerations which must be taken into account,
such as, for instance, the class of cotton used, as
this factor affects the quantity of finished material
from a given weight. A change in the drafts of
the various machines modifies their output, and so
alters the proportions of each used, while the
acceleration or diminution of the velocities still
further affects the calculation.

In laying out a thread mill two sets of machines
are required. It is customary in making thread to
twist two ends of yarn together first, and, after
re- winding, to twist three of the doubled threads
together. In this way six-fold sewing thread is pro-
duced. This method of working implies the use of
doubling winding machines. The output of these
depends upon the counts which are wound, but an
average speed of working is one in which 5,000
inches of each end of yarn is wound on to the
bobbin per minute. In thread making this speed is
exceeded ; but assuming it to be correct, 139 yards
of each end per minute will be wound. If two-fold
thread is to be made, this would mean that 278
yards would be wound per minute. Thus the
number of yards wound per week of 56 hours can
be easily obtained by multiplying the number of

107

yards wound per minute by 3,360. From
the product a percentage of from 7 J to 10
can be taken for stoppages, and the remainder
being divided by 840 will give the number
of hanks. By dividing the latter by the counts
of single yarn, the output of the winding frames
can be obtained. Thus let it be supposed that
50's two-fold are being wound, the weekly number
of yards wound per bobbin will be 2 x 1 39 x 3360 =

934,080 - 93,408 = ^^^ ~ ^^^ = 1002 ^ 50 = 2002
840

lbs. per week. A ring doubling frame with a
spindle speed of 6,000 revolutions per minute will
produce of 50's 2-fold, with a twist of 25 turns to
the inch, 16oz. per week, so that one drum of
doubling winding is equal to 20 twisting spindles
on this computation. In dealing with the re-
winding, the 50's 2-fold must be looked upon as
25's single, and the computation of the output of
the rewinding machines must be made on the basis
of three ends of 25's yarn. This illustration will
suffice to show the principle, but it is not possible
to give an accurate statement of the output of
doubled yarns, because the counts twisted and the
number of turns per inch vary so much. The pro-
ductions are, even with yarn of the same class,
widely different, owing to the variation in the
twist given. In addition to the machines named,
the following are required for polishing and
spooling. A winding frame for producing spools, a
beaming machine, a cleaning machine, dyeing becks,
or bleaching keirs, a second beaming machine, a
beam polishing machine, a re-winding machine, and
the necessary spooling machines. If soft thread is
wanted the polishing machine is dispensed with. A
polishing machine is capable of producing 1201bs.
of SO's three-fold in 10 hours, and the plant named,
less the polisher, will turn out 5,6701bs. per week
of soft thread. A spooling machine of eight heads
will produce 26 gross of 200yd. spools in lOJ hours,
or 748,800yds. of thread. The equipment of a

108

thread mill is simple, but no uniform procedure can
be laid down owing to the variation in the circum-
stances. If the doubled thread is for lace
purposes it is cleared and gassed, and for these
operations vertical spindle winding machines and
gassing frames are required.

In planning a weaving shed regard must be had
to the character of the cloth it is intended to
weave. The output of a loom is determined
mainly by two factors— the number of picks
put in per minute and per inch. These are
what determine the speed of the loom, and
depend naturally upon the character of the work.
Thus a plain calico or twill can be woven at a higher
speed than a fancy or leno cloth. It is, therefore,
essential to know the number of picks made
as a preliminary to calculating the output
per loom, and following that the number re-
quired. A fair output of plain cloth 30 inches
wide from one loom is 250 yards in 56 hours. The
other machines required to prepare the yarn for
weaving are first :— Cop or bobbin winding machines
to produce warper's bobbins 1 -5 spindles to each
loom, one beam warping machine to each 80 to 90
looms, and with a medium number of picks per
minute, one slasher sizing machine for each 300 to
330 looms. To these must be added the necessary
frames for drawing-in, etc If the yarn has to be
dyed reels are necessary for winding it into hank,
drum winding machines for re-winding it on to
warper's bobbins after dyeing, and pirn winding
frames for preparing the weft for use in the shuttle.
The output of a bobbin reel on 20's twist in a w^ek
of 5Q hours is SOClbs. ; of a cop reel in the same
time 4001bs. A fair apportionment of the other
machines named is as follows :— Pirn winding
machine, 5 spindles to each loom; hank winding
machine, 4 bobbins to each loom. If the warping
is done, as is now somewhat common, on a sectional
warping machine, one such machine can be provided
for medium counts for each 60 looms. All these
proportions must be varied in accordance with the

109

counts of yarn and permissible velocity. The ex-
amples given on pages 109 to 116 will further
illustrate the range of machines required in a com-
plete installation, and fairly represent the general
arrangement of a weaving shed.

CHAPTER IX.

EECENT EXAMPLES OF MILLS.

In Fig. 45 a view is given of the Minerva Spinning
Company's Mill, and in Fig. 46 a plan of the card
room. This mill is designed to spin 40's twist and
65's weft yarn, the machinery being made by Messrs.
John Hetherington and Sons, Limited, and has since
it commenced work fully given good results. It was
designed, so far as the mill building is concerned,
by Mr. Sidney Stott, of Oldham. In another portion
of this issue we give particulars of the engines. The
mixing room is provided with the usual machinery,
by which the cotton is fed to two combined single
openers and single scutching machines, the openers
being on the Crighton principle, and fitted with the
special grids patented by Messrs. Hetherington.
There are four single-beater intermediate scutching
ma chines with lap attachment, and four single-
beater machines for finishing the laps. The latter
produce laps 38in. wide, to supply cards with that
width of wire. The plan shows that the mixing and
blowing rooms are divided from the main mill by
the rope race. The carding engines, of which there
are 93, are of the revolving flat type. The diameter
of the cylinder is 50in., and, as has been said, they
are 38in. wide on the wire. The flexible bend is
trued up by the makers' special apparatus, and is
fitted close up to the cylinder edge so as to obviate
"blowing out." The flats are 104 in number, of
which 42 are always at work, and they are clothed
over their whole surface. The drawing frames are
nine in number, each frame having three heads of

11:

seven deliveries each, and 18in. gauge. They are
fitted with front and back stop-motions, and sinf^le
preventers. As will be seen from the plan they are
conveniently placed among the slabbing frames, so
that the drawings can be dealt with without undue
labour. The slubbing frames are also nine in
number, and have 86 spindles each, four spindles
in 20in. Adjoining these are the intermediate
frames, of which there are 13, with 132 spindles,
six in 19fin. It will be seen that the drawing'
slubbing, and intermediate frames occupy the
same row, and the number of deliveries, or
spindles, are such that all of them are as nearly as
possible the same length, about 39ft. The roving
frames are in the same room, and are 40 in number,
each of them having 180 spindles, with eight
spindles in 20in. This gauge makes the length of
the roving frames over all iOft. 6in. These frames
have extra large cones, which are as far apart as
possible, and there are several features of interest
in them which space does not enable us to deal
with. In the first spinning room there are 20
mules each with 1,320 spindles l^in. gauge ; in
the second 16 mules each with 1,326 spindles
IJin. gauge, and 10 mules each with 1,086
spindles If in. gauge; and in the third room 26
mules each with 1,092 spindles Ifin. gauge. It
is perhaps worth calling attention to the additional
spindles which are fitted in the higher spinning
rooms, as compared with those immediately below?
The narrower gauge is of course used for spinning
weft, there being in all 47,616, and the wider for
the twist mules, of which there are 39,252. The
total number is, therefore, 86,868. The mules used
in modem mills have, during the past few years,
been remodelled, and are much more simple and
effective. They have also been so far strengthened
that a much larger output is got and higher speeds
obtained, which cheapens production. Summarising
the machinery in this mill, therefore, the account
runs thus : —

113

Mule Spindles.

2 vertical openers and scutchers = 1 to 43,434

4 intermediate scutchers = ,, 21,717

4 finishing scutchers = „ 21,717

93 carding engines = ., 934

63 finishing deliveries of drawing = \, 1,380

792 slubbiug spindles = ,, 109'7

1,716 intermediate spindles = „ 50-6

6,680 roving „ = „ 13

86,868 mule „ =

As was said, this mill has now been working fcr
some time, and has during that period been
successful, the production of 38's twist averaging
30 i^ hanks per spindle per week, and of 56's weft
26| hanks.

In Fig. 47 a view of the Milton Spinning Com-
pany's mill at Mossley, designed by Messrs. Stott and
Sons, of Manchester is given, and in Fig. 48 a plan
of the card room. This mill has also been filled
with machinery by Messrs. John Hetherington and
Sous, Limited, and was arranged to spin 46's weft
from American cotton, but is actually spinning a
very wide range of counts, from 12's to 70's wefr.
It will be observed that there is in this plan
a deviation in the arrangement from that preced-
ing. The mixing and blowing rooms do not
occupy, as before, the whole of the ground floor at
one end. There are in the former the usual
feeding machines, which deliver to three combined
openers and single scutchers, followed by five
single beater intermediate, and five finishing
scutching machines. There are 81 revolving flat
cards of the same pattern as those previously
named, with 50in. cylinders, 45in. on the wire.
It will be seen that this mill is fitted with wide
cards which, in some respects, are preferred for
certain counts. The drawing frames are nine in
number, each with three heads of eight deliveries
and 18in. gauge. The arrangement of these frames
relatively to the slubbers is similar to that pre-
viously described. Of the slubbing frames there are
nine, each containing 96 spindles, 4 in 19in. The
intermediate frames number 17, each of 144 spindles,

116

with 8 spindles in a box 25. Hn. gauge. The roving
frames number 42, each of which has 184 spindles,
and 8 spindles in a box 20in. gauge. As before, the
lengths of these frames approximate, which is a
very convenient practice. The mules are all
designed for the spinning of weft yarns, and are
contained in three rooms. In the first room there
are 24 mules, each with 1,356 spindles l^in.
gauge, in the second 24, each 1,368 spindles, l^yu.
gauge, and in the third 24, each having 1,344
spindles llin. gauge. It is somewhat noticeable
that the number of spindles in each room very
closely approximates, being, in the first room,
32,544, in the second, 32,832, and, in the third,
32,256, making a total of 97,632. An average pro-
duction of 24J hanks per week of 70's weft is
being obtained. Pursuing the same procedure as
before, this mill contains : —

Mule Spindles.

3 opening machines = 1 to 32,544

5 intermediate scutchers = 1 „ 19,526

5 finishing „ .-^ i ^^ 19,526

81 cardins: engines =^1,, 1,205-3

72 finishing drawing deliveries ... = 1„ 1,3437

864 slubbing spindles = 1 „ 113

2,448 intermediate = l '^' 399

7,728 roving .".' = 1 " 12-6

97,632 mule

The details of these two mills vary somewhat,
but if the counts to be spun are taken into con-
sideration, the variation is fully accounted for. The
plan and arrangement of the card rooms in both
instances is very good and compact.

In Figs. 49 to 52 illustrations are given of
a mill plan supplied by Messrs. Howard and
Bullough. The mill, when finished, will spin
yarns from 20's twist to 44's weft. The general
elevation of the mill is shown in Fig. 49, the
card room plan in Fig. 50, the first floor plan in
Fig. 51, and the second floor in Fig. 52. It will be
noticed that the blowing room is separated from the
main building, and is placed below the mixing room,
in which there is first a bale breaker feeding to

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118

lattices which deliver the cotton into stacks. In
the same room two hopper feeding machines, else-
where described in this issue, are placed, these
delivering by air trunks to two exhaust opening
and lap machines combined. The laps thus formed
are fed to four single beater intermediate scutching
and lap machines, and the resultant laps are finished
on four finishing scutching machines of like con-
struction. In the card room there are 54
revolving flat cards, these having 50-inch cylinders
37 inches wide on the wire. The doffers of
these cards are 26 inches diameter, and the
machines are fitted with the appliances for set-
ting, grinding, and slow driving of cylinder and
flats, which are now commonly supplied, and
are familiar to spinners. The drawing frames
are, as shown in Fig. 50, disposed conveniently
among the cards, so as to save labour as far as
possible. They are fitted with electric stop
motions, and are as ordinarily constructed by the
firm. There are nine of these machines, each
with three heads of six deliveries each. As the
sliver makes three passages, there are necessarily
54 finishing deliveries. There are seven slubbing
frames, disposed in one row between the cards and
roving frames, but they are arranged in a peculiar
way. Thus the two slubbing machines at the
right-hand side serve three intermediate frames
and nine roving frames which are opposite to them,
which may be called group A. These frames are
also specially arranged. Thus, beginning near the
rope race, there are first four roving frames, then two
intermediates, then three roving frames, one inter-
mediate, and, finally, two roving frames. The next
group B consists of two slubbers, three intermediates,
and seven roving frames, the order being— starting
from the last group— two roving, two intermediates,
three roving, one intermediate and two roving
frames. Group C consists of one slubbing,
two intermediate, four roving frames, the inter-
mediates being in the centre of the roving machines.
Finally, in group D, the remaining two slubbing

120

frames serve three intermediate and seven roving
frames, the order of which is similar to those of the
groups they resemble. It will be seen that this is
a well thought out plan, and in its chief features
requires some little comment. The disposition of
the various machines relatively to each other
enables the whole room to be worked with very
little labour of carriage, as the successive stages
follow one another perfectly. Further, the group-
ing of the roving machinery in the manner described
enables the room to be worked in sections, so to
speak, which, as will be noticed from the counts to
be spun, is necessary.

The slubbing frames in group A have 72 spindles
each or 144 in all; the intermediate frames 126
spindles each = 378; and the roving machines 160
spindles each = 1,440. In group B the arrangement
is 2 slubbing machines of 76 spindles = 152 ; 3 inter-
mediates of 126 spindles = 378; 7 roving machines
of 160 spindles = 1,120. Group C has the following
composition : 1 slubber 76 spindles ; 2 intermediates
ot 100 spmdles each = 200; 4 roving frames of 160
spindles = 640. Group D is made up as follows:
2 slubbers of 60 spindles- 120 ; 3 intermediates
ot 106 spindles = 318; and 7 roving frames of 160
spmdles each = 1,120. The importance of this
grouping will be made clear when the size and
number of the ring frames and mules have been
stated. The ring frames are disposed on the
second floor, as shown in Fig. 52, and the mules
on the first floor, as in Fig. 51. Of the former
there are 28, each containing 380 spindles, or in
all 10,640, these spinning 33's twist; 20, each of
o48 spmdles, or in all 6,960 spindles, spinning 20's
tw^ist; and 10, each containing 432 spindles, or
4,o20 in all, spinning 24's weft. The 20 self-
acting mules have each 900 spindles, or 18,000
together, and spin 44's weft. The set of speed
frames in group A has the following production.
Ihe slubbmg frames produce in 72 hours 107-161b8
per spindle of -6 hank slubbing -= 15,4281bs.
The intermediate frames produce of 1-6 hank

122

roving, 40-821bs. per spindle, or 15,4281bs. in all
per week; and the roving frames, 10-721bs. per
spindle of 4-75 hank roving, equal to a weekly out-
put of 15,4281bs. These serve the 28 ring frames
of 380 spindles, which produce 1-45 hanks per
spindle of 33's twist, or 15,4281bs. weekly. Thus
this set of machines forms a complete section, which
can be practically separated from the rest of the
mill and worked independently. The same thing
occurs with the other groups, which may be thus
tabulated : —

Group B.

Slubbing, 152 spindles, 126-S51b. per spindle of -.5 hank = 192S01b
intermediate, 3(S spindles, 511b 1-05 _

Roving, 1,120 spindles, 17-221b " " " 3-X- " ^ "
Rings, 6,%0 spindles, 2-771b. ',] ',' ',', 2o"s twist= ',',

Group C.
Slubbing, 76 spindles, 126 •751b. per spindle of -5 hank = 96331b

Rings, 4,320 spindles, 2-23]b. '' ',' ]] 24's weft = "

Group D.

Slubbing 120 spindles 107-25]b., per spindle of "6 hank = 12,8701b.
Intermediate, 318 spindles, 40-51b. , 1-6 = 1°'"^".

Roving, 1,120 spinales, ll-14lb. ' " " '-'--" "

Mules, 18,000 spindles,

ri5lb.

44's weft=

In all it will be seen that 57,2111bs. of cotton
are required weekly for this production, which the
preparatory machines are quite capable of giving.
The details given show the plan to be well conceived
and executed, and demonstrate the different con-
ditions prevailing in this country and elsewhere. The
mill thus arranged gives practically four complete
sets of machines, which enable the variety of work
required to be produced economically without loss
of power or labour. The card room especially is
notable for that feature, and is as well arranged as
is conceivable.

Fig. 53 is a perspective view specially prepared
by the architects, Messrs. Potts, fcson, and Pickup,
of two mills erected for the Societe Cotonnidre
d' Hellemmes, Lille. One of these mills has been
at work two or three years, but the other, which is
at right angles to it, is only now being erected.
A cotton warehouse is placed in the space between

gff'illlWEll

124

the two mills, this being one-storeyed. The mills
are arranged for spinning 50's twist and 60's weft.
It will be noticed that each is constructed with
the wnidow which has been illustrated, and so far
as the fabric is concerned, it is of the steel and
concrete floor type previously described. The whole
of the machinery for both mills has been provided
by Messrs. Dobson and Barlow, Limited. It con-
sists of the usual series of machines for spinning
these counts, but does not contain any combing. °
Fig. 54 is a plan of the cardroom of the Bediive
bpinmng Mill now being erected near Bolton
under the direction of the same architects
When finished, the mill will contain 118,000
mule spindles, and will be employed in spinnincr
an average of 60's counts of yarn. As shown, the
tull scheme includes two mills, but only one is now
being erected. This will have five storeys, and is in
Its general arrangement of usual construction. Re-
verting to the plan of the cardroom, it will be seen
that adjoining the engine house, and extending out-
wards from the main building, is a shed in which
the intermediate and roving frames are placed.
Ihe wall of the upper storeys at that side is carried
by strong pillars and girders, thus givinc^ ample
access between the shed and cardroom, which prac-
tically become one. The engine house is also built
out from the main block, and the rope race par-
tially divides the blowing room wing from the card
roorn.^ The blowing room contains 4 double openin^r
machines of Messrs. Dobson and Barlow's welf
known type, combined with hopper feeds, and six
smgle-beater scutchers. There are 160 " Simplex "
carding engines arranged along one side of the
room, and driven by two line shafts placed as indi-
cated. These cards have cylinders oOin. diameter
and are 39in. on the wire. In all, there are 36
drawing frames, of which 8 have one head each of
eight deliveries, and 28 have each 2 heads of eight
deliveries of 16in. gauge. There are, therefore,
012 deliveries of drawing. Following these ma-
chines are 16 slubbing machines, each containino- 80

IZD

spindles, and of Sin. space. These are similar in
construction to those described above, and supply
32 intermediate frames of 138 spindles each,
and of 6Jin. space, and 42 roving frames,
each containing 210 spindles, of 4^in. space.
The plan shows that the slubbing frames are
shorter than the intermediate frames adjoining
them, and that the space left is filled by four bob-
bin boxes conveniently placed. The total number
of spindles is, as stated, 118,000. This card room
is an instance of supplementing an otherwise
inadequate floor space by a shed, in preference to
making a second card room. This is a custom to
be commended.

In Fig. 55 a plan of a one-storey mill arranged
to spin, weave, dye, and finish cotton goods is given.
This is the design of Messrs. Brooks and Doxev, and
the mill from this plan was executed and furnished by
them in Brazil. The chief feature in it, apart from its
completeness, is the admirable arrangement which
practically results in the cotton entering at one end,
and then following a regular course uutil it emerges
at the other end as finished cloth. The cotton
enters the store, and after being subjected to seed-
opening machines, passes into the ginning room,
where it is freed from seeds, and is taken to the
mixing room, in which there are three feed
tables delivering to dust trunks. These convey
it to three combined exhaust openers and
scutchers, which supply five intermediate and
five finishing scutcher.^. From these the laps
pass directly into the card room, in which
the carding machines, drawing, and speed frames
are placed. In the same room there are all
the ring spinning frames, both twist and weft. At
the end of the ring room is the rope race, the engine
being placed about midway, so as to form in a sense
two wings, and adjoining the engine room in the
first wing is a completely fitted mechanics' shop.
After the yarn leaves the spinning room it passes
into the winding and warping department. In
this there are reeling, winding, warping, beaming,

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127

and sizing machines, the sizing room coming imme-
diately behind the boiler room. From the sizing
room access is got to the weaviug shed, and this
communicates with the bleaching, dyeing, and
finishing rooms, and finally to the warehouse
whence the cloth is despatched. Any one who has
followed this description, along with the plan, will
see that the cotton follows a regular course
through the factory, and that there is literally no
turning back w^ith its accompanying labour. This
is the cardinal feature of the plan, but it is a very
meritorious one.

In all, this mill contains 33,536 ring spindles
and preparation, and 1,000 looms and preparation,
in addition to the finishing plant. Before detailing
the machines used, it will be as well to notice the
very complete driving arrangements. The engines
and boilers occupy the centre of the building, the
economisers being behind the boilers, and the
chimney being brought to the front of the building.
All the shafting is rope driven, and, as shown, the
various line shafts in the ring room are inde-
pendently driven. The cards and speed frames are
driven directly from the line shafts, while the two
sets of ring frames are driven from the line shaft by
means of belts passing over gallows pulleys. The
second motion shaft is carried across the sizing room,
and forms one of the Ime shafts in the loom shed ;
but also acts as a counter from which the remaining
lines in the shed, and in the dyeing and warping
department are driven, a second rope race being
provided for the purpose. This is a most convenient
and compact arrangement, and serves the purpose
of dividing the building into sections, which is not
without value in case of fire. The light is obtained
by an ordinary weaving shed roof, but it will be
noticed that the lights are vertical, a most essential
point in a climate of this character.

The machinery contained in this mill is as follows,
taking it in departments : —

128

Spinning Depaetment.
Two seed openers ; 24 double roller gins ; 3 feed
tables ; 3 combined exhaust openers and scutchers ;
5 intermediate scutchers ; 5 finishing scutchers ;
80 revolving flat cards; 1 waste picker; 9
drawing frames, each three heads, of 8 deliveries •
9 slubbing frames of 94 spindles; 18 inter-
mediate frames of 126 spindles; 32 roving
frames of 160 spindles; 52 ring twist frames of
320 spindles, 2|in. gauge ; 48 ring weft frames of
352 spmdles, 2iin. gauge ; 2 ring doubling frames
of 320 spmdles, 2f in. gauge ; 6 double 40-hank
reels.

Weaving Department,
Six winding frames of 336 spindles each ; 3 pirn
frames of 100 spindles each ; 2 sectional warping
machines ; 1 hank sizing machine ; 1 winding-off
machine ; 4 sizing frames and 1 size mixer ; 6
drawing-in frames; 5 looming frames; 20 beam
stands ; 1,000 looms ; 4 folding machines ; 1 cloth
press, 1 bundling press, and 1 baling press ; 1 cloth
marking machine.

Bleaching and Dyeing.

One kier, 4ft. by 40 by 4ft. 6in. ; 1 mixing
machine and 1 hank w^ashing machine ; 2 hank
dyeing cisterns ; 2 indigo vats and 1 circular indigo
mill ; 1 wringing post and four tubs ; 1/32 hydro-
extractor.

Finishing.

Two sewing machines; 1 three-bowl starch
mangle ; 1 drying machine ; fittings for 3 starch
boiling tubs ; 2 double hooking frames ; 1 damping
machine, 1 belt stretcher, and 1 pasting table ; 1
three bowl friction calender.

Fig. 56 is a plan of a second combined spinning
and weaving mill, also provided with a finishing
plant, and designed and furnished by Messrs'!
Brooks and Doxey, but smaller than the last
example. It will be noticed that, with certain
variations, the general scheme is not unlike the

129

preceding example in the arrangements made to
facilitate the forward movement of the material
until it emerges from the warehouse. The cotton
enters at the left-hand corner of the buildino:, at
which point the store is placed, and is fed to a com-
bined opener and scutching machine, which prepares
laps for subsequent treatment by a breaker and
finisher scutcher respectively. In the card-room at
the point adjoining the blowing room 18 revolving
flat cards of the Wilkinson type are placed, these
having 50in. cylinders 37in. wide on the wire. The
slivers produced are dealt with by two drawing-
frames, each having three heads of seven deliveries
each. There are two slubbing frames, each con-
taining 94 spindles and ITMn. gauge, 4 inter-
mediate frames of 126 spindles each and 19 Jin.
gauge, and 8 roving frames, with 380 spindles each
and 20 Jin. gauge. These supply the rovings for 16
ring spinning-frames, which contain 380 spindles
each, and are 2Jin. gauge for twist spinning ; and
for 20 weft frames of 300 spindles, which are of
2^in. gauge. Looking at the plan, it will be noticed
that the slubbing, intermediate, and roving
machines, which are respectively marked G, H, I,
are driven directly from a line shaft running at
250 revolutions per minute, and so placed that the
cards are also driven from it. The ring frames are
driven from a line shaft running at 300 revolutions
per minute by means of gallows pulleys. Both
these shafts are driven directly from the main rope
drum, the rope race forming a dividing chamber, as
shown. Five air propellors are fixed in the roof of
the shed so as to aid in the work of ventilation.

A second rope race is placed, as shown, and in that
part of the building which is between these races the
winding and warping machines are placed. These
consist of two vertical spindle winding frames of
300 spindles each, intended to wind the yarn on to
5in. warping bobbins. Four beaming machines
follow these, and one sizing machine, with a size
mixer with three becks, is also placed, as shown, in
a partially separated room. Four drawing-in frames
I

130

and eight beam stands complete the equipment of

this part of the building. In the weaving shed

proper there are 280 looms, with 38in. reed space,

arranged, as shown, to be driven from line shafts,'

the pulleys on which are fixed in such positions that

four looms can be driven from each. This gives a

very compact arrangement. In the finishing room,

• seen at the left-hand corner of the loom shed, there

are the following machines : One drying machine, a

three-bowl water mangle, a two-bowl starch mangle,

two starch tubs, a belt stretching machine, and a

breaking and damping machine. The warehouse

has the usual machines, viz., a cloth folder, a cloth

press, a cloth marker, a jenny machine, and a small

hydraulic press and pump. The mechanics' shop is

placed arongside the engine house, which occupies

the centre of the buiding, and contains a planing

machine, an Sin. slotting machine, a drilling machine^

a wheel-cutting machine, a 12in. slide lathe, and a

small vertical engine.

The speeds of the various machines has been care-
fully arranged, and, as the following details will show,
are designed to be high. The opener beater runs
at 1,085 and the scutcher beaters at 1,518 revolu-
tions per minute. The carding engine cylinders
make 164, and the front roller of the drawing frame
355-5. The speed frames have the following
spindle velocities : Slubbers, 664: ; intermediate,
812 j roving frames, 1,199. The ring frames are
arranged to revolve at 8,650 revolutions per minute.
It is, of course, true that this mill is designed for
spinning and weaving what, to English readers, are
coarse goods, but it has been thoroughly thought
out for its purpose. Preparation has been made for
the introduction of the electric light, and lamps
are proposed to be hung in the positions marked
with a cross. Both of the plans presented are
excellent samples of that type of mill which is
exceedingly useful in countries just beginning to
spin and weave cotton, and may be said to mark
the highest point of that stage of progress. In each
case the plan is carefully devised and the details

131

fully considered, and each forms an interesting
example of its class.

In Fig. 57 an illustration of the card room of the
Park Road Spinning Company's mill, which is now

approaching completion, is given. The machinery
for this has been made by Messrs. Asa Lees and Co.
Limited, and is designed for the spinning of the

132

ordinary medium counts from American cotton.
These range from 32's to 40's twist and 40's to 50's
weft, so that of all the mills illustrated this forms
the one most typical of the staple Oldham trade.
The engine house is placed as usual on one side of
the mill, the rope race partially dividing the build-
ing into two sections. In order to accommodate
the whole of the cards on one floor, part of them
are placed in a small shed carried out at one side,
the wall being carried for the upper storeys in a
strong girder supported by pillars. The blowing
room has the mixing room above it, and in
the latter there is a bale breaker, with over-
head lattice for stacking the cotton. The latter
is fed to the opening machines by two porcupine
openers with regulating apparatus and auto
matic feeders. These deliver by suitable dust
trunks to two exhaust openers and lap machines
combined. This combination of porcupme feed
table, opener, and lap machine is being largely
employed successfully, and forms a very effective
arrangement. The addition of an nutomatic feeder
makes it somewhat more complete. The laps from
the openers are fed to four single beater scutchers,
which in turn supply four finishing single beater
scutchers, making laps suitable for 44ni. cards.
The carding engines are 96 in number, and are of
the revolving flat type, having cylinders 50in.
diameter, and 44in. wide on the wire. These are
arranged as shown, and are driven from two line
shafts fixed in the position indicated. The drawing
frames are placed in sets of threes between the
cards and roving machines, and number in all 15.
Each contains four heads of four deliveries each,
17in. gauge, so that there are 240 deliveries in all, or
80 finishing deliveries. The slivers from the drawing
frames feed 10 slubbing frames, each containing
98 spindles 18in. gauge, which supply 17 inter-
mediate frames 140 spindles each, 25i\in. gauge.
There are two sets of roving frames; one set, 20
in number, being 20iin. gauge, and the other set,
24 in number, being 19in. gauge. Of the former.

M I

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133

18 contain 176 spindles each and 2 have 172
spindles each ; while all the latter contain 192
spindles each. The males are equally divided so
far as numbers go between twist and weft, but
there are more spindles devoted to spinning the
latter. The twist mules number 38, containing in
all 41,844 spindles, the gauge being Ifin. ; and the
weft mules, which also number 38, contain 50,436
spindles, a total of 92,280. There are two things
to note in this mill. The first is the fact that the
cards are wider than those used in some of the
other cases ; and. the second, that of all the in-
stances given this one alone furnishes an example
of a mill devoted to the typical Lancashire counts.
The proportions of the machines to the mule spindles
are as follows : —

Spindles,

2 openers = 1 to 46,140

4 breaker and 4 finisher scutches ... = 1 „ 23,070

96 carding engines = 1 ,, 961'2

80 finishing drawing deliveries = 1 ,, 1,153"5

980 slubbing spindles = 1 „ 94*4

2,380 intermediate „ = 1 „ 39

Twist Spindles.

3,512 roving „ = 1 ,, 11-91

Weft Spindles.

4,608 „ „ = 1 „ 10-94

41,844 twist mule „
50,436 weft „

In Fig. 58, a reproduction from a photograph of
the Nevski. Thread Mill, St. Petersburg, which
belongs to a syndicate of English owners, is given.
It is situated on the banks of the River Neva,
which is shown as frozen over, and consists of two
mills, the older one being in front and the newer
one lying at the back. The latter w^as erected from
the designs of Mr. W. J. Morley, Bradford, to whose
courtesy the author is indebted for the loan of the pho-
tograph. It will be noticed that the windows of the

134

new mill do not show quite such a large area of
glass as ni England, the clear atmosphere rendering
this unnecessary. It may be mentioned, however,
that all the windows are double.

CHAPTEK X,

STEAM BOILERS,

The boilers used in cotton mill practice in Enc^land
are of the Lancashire type, with or without Galloway
tubes, water tube boilers, although preferred else-
where, not meeting with much favour here. In spite
of the mcrease in steam pressures this style of boiler
contmues to be the favourite, and is now workintr
at pressures up to 2501bs. to the square inch. Gaf-
loway tubes are generally specified, and their wide
adoption IS in itself testimony to their usefulness.
The boilers are now universally made of steel, or so
nearly so that the statement is practically true,
and as more use has been made of this material the
methods of manipulating it have improved. It is
not too much to say that steel boilers are better
made, and are more reliable than iron boilers
formerly were. In order to enable our readers to
appreciate the character of a modern boiler we give
them a copy of a specification of a Lancashire boiler,
intended to work habitually at a pressure of 2001bs!
to the square inch, and which has been so working
for about two years. A good specification is an
important matter, and afi^ords primd facie evidence
that the details have been thought out. The specifi-
cation referred to was drawn by Mr. J. F. L. Crosland
the Chief Engineer of the Boiler Insurance and
bteam Power Company, Limited, and the boiler
was made to his approval. Attention is particularly
called to the clause giving the tests to which the
plates must be subjected.

135

SPECIFICATION FOR A STEEL

LANCASHIRE BOILER.

Working pressure 200tbs. to the square inch, to be delivered
on its prepared seating. Length, 28ft. ; diameter, shell,
8ft. in eight or nine rings of one plate each, flues, 3ft.
2in. in at least 18 rings of one plate each ; shell plates,
^|in. ; straps, inside, fin,, outside, fin. ; ends, ^^in. ;
flue plates, ^nin. ; shell and gusset angles, 5 x 5 x f .
Circular seams double riveted, longitudinal seams butt
jointed, treble riveted.

CONDITIONS OF CONTRACT.
Drawings.

Before the work is put in hand the makers are to provide
and supply a tracing on cloth to the owners, and also a
similar tracing to their engineer for sanction and concurrence,
each tracing drawn to scale with figured dimensions, showing
clearly the general arrangement of boiler, mountings, setting,
etc., and in addition detail tracings with figured dimensions
of all mountings, and of the riveting, and of the staying
of the ends, and notwithstanding any such sanction or
concurrence, or the approval after inspection of the work by
any i-epresentative of the said engineer or his representative,
the contractors will be required at their own expense to
make good any defects which may arise from faulty design,
material, t»r workmanship during the period of twelve
months after the boiler has been set to work.

It is to be understood, however, that in the event of the
boiler being insured, the stipulation is not intended in any
way to relieve the Boiler Insurance Company from the
responsibility incurred upon them by the Policy of Insurance.

Material and Workmanship.

The workmanship must be of the best, and the material
must be free from defects of any kind of the best boiler
quality supplied by the steel makers. The boiler is to be
open for inspection by the engineer or his representatives at
any time during construction as well as on completion of the
work, and to be tested and completed in every respect to
the satisfaction of the said engineer.

Brand of Plates.

The plates must be made by the Siemens-Martin acid
process, and the brand of the plates must be stated in the
tender. The brand and tensile strength and elongation must
also be clearly stamped on every plate in such a position that
it can be seen from the outside of the boiler when finished,
and the maker's certificate of the tensile strength of every
plate must be forwarded.

136

Margin for Variation.

_ It is to be understood that no plate will be passed for use
in the boiler which is not fully up to the specified thickness
and weight, and it is assumed that the margin usually
allowed for variation in roHing the plates, say five per cent,
wil , in accordance with the practice of the best makers of
boiler plates, be above the specified thickness and weight.

Tests of Plates.

strips from the steel plates aud angles are to be provided
by the contractor for testing in accordance with the direction
of the engineer. All costs in connection with such tests to
be defrayed by the contractor. The tensile strength of the
steel for the shell, etc., cut lengthways or crossways, is not
to be more than 30 tons per square inch, nor less than 26
tons, and that for the furnaces and flues is not to be more
than 28 tons per square inch, nor less than 24 tons. In all
cases the elongation is not to be less than 20 per cent in a
length of eight inches.

Strips from the plates for the furnaces, flues, and angles
are to be capable of being readily welded, and the strips
trom these and the plates for the shell are to be capable of
being bent double cold to a radius of one and a half times
the thickness of the plate without fracture, after having been
heated red-hot, and slaked at that heat in hot water of a
temperature of not more than 82 degrees Fahrenheit.
Samples of the rivets are to be submitted to such test, both
hot and cold, as to bending, breaking, flattening, etc., and
applied in such a manner as may be considered necessary to
prove their fitness for the service intended.

Position of Mountings.

The maker of the boiler is to be entirely responsible for
obtaining the particulars necessary to show the arrangement
of setting, and for the position of the various mountings,
details as to which must first be arranged by him with the
purchasers, and then shown on the tracing before named.

Bending.

The plates are to be bent cold.

Punching and Drifting,

No punching is to be done for any purpose to any material
used in the construction of the boiler, and drifting of the
holes is under no circumstances to be resorted to.

Planing.

All edges of all plates and butt straps without exception
to be planed or machined.

Fullering.

All seams to be fullered inside and outside (not caulked)
after riveting.

137

Scouring".

The plates and angles to be scoured entirely with a strong
solution of sal-ammoniac to remove the black oxide from
their surface before being put together.

Placing in Position.

The price named in the index is to include the supply of
the boiler with all mountings and fittings named in the speci-
fication properly jointed and fixed in their permanent posi-
tions, together with delivery in good condition on its prepared
seating. The contractors to supply all skilled labour and nil
tackle necessary for placing the boiler on its prepared seating,
but they do not supply any bricks, stonework, etc., nor
undertake any mason's work, brickwork, joiner's work nor
ironwork (other than the ironwork in connection with the
boiler and its fittings) under this contract, and the purchaser
is to provide all labourers' assistance. It is, of course,
understood that the contractors will be afiforded all reasonable
facilities for placing the boiler in position, and will not be
required to remove nor to replace any permanent obstruction,
nor to pull down nor make good any stonework, ironwork,
masonry, brickwork, nor joiner's work.

Notice for Examination.

Notice is to be given to the engineer so that the work may
be inspected — (1) When the plates are ready for bending in
the rolls ; (2) when the boiler is in process of being drilled ;

(3) when the riveting of the shell and fines is being done ;

(4) when the boiler is complete in every respect, and ready
for final testing in the presence of the inspector.

PARTICULARS OF PLATES, ETC., OP

BOILER.

Dimensions,

The boiler is to be .30 feet long and 8 feet in diameter,
measured inside of the outer rings of plates with two internal
flues each 3 feet 2 inches internal diameter except the second
ring from the back end of each, which is to be tapered to
2 feet 7 inches, and the last ring which is to be 2 feet
7 inches parallel.

Shell.

The shell is to be formed of eight or nine rings, as may be
found most suitable for the arrangement of the various
fittings, each ring being formed of one plate only. Each ring
to be perfectly cylindrical and to have the longitudinal
joints so arranged as to fall on the upper part of the shell,
and in such a position that when the boiler is seated they
will fall clear of the covering of the side flues and the gusset
stay angles. The plates are not to be less than l-fin. thick,

138

38-251bs. per square foot of the best quality of mild steel,
and capable of satisfactorily sustaining all the tests Dre-
viously specified.

Circular Seams.

The circular seauis are to be double-riveted, with lap
joints.

Longitudinal Seams.

The longitudinal seams are to be butt jointed, with straps
inside and outside, and to be treble-iiveted, six rows of rivets.

Butt Straps.

The butt straps to be cut by the makers of the boiler out
of boiler plates of the same quality as the shell plates, the
inside straps to be not less than fin. thick, 25-51bs. per sq.
foot, and the outside straps to be not less than fin. thick,
30-61bs. per square foot ; they must be capable of satisfac-
torily complying with the tests specified. When placed in
position the fibre in the shell plates and in the butt straps
must be in the same direction.

Ends.

The end plates are each to be in one piece, rolled full size
to avoid welds or joints, not less than i^in. thick, SSlSlbs. per
square foot, turned on the edge, with holes for the flues cur
out by machine. The plates are to be of the best quality of
mild steel, and capable of satisfactorily complying with the
tests previously specified. The front end plate is to be
joined to the shell by an external steel ring. The back end
plate is to be flanged for its attachment to the shell and to
be double riveted thereto.

Shell Ang-le Ringr.

The angle ring for the front end of the shell is to be of the
best quahty of mild steel, not less than 5in. by 5ia. by fin.,
and capable of satisfactorily standing the tests previously
specified. It is to be welded solid at the joint, and fixed ex-
ternally, and to be double riveted to the shell and end plate

Stays-

The ends are to be strengthened by means of five gusset
stays at each end above the flues, and two at each end below
the flues, all secured by double steel angles not less than 5in.
by 5in. by fin., both to the ends and shell. The steel gusset
plates to be not less than |in. thick, 357lbs. per square foot.
The gusset angles and gusset plates must be equal in quality
to the shell plates, and capable of satisfactorily standing the
specified tests. The angles to be double riveted to the
ends, gussets, and shell plates. The rivet holes for the
stays in the shell plates are to be so arranged that the pitch
is greater than the widest pitch in the longitudinal seams of

139

the shell. The bottom rivets in all the gusset stay angles on
the end plates must be equidistant from the centre of the
flues, and with the exception of those stays which are placed
below the internal flues, the distance between the bottom
rivets referred to above and the rivets joining the internal
flues to the ends must not be less than 10 inches.

Internal Flues.

Each internal flue is to be formed of at least eighteen
rings so arranged that the circular seams do not fall in line
with each other nor with those of the shell. The plates are
not to be less than T^^^in. thick, 231b. per square foot, of the
best quality of mild steel, and capable of standing the
specified tests. Each ring to be formed of a single plate
welded longitudinally by steam hammer and connected by
flanges with solid caulking rings between of a thickness not
less than the ])lates themselves, and the flanges for the
attachment of the flues to the end plates are to be stifi'ened
by means of steel angle plates not less than fin. thick,
IS'Slb. per square foot, shrunk on, and flanged with the glue
plates, and riveted to them by rivets about 5in. or Sin.
pitch, or the flues may be attached to the ends by steel
angle rings, 3|in. by 3iin. by fin. Each flange to be formed
at one heat. All the rivets to be 2in. pitch.

Rivet Holes.

The rivet holes in the shell and those for the gusset stay
angles are not to be less than r;;in. diameter, and so spaced
that the calculated value of the joint shall exceed 80 per
cent, and those in the flues are not to be less than ^in.
diameter, drilled out of the solid plate ; and wherever prac-
ticable this is to be done with the plates and angles in
position. The holes are to be afterwards slightly counter-
sunk under the rivet heads and the burr cleaned off" between
the plates. If from any cause they are at all unfair when
the plates are drawn up together for riveting, they are to
be rimered perfectly true before riveting.

Rivets.

AH rivets to be capable of satisfactorily complying with
the test requirements specified in a preceding clause. Steel
rivets may be used for the shell, but Lowmoor rivets are to be
used for the furnaces and flues throughout, and also in any
parts of the boiler requiring to be hand riveted, but the
riveting is to be done by machine wherever practicable.

Hydraulic Test.

The boiler is intended to be worked at a pressure of 2001b.
per square inch. It is to be tested by water pressure to the
satisfaction of the engineer, both on completion at the
makers and again after it has been seated at the purchaser's
works, to 3001b. per square inch, with all mountings in

140

position except the safety valves, which must, however,
before delivery be tested independently to the same pressure
as the boiler. It is expected that every part will be tight,
and that neither serious deflection nor indication of perma-
nent set will be shown.

MOUNTINGS AND FITTINGS.
Manholes.

A strong wrought-iron raised frame, 16in. diameter of
approved design, with suitable wrought-iron cover and bolts,
to be attached to the boiler on the top outside ; the manhole
opening to be further strengthened by a steel doubling piece
inside, of sufficient breadth to enable it to be attached to the
shell by a row of rivets independent of those which pass
through the manhole frame, and this row of rivets must be
pitched 20 per cent wider apart than those in the longi-
tudinal seams. The manhole frame to be attached to the
shell by a double row of rivets passing through both the
shell plate and the internal doubling plate.

A strong steel ring fitted with suitable steel cover, cross-
bars, and bolts, and having an opening not less than 16in.
and 12in , to be fixed on the inside of the front end plate
round the manhole opening below the flues, and to be double
riveted to the plate. The manhole frames, covers, and bolts
to be of approved design, material, and strength, and both
the frames and covers to be faced to make the joints steam
tight with only a thin coat of red lead.

Branches.

Wrought-iron branches to be double riveted on for all the
mountings, and the flanges, to which the mountings are to
be attached, are to be turned or planed. The position of the
mountings will have to be arranged in accordance with
preceding instructions.

Stop Valves.

One steam stop valve Sin. diameter, of approved design
and construction, the casing and cover to be of steel.

Anti-priming Pipes.

A perforated cast-iron steam pipe is to be placed horizon-
tally inside the boiler near the top, and connected with the
branch for the stop valve.

Safety Valves.

One direct spring loaded safety valve, Adam's orTurnbull's
patent, 4in. diameter, accurately loaded to 2001bs., fitted with
easing gear, and having a crossbar for turning it round on its
seating; and one Hopkinson's "Hipress" valve of at least
equal area, having an efficient and approved low water
arrangement, and loaded to 2001bs. per square inch.

141
Feed Valve and Pipe.

One check-feed valve 2Mu. diameter of approved design
and construction, the casing and cover to be of steel, attached
to the front end plate and connected to a pipe not less than
15ft. long carried forward horizontally into the boiler, parallel
with the flues, and delivering the water at least 2in. above
the level of the furnace crowns.

Blow-off Tap and Pipe.

One 2Mn. blow-off cock, of approved design and con-
struction, with compound gland, both the casing and plug
to be entirely of brass and asbestos packed both in the
casing and gland, and so constructed that the spanner
cannot be taken off until the tap has been closed. The tap
to be connected to a strong cast steel elbow pipe, of approved
form and section, not less than 6in. internal diameter at its
connection to the faced branch on the boiler, and not less
than lin. section of metal in the body.

Water Gauges.

Two glass tube water gauges, of the best construction,
Dewrance's or Hopkiuson's heaviest pattern, made of gun
metal, asbestos packed, with large water and steam
thoroughfares, and arranged to shut off steam and allow the
passages to be cleaned.

Pressure Gauge,

One lOin. steam pressure gauge. Bourdon's own make,
graduated to SOOlbs., and having a thick red line at 2001bs.,
and arranged with the cock to open to the atmosphere when
shut off from the boiler for the purpo.se of testing.

Grate Bars.

One set of grate bars of deep section, iin. thick and
having fin. air spaces, in three lengths for each furnace, with
bearers, dead plates, and bridge plates, the total length of
fire bars to be 6ft. 6in.

Furnace Frames, etc.
Furnace frames and doors constructed for smoke preven-
tion to be fitted, having at least two square inches of air
space per square foot of fire grate.

Dampers.

Dampers and frames, with all pulleys, chains, rods, and
weights complete and fixed.

Flue Doors.

ff- Two flue doors and frames complete for access to the
external flues.

142
Foot Plates and Bearers.

Foot plates and bearers for covering the blow-off pit, the
flooring plate in front of the blow-off recess to extend
upwards behind the angle ring of the shell, and to be curved
go as to fit the bottom of the boiler to prevent the ashes
falling into the blow-off pit.

In order to illustrate the constructive details
a number of sketches prepared to illustrate a paper
read by Mr. James Sheuton, of Hyde, in December,
1893, are given. Mr. Shenton is a practical con-
structor of boilers, of extended experience, and his

Fig. 59.

remarks are valuable. Fias. 59 and 60 are illustra-
tive of the lap joints used for longitudinal seams.
That m Fig. 59 is one most generally adopted, and
has a strength of 83-3 per cent, while the example
given in Fig. 60, which is designed and made by
Mr. Shenton, gives an effective strength of 88-8 per
cent. In addition to the extra strength this joint
is advantageous because there is less space between
the outer rivets and the butt strips are held down

143

better. Where the pitch is so wide as in Fig. 59,
there is great difficulty iu avoiding leakage between
the rivets, on account of the large space. This is
entirely obviated by the construction used in

Fig. 60.

Fig. 60, which enables a tight joint to be got with
very little caulking. Without endeavouring to
instruct our readers as to the method of making a
boiler, it will be sufficient to give a few hints as to
the essential points of construction. It is necessary

I p

144

that the shell plates at the butts shall be bent to a
true circle. Unless this is done the butt straps will
not lie close up to the plates, and leakage will take
place at that point. This is shown in Figs. 61 and
62, which represent the two conditions. In a
modern boiler-makinf;^ establishment, the provision
and utilisation of modern machine tools is a charac-
teristic feature, and the setting out of the various
rings for drilling is a thoroughly scientific opera-
tion. All holes should be drilled, and the edges
of all plates planed to a proper bevel so as to be
easily caulked. The caulking should be done with
a tool which while fullering the edge of the plate
does not groove the shell. Extreme care is taken to

Figs. 61 and 62.

ensure the drilling of all the holes in plates and
straps to be fastened together, so that they will come
exactly true with each other when being put
together subsequently. In riveting, which should
be done by power, the pressure must be put on
in a line which is directly along the axis of the
rivet, and should be retained until the rivet is
cold, as only in this way can a tight joint be
obtained. With regard to the flues, these are
built up and put together in an equally thorough
manner as the shell, each ring being welded
along its longitudinal seams. The various
types of corrugated or ribbed flues have not been
largely employed in Lancashire boilers, but several
types of expansion jomts, such as the Bowling
hoop, have been widely adopted. With one of

145

the simplest and most effective of these, the name
of the late Mr. Daniel Adamsou has been long
associated. The method of setting out the front
and back end plates of a boiler for the gusset stays
and flues is shown in Figs. 63 and 64. These
few remarks, in conjunction with the specification
given, will enable readers to form an accurate
idea of the necessary points in a well-made boiler,

Fig. 63.

and they will be convinced of the care which is
now taken in constructing a boiler of the Lanca
shire type.

The standard of power generally adopted for a
boiler is that agreed upon by the engineers at the
Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia, which was
the evaporation of 301bs. of water per hour from an
entering temperature of 212° F. when the steam
K

pressure was 701bs. Coal consumption naturally
varies in accordance with circumstances, but with
moderately good coal, 161bs. per square foot of grate
per hour, which will evaporate from 120 to 1601bs.
of water, is burned. Mr. Michael Longridge, in a
paper delivered in 1890, said that it was difficult to
burn less than 161bs. or more than 2 libs, of coal
per square foot of grate in Lancashire boilers
without considerable excess of air. Taking 81bs.

Fig. 64.

of w^ater evaporated per lb. of coal as a fair
average duty, then 1281bs. of water will, on the
minimum computation, be evaporated per square
foot of grate per hour. This is equal to 4-26-
horse-power according to the standard given, but it
will be better to call it 4 horse-power for each square
foot of grate. The total surface which is exposed to
the heat of the gases depends upon the method
of setting the boiler, which in turn must be
considered with reference to the velocity of the

147

gases. It is a safe rule to calculate that the grate
area should be at least equal to one-teuth the total
heating area, although higher ratios are adopted.
The proper size of a boiler is determined by the
evaporation required, and can be calculated from
the coal duty, which in turn determines the heating
surface required. In the type of boiler under con-
sideration, fourteen square feet of heating surface
will be sufficient to evaporate one cubic foot of water.

In setting the boilers, the flues should be made
large enough to allow a man to pass through them
easily, and the undue contraction of the flues is
very detrimental, as it renders inspection much
more difficult. The smallest space should be at
least a foot, and as a justification for this procedure
it may be mentioned that it is better to have a
moderate velocity of the gases, as in that way more
heat is extracted from them. It is now the general
practice to sustain the boiler on two seats, so as to
form three flues under the boiler, one at each side
and one in the centre. The use of a midfeather is
dropped. In setting, care should be taken that all
the seams are accessible for examination, and it is
not desirable to cover too large a portion of the
plates by the seatings. Especial care is needed to
guard against leakage under the bearing surfiices,
which is a fruitful source of corrosion, and no lime
should be left in contact with the plates. The air
required to burn good Lancashire coals, the
calorific value of which is about 13,500 thermal
units, is, according to Mr. Longridge, in practice,
from 15 to 161bs. per lb. of coal. This matter
depends to some extent upon the character of the
coal with regard to clinker ing. If it is clean and
burns well, then the smaller quantity of air is
sufficient ; if otherwise, the larger amount is
required.

Mr. Longridge, at the conclusion of the paper
named, gave the following hints to boiler us»ers : —

(1) Get your boilers designed for the work they
have to do, and not made 7ft. Gin. by 30ft., or 8ft.
by 28ft., as the case may be, because it is

148

the fashion to have boilers of these particular
dimensions.

(2) Don't stick to 6ft. grates if a shorter length
is required to burn the coal at the rate of 16 to
2 libs, per hour.

(3) Reduce your draught as much as the nature
of the coal and the smoke inspector will permit.
Try and reduce it till the fire is hot enough to
melt a piece of steel boiler plate.

Fig. 65.

(4) Buy your coal dry and keep it dry. Weigh
the ashes which come out of the furnaces as well as
the coal that goes into them.

(5) Be most careful to stop up air leaks in the
brickwork and between the brickwork and the
boiler.

(6) Establish a gasometer for collecting gases
from the flues and analyse them for carbonic acid,
and try to get ten or twelve per cent of that gas in
the samples by cutting down the draught. The

149

apparatus and its manipulations are of the simplest
character, and the information gained will be of
great practical utility, and will often lead to
considerable economy.

It may perhaps be of service to detail a few of
of the causes of failure in mill boilers,
these corrosion is a very common one.
corrosion is the result of acidity in the feed water,
which is often caused by the employment of water
heated by means of exhaust steam, especially if
animal oils or fats are used as lubricants. There
are, however, feed waters drawn from wells or col-
lected by surface drainage which contain free acids,
and in this case the introduction of some form of

Among
Internal

Fig. 66.

neutralising agent is essential. External corrosion
is more frequent than internal, and is in most cases
caused by dampnesss either caused by leakage or
from imperfect drainage below the flues and settings.
For instance, in the example shown in Fig. 65 there
had been leakage at the seam which was covered by
the seating, and the moisture had spread over a
large surface, setting up active corrosion as show^n.
The composition of the gases evolved by the com-
bustion of some classes of coal often actively aids
in setting up corrosion, and the writer has had a
very striking experience of the power of the com-
bination of sulphurous coal and moisture to set up
dangerous corrosion. Boiler owners should take care
of leaks, and should also see that at the front of

150

the boiler, where the ashes are drawn from the fur-
nace and cooled, no accumulation of moist ash is
allowed to exist. Fig. 66 shows the result of this
procedure. Grooving or channelling is another fre-
quent occurrence, and is caused chiefly by the un-
equal heating of various parts of the boiler. This
action causes a certain "work" of the plates, and
thus produces strain in them, which rapidly forms a
groove if any chemical corrosive is in the water.
The grooves are mostly found about the angle rings
of the front end plates, but if there is due elas-
ticity in the ends they may be avoided.

As it is customary to test boilers by hydraulic
pressure prior to putting them into work, a few
words of warning may be given as to precautions
necessary when this is done. Most owners are
satisfied to know that the boiler has been thus tested
to a pressure in excess of that at which it will work.
As a matter of fact this is only a part of the pre-
cautions to be taken, and forms a source of danger
unless carefully carried out. It is essential to
success that the character of the material and con-
struction should be carefully specified and scruti-
nised during construction, and although this is a
matter involving some expense it is always advisable.
Before a test is made by hydraulic pressure careful
measurements of the boiler should be made,
especially as regards the flues. When the pressure is
applied, measurements should again be taken, and the
deflection, if any, in the flues and end plates care-
fully noted. The tightness of the rivets and seams
must be looked to, but, although a high standard
has now been reached, the importance of kn abso-
lutely drop proof test may be easily exaggerated.
In a well-made boiler in which the holes are drilled
in position, and the rivets closed by power properly
applied, leakage of the rivets is very infrequent,
and a slight leakage of the seams is often only a
small matter. The true test is the maintenance for
a reasonable time of the pressure applied, and it is
not uncommon to see it remain stationary for several
minutes. After the water has been run off the

151

measurements of the parts should be again taken,
in order to see if any permanent set has occurred.
It is not an infrequent occurrence to find ovality in
the flues, or bulging of the ends. If this is found
to exist to any considerable degree it proves the
boiler to be unfit for its intended duty. It is not
detrimental, but quite the reverse, if the end plates
bulge under pressure, because it proves that the
staying is not so rigid as to prevent the ordinary
expansion which takes place during work. It is in-
advisable, especially with high pressure boilers, to
subject them to too severe a test, and a test pressure,
75 per cent over the working pressure, is, in the
opinion of the writer, the maximum which should
be applied.

In order to ascertain the evaporative capacity of
boilers, tests are made preferably under working
conditions, and as many millowners may like to
koow the method of making these tests a few
particulars are here given. It will be at once
obvious that the two important factors are the
consumption of coal and of water, and every
endeavour ought to be made to arrive at these
accurately. With regard to coal consumption,
the course followed is to clean out the furnaces
before beginning the test, and to have at its
commencement a good fire of proper thickness.
Care should be taken to have all the coal as
dry as possible, and as nearly uniform in that
respect as can be. It should be carefully weighed
in lots of definite weight, say 1 to 5 cwts. — the
time of doing so being noted — and the firing must
be conducted in the ordinary way so as to maintain
an even fire. At the conclusion of the test the fire
must be left in the same condition as at the begin-
ning, and all ashes should be carefully weighed,
but it is advisable periodically to draw out the
cinders from the ashpit and pass them through the
fire in order to utilise all combustible matter. It
is obvious that the obtainment of the same condi-
tions at the beginning and end of a test is a
matter requiring care, and a little error may thus

152

ii#

creep in. All the coal unused should be weighed,
and deducted from the amount weighed to" the
stoker. The record therefore shows the number of
pounds of coal used during the test, and the ashes
remaining at the end, the difiference between these
being reckoned as the number of pounds of com-
bustible. The water must be carefully measured.
The height in the boiler gauge glasses at the
commencement of the test is carefully noted, and
some mark should be made, or measurement taken
and noted of the height. At the termination of
the test it is desirable to have the water at the
same height, as otherwise a calculation must be
made of the increase or decrease of the quantity of
water in the boiler. This is a matter requiring
care alike in manipulation and observation, but
with a little pains an accurate result is possible.
For measuring the feed water the best method
is to provide two tanks, capable of holding a little
over 100 lbs. of water or any other definite quan-
tity, and of such a depth that a gauge glass can be
fixed so that two points can be marked on it,
between which the quantity of water named is con-
tained. The feed water is supplied to the tanks by
two ordinary plug taps, either of which can be used
when necessary, one tank being filled while the other
is being exhausted. The tanks are coupled together
by a pipe, and a two-way cock is placed between them,
so that the feed pump or injector can draw from
either as needed. The tanks are both filled to the
upper mark at the beginning of the test, and as
the required quantity is taken from each, the time
is recorded. At the end of the test the quantity of
water drawn from the partially emptied tank is noted
and added to the quantity previously used. A
note of the temperature of the feed water must be
taken at regular intervals, and the mean of the
observations is taken as the temperature. The
following is a sample of the headings of the obser-
vation sheet, but these may be varied at will : —

No. of
Weighing.

153

Coal. I Water.

I Weight of j No. of I Tempera-

Time. Weight! Ash at | Tank ' Time, j p®?*
Completion. (Emptied ! -^-"g^

By dividing the weight of water used by the pounds
of coal consumed, the evaporation per lb. of coal is
obtained. The ash and cinder remaining should be
carefully weighed and deducted from the weight
of coai. The result is accepted as the amount of
combustible matter. It is usual to estimate the evapo-
ration from and at 212" F., and the following rule is
used to calculate it. W = weight in lbs. water evapo-
rated per lb. of fuel ; t = mean temperature of
water ; H = total heat in British thermal units in
the steam at a pressure calculated from 0^ F, and
E =^ equivalent evaporation from and at 212" F.;

XT _ J

E = W-xttt;- . The thermal units will be found in

a table at the end of the book. It must be under-
stood that these remarks do not apply to the
scientific test of a boiler, an operation requiring a
large number of accurate observations, but merely
to such a test as is required by a millowner.

CHAPTER XI.

BOILER APPLIANCES.

It is customary and advisable to place behind
steam boilers a feed water heater or " economiser."
Of these there is practically only in use in cotton
mills to-day the type known as Green's. This,
as made by Messrs. Green and Sons, Limited,
is illustrated in Fig. 67, and consists of a series of
vertical cast-iron pipes, arranged in sections and
fixed at the top and bottom into hollow boxes. The

154

pipes are nearly 4in, bore, and are made of a thick-
ness suitable to the pressure they have to with-

FiG. 67.
stand. The feed water enters the bottom box of
each section, and rises until it flows out of the top
box. The economiser is placed directly in the

155

course of the gases in the flue, the heat from which
raises the water to a temperature varying from 250°
to 300" F. It is not desirable to cool the gases to
too low a temperature, as otherwise the chimney
draught is injured. As a certain amount of soot
is deposited on the outside of the pipes, cast-iron
" scrapers," which are given a reciprocal vertical
movement, are arranged to scrape it off continuously.
Some ingenuity has been expended on the
construction of these scrapers, so that they
shall press keenly on the pipe, and thus re-
move the soot which may accumulate. The
gain from the use of an economiser is two-fold.
It lessens the amount of fuel needed to boil the
water, and, by providing hot instead of cold feed
water for the boiler, diminishes the strains on the
latter. It is desirable that the feed water should
not be too cold, as otherwise the aqueous vapour
in the gases is condensed on the outside of the pipes
at the bottom and produces corrosion, which is in-
creased if there happens to be any sulphur in the
coal. If there be eight pipes in a section, the space
occupied is 6ft., and -i sections occupy in width 3ft.
4in., Sin. being added for each additional section.
An economiser contains about 8 pipes for each ton,
and 4 pipes per ton of coal burnt are required. The
capacity of each pipe and the corresponding space
in the two boxes is 6 grallons.

There have been large numbers of appliances
patented from time to time for the purpose of aid-
ing in the mechanical stoking of the boilers. It
is curious to note how the same idea occurs perio-
dically in a slightly modified form. The devices
used may be thus classified : Steam or air blasts,
stoking machines, divided bridges, and forced
draught appliances. Of these the latter at present
is not in extended use, but is making considerable
progress, the most favourable method being to close
the ashpit and create a slight pressure in it.
With reference to steam blasts these are applied at
the front of the furnace, in which a steam nozzle is
fixed, so that the induced current thus set up

156

increases the draught. For cases in which the
chimney draught is bad, or when a sudden supply
of steam is required, this class of appliances gives
good results, but otherwise their employment is of
doubtful economy. The plan of using a divided
bridge has the merit of admitting air at that point,
and thus aiding in the combustion of the evolved
but unconsumed gases which are produced after
stoking. When the fire has burnt through, how-
ever, and the volume of unconsumed gases
decreases, there is, unless the air inlet is con-
tracted, an excessive supply of air at this point,
which carries away with it a number of heat units,
thus producing no useful, but rather a wasteful,
effect.

With regard to mechanical stokers these have
been mainly of two classes— the coking and the
sprinkhng type. Of the latter Proctor's is the
best known, and there is no doubt that it has ren-
dered efficient service. The peculiar variable
stroke of the shovel plate, which is characteristic
of this stoker, is very effective, and gives a very
good distribution of the coal over the grate area.
There is no doubt, however, that the coking type
is becoming more liked, more especially when com-
bined with automatic feeding appliances. In this
form of stoker the coal is first placed on the dead
plate and is then carried forward by means of
movable bars, which are given a combined vertical
and horizontal movement. Under that treatment
the coal is partially volatilized at the front of the
furnace, and the gases evolved pass over a red fire
at the back, by which they are consumed. In
either of these types the coal is fed into a hopper
at ^ the front of the boiler, and falls by its own
weight, the rate of delivery being regulated by feed
rollers which also act as crushers. If they are
used with judgment there is no doubt that stokers
are economical devices, and the only thing to
remember is that they must be strongly made so as
to withstand the hard usage to which many of them
are put. Among the more novel applications is

157

Andrews' Helix feeder. lu this case the coal is
supplied by a hopper, and is delivered into the path
of revolving worms enclosed in troughs below the
grate level. The result is that the coal is lifted
into the fire from below, and all the gases have to
pass through a red fire, being thus consumed. A
very good fire is maintained in this way.

In some of the most modern plants it has been
arranged that the work of feediug the hoppers is
automatically performed. The coal is tipped into
the bunkers, from which it is conveyed by spiral
conveyors to an endless elevator, which tips it into
a second conveyor passing across the boiler fronts
at a point above the hoppers. It is carried along
and delivered through suitable apertures into any
of the series of hoppers. In this way the work of
feeding the boilers is rendered practically an auto-
matic operation, and the duties of the fireman are
resolved into keeping the fire clean and level, and
regulating the supply of feed water. In this con-
nection it may be mentioned that the conveyor
screw invented by Mr. Thomas Wrigley, of Tod-
morden, is a very good one. It consists of an
endless worm of cast iron which, by an ingenious
method of moulding, can be cast in almost any
length. The quantity of coal delivered depends on
the pitch of tlie worm, the depth of its thread, and
the number of revolutions given to it. The eleva-
tors used for this purpose consist of a series of
buckets fixed on to two parallel pitched chains
driven by chain wheels of the ordinary type.

With a view of increasing the effective power of
boilers, there have been several attempts to intro-
duce forced draught, and one of the simplest
methods is that made by Messrs. Meldrum Bros. In
this the ashpits are closed, as shown in Figs. 68 and
69, by a cast-iron plate, which, with the small door
fixed in it, is made to be an air-tight fit. In this
front two special blowers are fastened, these con-
sisting of a trumpet-shaped tube enclosing a steam
nozzle. These are fed with steam from a pipe fitted
into the boiler in the steam space, and the quantity

158

of steam passed can be regulated at will. There is
no projecting part beyond the boiler except the
steam pipe. A special form of fire-bar, with narrow
air spaces, is provided, by means of which
the smallest sized fuel can be riealt with without
diflBculty. With any form of small coal, and
coal which is very hot, such as anthracite,
the blower answers very well, and not only

Fig. 68.

improves the combustioUj but also keeps ' the
bars cool. While it may be admitted that the
quantity of water evaporated per lb. of coal used
is not equal to that obtained with ordinary coal,
yet the cheapness of the fuel used renders the cost
of evaporation a very low one. The forced draught
is only equal, usually, to lin. water gauge, but a
pressure equal to Gin. gauge can be got by this
apparatus easily.

159

The safety valves employed in connection with
steam boilers for cotton mill purposes are of two
classes, mainly the lever and dead weight. One of
the latter should always be used on each boiler.
In some cases spring loaded safety valves have
been adopted where high pressure steam is required.
The area of safety valves depends upon two factors,
the grate area and the pressure, the latter being

Fig. 69.

working at a low

the most important. A boiler
pressure requires a larger area of safety valve than
one which works at a high pressure, because an
increase of pressure implies a greater proportionate
risk. The following formulae give the method of
obtaining the area of a safety valve for mill boilers:
"Where A = area of valve, G = area in square feet of

grate, and P = absolute pressure,

, 36G ,

A = : or, when

160

the lift of a fourth of the diameter of the valve is

4G
allowed, A = — . Spring safety valves are some-
times used, and where they are the following
formula for the strength of the spring is
given by the Board of Trade : Where S = load on
spring in lbs., D = diameter of spring (centre to
centre of coils) in inches, (i = diameter or side of
square of wire used, C = 8000 for round and 11,000

for square steel, then d =

VSxD

The area per

J C

square foot of grate is fixed by a table provided by
the Board of Trade : —

TABLE 13.

Boiler Area of Boiler Area of BoUer Area of Boiler Area of
Pressure. Valve. Pressure. Valve. Pressure. Valve. Pressure. Valve.

•394

110

•300

140

•241

170

•202

•375

115

•288

145

•234

175

•197

•357

120

•277

150

•227

180

•192

•349

125

•265

155

•220

185

•187

100

•326

130

•258

160

•214

190

•182

105

•312

135

•250

165

•208

200

•174

If the lever type is used care must be taken to see
that the levers are made of wrought iron, and that
their proportions are such that the weight must be
placed at the end of the lever. It is not advisable
to make the levers too long, unless they are
balanced. The length of the lever, etc., can be got
by the following rule : — D = diameter of valve in
inches ; A = area of valve in square inches ; W =
weight of ball in pounds; L = length of lever in
inches ; P = blowing off pressure per square inch in
pounds; B = fulcrum distance in inches. Then
^^ ,^ ABP^ABP
B = D and L = ^y : ^ = ~i7~- "^^^ ^^^^^ ^^

safety valves should not be more than y^^ per inch
of width.

The problem of incrustation is very often a
serious one, especially if the sulphates of lime and
magnesia are present. Carbonates can be more
readily treated, and are more easily removed. Where
the impurity in the water is carlDonate of lime, by

161

a treatment with caustic lime prior to passing it into
the boiler, it can be precipitated. A tank is needed
for this purpose, and in most cases the addition to
the feed water of 3 grains of caustic soda for each
4 grains of lime contained will be suflScient. Fcr
sulphates, 4 grains of soda ash for each 5 grains in
the water will suffice, while, if both salts are found,
caustic soda will precipitate both. It is desirable
to avoid excess in this matter, w^hich is one requiring
intelligence. A composition has been introduced
by the Boiler Enamelling Company, of Glasgow,
which has the remarkable effect of depositing
a thin enamel on the plates, and so preventing the
adhesion of the incrusting matter. This appears
to have a great probability of successful use in a
large number of cases.

Some remarks have already been made with
reference to the size of the flues underneath a
boiler, but it may be said at this point that
provided facility of access is obtained, and that
their area is not less than the least internal chim-
ney area, that is all which is necessary. In a few
cases the chimney is so placed as to necessitate
long flues, but this practice is generally abandoned.
In most instances it may be expected that the flue
gases will take the shortest course to the chimney,
and it is therefore advisable, on account of the loss
sustained by radiation, not to make the flues either
too long or too large. The chimneys mostly used
in Lancashire are round, special bricks being
moulded for the purpose, and their height is
ordinarily determined by the bye-laws of the local
authorities, but is usually about 100ft. The deter-
mination of the outlet area of a chimney depends to
a large extent on the amount of coal burned, and
may be found by the formula where C = coal con-
sumed per hour in lbs., and H = height in feet,
, -070.

A = • Another rule is where W = cubic feet of

224 X W.
water evaporated per hour r=^^ In commen-

yJH.

\¥

162

cing to build a chimney care should be taken to get
the foundations properly laid. It is better to lay
first of all a thick bed of concrete, and upon that
the brick footings, the first course of which should
be double the size of the interior of the chimney, and
gradually taper to the diameter of the base. The
pressure on the brick work should not be more than
one ton to the square foot. No care can be too
great in laying the foundation, and it is better to
spend a good deal of money on a foundation than
to have any risk of settling. The taper or batter of
a chimney should be about '3 to '35 of an inch to
each foot of height, and the thickness must not be
less than one brick, 9in., at the top, this thickness
being sufiicient for about •25ft. from the top.
Thence every 25ft. the thickness should be
increased by 4Jin., and this is done by giving a
series of set-off's inside the chimney, thus avoiding
cutting the bricks. The courses are laid with
bricks 4Jin. wide, and the necessary set-off's are
maintained to any point until the minimum size is
reached by reason of the batter, when an addi-
tional set-off" is given. In order to give the neces-
sary strength to the chimney, it is desirable to lay
some of the courses of brick as stretchers and some
as headers — that is, longitudinally and transversely.
The practice of different architects varies in this
respect, but Bancroft's rule is to lay 3 or 4 courses
as stretchers and then put in a course of headers.
It is also desirable to build a chimney in the sum-
mer time, and to allow ample time for it to settle.
The height should not be pushed on too rapidly,
and a prolonged settlement is desirable. The
mortar joints should be well made and narrow,
the practice of grouting the brickwork being
very objectionable. At the lower part of the
chimney, up to about half its height, a fire-brick
lining is built, being separated from the brick wall
by a cavity, the lining being in some cases
strengthened by binding it to the chimney,
although this is a practice which is not advisable.
The question of chimney draught is an important

163

one, as upon it depends the character of the com-
bustion. Molesworth's nile for this is as follows :
where V = velocity in feet per second, H = height
of chimney in feet, T = temperature of air
entering, T^ = temperature of external air, V =
36-5 ^H(T-r). When T and T^ represent the
absolute temperatures, another authority gives the

formula for velocity V = 8 ^^^V" )y ^^^ ^^le

discharge per second V x A when A = the area of
chimney orifice. The temperature of the flue gases
need not rise above 600° F., at about which point the
maximum discharge of a chimuey takes place when
the external air is of a temperature of about 60°F.
Generally the greatest discharge is obtained when
the temperature is equal to double the external
tempei'ature + 461, but over a wide range of
temperature, say, from 600 to 800°F. the ratio does
not vary to any great extent, so that any increase
over the former implies a waste of heat.

All chimneys should be protected by lightning
conductors. Until a few years ago this subject
was little understood, but the rules are now well
established. The material used is now either
copper tape or rope, the former from J to 2in.
wide by not less than 12 W.<t. thick, and the latter
not less than |m. diameter, and made from wire
12 W.G. diameter. This material can now be got
cheaply made of deposited copper, which is nearly
pure, and has a very high electrical conductivity.
Although it is dearer than iron, the advantages
attending its use are so great that it is worth buying.
All the j' lints used should be well made, and not
only riveted but soldered. It is desirable to pro-
tect the rod for a few feet ab 've the ground. The
terminals should be well made, and a good form is
a ball screwed on to a nmud rod fastened to the
top of the chimney and to the conductor. Finely
pointed needles can be screwed into the ball, and
should not be less than six inches long. It is also
desirable to protect them by nickel plating. It is

164

preferable to pass the conductor down the side
of the chimuey most exposed to rain, and to fix
it firmly but not tightly. Where a metal cap
is used on a chimney, a copper band with points at
intervals can be passed round the top, this course
being recommended, In fixing the conductor sharp
curves should as far as possible be avoided, and if
quite a straight line can be taken it is to be pre-
ferred. The earth connection is best made by the
use of a large copper plate three feet square and
yq inch thick, buried in the earth several feet, and
covered with cinders. To this the conductor is at-
tached, and failing its employment, the latter may
be laid for several yards in a trench filled with coke
formed at the required depth. Care in observing
the particulars given will ensure good results in
practice.

The steam pipes used to convey the steam from
the boiler to the engine have most commonly been
made of cast iron, but on account of the hio-h
pressures which are now common this practice is
undergoing modification. Although it is not im-
possible to make steam pipes of cast iron which are
suflaciently strong to withstand safely the maximum
pressures which are used, it is by no means the
safest course to employ this material. Up to lOOlbs.
steam pressure, cast iron is safe enough, but above
1501bs. the weight of the pipe and the risky
character of the material renders it better to look
for a substitute. It has, therefore, become common,
in dealing with these pressures, to make the pipes
of steel plates, with a thickness of about -j^iii.
These are riveted in the same way as a boiler, but
care should be taken to use rivets of a sufficient
size, so that the necessary resistance is given to
the pressure, as, unless this is done, fracture is
not unlikely. The pipes being usually made in
considerable lengths, so that it is not easy to
replace a broken rivet. The joints require caulk-
ing, which involves a certain thickness of plate.
It is now possible to obtain wrought-iron pipes
of considerable diameter, which are welded,

165

electrically or otherwise, along the seams so as
practically to form one piece. These are in all
cases preferable to riveted pipes. If a long range of
pipes is used, whatever be the material, it is essential
that means be provided to take up the ex-
pansion. These are sometimes in the form of
expansion joints, consisting of two large dished
discs coupled at their edges and having the steam
pipes fixed to their centres : and in other cases are
made as sockets or sliding joints. These, of course,
require packing, and provision must be made to
prevent the two pipes fr^m being drawn apart. It
is equally necessary to provide means for drainage,
and, where it is possible, to give a gradient, which
should be taken advantage of to collect the water
at one point and remove it by a steam trap. If
possible the fall of the pipes should be towards the
boiler. Condensation in uncovered pipes is very

TABLE 14.
Weight of Cast-iron Pipes is Pounds pbb Lineal Foot.

Bjre.

Thick

N'Ess IS Inches,

Ins.

3-0

5-0

7-3

9 9

3-6

5-9

8-5

11-5

14-:

—

4-2

6-9

9-8

13-0

16-5

20-4

—

4-9

7-S

11-0

14-5

is -4

22-5

27-0

—

5-5

8-7

12-2

16-1

20-2

24-7

29-4

34-4

6-7

10-5

14-7

191

23-9

28-9

34-3

40-0

46-0

7-9

12-4

17 1

22 1

27-6

33-2

39-2

45-5

521

9-2

14-2

19-6

25-3

31-3

37-5

441

510

58-2

10-4

16-1

221

28-3

34-9

418

40 0

56-6

64-4

11-6

17-9

24-5

31-4

3S-6

46-1

53-9

62-1

70-5

128

19-7

26-9

34-5

42-3

50-4

5S-9

67-6

76 6

141

21-6

29-4

37-5

460

54-7

63-8

73-1

82-S

15-3

23-4

31-9

40-6

49-7

59-0

6S-7

78-7

8S-7

16-5

25-3

34-3

43-7

53-3

63-3

73-4

84-2

95-1

17-7

27"l

36-8

46-7

56-S

67-6

78-5

89-7

101-2

19-0

29-0

390

49-8

60-7

71-9

83-4

95-2

107-4

20-0

30 -S

41-7

52-9

64-4

76-2

883

100-S

113-5

21-6

32-9

44-4

56-2

68-3

SO-7

93-4

106-5

119-9

22-7

34-5

46 6

59-0

71-8

S4-8

98-1

lUS

125 8

23-9

36 3

49-0

62-1

75-4

89-1

103-1

117-4

131-9

25-1

38-2

51-5

65-2

79-1

93-4

ios-0

122-9

1S81

lOi

26-3

40-0

54-0

6S-2

82 8

97-7

112-9

1-28 -4

144-2

27-6

41-8

56-4

71-3

86-5

102-0

117 8

13:J-9

150-3

28-8

43-7

58-9

74-3

901

106-3

1-22-7

139-4

156-4

30-0

45-5

61-3

77-4

110-6

1-27-6

145-0

162-6

Note.— For each Joint add one foot in length of the Pipe.

166

great, and it is therefore imperative that they shall
be well drained. The weight of iron pipes depends
on the thickness of metal used, but can be calcu-
lated by the following formula: — D = outside dia-
meter in inches ; d = inside diameter ; W = weight
of a lineal foot; then W = 2 45 (D- — <i') for cast
iron and 2*64 (T>' — d') for wrought iron. To this
should be added for cast-iron pipes the weight of
one foot for each pair of flanges used. A rule giveu
for cast-iron pipes to work at pressures up to lOOlbs.
is (i + 4 = thickness in sixteenths of an inch. Table
14 (see page 165) gives the weight of cast-iron
pipes calculated by the rule given.

CHAPTER XII.

STEAM ENGINES. — GENERAL REMARKS.

Not only have the boilers used in modern mills
been greatly improved, but a like process has
taken place with the engines. The science of
using steam has become better understood, and
full effect is now obtained from the heat contained
in it. ' As is well known, the steam engine is a
heat engine, and Carnot's well-known formula,

T-T'

— ™ — , gives a means of calculating the work of a

perfect heat engine. T = maximum temperature of
the steam, and T' = minimum temperature. It
is, of course, not possible to attain this theoretical
efficiency in a steam engine, but there are many
cases in which great improvement could be effected
by a re-arrangement of the engines. A casual
glance at the formula shows that the greater the
difference in the temperatures the greater the
power developed. It is not possible here and now
to lay down the theoretical considerations which
govern this question, and we must be content to
give a few practical hints, which may be of
service. The power required has now become so

167

large that except in weaving sheds there are
not many simple — i.e., one-cylindered — engines at
work. What type of engine should be adopted is a
question which cannot be easily answered, unless a
full statement of the specific circumstances is
forthcoming ; but the principles upon which a mill-
owner can proceed will be described. Briefly, it
may be said that two things determine the point.
First, there is cylinder condensation, caused by the
fall of temperature owing to the expansion of the
steam. Wherever this is excessive there is a dis-
tinct loss. Second, there is the existence of strains
upon the crank pins, which vary considerably in
amount when the whole of the work is done in
one cylinder in which there is a large range of steam
pressure.

The first of these points is important, because a
coDsiderable loss in the quantity of the steam used
occurs when condensation is excessive. For instance,
assuming that the cut-off in the cylinder of an
engine took place after 15 per cent of the stroke
was completed, the loss by condensation in a simple
engine would be 32, in a compound 26, and in a
triple-expansion engine, 24 per cent respectively.
But important as this undoubtedly is, it is not
more so than the second point named, the excessive
initial strains throw^n upon the crank pins when the
whole work has to be done in one cylinder. It must
be remembered that to obtain any great power, a
cylinder of large size would be required, and the
area of the piston would be so great that the influx
of the steam would exercise an excessive pressure on
the crank pin. For instance, if the power exerted
on the pin be plotted out, it wdll be found that in a
simple engine, the maximum and minimum pressures
vary much more largely than they do in a compound
engine, even if it be of the tandem single-crank
type. If two engine?, each developing 1,250 horse
power, be taken as an example, in the one case a
simple condensing with a 42in. cylinder, and in the
other a tandem compound with a high-pressure
cylinder 30in. diameter, and a low-pressure 50in.

168

diameter, both using steam at 801bs. The initial
stress on the crank pin in the simple engine is
110,8361bs., and in the compound engine 62,2481bs.,
a very considerable difference. It is clear that the
additional strength required in the former will affect
the design throughout, and will render it necessary
to increase the weight of the moving parts in order to
bring them up to their work. This implies more work
and friction in the engine itself. The case for the
simple engine would be still worse, if instead of
a tandem a side by side compound engine had been
selected as an example. Thus, alike on the gi'ound
of economy in working and in the avoidance of
undue strains, a division of the steam expansion is
desirable. It is not easy to determine when this
process shall take place, but when the power re-
quired is moderately large, and the steam pressure
used is over 701bs., compounding will always pay.
Up to 1201bs. pressure compound engines are best,
and from loOlbs. to 2001bs. triple-expansion engines
give good results.

Whatever may be the type of engine used it is
never wise to diminish its usefulness by cutting
down the first cost. A well designed and propor^
tioned engine, constructed soundly and with due
regard to accuracy, may appear "^to be dear, but
it is fairly certain to be economical in the long run.
An engine should be well balanced, with its working
parts reduced to the least possible number, strong^
yet not unduly heavy, and with its proportions
properly arranged and calculated. When high
pressures are used, it is imperative that a good
rapidly-acting valve motion be applied, and the
passages ought to be arranged so that the steam
has quick access to the cyliader without loss of
pressure. Full boiler pressure cannot, perhaps, be
got on the piston, but it can be very nearly
approached. It is equally important that, as there
must be some space left between the piston at the
end of its stroke and the valve, the exhaust valve
shall close in sufficient time to enable the steam
£lling the space named to be compressed, and thus

169

raised to a temperature equal to or approaching
that of the incoming steam. In this way the
initial condensation of the steam is avoided.
These conditions imply the existence of large
areas in the valve ports, and such an arrange-
ment of gear that these can be opened wide at
once and closed instantaneously. Xothino: is of
more importance in a steam-engine than the un-
obstructed passage of the steam into the cylinder,
and it is equally necessary that the exhaust valves
open and close quickly, and that they are so
a'-ranged as to drain off any water at every stroke.
In setting the valves regard must be paid to the
terminal pressures, which, in a multiple expansion
engine, are determined on in proportioning the
cylinder areas. In this class of engine the pro-
vision of a receiver, either as a separate vessel or by
duly proportioning the size of the steam pipes, is
an absolute necessity if good work is to be got.
The area of the receiver must be large enough to
enable it to contain the whole of the steam
discharged from the cylinder at each stroke.
Although by compression it is possible to increase
the temperature of the steam in the clearance
spaces, this must not lead users to believe that
these can be large without loss. On the contrary,
the smaller the clearance spaces are the better for
the engine. It will pay millowners to examine
these points with regard to valve area and openings
and clearance spaces, as they are two most
important factors in economical work.

In large engines, and indeed in all engines using
steam at a high pressure, it is desirable to have
steam jackets to the cylinders. The loss by con-
densation being caused, as was said, by the cooling
of the cylinder walls, it is highly important to
protect these from cjoling by radiation. The
application of a steam jacket has been the great
difficulty, but this is in a fair way for being over-
come. In the engines made by Messrs. Sulzer
Bros., of Winterthur, for instance, who have long
had a reputation for their engines, steam jackets

170

are usual, and, as will be seen from some of the
descriptions which follow, they are also used by
some of the best English firms. It is certain that
a distinct gain, thotigh a small one, accrues from
the use of a jacket, especially if it is fed by
steam equal in temperature to that entering the
cylinder. The condensation and re-evaporation
which usually takes place is thus avoided. Th^^
usual practice with steam cylinders is to cover them
with some form of non-conducting material in order
to avoid cooliug by radiation. Not only should
the cylinders be clothed, but also all exposed steam
pipes. There are numerous compositions in the
market for this purpose, some of which are little
better than mud bound together with a mixture of
hay or other fibre. Among the best materials
which are suitable for this purpose asbestos and
slag-wool may be recommended, the latter being
alike effective and cheap.

During recent years it has become usual to
abandon the coal consumption per horse-power per
hour as a measure of the efficiency of an engine,
and to use instead the weight of steam taken. It
is obvious that this is the better method, because it
permits of an apportionment of the cost between the
boiler and the engine. These are sometimes made
by diff'erent persons, and the lumping together of
the result may be unfair to either or both of them.
It is much better, therefore, that the quantity of
steam used should be taken as the measure of
the efficiency of a steam engine. It is important,
therefore, to see what the proper quantity is.
In the Journal of the Franklin Institute
for April, 1894-, particulars are given of a test
by Professor Thurston of a set of triple expansion
pumping engines. The results of the test show
that ir6781bs. of steam y)er I.H.P. per hour were
used at a fuel cost ov l-237lbs. These figures are
very low, and were obtained by the employment of
tubular boilers evaporating 8-9061bs. of water per
lib. of coal. With a boiler of higher evaporative
efficiency the coal consumption would be less. As

171

it is, the efficiency of the engine "is -068 of that of a
Carnot cycle working through the same range of
temperatures, or '77 of thermo-dynamic efficiency
for the Rankine cycle of the ideal case." Professor
Thurston says : -'An engine which brings down the
consumption of energy of heat and steam and fuel
to the equivalent of 13,056 B.T.U. per hour, 217
per minute, per horse power, to 11-678 pounds of
dry steam per horse power per hour, and to 1-25 or
l*351bs. of fuel, giving an actual duty, watch by
watch, for twenty-four hours, of 140,000,000 to
150,000,000 per lOOlbs. of fuel actually consumed,
with but moderate efficiency of boiler, and averaging
the equivalent of 154,048,000 foot pounds per
l,0001bs. of dry steam at the engine, not only
establishes a wonderful record, but marks off an
era in the progress of the steam engine. This is
probably about the limit for the century, and iivelve
pounds of steam per horse power per hour^ a figure
now known to be approximated by several engines,
may be taken as the culmination of the progress of
the nineteenth century." It may be said that this
result was obtained in engines which developed
573'87 horse power with an average steam pressure
of 121'61bs., and the observations were taken by
trained observers from Sibley College specially
organised so as to provide four watches during the
24 hours continuous trial. It ought also to be men-
tioned that the cylinders were steam jacketed,
being supplied, so far as the high-pressure and
intermediate cylinders were concerned, with steam
at boiler pressure, and the low-pressure with steam
at 341bs. The jacket steam for the first two
cylinders was supplied directly and specially from
the boiler, so that the temperature of the
cylinder was well maintained. Some published
tests of a triple-expansion engine made in
Germany showed that with an initial pressure of
155 ^Ibs. the engine used ll-851bs. of steam per
I.H.P. Messrs. Sulzer Bros., in their catalogue,
state their triple engines consume only 11 — 131bs.
steam per I.H.P. per hour. No facts are known

172

which justify the lower figure. As a matter of
tact, there is grave doubt as to the maintenance
during actual work of any use of steam less in
amount than 121bs. per I.H.P. per hour. In a
recent careful and reliable test by Mr. Crosland of a
set of mill engines at the Mutual Spinning Company
Limited, at Heywood, the steam consumption was
only 12-2 lbs. per I.H.P. per hour, which is the
lowest yet ascertained during actual work in Lanca-
shire. Details of this test are given at a later stage.
Compound engines are, of course, not so econo-
mical as triple expansion, but form a great advance
upon simple engines. The consumption of steam
ma good compound engine should be about 161bs.
and m a simple engine with condenser about ISlbs.
per LH.P. per hour. At one time engine makers
in this country were reluctant to give any guarantee
as to steam consumption in their engines, and it
was made a matter of reproach that Continental
engineers would do so readily. Now that is
all changed, and any of the firms whose engines
are illustrated will guarantee a certain steam con-
sumption. This is the important point, and it
should not be overlooked by millowners.

Another matter which may be mentioned before
passmg on is that of piston speed. Many years
ago, when the Allen engine was introduced into
Lngland, and was tried at a piston speed of 800ft.
per minute, it proved to be unsuccessful, and it
was roundly declared that such speeds were impos-
sible. It is curious to note that since the intro-
duction of high pressures and multiple expansions
the piston speed of stationary engines has gradually
gone up until, as will be seen, they are now often
as high as 660ft. per minute.

The favourite type of engine for cotton mill
practice is the horizontal side by side, which pro-
bably gives the maximum economy combined with
steadiness. In constructing this engine ample
areas should be given to the working parts, and
due provision made for lubrication. The pressure
per square inch on a crank pin should never be

173

more than SOOlbs., on the cross-head slides witli
good lubrication 4001bs., and on the main bearings
4001bs. or 5001bs. The speed of the steam in the
main steam pipe should not be more than 2,500ft.
per minute, and in the exhaust 4,500ft. If the
engine is of jet condensing type, 25 to 30 times
the weight of water is wanted for the weight of
steam used ; but this depends on the temperature
of the former, which should not exceed 100°F. In
some cases surface condensers are used, and in that
event the following rule will be of interest : The
combined area of the surface of the tubes should
be equal to the area of the heating surface required
X "07. A simpler rule is that the tube surface
needed is 2*5 to 3 square feet per I.H.P. If cooling
reservoirs are constructed, they should be large and
shallow rather than small and deep. The exact pro-
portion naturally depends on the amount of cold
water available. The reservoir should have a capacity
equal to the volume injected into the condenser per
day. The loss by evaporation has been estimated
by Mr. Hurst to be from Jin. to ^in, per day in the
summer, and from jg^"- *^ tV^"- "^ ^^^ winter.
With regard to cooling appliances, there is room
for improvement in this respect, and the question
of area for condensing water is one of much interest
in many places.

Having thus dealt generally with some of the
points relating to engines such as are used in
cotton mills, several examples of recent construc-
tion are given, so as to illustrate present
day practice. In doing so it naturally happens
that some similarity will exist between the various
engines, the differences, which are important how-
ever, being mainly in the arrangements of the valve
gear, etc. It will be understood that the engines
are selected as recent examples only, and are not
necessarily the most important engines made by
the various firms.

ill

174
CHAPTER XIII.

STEAM ENGINES — RECENT EXAMPLES.

The engine illustrated in Fig. 70 is one recently
made and erected by Messrs, Hick, Hargreaves
and Co., Ltd., and set to work at Messrs. A.
Bromiley and Co.'s factory, Folds Road, Bolton, and
although of comparatively small power, it possesses
special features which are interesting. It is of
the makers' well-known Corliss type, as regards
the framing and the construction and valve
gear of both cylinders. It is designed for a load of
-too I.H.P, and has cylinders ISin. and 32in.
diameter by 4ft. stroke. The cylinder ratio is
therefore 1 : 3-16. The speed is 70 revolutions
per minute, or a piston speed of 560ft, and the
boiler pressure 1201bs. per square inch. The steam
is supplied by a 30ft. x Sft. Lancashire boiler,
also supplied by Messrs. Hick, Hargreaves and Co.,
Limited. Each cylinder is built up of four parts
bolted together, a method of construction which
involves some extra cust, but is recognised as secur-
ing important advantage^. The cylinder is furnished
with a liner, or workiug barrel, which is fitted into
the outer casing, being held at one end by a lip
taking into a recess formed in the casing. The
other end of the liner is free to slide, and in a
recess, made in the casing, a few turns of
asbestos picking are placed, being surmounted
by a ring of metal. AVhen the valve case is
bolted in position the ring and packing are thus
secured. In this way there is perfect freedom
of movement in the barrel. Both cylinders are
jacketed on the principle, now generally employed
by the makers, of making the whole steam supply
to each cylinder pass through the jacket of that
cylinder, this method preventing the cylinders being
strained by unequal expansion, and securing a high
measure of economy. One of the most, novel and
important features about the engine is the applica-
tion of the makers' patent " swivel " bearings to

175

both craniecks and to the crank pin. These
devices red i the liability of hot necks or pins to
an almost nigable quantity. The valve gear
is of the " Ingfind Spencer " type, in which wrist
plates are emplid, and so arranged as to secure
the "dwell'" of tiN'alves duriug the period of the
greatest load. Th\team and exhaust valves are
driven by separate'ribt plates, thus allowing
of independent adjustnt. As will be seen from
the illustration, the dtTU of the engine is of a
very simple and straigorward character. The
working parts and surfi? are liberally propor-
tioned, and the high finisll' the bright parts and
the planished steel cylinder sings and crank race
shields give the engine a verjVidsome appearance.

Fig. 71.

The power is transmitted by ropes, the drum ^^
15ft. diameter and grooved for 14 ropes. ^

})rovided with a barring rack, through which
engine is moved by one of the makers' double cyli..
der barring engines. The engine is at present
working with only a portion of the full load and
with reduced boiler pressure, but the diagrams
given (Figs. 71 and 72), though taken under these
conditions, will serve to show the admirable
character of the steam distribution. It is expected
when full load is on that not more than 141bs. of
steam per I.H P. will be required. Although this
is a specimen of a comparatively small engine, it is
none the less interesting, as it is an example of the
characteristic method of construction carried out
throughout by the makers.

176

As a contrast to the preceding, an ^stration,
Fig. 73, is given of a set of tri^ expansion
vertical engines of 1,000 b.p., also n-^ by Messrs.
Hick, Hargreaves, and Co. Althg^i }^^^ being
used for cotton spinning, they are work in Belfast,
driving a fine flax spinning mill^'he cylinders are
inverted, the high and interme^te pressures being
outside, and the low pressure^ the middle. The
high pressure cylinder is !'»• diameter, the inter-
mediate 29in., and the lowessure 46in., the stroke
in each case being 4ft. -he cylinder ratios are
thus— high to intermedin, 1 : 2-23 nearly ; inter-
mediate to low, 1 : iH ; high to low, 1 : 5-86.
The engine makes 80/^olutions per minute, which
is equal to a pistoi/peed of 640ft. per minute.
The construction of/ a cylinder and valve gear is.

Fig. 72.

alio' ig for the variation in the design, similar
to xt of the preceding example, and does not
r :e further comment, except that the cylin-
3 are not jacketed. Knowles' supplementary
v^ernor is added to the engine, which enables
,n accurate and absolute control to be attained
over the steam admission. The crank shaft
is 12in. diameter in the necks, and is built up
in the manner common with marine engine shafts.
Both it and the crank pins are, in accordance with
the usual practice of the makers, bored from end
to end. The crank-shaft and crank-pin bearings
and the guide-blocks are lined with a special white
metal, and the guide-bars are hollow, so as to pro-
vide for the circulation of water. Special indi-
cating cocks are fitted, as also a novel indicating

177

gear suggested by Mr. Wilson, the engineer super-
intending their erection. This consists of a spindle,
running in centres and carrying a quadrant for
the indicator cord, and a spiral blade kept in or out
of contact with a roller moving with the crosshead
by means of a spring. The gear can be easily put
in or out of action. The engines have a vertical
single acting air-pump, 32in. diameter and 16in.
stroke, and a jet condenser driven by levers from
the low-pressure engine. The rope drum is fixed
on the shaft at the intermediate cylinder end, and
is 16ft. diameter, being grooved for 36 ropes. In
order to ascertain the character of the work of
this engine, a test lasting 5J hours was made
by Mr. Wilson under working conditions. The
mean indicated horse-power was 791-3, with a
boiler pressure of 1561bs. per square inch, the
vacuum obtained being ll-941bs. In order to
ascertain the percentage of priming, a known pro-
portion of salt was added to the feed water, and the
water of condensation collected out of the main
supply pipe. This being tested by chemical reagents
was found to give results which, on being proved,
were shown to be very accurate. In this way it was
ascertained that 12-791bs. of steam per I.H.P. per
hour was used, the consumption of coal — " Vivian's
Thro' and Thro' "—being only 1 •221bs. It may be of
interest to mention that the water evaporated from
and at 212' F. was 12*1 libs, per lb. of coal,
which for a Lancashire boiler, 28ft. by 7ft. 6in., is
a high duty. The ratio of the grate area to the
whole heating surface is 1 : 26-8, and a Green's
economiser of 320 pipes was used, raising the feed
to 258° F.

The engines illustrated in Fig. 74 were recently
constructed and put to work by Messrs. Daniel
Adamson and Co. at the Mill of the Minerva Cotton
Spinning Company, Limited, a view of which has
been previously given.

As will be noticed, they are of the horizontal
tandem type, having two cylinders on each side of
the main driving drum. The high and one low

right angles, on the opposite side. This arrangement
is one which is largely adopted for engines of this
class and duty, when perfectly steady turning is
a necessity, as it secures a perfectly balanced
engine and an equable distribution of the load on
each crank pin.

The high pressure cylinder is 22in. bore, the
intermediate pressure cylinder 36in. bore, wiiilst the
two low pressure cylinders are each 40in. bore, all
being 60in. stroke. The cylinder areas are, there-
fore— high to intermediate, 1 : 2'67 ; intermediate
to low, 1 : 2-46 ; and the piston speed is 660ft. per
minute. As now running, at 55 revolutions per
minute, they will develop 1,500 horse-power with
ease, with steam at 1601bs. pressure per square
inch, for which pressure the boilers are loaded and
the engines are proportioned. The power is given
off from the engines by a main rope drum 30ft.
in diameter, grooved for 40 ropes IJin. diameter,
the speed of the ropes being 5,185ft. per minute.
The drum is built up, and its finished weight is 65
tons. It is cased in with polished pine, has an
internal barring rack cast inside the rim, and is
provided with one of the maker's automatic safety
barring engines.

The general design of the engines themselves is
of the type commonly known as the Corliss or
Trunk Guide frame pattern, and they are of mas-
sive and strong construction. The portions of the
frame nearest the cylmders have the slides for the
crossheads cast therein, and these are bored out at
the same time as the flanges for jointing to the
cylinders are faced. At the end of the slides a sub-
stantial foot, is provided for bolting the frames to
the foundations, whilst at the end of the frames
nearest the crank shaft a suitable flange is provided
for jointing the frames to the crank shaft pedestals,
which are cast separate and jointed to the frames
with strong bolts. Between the two tandem cylin-
ders on each side cast-iron distance pieces are fitted.

Hii

179

These have slides cast in them in a simihir manner
to the main frames, in which a crosshead, which is
utilised as a coupling for the piston rods fur the
high and low pressure cylinders, and as a support
for the rod, slides. The distance pieces are bored
out for the crossheads and the flanges faced for
jointing to the cylinders at one operation, the
whole engine being thus jointed together with faced
joints from the machines in true alignment. The
distance pieces are made large enough to allow
of the cylinder covers being removed and pistons
examined, without disconnecting any other parts of
the engines. All steam joints can be made good
with the minimum of trouble, they being perfectly
accessible without any disturbance of the structural
parts of the engine. Advantage is taken of the
coupling crosshead for driving the air pumps, which
are fixed immediately underneath the distance
pieces, and are of the usual single acting bucket
type, driven direct from the crosshead by steel
plate levers. The two low pressure cylinders are
fixed upon separate cast iron frames, bolted securely
to the foundations, provision being made for the
low pressure cylinders to slide freely thereon, and
thus accommodate themselves to the expansion and
contraction of the engines when hot and cold.
The crank-shaft pedestals are fitted with phos-
phor bronze steps, made in four parts, the two side
sections being adjustable horizontally by means of
wedges and screws fitted through the pedestal
caps, whilst the top and bottom sections are turned
and fitted into bored seats prepared for them,
allowing their removal for examination or renewal
with very little trouble and very slight lifting of
the shaft.

The high and intermediate pressure cylinders
are each fitted with automatic expansion gear, each
being controlled by a separate and independent
governor positively driven by gearing. The two
low pressure cylinders are fitted with circular
semi-rotatmg valves, one at each end of the
cylinders, and of the makers' latest improved type.

"Wheelock" type. This gear was exhibited and
obtained the highest awards at the Paris Exhibi-
tion in 1878, since which time it has been a
speciality of Messrs. Adamson, and has been shown
at most of the principal exhibitions with similar suc-
cessful results. The gear is of the single eccentric
type — the same eccentric being used for driving the
steam and exhaust valves — and is arranged for givinoj
automatic control of the expansion from zero to 75
per cent of the stroke of the piston, whilst retaining
complete control of the periods of release and com-
pression. The valves, which are of the flat-grid
type, giving multiplicity of opening and small
frictional surfaces, are driven by means of levers
having a vibrating motion, keyed on the valve
spindle, and are connected to the eccentric with ad-
justable coupling rods in the usual manner. The
steam valves are driven from the exhaust valve
levers by the " Wheelock " latch link and are
tripped by cams, the valves being instantly closed
by means of helical coil springs working in air
compression cylinders, cushioned and noiseless in
action. The cams receive a positive travel from
the eccentric rod, and are varied and controlled
by the governor, a resultant action being thereby
obtained capable of tripping the latch link in
every position of the gear, whether moving forward
or backward. There are also provided, in suitable
positions, safety cams which prevent the steam
valves opening in case of accident to the governor.
Both steam and exhaust valves are contained in
one chest at each end of the cylinder, the seats of
the valves being formed in a plug turned to fit the
cylinder. The chests, being separate from the
cylinder, can be made of specially hard and durable
iron, enabling spare valves to be kept in stock,
and obviating any wear in the cylinder casting.
The valve spindles are of the Wheelock patent
self-packing type, which dispenses entirely with the
usual stuffing boxes and glands, and are also practi-
cally frictionless. The piston rods are of forged mild

181

steel, and their stuffing boxes are fitted with metallic
packing throughout. The crank shaft is of Siemens-
Martin mild steel, and has journals two diameters
long, which are fitted with oil circulating pumps,
to return all the oil used from a low level receiving
cistern to a cistern fitted upon the pedestal caps,
from which the supply of oil is regulated by means
of a series of taps. The oil for lubrication is thus
used over and over again, and is strained and
sieved thoroughly at each change, this system of
lubrication being found to keep the bearings in
perfect condition with very little expenditure of
oil. The main stop valve is fitted with " Tate's '"
patent electric stop motion, arranged to close the
valve automatically in case of accident in the mill,
to the different rooms with which it is connected.
The cylinders and pipes are clothed with non-con-
ducting compositioD, and the bodies of the cylinders
finished off with planished steel sheets bound
together with brass belts. They have a complete
set of automatic and hand lubricators, indicator
and drain taps, indicator gear, steam and vacuum
gauges, and .a complete set of oil catchers and
drippers wherever required, and also handrails and
guards round all dangerous places.

The engines shown in Fig. 75 are at use at the
Castle Spinning Company Limited, Stalybridge,
and are of the horizontal condensing triple expan-
sion type made hy Messrs. Yates and Thom, of
Blackburn. They have a high pressure cylinder
21 in. diameter, an intermediate cylinder 3-4in. dia-
meter, and two low pressure cylinders each 39in.
diameter, all made suitable for a stroke of oft. Gin.
The ratio of the cylinder areas is thus, high to
intermediate 1 : 2-33, intermediate to low 1 : 2-6.
The piston speed is 660ft. per minute. They
are capable of transmitting most economically
1,400 I.H.P. with a boiler pressure of 1601bs.
l)er square inch and a speed of 60 revolutions
])er minute. The cylinders are arranged with the
high pressure and one low pressure working on the
right hand crank and the intermediate and other

lismg the strains on the respective crank pms.
The fly rope pulley is 30ft. diameter ; its peripheral
velocity, 5,650 feet : it is turned and grooved for 32
ropes each Ifiu. diameter, and weighs about 52 tons.

The high pressure and intermediate cylinders
have "Corliss'' valves, and 'are fitted with a
patent valve gear. The steam and exhaust
valves are worked independently of each other
by separate eccentrics and wrist plates, the
steam valves of the high pressure cylinder
being under the control of a powerful high speed
governor for automatically adjusting the point of
cut-off, which efficiently controls the speed of the
engine. An improved automatic safety knock-off
motion is attached to the governor gear for stopping
the engine in case of accident. The low pressure
cylinders are fitted with double ported slide valves
at each end of the cy]iudei*s. The steam and ex-
haust ports of the cylinders as well as the pipes
throughout are made of large area, thereby securini<
low steam velocities both for the admission and
eduction of the steam from the cylinders, and at
the same time ensuiing free open passages for the
steam to the condenser. These points reduce tlie
initial loss to a minimum, and are of great import-
ance for economical working.

The engine bed plates are of the box girder form,
strong and massively constructed. The crank shaft
pedestals are fitted with steps in four parts, and
wedges and screws, affording all possible means for
easy and efiBcient adjustment.

There is one set of condensing apparatus to each
low pressure cylinder, each having a single acting
vertical air pump fitted with cast-iron buckets of
improved solid construction and multiple valve ar-
rangement. Both of the air pumps, as well as the
boiler feed pump, are worked by means of levers
made of steel plates actuated from the piston rod
crossheads of the engine.

The stop valve for starting the engine is cm-
veniently placed in the steam pipe on the top of

183

the high pressure cylinder, and is easily reached
and manipulated from the engine house floor. The
injection valve and other starting handles are all in
close proximity to each other, an arrangement which
is exceedingly handy and convenient for the engine
attendant.

The important point of lubrication is one to
which the engineers have given their special
attention. All the cylinders and main journals are
provided and fitted with handsome and efficient
lubricators, those for the crank shaft being con-
tinuous, having in connection suitable pumps with
filtering arrangements and cisterns. The crank
pins are fitted with an effective centrifugal oiling
arrangement.

The floor space around the engines is covered
with cast-iron chequered floor plates, and gives a
very neat appearance. Polished wrought-iron hand-
railing, with pillars of good design, are fixed around
the connecting rods, cranks and fly rope pulley, for
protection against accidents.

One of Messrs, Yates and Thom's barring engines
is provided, gearing into an internal spur rack cast
on the inside of the rim of the fly rope pulley ; it
is arranged so that it runs automatically out of
gear and ceases work immediately the main engine
gains its speed. The engine has a fine massive
appearance.

In Figs. 76 and 77 a plan and elevation of a set
of triple expansion engines, made for the Park
Road Spinning Company Limited, Dukinfield, by
Mr. Benj. Goodfellow, of Hyde, are illustrated. The
engines are capable of developing 1,500 I.H.P., and
are designed to drive a mill which, when completed,
will contain about 92,280 mule spindles, with all
the necessary preparation required. They are of
the horizontal triple compound condensing type,
arranged with four cylinders, one high pressure,
one intermediate pressure, and two low pressure,
a compact arrangement which not only gives the
highest results for regular turning, but an economy
in steam and a symmetry which cannot be arrived

mediate pressure cylinder, which is placed on the
left hand engine and abreast of the high pressure
cylinder, is 35in. diameter, and the two low pressure
cylinders are 40in. diameter, one placed behind the
high pressure cylinder and one behind the inter-
mediate pressure cylinder. The cylinder area
is thus proportioned — High pressure to interme-
diate 1 : 2-52, intermediate to low 1 : 2-61, high
pressure to low 1 : 6 "6. AW four cylinders are
5ft. stroke, and the engines are now working at 60
revolutions per minute, with an initial pressure of
IGOlbs. per square inch, the piston speed being
thus 600ft. per minute.

Each cylinder is fitted with Corliss valves,
those on the high pressure cylinder being auto-
matically actuated by the governor, which is
further assisted by a compensating motion
enabling the speed of the engines to be controlled
with the least possible variation, notwithstanding
the frequent alterations in the load and steam pres-
sure. All the steam or admission valves are worked
by Ramsbottom's improved trip motion, which is
so fitted up as to dispense with the necessity of a
catch gear, and the valves and their mechanism are
so designed and constructed that tliey work with ex-
tremely little friction. The amount of power used
to trip this gear is surprisingly small, and it is
remarkably free and easy in action. Further,
as it lias no clutch to engage and disengage,
it is well adapted for quick running engines.
The gear does not, in addition, re-act upon
the governor when tripping. As is common
with Mr. Goodfellow's engines, the steam valves
are all placed on the top sides of the cylinders
and the exhaust valves at the bottom, this being a
preferable arrangement to putting both admission
and exhaust valves at the same side of the cylinder.
The governor is of a high speed type, with centre
weight and spring, and is fitted with the firm's im-

111''

185

proved compensating gear for adjusting the point of
cut-off to suit the load and the steam pressure, at
the same time maintaining the normal speed of the
engines. Attached to the governor is a knock-off,
or stopping arrangement, which throws the valves
out of gear and prevents them opening to admit
steam into the cyhnders, at the same time opening
a valve which admits air into the condensers and so
stops the engines in the shortest possible time.

The engines are fitted with two air pumps and
complete condensing apparatus, so as to keep every-
thing as truly balanced as possible, and, at the same
time, should any accident occur either to one engine or
the other at any time, the disabled parts may be
readily uncoupled, and a large portion of the
work be driven from one engine. As these
engmes are running at a rather high speed for
engines of this class, the air-pump" bucket has
been made on the bucket and plunger principle,
thereby getting a much steadier motion, in
consequence of having a constant deliveiy of the
overflow water, and practically dispensing with the
knock fi'om the pump, which is so very common in
quick-running stationary engines. Each bucket
and plunger derives its motion by means of the
usual L levers, links, etc., as shown in Fig. 77, from
a spider crosshead, sliding in a cast-iron distance
piece, between the two cyhnders. This distance
piece acts as the stay from one cylinder to the
other, and at the same time it forms the guide
for the spider cross head. This arrangement
requires a rather longer engine-house than when
both cylinders are put together and the condensing
apparatus put under the main slide bai's, but the
maker claims, with some justice, that it has the
advantages of placing the condensing apparatus in
a much more accessible position, does not cut an
objectionable opening in the foundation at the
• •rank-shaft end of the engine beds, and that by coup-
ling the rods by means of the air-pump cross-head
the cold low pressure rod is never worked through
into the high pressure cylinder or vice versa. In

Fig. 71

more convenient to have the piston rod in two
pieces than in one long cumbrous one, as is very
common in the other case.

187

The main bearing used is shown in partial section
and plan in Figs. 78 and 79. It will be noticed
the brass is divided, so that it can be set up by
wedges and screws, and that provision is made
for continuous lubricatioD. The crank shaft is
made of Whitworth's fluid compressed steel, and
the fly rope pulley is 30ft. diameter, grooved for 46
Ifin. ropes. It is made as two separate pulleys,
i.e. there are two bosses, two sets of arms, and two
sets of segments, each keyed on to the shaft with
separate steel keys. There are some advantages in
this arrangement, which has proved successful in
practice. The face of the pulley is furnished with
a rack, into which a barring engine is geared, and
provided so as to be automatically disengaged when
the main engine over-runs it. The engines will
easily work with IJlb. of coal per I.E. P. per hour,
including mill heating, and are a good sample of
the most modern type. They are well calculated
to do good service for many years and give entire
satisfaction alike to the maker and user.

CHAPTER XIV.

STEAM ENGINE EXAMPLES.

(Continued.)

The engines, illustrated in Fig. ^0, are being
made for a cotton spinning mill in the East, by
Mr. George Saxon, and are constructed on the four
cylinder triple expansion tandem principle. The
high pressure cylinder is 17in. in diameter, the
intermediate 29in. diameter, and each of the two low
pressure cylinders 3Hin. in diameter. The cylinder
ratios are therefore, high to intermediate, 1 : 2*9 ;
intermediate to low, 1 : 2-36. The stroke is 5ft.,
and when running at 60 revolutions per minute, or
a piston speed of 660 feet, with a boiler pressure of
1601bs. per square inch, the engine is calculated to
develop 800 I.H.P. The cylinders are arranged
with one high pressure and one low pressure acting

hand crank, the load on the respective cranks by
this means being equalised as nearly as practicable.
The engines work on to two cranks set at right
angles to each other. Strong cast-iron polished
distance-pieces are fixed between the cylinders on
each side.

Fig. 80.

All the cylinders are fitted with Corliss valves
actuated in a very simple and efficient manner.
Each motion is provided with a tripping arrange-
ment, and fitted with springs and air-cushioned
boxes, and each valve can be independently ad-
justed. The trip gear to the high pressure cylinder
is connected with and adjusted automatically by an
efficient high speed governor, which is fitted with a

189

mercurial balance or regulator. The range of cut-off
varies from nothing to three-fourths of the stroke.
The trip gears fitted to the intermediate and two
low pressure cylinders are similar to that fitted to
the high pressure, the cut-ofF being adjustable and
capable of being varied while the engine is at work.
The valves are worked by four eccentrics set on two
separate shafts between the low pressure cylinders
and in front of the fly rope pulley, the shaft being
driven b}^ bevel gear from the crank shaft.

The pistons are fitted with steel spiral coil
, springs, the rods being of special mild steel and Sin.

I and 4in. diameter respectively. The crossheads are

I of hammered scrap iron fitted with mild steel

I gudgeons. The connecting rods are 12ft. 6in. long,

I centre to centre, 6Jin. diameter in the middle, an'd

have the crank-pin ends forged solid. The cranks
I are of hammered scrap iron, neatly shaped all over,

I fitted with pins of special mild steel, and have

journals QUn. diameter and 9in. long. The crank
shaft is of special steel, and has journals 12in.
diameter, 30iu. long, swelled to 15in. diameter for
the pulley seat. The main driving drum, through
which the whole of the power of the engine passes,
is built up in segments, with loose boss, fitted with
mild steel turned and bored hoops, and loose arms
bolted to the rim segments and cottered to the
boss. The drum is 25fr. diameter, and grooved for
15 ropes l|iu. in diameter, with a rope speed of
4,712ft. per minute. It weighs 30 tons and is
prepared with a rack cast on the inside of the rim
for gearing with a double cylinder automatic steam
barring engine. The pedestals of the crank shaft
are adjustable by wedges, and are fitted with four
steps of cast iron lined with Magnolia metal, which
is a method adopted with great success by this firm,
the steps being adjustable both horizontally and
vertically. The beds are of a very strong box
section, bracketed up to receive the front ends of
the low pressure cylinders. They are recessed for
the slide blocks, and are fitted with polished
wrought-iron guide bars.

190

Two sets of condensing apparatus are provided,
each comprising an air pump 24in. diameter, 20in.
stroke, with a hot well cast on top, and fitted with
a grid over, having a series of india-rubber valves,
condenser, and footbox with valve. The air-pumps
are worked from the main crossheads of the engine
by steel plate levers connected by strong links, top
and bottom,

The steam pipes are being made of electrically
welded steel. The fittings comprise special metallic
packed glands to all the cylinder covers, lubricators
to the crank pedestals for continuous lubrication,
radial lubricators to the crank pins, sight feed lubri-
cators to cylinders and to all rotary and recipro-
cating parts, and planished sheet steel casings, with
brass bands. There are also fitted spring relief
valves and drain and indicator cocks, indicating
gear, polished brass drippers under cranks, polished
haudrailing round cranks and along connecting-rods,
etc ; a Moscrop speed and steam pressure recorder ;
and, in connection with the starting valve, an
electric stop motion, by which the valve may be
closed and the engine brought to a stand from
various parts of the mill in case of accidents.

In Fig. 81 an illustration, taken from a photo-
graph, is given of a set of triple expansion engines
made by Messrs. J. and E. Wood, of Bolton, for the
Mutual Spinning Company. These are the engines
previously referred to as having a low steam con-
sumption. They are, as will be seen, of the
horizontal double tandem type, having four cylin-
ders. Of these the bore of the high pressure
cylinder is 21 in., the intermediate 33m., the two
low pressures 35 m. All the cylinders are without
steam jackets, but are, of course, otherwise pro-
tected. The stroke of the engines is 6ft. and the
velocity 53 revolutions, giving a piston speed of
636ft. The high pressure and right-hand low
pressure cylinder form one engine, actuating one
crank, while the intermediate and second low
pressure cylinder actuate the other, which is placed
at an angle of 90° to the right-hand crank. The

kii

191

areas of the cylinders bear the following ratio :—
High pressure to intermediate, 1:2-|9; inter-
mediate to low, 1:2-25; high pressure to low,
1:5-61. The effective areas of the pistons, in
square inches, are as follow :— high pressure,
339-56; intermediate pressure, 848-05; left-hand
low pressure, 937-26; right-hand low pressure,
947-59. The clearances of the cylinders are, in
cubic inches, as follows :— High pressure, 920;
intermediate, 2,714; left-hand low pressure, 3,337 ;
right-hand low pressure, 3,373. The ratios of
clearance spaces to the volume swept by piston
are :— High pressure cylinder, -0376; intermediate
pressure cylinder, -0444; low pressure cylinders,
•0494. The engines are fitted with Corliss valves,
which are operated by the trip motion devised by
the makers, which is of a very strong, simple, and
effective character. The valves of the high
pressure cylinder are controlled by a high speed
governor of improved type. The piston rods for
the high pressure and intermediate cylinders are
4fin. diameter, those for the low pressure 5Jin.
diameter at front and 4|in. diameter at back of
piston. The piston rod is well supported back and
front by slide blocks of large area, and the engine
generally is strongly and well made. These engines
were made in 1892, and on the 5th, 6th, and
7th of September, 1893, Mr. J. F. L. Crosland
made a thorough test of the engines, and
some of the details of the results obtained by
him are given. The boiler pressure was 1561bs. to
the square inch, and was supplied by two Lanca-
shire boilers, each 30ft. long and 8ft. diameter, with
two flues, each 3ft. 2in. diameter, with 5 Galloway
tubes in each flue. Behind the boilers an economiser
with 288 pipes is fixed, which delivered the water
to the boilers at a temperature of 304° F. The
total heating surface of the two boilers is 2,016
sq. ft., and the combined area of the fire
grates 66-5 sq. ft, thus giving a ratio of
30-31 to 1. In addition to this the heating sur-
face of the economisers is 2,880 sq. ft. The boilers

k:'iia\> aiaL/n.,

»^cli>Jl.ll-H-l

Jlll

of 12,963 thermal units. The test was made under
careful supervision, mdicator diagrams being taken
every 15 minutes, the whole trial lasting eight hours
on two consecutive days. In Figs. 82 to 85 the
indicator diagrams taken from these engines are
siven.

L'N£ CF BciLER P»

Fig. 82.

Jr'iG. 83.

The trial showed that there was developed on the
5th September a power of 1,089-7 I.H.P.. and on
the 6th September 1,0-49-4 I.H.P. The division
of labour on the two engines is very even, as on the
5th September the right-hand crank had exerted on
it 542-2 I.H.P., and the left-hand crank 547-5. It

193

may be well to note that the horse power absorbed in
friction was 242-2, the friction diagrams being taken
when the belts were upon the loose pulleys. It is
not necessary to go through all the details of this
trial, but we may at once come to the salient points.
The weight of steam and water supplied to the engine
per I.H.P. per hour was on the 5th September
12-511bs., and deducting from this the weight of
water, a net weight of dry saturated steam is left of
12-21bs. On the second day the amount was a little
greater, being 12'251bs., and the weight of dry coal

Fig. Si.

Fig. S5.

consumed per I.H.P. per liour was on the first day
l'371b., and on the second day 1"38. At the cost of
the coal used, which was 6s. jMjr ton, 23 '1 H.P. is
supplied hourly for Id. Looking at the engine as a
thermal machine, and sticking to one day, Sep-
tember 5th, the heat supplied was 14,935 thermal
units, of which 2,565 were converted into work,
giving an eflBciency of '172. A perfect heat engine
working with the same range of temperature
gives an eflBciency of '279, so that the relative
efl&ciency is '616. Compare this with Professor

was put at '668, and it will be seen that, accepting
that test, the present engines, developing far
higher powers, are practically as perfect. It is
not necessary at this point to say anything with
regard to the working of the boilers or economisers
beyond noting that the equivalent evaporation at and
from 212° F. was per lb. of coal burned 10*361bs.,
that the economiser raised the water from an
average temperature of 130° F. to 304° F., and
that the percentage of effective work done by the
boilers and economisers was 75 '5. Both these
results are satisfactory. It may safely be said
that this test, which has been formally made and is
beyond doubt reliable, establishes a result which is
at once stratifying to the makers, and is the best yet
recorded under like conditions for engines of this

type.

In Fig. 86 an illustration is given of a pair of
compound engines, designed to drive a load of
1,800 I.H.P. They were made by Messrs. Buckley
and Taylor, and have the peculiarity, in these days,
of being constructed with ordinary slide valves at
each end of the cylinder. It is not often that com-
pound engines of such large powers are now made
for mill work, but the makers of the engines
illustrated have constructed a number for Oldham
cotton spinning mills, which are working with
complete success and a remarkably low steum con-
sumption. The cylinders of the engines shown
have diameters of 26in. and 52in. respectively, or
a ratio of 1 : 4. The stroke is 6ft., and the speed
50 revolutions per minute; the pistcm velocity
being thus ('00ft. per minute. The high pressure
piston rod is steel, with a diameter of 4|iii , and the
low pressure rod is 6 fin. diameter. The crank
shaft is 17in. diameter and 34in. long in the necks,
the body being 19in. and the wheel l)0ss 24in. dia-
meter. The shaft is, of course, made of steel.
The cranks, which are set at an angle of 90° to
each other, are made of best hammered scrap iron,
and have bosses round the shaft 36in. diameter and

196

round the pin 21 in. diameter, the thickness of the
intervening web being 8in. The crank pins, which
are made of steel, are lOin. diameter in the journals
and 12in. long. The connecting rods are 18ft.
long between centres, and are 10 Jin. diameter at
their largest part. The air pumps provided are
worked by L levers, as usual, being 32in. diameter
and 3ft. stroke. The condenser is of the ordinary
jet type. On the crank shaft a rope pulley is fixed,
which is 30ft. diameter, and is prepared for 40
jopes Ifin. diameter each. The speed of the ropes
is, therefore, 4,712ft. per minute, which is a very
effective one. The feed pumps, which are fixed on
the engine, are 4Jin. in bore, and have a stroke of
15in. A double-cylindered barring engine is pro-
vided. The valve gear of these engines is of a tjpe
which has been looked upon as inferior by some
engineers, but the diagrams obtained from a num-
ber of examples of this class do not show any signs
of this. We present a set in Figs. 87 and 88
taken from an engine which is steadily working
with an average coal consumption of Iflbs.
per I.H.P. per hour, this including the pro-
duction of the steam used for heating the
mill. Although the merits of valves of the
Corliss type cannot be denied, it is evident from
the results given that there is still something to be
said for the simple slide valve which, as was said,
is still much flivoured in the Oldham district

In Fig. 89 the now well-known quadruple ex-
pansion engine, made by Messrs. John Musgrave
and Sons, Limited, is illustrated, this being an end
view of the engines made for the Peel Spinning and
Manufacturing Company, of Bury. They have
four cylinders : the first, a high pressure having a
bore of 18in. ; the second, the first intermediate
cylinder, a bore of 26in. ; the third, the second
intermediate, a bore of 37in. ; and the fourth,
the low pressure, a bore of 54in. The cylinder
ratios are therefore as follows : high to first inter-
mediate 1:2 086; first to second intermediate
1:2-025; second intermediate to low pressure

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• practically form two pairs, the high and first
intermediate pressure cylinders being fixed on one
standard and working on to one crank, and the
second intermediate and low pressure cylinders
being fixed on the other standand, and working on
to the second crank, the rope drum being fixed
between the two engines. The stroke of the
pistons is 4ft. 6in., and the speed 80 revolutions per
minute, thus giving a piston speed of 720ft. The
peculiarity of the engines is the employment of a
triangular connecting rod, coupled by links to each
piston rod, and vibrating on a pin fixed in the ends
of a pair of levers oscillating on a fixed centre
on the frami)]g. The result of this peculiar ar-
rangement is that there is in a sense no dead
centre in the engine, and side pressure on the guide
bars is practically abolished. The vibrating levers
have short tails formed, to which the air pump rods
are coupled, the air pumps, of which there are two,
having a diameter of 26in., with a stroke of 15in.
The condenser is of the jet type. It should have
\ . been mentioned that the valves are of the Corliss

type, fitted with the makers' patent trip gear, and —
so far as those of the first two cylinders are
concerned — controlled directly from the governor,
which can vary the cut-ofF from zero to three-
quarters of the stroke. The rope drum is 21ft.
diameter, grooved for 36 ropes Ifin. diameter,
which have a velocity of 5,280ft. These engines
are most interesting, as being the first practical
attempt since that of the late Mr. Adamson to
apply quadruple expansion to mill engines.

The engines shown in side elevation in Fig. 90
are an example of the compound side by side
horizontal engine, this view showing very clearly
the general arrangement of air pump, etc.
The engine illustrated was made for an Indian
mill, and is arranged for a wheel drive. The high
pressure cylinder is 35in. bore and the low pressure
60 inches, the ratio of their areas being 1 : 3
nearly. The pistons have a stroke of 7ft., which.

Fig. fcO.

201

as the number of revolutions per minute is 44, give
a piston speed of 536ft. The pressure of stear
used is llOlbs. This engine has a frame of th
trunk pattern, the guides being formed in th
frame. The piston rod is carried through the bac
of the cylinder, and carries a slide block sliding i;
guides which are independent of the cylinder. I
most cases the makers prefer to supply a patentee
support for the piston rods, which consists of a roUe
turned with a circular groove to suit the rod, an*
revolving in a fixing w^hich forms an oil chambei
The rod, when sliding, rotates the roller, and th
lubricant carried upward by the latter reduces th
friction considerably. The purpose of all classes c

''m

Fjg. 91.

slides is to sustain the piston rod and pistoi
and prevent the latter wearing the cylinder oval
and the roller support has many claims for coi
sideration. The valves used in this engine are c
the Corliss type, and are directly controlled by
high speed governor. In order to avoid the groovin
of the valves the arrangement shown in Fig. 9
is employed. In this the rotation of the valv
automatically causes it to slide endways a littL
thus ensuring that it does not make two consecuti\
oscillations in the same place. In this way wear
prevented, and the life of the valve increased. Tl
engine has two air pumps, each driven from th
crosshead of one engine by means of links and j

frames. The stroke of the air pump is 28in. and
its diameter 30iD. Between the two cylinders a
receiver of ample area is placed. The crank shaft
has a diameter in neck of 18in. and a length of
bearing of 3ft. The fly-wheel has a diameter of
22ft. 6in., weighs 45 tons, and the spur-wheel is
17ft. 3 Jin. diameter. The latter gears into a pinion
6ft. 7 Jin. diameter. The spur-wheel has 128 teeth,
and the pinion 49 each, having a pitch of 5/o-in.
and a width of 20in. Through these, 1,800 horse-
power is transmitted, the second motion shaft
having a speed of 115 revolutions per minute. It
ought perhaps to be said that the makers of this
engine recommend a box bedplate in preference to
a trunk of the pattern shown, but as many users
prefer the latter, it is a convenient form to
illustrate. A coal consumption of about l-7lbs.
per I.H.P. per hour can be obtained with this type
of engine. A rack is fitted on one side of the fly-
wheel into which the pinion of a small barring
engine gears.

In Fig. 92 an illustration is given of a set of
triple expansion engines constructed by Messrs.
Pollitt and Wigzell, Limited. They are of a special
tppe, the high pressure cylinder working on to one
crank, and the intermediate and low pressure on to
the other, the cranks being fastened on opposite
ends of the same shaft. The high pressure cylinder
is 19in. diameter, the intermediate 28 Jin., and the
low pressure 46in. The cylinder ratios are there-
fore high pressure to intermediate, 1 :2-25; inter-
mediate to low pressure, 1 : 2*6 ; high pressure to
low, 1 : 5-86. The stroke of all the cylinders is
5ft. 6in., and as the number of revolutions is 75,
the piston speed is the high one of 825ft. per
minute. The intermediate and low pressure
cylinders are bolted together, one cylinder cover
serving for the back end of the intermediate and
the front end of the low pressure. There is one
piston rod to the intermediate cylinder, and two to
the low pressure cylinder, all connecting to one

iiliiiiilii

IHi

on the wedge block system.

The valves employed on all the cylinders are of
the piston type ; and those used for the high
pressure and intermediate cylinders are on Pollitt
and Wigzell's patented principle, in which the cut-
off valve is fitted inside the main valve. The valves
fitted on the high pressure cylinder are directly
controlled by the governor, while those of the inter-
mediate cylinder are controllable by hand.

The crank shaft used in this set of engines is
made of Whitworth's compressed fluid steel, the
journals being 13in. diameter and 27in. long, while
the body of the shaft is 19iu. diameter. On this
shaft are fastened two rope driving drums, fixed
side by side so as practically to form one drum.
Each of these is 22ft. diameter, and is grooved for
36 ropes l|in. diameter. At the speed named the
velocity of the ropes is 5,183ft. per minute. The
horise-power transmitted through each rope is about
37. The two fly-wheels together weigh 45 tons, so
that there is an ample weight to ensure steady
driving. There is provision made for the appUca-
tion of a barring engine of great power, this being
made on Greenwood and Whiteley's patent.

The whole of the working parts are made as far
as possible of steel, and the crank pins are of ample
diameter and area. The beds are made of a
massive pattern, and strength is the cardinal
feature in this design. The air pump and con-
denser arrangements are of the usual class.

Engines of this type are at work at the Parkside
Spinning Com}>any's mill at Royton — one of the
most successful concerns in Lancashire — driving
machinery requiring 1,340 LH.P. The description
given will show that there are a few unusual features
in these engines. There is first the arrangement
generally as to driving, only one low pressure
cylinder being used, and this being coupled with the
intermediate to one crank, the high pressure cylinder
forming the second engine. The second point of
notice is the fastenino: toi^ether of the intermediate

205

and low pressure cylinders, which is a novel ar
unusual arrangement. The third point to note
the employment of piston valves, and particular
the adoption of an internal cut-off valve. Tin
there is the high piston speed, which is greater thf
usual. There are thus several features of noveli
and interest in these engines, and they are workii
with success at the mill named.

As an example of the best type of Continent
engine, we are enabled in Figs. 93 and 9-1 to give f
illustration of an engine made by Messrs. Sulz
Bros., of Winterthur, Switzerland. Messrs. Sulz
are acknowledged to be at the head of this depai
ment on the Continent, and it is not long sin
every Anglophobist engineer held them up as i
example to follow, and a warning of the increasii
competition from abroad. A careful comparis(
of results recently obtained with English engiu
will show that, despite some conservatisr
they have nothing to fear from any quarter, i
the same time it is well for engineers to
able to see w^hat others are doing, because tl
Continental spinning manager isofreu a well-traini
man, with a knowledge of engineering matters n
to be lightly despised. By means of this he exac
conditions which the average Englishman does n
think of, but which have the effect of stimulatii
the steam engine makers to greater exertioi
Messrs. Sulzer adopt vertical lift valves, which a
made with special care, and are placed above t
cylinders, being provided with double conic
surfaces, on which they are seated. Th(
are balanced, so that little power is want
to work them. The valves are placed at t
ends of each cylinder, and are operated by can
which are placed on a longitudhial shaft driv^
from the crank shaft. The governor is driv
from the same shaft, and controls the cut-c
having a range from zero up to 70 per cent of t
stroke. The cylinders and covers are steam jackets
and are in addition protected by non-conducti;
material. The cylinders and jackets are provid

206

with safety valves and drain taps, and are also
furnished with sight feed lubricators. To further
avoid condensation the cylnider covers and pistons
are turned and polished. The engine frame is
of the trunk pattern, so arranged that the
cvlinder and crank shaft bearings are coupled.
The slide blocks are large in area. The crank
shaft bearings fi)rm part of the frame, the
brasses being in four parts, which are adjustable
by wedges, and efficient means of lubrication are
provided. The air pump and condensing arrange-
ments are of the usual type, and require no special
comment. Referring to the question of steam con-
sumption, the minima per I.H.P. per hour for the
various types of engine are given by the makers
in their catalogue as follows : — Simple condensing
type, 17 lbs. ; compound engines, 141bs. ; triple ex-
pansion, lllbs. The writer takes leave to doubt the
latter figure, and would substitute 121bs. for it. It
is quite true that there have been many tests of
engines made in which it is alleged the steam
consumption has come down to nearly lllbs., but
it is important to note that few of these have been
conducted in anything like a careful and scientific
way. An engine mnde by Messrs. Hick, Hargreaves,
and Co. for a Swedish mill is reported to have been
te.*^ted for two consecutive days, and to have used
only ll'231bs. of water per I.H.P. per hour, in-
cluding jacket drains. Had that test been con-
ducted in such a manner that its records were
accessible for criticism and the methods seen to be
above reproach it would be the best result yet at-
tained. As the matter stands, the facts prove that
no mill engine has hitherto reached the limit of
lllbs. of steam, and that any large engine which
in ordinary work consumes less than 131bs. per
I.H.P. may be looked on as in the first rank. It
has been shown that this is the case with engines
already at work.

Fias. 93 AKD 94.

207
CHAPTER XV.

LIGHTING ENGINES AND OTHER ACCESSORIES.

Fi^. 95 represents a compound side by side
engine, two of which have been recently con-
structed for electrical purposes by the Burnley
Ironworks Company Limited. They are non-
condensing, but provision is made for the applica-
tion of a condenser whenever desirable. Each
engine is prepared to transmit about 190 I.H.P.
having 14in. and 24in. cylinders, 3ft. stroke, the
dynamo being driven from a fly-rope pulley 14fr.
diameter, grooved for eleven l^in. ropes running at
90 revolutions per minute. The makers have
applied their latest improvements in the Corliss gear
and governor, and from recent very severe tests they
claim that any variation in load will be readily com-
pensated for. The engines are of the very best
construction and workmanship, and are made on
similar lines to the engines at the Burnley Electric
Light Station, which we have had the opportunity
of seeing. These, we were informed, ruu with
economy and regularity under all conditions
of load, and are everything that could be desired
for the purpose. The success of the Burnley
engines led to those illustrated being entrusted
to the same firm. Much larger engines have been
made by this company, but the present demand
for steady and regular driving for electric purposes
led us to deal with the one illustrated as likely
to interest our readers.

In cases where the building is lighted by elec-
tricity, it is usual, and the better practice, to drive
the dynamos by an independent motor. This is
usually of the high speed inverted cylinder type, and
economy of space is one of its chief features. At the
Peel Mill, Bury, the engine used is one of the type
of which the main engine is an example, and drives
the dynamo through the intervention of a rope
pulley. The " Globe " engine, made by the Globe

209

Engineering Company, Limited, is shown in
Figs. 96 and 97, and is of the compound type.
In the example illustrated, which at 250 revolu-
tions per minute develops 300 H.P., the floor

space occupied is lift, by 6ft. It is a compound
condensing engine, although the condenser is not
shown. The high pressure cylinders are super-
posed on the low pressure, and the steam is used
o

after which the opening of a valve connects the top
and bottom of the cylinder, thus placing the piston
in equilibrium during its ascent. When the steam
is again admitted, that below the piston passes into
the low pressure cylinder, and is treated in exactly
the same way as in the high pressure, finally being
taken to the condenser. The valves are of the
piston type, and a glance at Fig. 97 shows that
there are three to the two cylinders, which enables
them to be set independently of each other. The
impulse given to the piston is therefore all in one
direction, and the steam cycle is as follows : Top
lij; of high pressure cylinder, bottom of high pressure

cylinder, top of low pressure cylinder, bottom of
low pressure cylinder, thence to condenser. A
considerable expansion is obtained, and it is stated
cylinder condensation is much reduced. The valves
are driven from a rocking shaft, and are so coupled
to it that one set balances the other. A centrifugal
governor enclosed in an oil-tight casing controls the
rocking shaft, and as it constantly revolves in oil the
governor is very sensitive. In designing the engine
care has been taken to make the parts light, and the
valve rods and pistons are made from hollow steel
bars. The cranks, like the valves, are set oppo-
site to one another, so as to balance, and this specific
feature has been carefully attended to. The
bearings of the engine are of large area, and lined
with Magnolia metal, and the bedplate, being a
strong box casting, forms oil wells, into which the
cranks dip at every revolution. The oil is thus
sprayed over all the working parts. A sheet-iron
case is provided to cover the whole of the working
parts, and prevent the egress of oil ; but is so fitted
that it can be readily opened to permit access to
the motion work. The piston rods are packed with
a special metallic packing, consisting of rings of
Magnolia metal, so held as to be free to move.
The friction of the engine is thus reduced to a low
point.

The Moscrop Recorder (Fig. 98), made by Messrs.
Arundel and Co., which is now an indispen-

FiG. 98.

213

the rotation of an engine can be recorded. Its
essential parts are a barrel which receives a move-
ment synchronous with the hands of a clock, by the
mechanism of which it is rotated. The barrel, in
its movement, carries with it a paper band divided
by transverse lines into spaces corresponding with
definite intervals of time, and having also two or
three longitudinal lines. Upon this paper —
which is prepared for contact with a metallic
marker — a marker wheel or pencil rests, being
set so that when the engine is making its
proper number of revolutions per minute, the
wheel is directly over one of the longitudinal
lines. The marker is connected with the slide
of a centrifugal pendulum governor of a sensitive
character, driven from the engine so that any diver-
gence from the normal speed causes the marker to
move either to one side or the other of this line.
By observing the character of the line made, the
uniformity of the velocity of the engine can be
determined. It is now usual to make a record of
the steam pressure upon the same band, so that the
fluctuations in that can also be ascertained. So
perfect is the mechanism of large mill engines,
however, and so entirely are they under control,
that although the steam pressure may and does vary
considerably, the speed line shows an exceedingly
small variation. The reduced diagram given in
Fig. 99 is that taken from the engines of the
Mutual Spinning Co., which have already been
refen-ed to. Each of the vertical spaces represents
a period of five minutes. It is not too much to say
that no single instrument has done so much towards
improving the steadiness of the velocity of mill
engines as the Moscrop Recorder.

In Fig. 100 we illustrate a form of lubricator
specially made for steam engine cylinders. It con-
sists of a cylindrical body, in which a piston having
a hollow piston rod works, a stuffing box being fitted
to prevent any escape of steam. The piston rod has
a cap on its upper end, which can be removed, so
that oil can be poured down the rod, and by means

■1-1

of holes in it, find its way into tlie cylindrical body.
At the lower end of the cylinder a valve is provided
by which the steam is j

admitted below the pis- ^^ , i . < . i ^.
ton,which is thus pressed , r
up, and so displaces the [. . t
oil, which in time finds | r
its way out by the sight
feed tube shown, in this
way passing to the cylin-
der or steam pipe. The
necessary provision is
made for draining off the
water of condensation
when the cylinder is
again to be filled with
oil. It is claimed for
this type of lubricator
that no effect is produced
by the bends in the feed
pipe, however numerous ;
that the same lubricator
can be made to feed two
cylinders; and that the
action is positive. It is
clear that when the pis-
ton is at the top it acts
as an indicator of the
quantity of oil in the
body. The valves are so
arranged that any quan-
tity of oil, from 1 to 200
drops per minute, can be
fed, and as no condensed
water touches the glass
tubes they cannot be-
come dirty. The lubri-
cator is compact and
strong, being made by

1 -■'

^--^

■t

-I--4-

l-.J

J"
J...

i I

■ I

4_.

215

Before passing on, a few w ords may be said about
steam engine indicators and their use. Properly
employed, the indicator enables the working of an

Fig. 100.

engine to be accui'ately understood, but unless
some care is taken in its use, the diagrams obtained
may be causes of very serious errors. Millowners

are often in doubt as to the class of instrument
they should adopt, and on this point it may be said
that for slow running engines the Richards is
reliable. The great fault of that instrument,

Fig. 101.

viewed from the modern standpoint, is, that the
movement of the pencil on the paper is obtained by

217

high speed the iaertia of the parts is so difficult to
overcome that distorted diagrams result. Many
other instruments have been introduced since, in
which simpler pencil movements have been used,
and the result has been a true diagram when run
at high speeds. It has already been pointed out
that the velocity of mill engines tends to increase,
and there is, therefore, the greater need for caution

Fig. 102.

in this respect. It has been contended further
that the relative velocities of the piston and pencil
in the Kichards' type are not uniform throughout
the whole range of the instrument. The two instru-
ments illustrated in Figs. 101 and 102, are respec-
tively the Thompson and the Tabor, which are much
more simple and rehable than their predecessors.

Having chosen the instrument to be used, the
next thing is to apply it in the best manner. To

begin with, the instrument should be kept absolutely
clean and lubricated by pure oil free from gum or
acid. Then the movement of the pencil must be
quite free, and so easy that the weight of its attached
parts will cause it to fall. It is better to fix the
indicator at each end of the cylinder alternately
rather than in the middle, if circumstances will
permit. If, however, this is not possible, then care
should be taken that all the bends are easy, that
there are not too many of them, and that the three-
way cock used leaves a clear passage for the steam.
The character of the reducing gear is an important
matter. What is wanted is to get an accurate
reduction and reproduction of the motion of the
piston on the pencil, for which purpose it is
essential that the cord in leading off to the indicator
shall as nearly as possible follow the path of the
piston. In some forms of gear, such as the long
pendulous rod, the cord is continuEdly assuming
various angles. The " Lazy Tongs " type of
pentagraph motion has some advantages, but by far
the best form is found in the use of an endless cord
passing over two pulleys rotating on pins at the
ends of the slide. By fastening the cord to the
cross head pin it is given a reciprocal motion
similar to the piston, and so rotates the pulleys
in each direction alternately. On the boss
of one of the pulleys a smaller grooved pulley is
fixed, on which the cord actuating the indicator is
coiled. From this pulley the cord can be led so as
to give a regular pull on the paper barrel in a
horizontal or vertical line, so that all difficulties
arising from varying angles are overcome.

Having ascertained that the instrument is in true
working order, and that the parts are all free, it is
fixed in position and the paper put on the barrel.
It is now essential, before coupling up the drum,
that the steam is admitted to the cylinder so as to

219

weight must not be put on the pencil, as otherwise
its movement will be retarded. The steam is then
admitted to the indicator and the pencil pressed
against the paper, thus producing the diagrams.
The diagram should not be taken during one stroke
only, but the pencil must be kept in contact with
the paper for several strokes. This is important,
as there is vsry often a great deal of difference in
diagrams produced during successive strokes. It must
be remembered that as it is from the revelations of
the diagram that any correct idea can be formed
either of the power developed, or of the manner in
which the engine is working, it is essential to take

Fig. 103.

every precaution to obtain a correct figure. It is
not necessary to have mathematically correct appli-
ances, but accuracy is essential.

The illustration given in Fig. 103 will serve to
enable the chief features of a good diagram to be seen.
In this figure the line of atmospheric pressure is shown
by the letters A L. The admission of steam begins
at B, and if the valves are well set the pencil rises
rapidly in a nearly vertical line until the point C is
reached. The line B C is the " admission line." The
line C D is the " steam line," and should, if the area
of the valve ports be large enough for its purpose,
be horizontal. At E the valve closes, and the sharp-
ness of the corner indicates the character of the cut

off. From E to F the line shows the fall of the
pressure caused by the expansion of the steam, and
the nearer it approaches the theoretical line, plotted
in accordance with the behaviour of a perfect gas
under like conditions, t he more perfectly is this part
of the work done. At F the valve opens for the
exhaust, and at G is fully open, G H being the
" exhaust line." The exhaust valve begins to close
at the point H, and is fully closed at J, w4ien the
work of compression takes place. The line J B is
the " compression line." It is now possible to point
out briefly the significance of some of the lines. If
the line B C, instead of being vertical, inclines towards
D, it is clear that the valve does not open sufficiently
early, or, in other words, the " lead " is insufficient.
If on the other hand at C there is a line projecting
beyond the vertical, this is attributable either to too
early an admission of steam, accompanied by its
compression, or to a defect in the motion of the
indicator. As show^n in Fig. 103, the line C D is
horizontal. If it falls away from the horizontal it
indicates some obstruction in the free admission of
the steam, arising either from insufficient area in
the pipes or the improper setting or construction of
the valves. The height of the line C D should be
compared with the height of a line draw^n to the
same scale, representing the pressure of steam in
the boiler. If it falls below^ that considerably it is
necessary to look for the cause in the steam pipes,
although it may arise from the contracted area of the
valve port. Any fall from the horizontal line implies
throttling or obstruction at some point between the
source of supply and the cylinder. Dealing next with
the expansion line, if the curve rises above the
hyperbolic, it is attributable either to an improper
admission of steam, or to re-evaporation of w^ater
produced by condensation. In some classes of valve
gear leakage is difficult to avoid, while in others

221

of the parts or of water in the cylinder. Dealing
now with the " exhaust line," this is afifected by too
early or too late exhaust. If the former, then in-
stead of the line beginning to fall at F it does so
earlier, and if the latter, the point F is carried forward,
and the lowest point is not reached until the piston
has made a good part of its return stroke. The
line G H is broken and a curve is formed from F to
some point more or less forward on G H. If there is
insufficient compression, instead of the line J B
being formed, G H is extended to a point vertical with
B C, and a sharp corner is formed. If on the other
hand the compression is too great, owing to too early
closing of the exhaust valve, a loop is formed at the
corner C of the diagram, although this may be
caused by the use of too weak a spring. There are
other distortions of the diagram which arise from
various causes, mainly mechanical, but these are
soon recognised after a little practice.

So far the subject has been dealt with only as
regards faults in the setting of the valves, and the
methods of determining the po\ver of the engine can
now be treated. On the atmospheric line (see Fig.
104), perpendicular lines A B, C D, are erected touch-
ing the two ends of the diagram. The distance
between these lines is divided into eleven spaces, nine
ei][ual to each other and the two end ones equal to
half the width. The readiest way of doing this is shown
in Fig. 104. A rule is laid across the diagram as
shown, so that a length of five inches touches the per-
pendiculars. Marks are made at a quarter inch from
each of the perpendiculars, and then at each half
inch between. Through these points perpendiculars
are drawn, so that the measurements can be made.
The mean height of the diagram between these lines
is measured and is multiplied by the scale of the
spring. This gives the mean pressure in pounds.
Add all the results together and divide by 10, and
the result is the mean pressure over the whole
diagram. The horse powder is calculated by the
following formula : P = mean effective pressure in
lbs. ; L = tlie length of stroke in ieet; A = the area

of the piston in square inches ; and N = the number

PLAN

of strokes per minute. Then oQ-rinn ^ indicated

horse power (I.H.P.). The area of the figure can be
obtained by various forms of planimeters, and among
these an American invention, the Coffin Averager, is
about the best. These devices undoubtedly save a
little time, but are not always accessible.

Fig. 104

As has been said, the real test of the economy of
an engine is the weight of steam used by it. This
can be determined from the indicator diagram when

223

the indicator diagram. It is necessary to know
accurately the volume of the clearance spaces in
the cylinder, which can be arrived at by measure-
ment, or more accurately by filling them with
measured quantities of water. 13,750 cubic
feet of steam per hour at lib. pressure, is
required to produce one horse power without clear-
ance and without expansion. The greater the
pressure the less the volume, and to ascertain the
value of the volume required it is necessary to
divide the 13,750 by the mean eflPective pressure in
the cylinder. We will call this quantity V. The
mean effective pressure in a multiple expansion
engine is the sum of the mean pressure in all the
cylinders, not merely in the high pressure. To arrive
at this in a compound engine, it is necessary to
multiply the pressure in the low pressure cylinder
by the ratio of its area to that of the high pressure.
This, if the mean effective pressure of the high
pressure cylinder be 301bs., and that of the low
pressure 8 while the area of the latter is 3 : 1 of
that of the high pressure, then the mean effective
pressure of the two is (8 x 3) + 30 = 541bs.
which is the quantity Y. The formula is as follows :
Let P = the percentage of stroke up to point of cut
off; C = percentage of clearance space to volume
displaced by piston; S = percentage of return
stroke made when compression begins ; W = weight
per cubic foot of steam at pressure when cut off;
w = weJo-ht per ciibic foot of steam at the pressure
of compression. Then V [ (P + C) W - (S -f C)
w'\ = lbs. of steam at cut off per I.H.P. Assuming
that V = 541bs. ; that the cut off takes place
at -25 of full stroke ; that compression takes
place when ^j^ of stroke is completed making S =
0-1 ; that the clearance C = '05 ; that the steam
pressure at cut off is 601bs. or 74 "7 absolute ; the
weight of a cubic foot of steam at that pressure is
•1751b. ; and the pressure at compression 61bs., or
20-71bs. absolute, with a weight per cubic foot of
•0531b. Then the weight of' steam is obtained as

224

follows :-

13750

-[(•25 + -05) -175 - (•! + -05)

•053] = 254-63 (-0525 - -00795) = 11-343.

This amount requires to be multiplied by a frac-
tion in which the total steam, taken as 100, is
the numerator, and the percentage of feed water
accounted for by the indicator diagram, which is
the total minus cylinder condensation, the denomi-
nator. According to Mr. A. G. Brown this is as
follows : —

Percentage of

stroke at which

cut-off takes

place.

Percentage of Feed Water Accounted for in Diagram.

Simple Engine
Unjacketed.

Compound

Engines Steam

Jacketed.

Triple Expan-
sion Steam
Jacketed.

Applying this to the case given above we get
— x 11*343 = 14 178 lbs. as the steam consump-
tion per horse power per hour. If the cylinders
are not jacketed, 5 per cent must be deducted
from the percentages given, as there will be more
condensation. The figures given are entirely sup-
posititious, and are only intended to illustrate the
method, so as to enable millowners to ascertain
what the economy of their engines is.

CHAPTER XVI.

TURBINES.

225

advantage. Abroad the matter is different, and in
Switzerland, for instance, the use of water power
exists on a large scale. In some towns in
the United States, notably Holyoke, Mass., where
the Connecticut River has a considerable fall, the
volume of water flowing down the river has,
by means of dams, been utilised to provide a
steady ample supply of water at constant pressure.
The theoretical horse-power of a stream of water is
obtained by the formula P= -001892 W H, where
W = number of cubic feet of water flowmg per
minute, and H = total head from tail race in feet.
It is sometimes a little difficult to accurately gauge
the actual flow of water over a weir, but the
following procedure will serve. Take a board of
sufficient length and width to form a dam in the
stream. In this, cut a rectangular notch not longer
than two-thirds the width of the stream, but suffi-
ciently deep to pass all the water to be measured.
The bottom edge of this notch should be bevelled on
the side facing down stream, so as to make it
nearly sharp. Drive a stake into the bottom of the
stream a little behind the weir, so that it is exactly

TABLE 15.
Flow of ^YATER oyer Weirs.

Inches
Depth

on
Weir.

0-40
1-14
2-09
3-22
4-51
5-92
7-46
9-12
10-88
12-75
14-71
16-76
18-89
21-12
23-42
25-80
28-26
30-78

0-47
1-25
2-12
3-38
4-68
6-10
767
9-33
11-11
13-15
14-96
17-02
19-17
21-40
23-71
•26-10
•28-57
31-11

0-56
1-36
2-30
3-53
4-85
6-30
7-87
9-55
11-34
13-23
15-21
17-28
19-44
21-68
24-01
2G-41
28-88
31-43

0-65
1-47
2-60
3-69
5-02
6-49
8-07
9-77
11-57
13-47
15-46
17-55
19-7-2
21-97
24-30
26-71
29-19
31-75

0-74
1-59
2-64
3-85
5-20

9 99
11-80
13-72
15-72
17-82
20-00
22-26
24-60
2702
29-51
32-07

0-83
1-71
2-78
4-01
5-38
6-87
8-49
10-21
12-04
13-96
15-98
18-08
20-27
22-55
24-90
27-32
29-83
32-40

0-97
1-84
2-93
4-17
5-56
7-07
8-70
10-43
12-27
1421
16-24
18-35
20-56
22-83
25-19
27-63
30-14
32 73

1-03
1-96
3-06
4-35
5-74
7-27
8-91
10-66
12-51
14-46
16-49
18-62
20-83
23-13
25-50
27-94
30-46
33-05

226

level with the crest. When the water has reached
its full height, take a measurement by means of a
square. The water should have a clear fall of six
inches below the crest of the weir. By ascertaining
the depth and width, and the velocity of the stream,
the number of cubic feet per minute passing can
be ascertained. Table 15 gives the flow over weirs
of different depths in cubic feet for each inch of
width. If the velocity be ascertained and careful
measurements taken of the depthof a stream, the flow
can be easily calculated. If the head be known the
power can be easily arrived at in the following manner.
The head regulates the velocity and pressure of the
efflux of water, and Table 16 gives the theoretical
velocity of water in feet per second, and the number
of cubic feet discharged per minute through an
orifice of one inch area. When the discharge D in
cubic feet and head of water H are known, the
power of a turbine can be obtained by the following
formula: P = 0-1134 D ^H7 which gives the
theoretical efficiency of water. The actual efficiency
of a turbine is usually taken at '66 of the

TABLE 16.

Theoretical Velocity and Discharge of Water through
Orifices.

«*-!

^il

1^1
It £-5

^.S

^'.S

«2 -

^•2

•S

OTJ

"** <a Q

OT5

Tt cTcT

•3t3

<0 (O

O +2 o

6 a-

-ig

ill

> 1

6 g o

8-02

3-34

31-06

12-94

42-43

17-68

11-34

4-73

3-2-08

13-36

2:-

43-19

17-98

13-89

5-78

33-06

13-77

43-93

18-30

16-04

6-68

34-02

14-18

44-65

18-60

17-93

7-47

34-96

14-57

45 '37

18-90

19-64
on .oo

8-18

35-87

14-94

46 07

19-20

227

theoretical. lu like manner water wheels if under-
shot have an efficiency of -35 ; if breast -55 to
•56 ; and if overshot '68. Another rale for Jonval
turbines is, if P = actual horse power, P = '075
D H ; and for Fourneyron high-pressure turbines,
P = -079 D H. Table 15 is extracted from a
catalogue of the Victor Turbine, which is very
largely employed in the United States and this
country. In other countries the force of water has
been employed, and a full set of illustrations
of a very high power turbine installation made
by Messrs. W. Giinther and Sons, of Oldham,
for the cotton mill of the Compania Industrial de
Orizaba, Mexico, are given. This is, we believe,
the largest installation applied to textile work
existing, and its details will be interesting. In all
there are five turbines of the Girard type, de-
veloping together 1,560 horse-power. The spinning
mill is driven by two turbines of 425 horse power
each; the weaving mill by one of 300 horse power;
the dyeing, print, bleach, and finishing department
by one of 250 horse power; while a fifth, of 160
horse power, supplies the whole power required for
the electric lighting of the mill. The mill is built
on ground lying nearer the level of the head than
that of the tail water, and in order to overcome the
difficulty thus created the turbines are placed in
pits with a depth of 63ft. from the ground floor of
the mill. The fall is in all 74ft., but the level of
the head water is only 14 feet above the mill floor.
The tail water is taken to the river by a tunnel.
Separate pits are constructed for the turbines for
the spinning and weaving mills, but those for the
finishing and lighting are contained in the same pit.
The headwater is conducted along a concrete canal,
arranged at one side of the mill, and the conducting
pipes for the turbines are fed by means of separate
channels at right angles to the main canal. In
order to facilitate the working of the mill each
channel has a separate sluice gate, so that any of
the turbines can be shut ofl" at will.

It has been said that the turbines are of the

228

Girard type. The reason for this selection is
that turbines made on that principle need not
necessarily be fed round their whole circumference,
have a lower circumferential velocity, and permit
of the diameter of the wheel being increased, while
obtaining the required velocity without losing
efficiency. The turbines are fitted as shown in Figs.
105 and 106, with a slide of the butterfly type, by
means of which the necessary adjustment of the

Fig. 105.

water inlet can be made by closing a certain number
of ports. The slide is operated by the worm and
circular rack shown, and can be operated from
above by means of a hand wheel fixed on a pillar.

229

be observed that the ports occupy opposite quadrants.
The regulation is completed by a throttle valve
placed in the supply pipes, and worked by a governor
placed in the turbine house. In starting, a small
friction clutch on the hand wheel can be disengaged,
and the throttle valve controlled by hand, so as to
enable the turbines to be either stopped or started
quickly.

Fig. 106.

In forming the vanes, alike for the guides and
wheel, the plan was adopted of constructing them
of steel, bending them to shape, and then placing
them in the mould and running the cast iron round
them. They are thus accurately and strongly fixed
in position, and a wheel is produced which has the
advantage alike of being smooth, strong, and dur-
able. For high falls this plan is recommended by
the maker. The curvature of the blades is shown
in Fig. 107.

230

The general arrangement of the spinning-mill
turbines is shown in Figs. 108 and 109. It will be
seen that they are vertically placed, and are sustained
on substantial foundation plates. They are fed by
pipes 54in. in diameter, which, as shown, are car-
ried up the pit until nearly level with the ground,
and are then carried, as shown in Fig. 110, horizon-
tally for a short distance, finally being turned up-
wards, so as to enter the flume. The curves given,
it will be seen, are all easy, so as to lessen the fric-
tion considerably. The vertical range of pipes is
sustained on a flat bottom, as shown, and the water
enters the turbine by a branch at right angles.
Despite the slight increase in loss by friction thus

Fig. 107.

caused the constructional advantages arising are
considerable. The power is transmitted from the
wheels by a hollow cast-iron turbine shaft, the foot-
steps of which are placed above the water level
and enclosed in an oil- vessel. (See Fig. 111.)
A fixed steel pillar enters the cast-iron shaft,
which revolves round it. Wear of the footstep

WwrvfTw^.

4/^ |[xi>y

232

step can be examined and oiled easily, and effective
lubrication is well provided for. The cast-iron
shaft is coupled to a steel vertical shaft, 6|in.
diameter, which is sustained by bearings secured to

233

the weaving and finishing mill turbines have 48in.
diameter wheels, and run at 153 revolutions;
while the electric lighting turbine is only 30in.
diameter, but has full injection, and a velocity of
240 revolutions. The larger turbines for the spin-
ning mill use 4,060ft. per minute, and have an
effective head of water of 73ft. after deducting loss by
friction. The speed of the second motion shafts is
125 revolutions per minute, the power being trans-
mitted by bevel wheels, 65 and 66 teeth respectively,
3fin. pitch and lOin. wide, with a circumferential
velocity of 2,120ft. On the second-motion shafts
rope pulleys, lift, diameter, are placed, grooved
for 18 ropes. The bearings alongside the pulley
have journals Sin. diameter and 20in. long.

CHAPTER XVII.

GEARING — TOOTHED WHEELS.

It is not often in modern practice that wheel
gearing is employed, but there are still a few cases
in which this occurs. As the matter will be referred
to subsequently, it is only necessary now to deal
with the question shortly. The advantage of wheel
gearing lies mainly in its positive nature, and the
fact that if the teeth are properly shaped the loss
by friction is not as great as with other forms. Ex-
cept in cases where strength is of more importance
ihanloss of power, helical teeth are not to be recom-
mended, as the difficulty in moulding is very consider-
able. The shape and size of teeth is a matter which
has received considerable attention at the hands of
investigators. The strength of wheel-teeth is
obtained by Box by the following formula S = P x
Wx350, where P = pitch in inches, W = width of
tooth. Molesworth's rule is, when the width of
tooth is 21P to3JP, H = 0-6P-V. H = horse power
transmitted, and V = velocity of pitch line in feet
per second. In all the formulae given the pitch is
the circular pitch, because, convenient as diametral

234

pitch is in some respects, it is not so generally used
or known. The proportions given by Professor
Unwin for wheel teeth are now generally admitted
to be exact practice, although a simpler table is
sometimes used. They are stated by him as follows,
P = pitch :—

Total height of tooth -65?+ '08 to -JoF + SO

Depth below pitch line.... -35? + -08 to '40? + '08
Height above pitch line.... 'SOP to 'SoP

Side clearance -OGP+'Oi to •04P + -06

Thickness of tooth '47? -'02 to "48? - 'OS

Width of space •53P + -02 to •52P + -03

Professor Rodinella, in a recent communication
to the Franklin Institute, gives the following data :

Total height of tooth 75 P.

Depth below pitch line *41 P.

Height above pitch line "34 P.

Side clearance '07 P.

Thickness of tooth "47 P.

Width of space 'oS P.

Thickness of rim '50 P.

It will be seen that these do not greatly differ from
Professor Un win's table. The thickness of the rim
is sometimes taken at '45 P.

Mr. Michael Longridge has for some years past
strenuously contended that when considerable
power is being transmitted by large wheels at
velocities of 2,000ft. per minute and upwards, the
depth of the teeth ought to be much less, and should
not be more than -SoP. Two examples of wheel
teeth, one of which is actually working, as approved
by him, are shown in Figs. 112 and 113.

Many wheels are now made shrouded, and this
procedure undoubtedly adds to their strength, but

235

pitch used for mortice wheels in order to get the
same strength as cast iron should be 1-26 times
that when the latter is used. The question of the
horse power transmitted by wheels is an important
one. Messrs. John Musgrave and Sons, Limited, give

Fig. 113.

the following rules, where P = pitch, B = breadth of
teeth in inches, V = velocity of pitch line in inches.
P2 T» V P- B V .

^•^•^1000 ^^' '^'^ ''''"' """^ 625~" ^'

cast steel. Molesworth's rule has already been
given, and Button's is as follows : — D = diameter

236

to pitch line, B = breadth in inches, P = pitch in

inches, and N = number of revolutions per minute.

P- B D N
H.P. = — -j~ The question as to the shape

of the teeth of the wheels is one which is not easy
to answer. Epicycloidal teeth have been much in
vogue, and if perfectly drawn and properly made
they are undoubtedly the best form. The involute
form, however, is much easier to make, and will
work better under circumstances in which the
epicycloidal form would fail, and is by some makers
prefen-ed. Much difference of opinion prevails as
to the proper speed for toothed wheels, but in
several very successful jobs, where the wheels have
been running for a long time with little wear, a
speed of from 1,800 to 2,000 feet per minute has
been adopted. There does not appear to be any

TABLE 17.
Horse Power Transmitted by Cast-iron Toothed Wheels
FOR each inch of Width. For Steel Wheels HP x 1-6.

Velocity of

Pitcii Line

in feet per

minute.

Pitch of Teeth ix Inches.

1^-

60
120
180
240
300
360
420
480
540
600
720
840

•033

•67

•10

•13

•17

•20

•23

•27

•30

•33

•40

•47

•06
•12
•18
•24
•30
•36
•42
•48
•54
•60

•094
•188
•28
•37
•47
56
•65
•75
•84
•94

l-l

1-3

•135

•270

•40

•54

•67

•81

•94

1-1

1^2

P35

1^6

1-8

•184
•366
•55
•73
•91
M

1-6
1^8
•2--1
•2-5

•24
•48
•72
•96

1^2

1^4

1^68

1-9

2-1

2-4

2-8

3-3

•375
•75

1-5

1-8

2-2

2-6

3-0

3-3

3-7

4-5

5-2

•54
1-08
1-6
2-1
2-7
3-2
3-7
4-3
4^8
54
6-4
7^5

•96
1^9
2-8
3-8
4-8
5-7
6-7
7^6
8-6
9-6
11-5
13-4

1-5

3-0

4-5

6-0

7-5

9-0

10-5

12-1

13-5

l.-i-O

18-0

21-0

2^16

4-3

6-4

8-6

10-8

12-9

15-1

17-2

19^4

21-6

25^9

30-2

237

advantage in adopting higher velocities. The stress
in the rim of a flywheel is a matter of importance,
and affects all classes of gearing alike, but owing
to the fact that the teeth of a wheel add to the
weight, but are not a factor of strength, they must
be neglected. The safe and easily remembered rule
is to limit the peripheral velocity of any flywheel
to 80ft. per second. Professor Unwin fixes the safe
velocity'at 96ft. per second. In constructing wheels,
the question of the numbers of arms and segments
required are subject to the same remarks as are
made at the beginning of the chapter on Rope
Gearing. Table 17 gives the approximate horse
powers" transmitted per inch of width by spur
wheels running at different velocities.

CHAPTER XVIII.

GEARING BELT DRIVING.

Coming now to deal with the second method of
transmitting power, viz. : leather or cotton belts, it
may be first remarked that for main drives invol-
ving the employment of very wide belts, this
sysrem has nearly become obsolete in this country.
With wide belts, failure means the entire stoppage
of the whole mill, while when ropes are used,
the failure of a single one is not of much conse-
quence. For main drives there is no doubt that
ropes are preferred to belts, but there have been
several large belts made for this purpose which
have been from time to time adopted with
the most complete success. The matter is
otherwise within a mill. Here belts are very
convenient, and it is only a question of their
proper application. The pulleys used in the
transmission of power are generally made of cast
iron, in one piece when of small size, and in
halves when large, or when desired to place
easily on a shaft. In some cases the practice
of swelling the ends of each length of shaft

238

is followed, but it is an unadvisable thing. It
makes the shaft more expensive, and largely in-
creases the difficulty of putting on pulleys. In
order to meet this, however, the eye of the pulley
is made large enough to pass over the swell, and is
bored taper, so that by the introduction of three
segmental tapered keys accurately machined the
pulley can be easily fitted. When a pulley is in
halves, it can be easily taken on or off, and can be
partially fixed by making its bore a little less than
the diameter of the shaft. A hollow key fitted sub-
sequently makes it quite secure. During the past
few years there has been an extended use of
wrought-iron pulleys, which possesses many advan-
tages. They are light, easily applied, strong, and
possess a slight flexibility w^hich enables them to
take up shocks with ease. Originally the whole
pulley, bars included, was made of wrought iron or
steel, while other makers construct the bosses of cast
iron. There does not appear to be much to be said
for either procedure, pulleys of both classes work-
ing admirably when transmitting large powers.
Above 20in. diameter, the wrought-iron pulley
possesses many advantages, and it has, therefore,
been largely adopted in driving cotton-spinning
machinery at the high speeds now common.
Generally speaking, the weight of wrought-iron pul-
leys is from one-half to two-thirds that of cast-iron
pulleys, and as they are equally strong, this diminu-
tion in weight constitutes a considerable item in the
economy of a mill. In addition to this factor the
balance of a wrought-iron is better than that of a
cast-iron pulley. A wrought-iron pulley arm must be
looked upon as a cantilever fixed at the boss, and

239

fixing a pulley on the shaft it is enough for
:in ordinary size if a properly proportioned hol-
low key be used, but if much power has to
be transmitted a sunk key, either driven or
feathered, is necessary. It is sometimes urged that
the construction of a wrought-iron pulley tells
against its security, especially as regards the fixity
of the arms. From the author's experience he is
able to say that this is not a fact, as many instances
are known to him of large pulleys working for many
years successfully in places where they are sub-
jected to repeated shocks. Messrs. Croft and Perkins
have a rolled rim of peculiar section, it being
strengthened in the centre where the nipple of the
arm is inserted so as to increase the grip at that
point.

With regard to the belts themselves, these are
usually made of leather. The tenacity of leather
varies from 3,000 to 5,0001bs. per square inch of
sectional area. Single belts are usually from fV^^^
to fths of an inch thick, and as a rule they are
worked at a stress of about SOOlbs. per square inch
of sectional area. The effective stress possible
entirely depends on the strength of the joint, which
is greatest when it is spliced and cemented. In
splicing, an overlap of double the width of the belt
must be given up to 3in. wide, 6in. to Sin.
with belts from Sin. to Sin. wdde, and 1 J times the
width, for belts wider than this. For double belts
the rule is to make the splice lOin. long with
widths up to lOin., from lOin. to ISin. with
widths up to ISin., and ISin. for all wider belts.
If the belt is taken over guide pulleys, or if triple
belts are used, the V splice should be used. The
strength of a cemented joint has been put by Mr.
H. A. Mavor as 8421bs. per inch of width, but the
safe working stress is much less than this. Mr.
Fred. W. Taylor has recently declared in the course
of a very elaborate paper on this subject that for
main drives, at velocities of from 4,000ft. to
4,500ft. per minute — wiiich he considers the best
and most economical — a total load of from 2001bs.

240

to 2251bs. per square inch of section, or 301bs. per
inch of width of double belt is the best. Messrs.
Lewis and Bancroft, from some experiments on belts,
deduced the following formula : V = velocity in
feet per second, S = working strength of leather
in lbs. per square inch, then Y = J'2S^, and if
any other material be used with a specific gravity

of, say 7/, then Y = 5 ^'^— They say that " the

velocity at which the maximum amount of power
can be transmitted by any given belt is indepen-
dent of its arc of contact and co-efficient of friction,
and depends only upon the working strength of the
material and its specific gravity." The working
stresses commonly used in a European mill are much
higher than that given by Mr. Taylor, being per inch
of width, oOlbs. for a single leather belt, and 851bs.
for a heavy double belt. The velocities as a rule
do not exceed 1,800ft. to 2,000ft. per minute, which
are lower than the speeds given by Mr. Taylor,

TABLE 18.
Medium Weights per Lineal Foot of Strapping.

i^'

in.

TbT

lb.

lb."

lb.

TbT

Tb7

lb.

Tb.-

Tb7

ibT

Tb"

TbT

Tb.

•19

•38

•57

•76

•95

1^9

3^8

5^7

7^6

9^5

•22

•44

•66

•88

1-10

2^2

4-4

6^6

8-8

!!•

110

•25

•50

•75

1^25

2-5

5^0

7^5

10^0

12-5

125

•29

•58

•87

1-16

1^45

2^9

5^8

8^7

11-6

14 •D

145

•33

•66

•99

1^32

1^65

3^3

6-6

9^9

13^2

16^5

16f.

•37

•74

1^11

1-48

1-85

3^7

7^4

11-1

14^8

18-5

111

185

3-1

•40

•80

1^20

1^60

2^0

4-0

8^0

12^

16-

20 •

120

200

•43

•86

1-29

r72

2-15

4-3

8-6

12^9

17^2

21^5

1-29

215

•47

•94

1^41

l^SS

2-35

4-7

9-4

14^1

18^8

23-5

141

235

241

which relate to American practice. With regard
to other kinds of belting, hair belts have been
extensively used, and some forms of this, as, for
instance, the " Lancashire," which was the pioneer
in this direction, have been shown to withstand some
high test stresses. An official test in Belgium gave
an ultimate stress of 5,0001bs. per square inch of
section, which is a very exceptional strength, and
proves the belt to be well adapted for heavy drives.
Table 18 is Messrs. Cockhill's list of weights of
single leather belts.

The coefficient of friction of a leather belt on
an iron pulley is about -42, but the various ex-
periments made demonstrate that there is an
enormous variation in this factor, arising from the
character and condition of belts and pulleys, the
amount of slip, and atmospheric conditions. This
variation will vitiate the value of many of the rules
given to ascertain the power of belts, it being well
known that most widely diverse results are obtained
by using different rules. The position of the pulleys
and the^variation in the angle of the drive, some-
times the confined space in which belts work, all
these factors have an influence on the power
transmitted. For this reason, a number of em-
pirical rules, more or less founded on observation,
are commonly employed ; some of those most in
accord with common practice, are now given. If
F = driving force, W = width of belt, V = velocity in

feet per sec, HP = ^ x W x V. Nystrom's

VF ^ . mi . > w 7000 X H.P.

rule is — . Professor Thurston's W = ^ — ^

550 o X V

where S = surfiice of smaller pulley covered. Pro-
fessor Unwin says that a belt lin. wide, running
800ft. per minute, with an arc of contact of 180^,
will transmit one horse power ; or, more exactly,
the power is '0727 H.P. for single and '1272 for
double belts for each foot of velocity per second,
the belt being lin. wide. Messrs. Harper, of Aber-
Q

242

deen, give the following rule for single belting per
100ft. of velocity:—

Inches wide 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 15 18

H.P. transmitted... | J f | | 1 1| 1^ 1^ 1| 2^
For double belting multiply by IJ. Messrs. Hoyt
fix 1 H.P. per inch of width at 1,000ft. per minute.
Mr. Robert Briggs, of the Yale and Towne Manu-
facturing Company, Connecticut, a most careful
observer, uses the following method : D = diameter
of driven pulley, W = width in inches of belt, R ==
revolutions per minute, DWR = P or driving power
of the machine, which is spoken of in units. Then
so many units are taken for each machine as deter-
mined.

The diameters of driving and driven pulleys
should have a maximum ratio of 6:1, and the
smallest should not be less than 100 times the
thickness of the belt. The distance of their
centres apart must depend upon the relative
ratio of the diameters, and varies from 8 to
20ft. Pulleys, if rounded, as is always desirable
if no moving of the strap takes place, should
have a convexity equal to Jin. to fin. for each
foot of width. When wide belts are employed
it is sometimes a good plan to perforate the
rims, and this method has been patented in this
country. This procedure is useful, as permit-
ting the air to escape, and so maintaining the
adhesion. The same advantage is derived by the
use of link belts, but the extra weight of the latter
tells against them. They have, however, the
advantage of being very flexible and strong, and
can be advantageously worked with small pulleys.

243
CHAPTER XIX.

ROPE DRIVING.

The most ordinary form of gearing adopted for
modern spinning mills is rope. In applying this a
large grooved pulley or drum fixed on the crank shaft
takes the place of the spur wheel or belt pulley in
other methods of driving. These pulleys are built
up when of large size. Small-sized pulleys, say to
6ft. diameter, may be made in one piece ; from
that size up to 12ft. they are made in halves,
which are fitted together with planed joints and
subsequently bored and turned, but after that
size has been passed it is the practice to build
them up. The number of segments used depends
to a great extent on the maker, but generally can
be approximately ascertained by dividing the cir-
cumference in feet by 7-8, which gives results
corresponding generally with practice. The boss
is cast separately and bored to receive the
arms, which are turned to fit, and are machined
at the ends to take the segments of the
rim. This is very clearly shown in Figs. 114 and
115, which illustrate a large driving drum 34ft.
diameter, and grooved for 32 ropes IJiu. diameter,
made for the Astley Mill Company, Dukinfield, by
Mr. B. Goodfellow. The number of grooves depends
upon the power to be transmitted. The dimen-
sions and form of the grooves are shown in the
sketch given in Fig. 116, and are calculated from
the following formulae : —

Let cZ = diameter of rope in inches; P = pitch
of grooves ; D = depth of grooves ; R = radius of
bottom of grooves ; "\V = width of mouth of
grooves; V = thickness of flange between inner
grooves ; A = thickness of outer flange ; S = depth
from tip of outer flange to shoulder ; and T =
thickness through bottom of grooves. Then —

P = li cZ + ^in. or-fx^in.

D = li rf-|-|in. or + ^in.

R = § d ; and V^ = cl + ^% ot + ^%.

T = hd; andA^id + xV-

S = d; and V = |d

Fig. 115.

246

From these formulae can be constructed the
following table, which will give sufficiently accurate
data of the principal dimensions, the smaller sizes
being taken.

Diameter of
Rope = rf.

Inches,

in.

It^

li\

A-

T^B

1-11

27^5

-H

With regard to the angle enclosed by the sides
of the groove some makers, perhaps the majority,
prefer it to be 45°, while others express an opinion
that 40° is better, as there is less liability to wedg-
ing. The depth is sufficient to avoid all possibility
of the rope reaching the bottom of the groove.

The formation of this groove accurately is of high
importance, bat it must be accompanied by equal
care in the making of the rope. With regard to
the latter more will be said hereafter. Ropes are,
in this country, said to be of a certain diameter, by
which is meant the diameter of a circle circum-
scribing the rope, while in America the size of the

247

the size of the different ropes employed, but what-
ever be the cause the effect is the same. Suppose,
for instance, that a driving pulley is 30ft. diameter
to the line which is intended to be the centre Inie
of the rope, or that where it touches the sides of
the groove. If this pulley revolves say 50 times
per minute then it would have a peripheral speed
of 4,712ft., which if communicated to a rope em-
ployed to drive a pulley 12ft. diameter would give
the latter a speed of 125 revolutions. Assume now

Fig. 116

that the grooves are so shaped or the rope so reduced
that the diameter of the pulley on the driving Inie
is only 29ft. lOin. and that of the driven pulley
only lift. lOin., then the speed of the rope would

be at 50 revolutions per minute — 4,687ft., and

the driven pulley would make 126 revolutions. If,
therefore, adjoining grooves established these two
sets of conditions, it would follow tliat the rope
deepest in the groove would tend to do the greater
part of the work, although its size might be the
least. Not only would the rope deepest in gear

248

tend to do most work, but the variation in the
velocity of the ropes would lead to the establish-
ment of friction, which is very injurious and
destructive to their life. It is, by far, the most
common thing for the fault to lie with the ropes,
but it may happen that the grooves are not all
accurately formed.

The ropes used in most cases are made of cotton,
which is preferable to hemp for many reasons. The
various strands lie more closely together, owing to
the character of the material; the rope is more
flexible and elastic, and its wearing power, if all
things are considered, is greater. The construction
of any rope is a matter of high importance. It
must be strong, flexible, elastic, and able to resist
undue extension. No material fulfils these con-
ditions so perfectly as cotton, and for this reason
cotton ropes are to be preferred. The alternate
bending and straightening of a rope as it passes
over the pulleys entails a good deal of work, and
the more flexible it is the better are its working
qualities. Strength is principally of service, in so
far as it enables the rope to resist extension under
its working load, and it is this quality which is
perhaps the most valuable. It is, of course, im-
possible to resist extension entirely, but it is a
factor of little importance if its ratio is the same
with all the ropes of a set. It is not an uncommon
thing to find all the ropes of a main drive sagging
considerably near the end of a week's work, and in
the interval between Saturday and Monday taking
up so as to be quite tight. It is a thing worth

249

be as light as possible. The " Lambeth " rope is
probably, for its size, the lightest made, although
a four-stranded one. Its extension is also small,
as is shown by Table 19, which, in order to render
it inteUigible to the ordinary reader, has been
slightly changed from the form in which it was
cast by Messrs. Kirkaldy and Sons, who have made
some recent tests, of which these are the results.

TABLE 19.

Circumference
of rope, ins.

3-86

Diam. of rope,
ins.

1-23

Weight per
foot, lbs.

•45

5-12

1-63

Stress in
lbs.

'- 1,280
2,560
3,840
5,120
6,400
7,681
7,981
2,380
4,760
7,140
9,520
( 11,900
L13,872

4-26*

1-35

•54

1,490

2,980

4,470

5,960

7,450

8,940

10,430

11,920

L 13,275

Extension
per cent.

1-4

4-2

7-0

9-5
11-4
18-4
Broke

2-0

5-0

7-76
10-20
12-20
Broke

6-34
10-36
13-40
15-60
17-60
19-20
20-80
22-20

Broke

* This rope was a three-strand one, with 120 16's throstle yarns
spun from Egyptian in each strand.

It is important to note that, although these ropes
showed certain extensions when the stress is applied,
they recovered their length when it was taken off,
thus demonstrating the elasticity of the material.
The important point to remember is that the stress
is much in excess of any working load, as will be
shown.

The power exerted by ropes is a very important
matter. To obtain its full effect, it is necessary to
follow certain precautions in designing an installa-

250

tion. First, as shown in Fig. 117, the axis of no
pulley should be in a higher position than 45° above
a horizontal line drawn through the centre of the
driving shaft. The reason for this procedure is that
it is desirable that the upper side of the rope,
which is, or ought to be, the idle side, should be
allowed to form freely a catenary curve, or to " sag"
between the pulleys. This establishes a larger arc of
contact of the rope and pulley, and increases the
power. The size of the pulleys used has been

Fig. 117.

251

one, and designers of rope-drives may take it that
there is room for a wise discretion in this matter.
What should be remembered is that it is better to
pass either a belt or rope used for driving over a
lar<re pulley than over a small one, and that, subject
to the exigencies of the case, the larger the pulley
used, the better for the band or rope.

With regard to the power developed by ropes,
this is a matter in which nearly every man is a law to
himself. All sorts of rules are given, but it may be
stated that the subject depends mainly upon the
life of the rope. That is to say that it is considered
to be better to employ a moderate working tension,
and thus enable the ropes to be used without undue
faticrue Three things affect this matter, the power
transmitted, centrifugal force, and the loss caused
by bending and straightening and the frictional
resistance of the air. It is usual to assume that
the loss by the third factor is about 20 per cent of
the gross working stress. The centrifugal force is

calculated by the formula ^^^^ ^^^en S = speed

in feet per second ; W = weight one foot of rope.
Deducting these amounts from the gross working
load per square inch, we are able to calculate the

H.P. transmitted by the formula ^^^^^ ■ where

V = velocity in feet per second and S = effective
stress. These formulae may be tabulated thus : Let
G = crvoss stress allowed. Then G-~^= working

tension or T. Then T-(5?^) = net working
tension or S, and-J^ = H.P. exerted. It will be

seen that the whole matter rests upon the value of
G, which has, in some cases, been fixed unduly high.
The writer has proceeded in the calculation of
Table 20, on the assumption that T = 2001bs.,
and by close comparison of the results of actual work

252

has found that this assumption is in accordance
with facts. The table is as follows, and will be
found to be safe and reliable : —

TABLE

20.

peed
minute
feet.

Diameter oi

Ropes in

Inches.

02 O

Horse Power Transmitted.

2500

10-8

13-4

16-7

20-5

24-3

28-5

33-2

381

43-4

2600

11-1

13-9

17-2

20-8

29-4

341

39-4

44-7

2700

11-4

14-3

17-7

21-7

25-7

30-2

35-3

40-6

2800

11-8

14-7

18 2

22-3

26-4

36-2

41-7

47-3

2900

12-1

151

18-7

22-9

271

31-9

37-2

42-8

48-6

3000

12-3

15-4

191

23-4

27-8

32-6

381

43-8

49-5

3100

12-5

15-7

19-5

28-4

33-4

44-8

50-6

3200

12-9

161

19-9

24-5

39-9

45-8

3300

13-2

16-5

20-3

29-6

34-8

40-8

46-8

53-2

3400

13-4

16-7

20-6

25-5

301

35-4

41-6

47-7

54-3

3500

13-6

16-9

20-9

30-6

36-2

42-3

48-6

55-2

3600

13-9

171

21-2

26-4

311

36-5

49-5

3700

141

17-3

21-5

26-8

31-5

371

43-6

50-2

56-8

3800

14-2

17-5

21-7

31-9

37-5

44-2

50-8

57-6

3900

14-4

17-7

21-9

27-3

32-2

37-9

44-8

51-4

58-2

4000

14-5

17-8

221

27-5

32-6

38-4

45-3

51-9

58-9

4100

14-6

17-9

22-3

27-8

32-9

38-7

45-8

52-4

59-6

4200

14-7

22'5

331

46-3

52-8

60-3

4300

14-8

22-6

281

33-3

39-3

46-6

53-2

60-6

4400

14-9

181

22*7

28-2

33-4

39-6

46-8

53-5

60-9

4500

181

227

28-3

33-5

39-7

53-8

61-2

4600

151

181

22-7

28-4

33-6

39-7

47-2

61-4

4700

151

181

22-6

28-4

33-7

39-8

47-4

54-2

61-5

4800

151

226

28-5

33-7

39-8

47-5

54-2

61-5

4900

et\r\r\

T K

1 '7.n

22-5

28-5

33-7

39-9

OO-Q

47-6

A'7-P.

54-3

F.A-Q

61-6

253

hundreds of feet the rope travels per minute, then,
for" the sizes of ropes given, multiply x by the
figure given in second line.

Size of rope, inches 1 H U If H If ^i U 2
Multiplier -3 '4 '5 -6175 -735 -8675 1 1-155 1-31

Thus an inch rope running 3,000ft. per minute
would develop 30 x -3 = 9 H.P., and a 2-inch rope
running 4,000ft. would develop 40x1*31 = 52-4
H.P. In this calculation no regard is paid to
centrifugal action at all. Messrs. Combe, Barbour,
& Combe, of Belfast, who were the originators of
rope driving, do not recommend a higher velocity
than 4,000ft. per minute, and prefer one of about
3,500. Their rule is that a pulley, 4ft. diameter,
and grooved for a rope IJin. diameter, running at
100 revolutions per minute, will transmit 8 H.P.
The working stress they use is 2401bs. per square
inch.

li
•62

If IS
•72 -79

1| 2
•91 1-04

Fig. lis.

With regard to the weight of ropes this is an
important matter, and the following are those of
" Lambeth " ropes : —

Diam. in inches... 1 1^ li
Wght.perft.inlb.-27 "37 -15

ozs Ib.oz Ib.oz lb.oz Ib.oz Ib.oz Ib.oz Ib.oz Ib.oz
Weight peryd....l3 12 1 6 1 10 1 U 2 3 2 6 2 12 3 2

The following remarks are made by Mr. Hart on
the question of splicing ropes. To make a long
splice, unlay each end of the rope 5ft., cut out the
small centre cord, on which the four strands have
been laid, interlay the ends together in the same
way as for a short splice (Fig. 118), but mstead of

254

pushing the strands of one under the strands of
the other, the splice is divided into parts and the
four strands are spliced in different places (Fig. 119),
care being taken to keep the rope equal in thickness
in all parts. Unlay one of the strands and at the
same time lay up the opposite strand in the vacant
place for about four feet, care being taken to keep
the turn in the strand. Tie the two strands tem-
porarily. This we call the No. 1 strand. The next
to it is No. 2 strand, which must not be worked
until No. 3 is finished in the same manner as No.
1 ; but instead of laying it up for 4ft., 1ft. 6in. is
sufi&cient. Lay up No. 2 strand and No. 4 strand
in the same manner as No. 1 and No. 3 strands,
but in the opposite direction. Shorten the strands

Fig. 119.

to equal lengths of about a foot. Remove the
friction bands (or outside threads), and tie a double
overhand knot on the tension strands, laying each
end over twice with the marlinspike or splicing
pin, and finish ofi" by interlocking each end through
the centre of the rope.

No blacklead should be applied to ropes, as it
adds unduly to the weight, and an application of
a special wax or shoemakers' heelball is much better

'2DD

CHAPTER XX.

SHAFTING AND BEARINGS.

The power transmitted from the engine, whether
by wheels, belts, or ropes, is utilised in the various
rooms by means of shafts running longitudinally.
If wheel gear is used the most ordinary method is
to drive a vertical shaft sustained by a footstep, and
by bearings close to the points at which the power
is taken off. There has been a good deal of diffi-
culty with geared mills, which has, in great part,
been due to the fact that the work has not been so
perfectly done as it might be, and partly to the
difficulty of regulating the wear of the footstep and
bearings. Wheel gearing wants especial care in con-
struction, and this is not always given. In designing
the footsteps they should be arranged so that there is
not more than from 600 to SOOlbs. pressure on the
bearing portion. It is the best practice to fit the
footstep with loose washers, always immersed in
oil and free to revolve under the pressure of the
shaft. These washers are alternately phosphor
bronze and steel, and if properly designed and
arranged the wear is very small. In designing the
bearings sustaining the line and upright shaft it is
desirable to make them strong and massive and fix
them firmly to the wall The outer ends of the shafts
should be sustained by special bearings, if possible,
and all the bearings ought to be capable of being
easily set, so as to keep the wheels working on the
pitch line. In the most modern practice there is
an undoubted tendency towards higher velocities of
shafting, and steel shafting has come into somewhat
extensive employment. The resistance of shafting
to torsion is found to vary as the cube of the
diameter, but as it is necessary to take off the
shaft between the bearings a certain amount
of power, the diameter wants proportionately
increasing. In many cases a calculation made
on the basis named w^ould result in the use

256

of a shaft which, with the ordinary length
between the bearings, would result in flexure when
the weight was applied. The diameter of shaft
required to transmit any known power, allowing
for the flexure caused by pulleys and belts, is
obtained by the following rule, where D = diameter
in inches; H = H P to be transmitted; and

N = revolutions per minute, D

J6bK

N '

The

Unbreakable Pulley Co. give, as a rule, for wrought

DiAMKTEU OF SlIAKT IN INCHES.

tJOO

K, ia-ocr. cl:ooocoooc»0 0 0^00>03J3;<^^H|-
^ COt-i-lOOCOt~— OC-. l>-OC0r-l05t-«0CC^Ci
r-r-.r-KMO^COCOCO'^OOt-t-OOC-. 0|--|r-H

%
%

^ '^isS§|SS5|S|2g|S?||g

i^g^§^Si^||siS||§s|?o|

S??SFi§SgSggJ|i|l^|||g

- §S5S^^S2S^S||||2|g||

:«" o 1^ .— c-1 CO CO -? -*" o -o r- CO r: o CI r^ rj< »« -o CO
- 2c,co^.o-or^a.c.oo,-ro=.55«;5r^g-

i ^ oo CO r- oi o o C-. o c^J a:

5 ?i -r o -c- 00 S'- c^ r: -o CO T-H CO

S § c; ci C-. C-. cc CO CO CO 00 o o o --S o p >--: o -^

era"

?: § o o; :r- cr. cv c-. cs os c-- cj c; c; 7. ^- c-. b- c-. c--

^ 01 ?5 i^ -0 t- C-. i-H rt -t CO (M -0 X CO CO tS Ci

^ -i i. 2 ^ is ::5 J^l S S t S2 g lH' i ^ S 'c^ §

257

3 / rr

iron, D = 4*2 "^ - For steel, when the calcula-
tion has been made from that formula, the diameter
is found in one case, by multiplying D by -874,
which is high, however, as '75 is a rule often
adopted and found satisfactory. Another rule for

line shafts is —^7^ — . Professor Unwm's rule is —

HP =Nx -01163 D", and the results are about
those usually accepted. Table 21 is calculated
from this rule, which may be safely taken as
giving the power transmitted by wrought-iron
shafting.

It is essential that the bearings shall be properly
spaced, and the formula by which the distance in
feet is calculated, is — when pulleys are carried —
5 yU". Table 22 will be of service.

TABLE 22.

Diam. of Distance of Diam. of Distance of

Shaft. Bearings. Sbaft. Bearings.

in. ft. in. in. ft. in.

2 ... 8 0 H 10 6

2i 8 6 3i 11 0

2J 9 0 3| 11 9

2| .... 9 6 4 12 6

3 10 0

Line shafts are not often made larger than -iin. in
spinning mills, so that this table will be sufficient.
The co-efficient of friction of turned shafting is
stated by Webber at -066, and the power absorbed
is obtained by the aid of the following formula :
With ordinary— i.e., intermittent — lubrication, the
number of foot pounds absorbed per minute to over-
come friction, when P = weight of shafting and
pulleys -1- stress of belt, D = diameter of journal,
and R = number of revolutions, is -0182 P D R,
and with continuous oiling 0112 P D R. Another
formula given by the Unbreakable Pulley Co. is
•0157 P 0 R. The weight of shafting per foot in
iron and steel is given in Table 23.

258

TABLE -20.

Diameta- Weiglit per loot lbs.

Diameter

WeUiit

p^r f;.;.: lbs.

inindies.

Inn.

Steel.

inincics.

Iron.

Steel.

5-89

6007

3-21

3-2-74

802

8-18

33-5

34-17

105

10-71

41-9

42-73

133

13-56

47-3

45-24

16-4

16-72

54-Od

19-8

2019

59-1

6018

23-6

24-07

65-5

66S1

27-7

2S-25

The table given shows that steel shafting is
slightly heavier than iron : but as its strength is
greater than thai of iron, the same power can be trans-
mitted by a lighter shaft Thus a 2iin. steel shaft
is capable of transmitting as much power as a 3in,
wrought-iron shaft, and their weight compares as
jl 16'72 : 23 "6. Now, assuming that the revolutions

are 150, and that in each case the weight of the
pulleys between two bearings, plus the stress of the
belts, is 4001bs., we can see what is the relative
advantage of the two styles of shafts. The
smaller shaft would require the bearings to be
spaced 5\/2-5- = 9ft Sin., while the iron shaft
reqnires only 5-^3- = 10ft. 5in. The weight of 9 ft.
J Sin. of '2hin. steel shafting is 154-66, and of the

K* iron shaft, 245-8. Adding to these the assumed

I F weight of pulleys, we get a load on the bearings of

y 5541bs. and 6451bs. respectively. If, therefore, the

K labrication is continuous, the foot lbs. absorbed in

overcoming friction in each case respectively are
•0112 X 554 X 2-5 X 150 = 2315 and -0112 x 645 x

•259

the wisdom of the modem practice with regard to
the use of steel shafts instead of wrought- iron.

In most cases the bearings used m cotton miU
practice are of a very simple kind being the
standard pattern of plummer block. Where pos-
sible -=^ide pedestals are employed, and these are
fixed to the faces prepared for them on the columns
as shown in Figs. 3 and 4. The standard plummer
block has top and bottom brass steps htted res-
pectivelv in the body and cap, lubrication being
provided bv means of some form of lubricator fixed
in the cap." In the side pedestal, the sole is vertical
to the axis, and is made of such a length that it fits
easily on the face of the column, and can be
supported bv a packing piece between the pro-
iectincr rib and the bottom of the sole. In some
cases,"shafts are suspended by hangers attached
to the beams, but this practice is not an ordmary
one, except as a supplement. The most common
lencrth of the brasses is twice the diameter ot the
shaft, but varies from U to 2^ times the diameter.
Double the diameter is, however, better than a
shorter length, and is more usual.

A lar<^e "number of lubricatmg bearings of one
kind or^another have from time to time been
devised, and among them may be mentioned
Mohler's patent, of which many thousands have
been constructed. This consisted of a collar made
of cast iron, and fixed on the shaft. It was from
lin to iin. wide, and about fin. to fm. deep.
The top" and bottom brasses were grooved to
enable the collar to revolve easily without touchmg,
:.nd each groove had a square hole in it at its crown.
Through the hole in the bottom brass, the oil, con-
taiued^iu a reservoir formed in the body, entered, so
that the collar alwavs dipped into it. In the hole
in the cap and top brass, a smaU sheet-iron scraper
cut out to pass over the collar was placed, and as
this just cleared the collar and shaft, it scraped the
oil off the former and spread it over the whole
surface of the journaL .

A modification of this principle, embodymg an

260

improvement on it, has been adopted by Messrs.
Astin and Barker, of Todmorden, who have carried
out a large number of sets of mill gearing for some
of the more recent mills. In this pedestal the
bottom brass rests on ribs formed in the body, the
spaces between which are used as an oil reservoir,
but the brass is not grooved internally. The top
brass, however, has one or two narrow grooves
formed in it, which act as guides for rings of wire
or iron of small diameter. These rings are made
with an internal diameter much larger than the
shaft on which they rest. The outer portion
of the brass is grooved slightly near its upper
edge, so as to permit the ring to pass over
the brass into the reservoir of oil below. The
rotation of the shaft draws the ring round
with it, but at a slower speed, and the
ring carries with it a certain portion of oil,
which is taken oflf by the shaft and distributed over
the journal. When the journal is a long one two rings
are used, and this principle is apphed with perfect
success to bearings Tin. to 9in. diameter used for
second motion shafts. It is remarkable how
speedily the oil is distributed, and it has been
found quite unnecessary where these bearings are
used to employ oil pumps to obtain a regular circu-
lation. The use of oil pumps is common where
there are long bearings, and bath lubrication, which
this is, is the basis of the methods adopted for main
bearings.

Whether because of the rigid floors which are
employed in this country or not, the type of adjust-

261

itself to any deflection which may take place in the
shafting gives a great advantage, and leads to a
decrease of friction. A little thought will show
that the value of this point may be easily exag-
gerated. For instance, suppose that an undue
downward pull is exercised on two adjoining bays
of shafting at the same time ; that is, two lengths
supported by two outer and one centre bearing. It
is obvious that the deflection on one side of the
centre bearing will tend to cause it to swivel in one
direction, and that the deflection at the other side
will have the like efi'ect in the opposite direction.
In point of fact swivel bearings cannot avoid what
may be called cross friction, except when a shaft
is only carried by two of them. The introduc-
tion of a third bearing, if tliere be deflection on
each side of it, at once reduces the advantage
derived from the freedom of the bearing. Bat while
this is true, it is equally true that in a large num-
ber of cases where the conditions ]ust named do
not exist, this property of adjustability does play a
considerable part in reducing the friction caused
by deflection, and it is only the extreme and very
absurd claims put forward for this type of bearing
that render it necessary to give this warning. On
other grounds, such as ease of erection and freedom
of adjustment, the swivel or ball bearings constitute
a great advance on the ordinary type, and it ought
not to be overlooked that at the worst the friction
set up will never be greater than that in the
ordinary fixed bearing, while on the other hand it
may be much less.

In Fig, 1 20 a cross section of a bearing of this type,
made by the Unbreakable Pulley Company, is shown.
This consists of a central bearing made of cast iron,
and formed with a ball joint at its centre, so that
it can move in any direction. It ought to be made
clear at this point that in setting these bearings
into line it is the absolute centre which is regarded,
and not merely the centre of the bore at either end.
That is to say, that, as the bearing is held by a ball
joint midway of its length, it is the point of inter-

262

section of a vertical line described through the
centre of the ball with the axis which is taken as
the setting point of the bearing. This is important,
because it is the power of swivelling or oscillating
about its centre without that being disturbed, which
constitutes the feature of this bearing. It will be
clear that, unless this property existed, the value
of an adjustable bearing is much diminished. The
bearing shown is made of cast iron, accurately
bored and made of ample length. The latter is
important because of the diminution of the pressure
per square inch which follows. As the true lubri-
cation of a bearing is only effected when a film of
oil is kept between the two parts, an undue pressure
tends to shear it, and thus allow the two metals to
come into contact. An enlargement of the bearing
area, therefore, is of high value. In a valuable
paper on the " Friction and Lubrication of Cylin-
drical Journals," Professor Goodman, of Leeds, made
the following remarks : '• Instead of taking the load
per square inch as a basis in designicg bearings,
the author takes the number of thermal units a
given area is capable of conducting away per minute.
The result of several thousand experiments shows
that a gun-metal bearing working on a steel axle
will keep cool when one square inch of surface is
allowed for every thermal unit conducted per
minute.

Let P = total pressure iu lbs, on the journal.
„ w = assumed co-efficient of friction,
^j S = speed of journal surface in feet per minute.
A = nominal area of brass in square inches— (".c,

263

Then the friction resistance = P«

Foot lbs. of work done per minute... = P w S

Thermal units generated per mmute — ^^^

Fio. 120.

Wherever practicable, journals should be allowed a
certain amount of end play, about one per cent of
their length ; they will then run more smoothly,
and the journal will not wear in grooves." Reverting

now to Fig. 1 20, the surfaces in which the bearing
proper is suspended are found at the ends of
two plungers screwed on their outer surface,
and fitting into rigid threaded eyes. The rota-
tion of the screwed shanks enables a bearing to

565

be mentioned here that the iise of Magnolia metal
for bearings is increasing, and some recent tests of
a Sin. shaft running in bushes 4Mn. long, with a
load of 5001bs. per sq. in., and a speed of 183
revolutions per mmute, show that after four hours
the heat did not rise excessively, although oil was
only used for ten minutes at the start.

In many cases — in fact, in the majority — it is the
practice to so arrange the shafts that the cards
are driven directly from the line. The roving
frames are placed so that by a quarter twisted belt
they can be driven directly from the shaft. This
can easily be done if it is arranged that the point of
delivery of the belt from each pulley is in the plane
of the other pulley. As card rooms are now built
of considerable height, this mode of procedure
enables a long belt to be used, and naturally
reduces its wear. It is often necessary to drive
machines at some distance from the line shaft,
while it is not desirable to employ counter shafts.
When this occurs it is usual to employ guide
pulleys, or, as they are often called, gallows
pulleys, similar to those shown in Fig. 122. For
instance, in the ring room of the Stockport Ring
Spinning Company's Mill the ring frames are driven
directly from the line shaft by long belts passing
over gallows pulleys to driving pulleys of the
frames. This is a most convenient course, and is
often followed. Messrs. Astin and Barker make a
gallows pulley in which the axis is of cast iron,
being formed in one piece with the pulley, and
revolving in a bearing of the self-lubricating type
previously named.

There are three types of coupling used to fasten
together the various lengths of shafting. These
are known as the box or muff, the flange, and the
compression. The muff coupling is simply a
cylinder of cast iron bored to fit the ends of the
shafts, and having keyways cut in it by which it
can be keyed on to the shafts which meet end to
end midway of its length. This coupling is most
effective when the ends of the shafts are formed

266

with a half lap, but as this is more expensive it is
not often done except where great strength is re-
quired. The proportions of these couplings are
given by Moles worth as follows: — Where D = dia-

267

The face of each disc is turued so that they fit
closely when the two shafts on which each is fixed
are brought together. The couplings are fastened
together by bolts accurately fitting bored and
rimered holes in the flanges. It is good practice to
recess the flanges for the bolt heads and nuts, or
to form a shrouding flange, so that they do not
project beyond the surface, and cannot therefore
become entangled with the cleaning rags or
the clothing of the workman. Professor Unwin

Fig. 123.

gives the following as proper proportions o:
this class of coupling:— If fZ=- diameter of shaft
a = distance of centre of bolts from outsid(
of boss, c = depth of recess for bolthead o
nut, 6 = width of keyway, ^ = depth of key
way, rt = number of bolts, and e = diameter of bolts

0-62 d , . , „.

then 7t = 3 + 0-5 d, e= -j=-, a=l'5 e, c=l 25 e

6 = 0-25 c^ + 0-125, and t = ^b. For the thicknes
of the boss '4 d, diameter of boss d+'Sd, and fo

the thickness of the flange from the inner face to
bottom of bolt recess '3 d. The rule as given by
Molesworth is «i = diameter shaft, D = diameter of
boss, F = diameter of flange, I = thickness of flange,
L = length of boss, Id = d + J^ d, F = 3 d + 2,
l = -Z d+'i, L = c?+1. The bolts in this form
of coupling are of c urse in shear, and they may
be made a little larger than the size stated. In
order to keep the shafts in line with each other, it
is often the practice to pass one shaft into its
opposing coupling from \ to h inch, but this is not
always the case.

Fig. 124.

269

turned on a special mandrel. Round the inside of
the shell and the outside of the cones three grooves
equidistant from one another are formed, one of
those in the cones being cut right through. Three
bolts are passed through the coupling from end to
end, and by screwing them up the two cones are
drawn towards each other and are gradually closed
on the shaft. It is clear that a coupling such as
this will be self-centreing, and will exercise a
complete grip on the shaft.

It is not pretended that the foregoing remarks
furnish complete information on all the various
points treated. That has not been the intention,
which has rather been to give millowners such
practical hints and descriptions of completed work
as were most likely to be serviceable. It is obvious
that various subjects have been omitted, but it is
confidently hoped that within its limits the book
will have some value to those engaged in practical
work.

TABLE 24.

Properties of Saturated Steam.

Number of British

Absolute

Thermal units from
0° F per lb.

Weight

Volume
one

Relative
volume

pressure

Tem-
perature

of one
cubic

pound
of i

cubic

per

eet steam

square

in "F of

Latent

foot of

steam

from one

inch in

steam and

heat

Total in.

steam

n cubic

pound
water.

lbs.

water.

formation

steam.

in lbs.

feet.

of steam.

102-1

1042-96

1145 0

•0030

330-36

20600

126 3

102601

1162-2

-0058

172-08

10730

141-6

1015-25

1156-8

-0085

117-:.2

7327

153-1

1007-23

1160-1

-0112

89-62

5589

162-3

1000-73

llti3 0

-0138

72-66

4253

170-2

995-25

1165-3

•0163

61-21

3816

176 -9

990-47

1167-3

•0169

62-94

3301

182-9

986-25

1169-2

•0214

46-69

2911

188-3

982-43

1170-8

•0239

41-79

2603

193-3

978-96

1172-3

•0264

37-84

2360

197-8

975-2

1173-7

•0289

34-62

2157

202-0

972-2

1175-0

•0314

31-88

1988

205 9

969-4

1176-2

•0338

29^27

1844

209-6

966 -S

1177-3

•0362

27-61

1721

14"7

212-0

965-2

1178 1

•0380

26-36

1644

213-1

964-3

1178-4

•0387

26-86

1611

222-4

957-7

1181-2

■0459

21-78

1357

228-0

953-8

1182-9

•0607

19-72

1229

233-1

950-2

1184-6

-0556

18-03

1123

240-1

945-3

1186-6

-0625

16-99

996

250-4

937-9

1189-8

-0743

13-46

838

259-3

931-6

1192-5

-0858

11-65

726

267-3

926 0

1194-9

-0974

10-27

640

274-4

9-20-9

1197-1

-1089

9-18

572

281-0

916-3

]199-1

•1202

8-31

518

287-1

912-0

1201-0

•1314

7-61

474

292-7

908-0

1202-7

-14-26

7-01

437

298-0

904-2

1204-3

-1638

6-49

405

302-9

900-8

1206-8

-1648

6-07

378

307-5

897-5

1207-2

-1759

5^68

363

312-0

894-3

1208-5

•1869

6^35

333

3161

891-4

1209-9

-1980

6-06

314

320-2

888-5

1211-1

•2089

4-79

298

324-1

885 -8

1212-3

•2198

4-65

283

100

327-9

883-1

1213-4

•2307

4-33

270

105

331-3

880-7

1-214-4

•2414

414

257

271

TABLE 25.
Showing Volume and Weight of Air and Saturated
Mixture of Air and Vapour at Different Tempera-
tures under the Pressure OF 30 Inches of Mercury.

II .

Volume of ^

ft'eight of a

Saturated mixture of air and vapour.

£i2

dry air at i
tempera- \
ure named}

cub. ft. of

dry air in

lbs.

|a>

Weight of
Air in lbs.

Weight of

Vapour in

lbs.

Weight of

Mixture

in lbs,

•935

•0864

•0865

•000079

•0867

•955

0843

•0847

•00012 1

•0849

•965

-0838

•00015

-0840

•975 1

•0830

•0829

•00018

•0932

•986 1

-0821

•0820

•00023

-0824

•995

-0813

•0811

•00028 \

-08] 5

1-000

•0807

0808

•000304

-0812

1006

•0804

•0802

•00034

•0808

1-0162

-0797

•0794

•000408

•0800

1-022

-0791

•0791

•00044

•0798

1^0264

•0789

•0786

-00049

-0794

1 032

•0784

-0781

-00054

-0789

1-037

•0781

•0777

-00058

-0787

1-040

•0778

-0774

-00063

•0787

1-047

•C773

•0770

•00069

•0780

1-053

•0769

■0765

-00077

•0777

1-057

•0766

•0761

•00082

•0774

1-061

-0763

•0758

•00088

•0772

1-067

•O7.o9

•0753

•00097

-0770

1-073

-0754

•0748

-00108

-0765

1-077

•0751

•0744

•00114

-0763

1-OSl

•0747

•0741

•00122

•0761

1-087

•0784

•0736

-00134

-0758

1-093

-0740

•0731

-00147

•0755

1-098

-0737

-0728

•00157

■0753

1-108

-0731

•0719

•00182

•0749

1-118

•0724

•0710

-00212

•0745

1-128

•0717

•0701

•00-245

•0742

100

1-138

•0711

•0691

•00283

•0739

Note.— According to M. Regnault, air expands 491:13 part
of its volume for every 1° of heat.

TABLE 26.
Number of Thermal Units in One Pound of Water,

Tempe-
rature.

No. of
Units.

Tempe-
rature.

No. of
Units.

Tempe-
rature.

No. of
Units.

40-001

115

115-129

190

190-543

45002

120

120-149

195

195-697

50-003

125

125-169

200

200-753

55-006

130

130-192

205

205-813

60-009

135

135-217

210

210-874

65*014

140

140-245

215

215-939

70-020

145

145-275

220

221-007

75-027

150

150-305

225

226-078

80036

155

155-339

230

231-153

85-045

160

160-374

235

236-232

90-055

165

165-413

240

241-313

95-065

170

170-453

245

246-398

INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGl

FIG.

1 Swainson, Birley, and Go.'s mill j

2 Vertical section of mill :J^

3_4 Front and side elevation mill columns ^^

5 Cast-iron fire-proof floor J^

6 Skeleton steel joist floor '

7 Coats' mill floor ^

8 Section steel and concrete floor ^^

9 Iron lintel o.

10 Carnegie steel and tile floor

11 Steel and concrete floor without joists ^

12 American type of building ^

13 Section of weaving shed

14 Elevation of Monitor building *

15 Roof plan of do

16 Floor plan of do

17 Section of part of do

18 Details of wall of do

19 Details of Monitor ^

20 View of American weaving room ^

21 Longitudinal section, mill, showing sprinklers t

22 .Transverse do. do.

23 Worthington steam pump J

24 Merryweather do.

25 Grinnell sprinkler closed

26 Do. open I

27 Witter sprinkler, section ;

28 Do. elevation

29 Walworth sprinkler clobed

30 Titan sprinkler closed ;

31-32 Elevation and cross section, window •

33 Potts, Son, and Pickup's window ^

34-36 "Praray" window

37 Position of air propellor

38 Sturtevaut system of ventilation

39 Section Drosophore ••••••

40-41 Plan of rooms, with humidifiers fixed

42 Pye' 8 humidifier •

43 Plan do

liSer

r'nerr* mill

:. :- nnll ..

mil], amoged by Howard
' 117

57 Pi

59 Or

60 In
61-62

63 Se:

64 :

65 Ccz
66

67 Grr

■iO. mtii .......

: jjint ....
.tT«x caa joint .

and

da.
da

do.

Lodieator diagrams &ain.

PAGE
101
110
111

114
115

123

. 122

. 125

. 126

. 128

. 131

. 133

. 142

. 143

. 144

. 145

. 146

. 148

. 149

. 154

. 158

. 159

. 174
175-6

. 176

. 177

. 151

. 1S3

. 183

. 1S6

. 188

. 190
192-3

. 195

. 197

. 199

270

107 Curvature <^ blades of turbine -^

108-9 Vertical elevations of turbines *

110 Arrangement <rf sluice gates ^

111 Section of footstep J

112-13 Wheel teeih -

114 Partial elevation of rope pulley ^

115 Side do. do. J

116 Diagram of rope pulley grooves -

117 Do. arrangement of drive ^_-

118-19 Splices for ropes -^|

120 Swivel bearing for shafts ~ |

121 Side swivel bearings : ^

122 '" Gallows" or guide pulleys - *:

123-4 Seliar's shaft coupling ^*

INDEX TO TABLES.

TABLE PAGE

1 Value of 3'5 power 20

2 Value of 1-63 power 20

3 Breaking weight of columns 21

i Dimensions and safe loads of steel rolled joists 48

5 Deflection of wooden beams 49

6 Dimensions and weights of machines .- 50

I 7 Capacity of tank for sprinklers 62

8 Size of pipes for sprinklers 62

9 American do. do 63

t 10 Distance apart of sprinklers 64

'1 11 Surface area of tubes 89

12 Maximum limits of humidity 94

13 Safety valve areas 160

14 Weight of cast-iron pipes 165

15 Flow of water over weirs 225

16 Theoretical discharge of water 226

17 Hoi se-power of wheels 23&

18 Weights of leather belts 240

19 Tests of Lambeth ropes 249

GENERAL INDEX.

PAGE

Adamson's triple expansion engines 1''

Adjustable shaft bearings • ^^^

American plan of mill construction ^o

„. system of ventilation 92

Air volume heated by steam ^J

Arrangement of stays in steam boilers !•**

Beams, wooden, safe loads and deflection • 49

,, steel, „ ,, ^

Bearings for shafts -^^

„ lubricating 209

adjustable ••: 260

„ lubrication of -^2

Beehive Mills, plan of •• 1**

Belts, strength of leather ^^^

„ splicing leather fj^

„ velocity of........ -*^

„ power transmitted by -"J^

Belt pulleys, proportions of 24'-

Boilers, steam, arrangement of stays in 1**

„ coal consumption of ,. ^^^

„ causes of damage to 1"^9

„ chimneys for 1^1

„ chimney draught of 1^2

„ evaporative testof ^^\

,, evaporation of ^f^

„ economisers 1^^

„ elevators for coal for l^i,

„ forced blast for ^^'

„ hydraulic test of 1^0

„ incrustation in 1^0

„ lap joints for • ^^z

„ method of setting • If'

mechanical stokers .^.- ^^^

PAGE

Boilers, steam, specification for 135

„ standard of power of •• !*&

„ safety valves for 1^»

„ steam pipes for 1^4

Brazilian spinning and weaving shed 126

Brickwork, weight and dimensions of ^J

Buckley and Taylor's compound engine 19*

Burnley Ironworks Co.'s electric lighting engine ^07

Calculation of machines required for spmnmg mill 104

„ „ thread mill 106

,, „ weaving shed

„ indicator diagrams -

„ weight of steam per I.H.P

Carnegie type fireproof construction

Cast-iron ,, »

Causes of damage to boilers

Characteristics of cotton ropes

Chimneys, construction of

„ draught of

„ lightning conductors for

Coal consumption of boiler -^^^

Coats' mill floor f

Coefficients of transmission of heat °^

Columns for mills, design of 19

„ strengthof ^^

Concrete, use of zL

Condensation in steam cylinders }-^'

,, water required for l^o

Conditioning cellar, arrangement of 34

Construction of stairways
Cost and weight of floors

rinnlincr rpsftrvoirs

108
221
222
31
23
149
248
161
162
163
146

173

279

Economiser, Green's ■ o

Electric lighting 20

„ engines ^^

Elevators for coal ; ,-

Engines, steam, Adamson's triple expansion ^'

Burnley Ironworks Co. 8 ^"i

Buckley and Taylor's compound ^^

cylinder condensation of |^

I] crank strains in

„ condensers of

cooling reservoirs for

", essential features of

Goodfellow's triple expansion

" Globe high-speed

Hick, Hargreaves compound

" „ triple expansion

" Indicator, diagram of

Musgrave's quadruple expansion

compound •.

Pollitt and Wigzell's triple expansion

,, piston speed of .

„ pressure on parts of

„ power, calculation of

steam jackets for

steam used by dififerent types of J

steam consumption, mode of calculating ^

Saxon's triple expansion ^

,, Sulzer's „ • t

„ theoretical efl&ciency of

', Wood's triple expansion

Yates and Thom's expansion i

Essential features of good engine ;

Evaporative test of boiler

Fireproof construction

cast iron

rolled joists

'' Stott's type of

Potts' steel and concrete

Carnegie type

\[ Hennebique

relative cost of

Fire-resisting conttruction, American type of

„ Monitor type

power of

Fire -extinction, water buckets for

jj sprinklers for

PAGE

Fire-extinctioD, WorthiDgton pump for ... 65

„ Merryweather ,, 67

Flange couplings, proportions of ■ 266

Flow of water over weirs 225

Flywheels, safe speed of .....'. 237

„ stress in rim..... 237

Friction of shafting 257

Gearing, wheel..... 233

belt 237

rope 243

Girders, strength and weight of rolled steel 48

Globe high-speed engine 208

Goodfellow's triple expansion engine 183

Grinnel sprinklers 69

Grooves of rope pulley, proportions of 243

„ „ shape of 246

Gunther's turbines ." 227

Heating by steam pipes ... 84

Heat, coefficients of transmission of 86

„ loes by transmission.... 86

„ units radiated .:.. 88

Hennebique type of mill floor 33

Hick, Hargreaves' engine 174

History of mill development 8

Howard and Bullough's mill plan.... 116

Humidifier, Drosophore 95

Lofthouse's 100

281

PAOE

21S

Indicator diagrams, features of 221

calculation of i'-""(''^ 90'.

]\ " computation of steam, consumption from ^^-

Iron window lintels •

251

Lambeth cotton ropes, weight of 24

strength ;•-• ^^

Lap joints for steam boilers 23

Leather belts, strength of ""*".". 23

„ splicing 24

weight of •••;••■•; '.[ 24

power transmitted by g

Lighting, electric •

Lightning conductors, rules for •• .

Lintels, iron window 1'

Lofthouse's humidifier -•••• '.!!!"!..... 2.

Lubricating bearings ■■■■ o

Lubrication of bearings "....... 2

Lubricator, steam cylinder

Machines, weight and measurement of .'....ZZ''. 1

Meldrum's forced blast ' ' '

Merryweather fire pump •

Mill, history of development of type __

determining features of plan

„ general scheme of " " " '

„ columns

„ American type ot •'..!...........

„ weaving, type of • ••

„ monitor type, one-storeyed •••••■

,, windows

„ heating appliances for 109 —

„ examples of modern

„ boilers.....

„ engines

Milton Mill '"'''"'"'^'^^•••-

Minerva Mill

Monitor, one-storey mill

Mortice wheels

Moscrop Recorder .......!.

Muff couplings

Musgrave'a engine

Nevski Thread Mill

t':

Park Road Spinning Mill 131

Pipes, steam, construction and weight of 164

„ size of sprinkler 62

Piston speeds 172

Pollitt and Wigzell's engine 202

Potts' fireproof floor 29

Power of turbines 226

Power transmitted by wheels 236

„ „ belts 241

„ „ ropes 251

,, table of rope 252

,, transmitted by shafting 256

,, calculation for shafting 257

„ ,, of indicator diagram 221

,, „ of boiler 145

,, absorbed by friction of shafting 257

Pra ray window 80

Propellors, use of air 90

P.illeyp, belt 237

„ wrought-iron belt 238

„ proportions of belt 242

„ proportions of rope 243

„ grooves of rope, proportions of 243

,, „ shape of 246

Pump, water delivery of 65

,, Worthington fire 65

„ Merryweather 67

Pye's humidifier 98

ill

Radiation of heat 88

Recorder, Moscrop's Speed 212

Reducing gear for indicator ... 218

Rftlativfi fiost. anH wfiit;r}it-, of flnnrsj 46

283

PA(

Sellars coupling 2!

Shafting, arrangement of 2i

,, bearings for 2i

„ couplings for 2

power transmitted by „

,, power absorbed by friction of ^

„ weight of 2

Shape of wheel teeth .••• ^

Societe Cottoniere d'Hellemmes MiL

Sprinklers, general arrangement of

„ water supply for

„ Bize of pipes for

„ discharge of water by

„ Grinnell

„ Witter

„ Wallworth

„ Titan ■ [[

Stairways, construction of 135— '

Steam boilers (see under letter B). 166—

„ engines (see under letter E) 215—

engine indicator (see letter I)

„ pipes, weight of

„ heating, rules for • ]

Steel girders, strength of •••••••

Stott's fireproof floor

Strength of mill columns

,j wheel teeth ■■"■

„ cotton ropes

„ leather belts ■■■■

Stress on flywheel rim

Tabor Indicator •••••••

Teeth of wheels, shape and strength ot
Theoretical efficiency of steam engme..

„ discharge of water

Thompson Indicator

Titan Sprinkler '...••

Transmission of heat, loss by

Vel 'city of wheels

„ belts

„ ropes ••

Ventilation of mills by propellors

American system

• , v... PAGE

Water buckets, use of ..:.! '58

„ supply for sprinklers ,^..\.,. -61

^ „ delivery of pumps ■ 65

„ evaporated by boiler ..'.'. 145

„ condensing quantity required 173

, „ flow over weirs ', 225

„ theoretical discharge of 226

Weaving shed construction 38

Weight of brickwork ....."...■..., 22

5, machines " 50

„ steam per I. H.P., estimation of ; 222

r- „ belts ..-. 240

t „ cotton ropes ...".. 249

_ „ shafting .......' ■■ 258

Weirs, water flow over = = ..... 225

Wheels, cast iron 233

„ mortice 235

„ proportions of , 236

„ power transmitted by 235

„ shape and strength of teeth of 233

„ stress on rim of 237

Windows, design of 77

„ Praray 80

Wooden beams, safe loads, and deflection 49

Wood's engine ; 190

Wrought iron pulleys 238

ADVERTISEMENTS.

THE UNBREAKABLE

PULLEY & MILL GEARING CO, I

eciaiLies

STEEL SHI-A-FTIlSrG
UNIVERSAL COUPLINGS,

FRICTION CLUTCHES,

WRODCHT-IRON PULLEY!

LARGEST MAKERS IN THE WORLD.

24, WEST GORTON, MANCHESTl

And 56, Cannon St, LONDON, E.C

W. T. GLOVER & GO.,

Salford, Manchester.

LONDON : 39, Victoria Street, Westminster, S.W.

GENERAL ENGINEERS, MACHINISTS, MILLWRIGHTS, &c.

REPAIRS TO MILLS. &o., &o.

Makers of ROPE, TWINE, AND BRAID MACHINERY.

Smallware Machinery.

Balling, Winding & Warping

Machines.

Spinning Machines.

Wire-Winding Machines.

Wire-Twisting Machines.

Braid Machine.

Tubular and
Spindle
Banding
Machines

Drilling

Machines,
Tools, and
other
Specialities.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

JOSEPH STUBBI

Machine Maker and Ironfonnder,

MANCHESTER.

WORKS: Telegrams: "Winding. Manchei
MiU Street Works, Ancoats. ( Ancoats Works.

Branch Works. OpensHaw. Telephone No. , openshaw Work

LONDON OFFICE: Manchester Exchange, No. 12
35. Queen Victoria Street. E.G. Tuesdays and Fridays.

NOTE —AH Communications to be addressed to MILL STREET W
ANCOATS, MANCHESTER.

MAKER AND PATENTE

OF ALL CLASSES OF

Winding, Doubling^, and Clearing: Frames, St
Motion Winders for ordinary Bobbins, or ^
Quick Traverse for Tubes. Gassing: Frames
Cotton, Worsted and Silk Yarns. Reels for C<
Ring Throstle or other Bobbins. Yarn Prepar
Machines. Yarn Presses for all purpo;
Warping Mills, Adjustable Yarn Clearers, 8

NOTE.— The above Machines (Newest Construction) may be i
operation in Showroom at my Mill Street Works.

High -Class Castin(

FOR ALL PURPOSES,

ORDINARY, ANNEALED, AND MALLEABLI

LMiDiiin tuiiun nuriiO

I llbl4oz. - '

/•Weight 0Fiy?«

/ ForIi-. groove: ',

lll^N. GROOVE

•lliii

They are firmly raade and very solid, containing more actual yarn for a given

diameter than is usual ; and being made from pure Egyptian Throstle

Yarn, without any weighting material, are light in weight.

Also DRUM, RIM, SCROLL, SPINDLE. RING SPINDLE,

TAPE and TUBULAR BANDINGS to any

description for Cotton Mills.

THE LAMBETH COTTON RO^^S are of unique design and construction,
superseding all other Cotton Ropes FOR MAIN DRIVING.

Tension and Friction accurately measured for and provided against, and the
ROFBS fitted exactly to the working part of the grooves of the Pulley.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

CURTIS, SONS & CC

(JOHN HETHERINGTON & SONS LTD., Proprietors),

PHffNIX WORKS, ''''^ll\o%T'' IViANCHESTI
MAKERS OF ALL KINDS OF WOOLLEN MACHINER

Including Carding Machines for Worsted, with FOUP LickerS-in and '
Cylinders for Botany and Fine Wools ; TWO LickePS-in and TwO

lindeps for Medium Wools; One Lickep-in Breast and Two Cylin(

for Camel Hair. Mohair, &c. ; Woollen Carding Machines on the Belgian

cipie consisting of Scpibblcp, With Breast and One Cylind
Intepmediate, with Taker-in and One Swift, and Cardep, ^

TakeP-in and One CylindeP, fitted with improved Tape Condenser.
Carding Machines for Carpet Yarns, Heavy Woollens, Shoddy, Mungo,
nels and Blankets, fitted with Automatic Feeds for Scribbler, and e
Blamires Lap Feed or Scotch Feed, either " ordinary straight" or " diagc

Automatic Feeds Fitted to Old Sepibbleps.

Condensers of all kinds applied to old Machinery, including Single Si
pep with " ordinary " or " Tandem " rubbers ; Single DoffeP DO
Stripper, with "ordinary" or '' Tandem" Rubbers ; Double Doffer DO
Stripper, with " ordinary" or " Tandem" rubbers ; also Tape Condens(

Self- Acting Mules for all kinds of Woollens, Mungo, Shoddy,
Blankets and Flannels ; any pitch from Ifin. to S^in.

Carding and Spinning Machinery for Silk Noils. ^

Crighton Vertical Single and Double Openers.

Oneners. with Cylinder, one or two beaters combined, and Lap Machine.

Single and Double Scutchers, with Lap Machines attached, complete witi

and Improved Regulation Motion, for producing laps of uniform weight.
Carding Engines (Single or Double), with rollers and clearers.
Carding Engines, either all Flats, or a union of Rollers, Clearers, and ]

Self-stripping on our own Patent Principle.
Carding Engines, with Revolving Flats, including all our patented improve
Grinding Machines and Grinding Rollers.
Sliver Lap Machines and Derby Doublers.

Heilmann's Cotton Combing Machines. , , „ ^ ^ i.-

Drawing Frames, with Front and Back stop-motions, and full Can-stop moti.

positive and instantaneous in action. xn „^«c * „^tt-

Slubbing, Intermediate, Roving, and Fme Jack Frames from ne^

terns, with our Patent Winding Motion, Patent Revolving Bush(

Ring^Throstle^ Frames, with '(or without) inclined Stands, Sliding Thread

Rabbeth Spindles, and the most recent improvements p w«>«,.= A

Plver Throstle Frames, on the most approved principle, Patent footsteps, i

Self-actine Mules, for fine or medium counts, with special arrangements for

^ounts^ Complete with our improved Band Taking-in Motion, Strap-re

Mule Twiners' on 'the most approved English and French P"nciples^^

Ring Doubling Frames. Flyer Doubling Frames. Cotton \

Windfng^rames, with or without stop-motions, for all classes of yarn.

ESTIMATES GIVEN ON APPLICATION

Attendance on LEEDS and HUDDER8FIELD EXCHANGE on TUESD
BRADFORD on THURSDAYS.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

John Hetherington & Sons L^?

W.m^h.imtmim undi Smgla@@r@,
ANCOATS, PHCENIX, and HOPE WORKS, MANCHESTER, England.

IVKJLKiSRS OF RXmIa K:INJ>S OF

Cotton, Woollen, Worsted, and Silk Machinery,

Metallic Drawing Roll Co.

LIMITED.

REGISTERED OFFICE :—

20^ Arcade diambers^
St. Mary's Gate, MANCHESTER.

MANUFACTURERS OF

PATENT WIETALLIG Drawing Rolls

Between Three and Four Hundred Firms are now using: these
Rolls, and over 30,000 deliveries have been supplied.

This Roll is applied to Old as well as New/ Machinery, and in
most of the New/ Machinery now beings ordered, the

PATENT METALLIC ROLL IS SPECIFIED.

TEN POINTS IN FAVOUR

OF THE

PATENT METALLIC DRAWING ROLL.

1. THE PATENT 3IETALLIC ROLLS are
perfectly made, being ground down to
extreme accuracy in size ; hence we
start with and maintain at all times a
perfect roll, working without friction

5. THE IMPERFECT OR "CUT WORK"

arising fi'om imperfectly varnished
rolls, or dr^- rolls because of lack of oil,
is entirely eliminated. •

6. THE COST OF ROLL COVERING, roll

varnishing, delays because of sliver

ADVERTISEMENTS.

THE "DROSOPHORE'

For Moistening the Air in Cotton, Wool, Silk, Flax e
»3w^ ..Jute Mills, Bleacheries, Paper Mills, &c.

Over

8,00(

Machin

Use.

Registei

Over

8,000

Machines

Use.

Patented

IN ALL

Countries.

GIVES THREE TIMES MORE HUMIDITY THAN ANY ON THE MARKE

PHF \PFR more EFFICIENT,<fe higherCAPAClTY than any other Ai.paratus in then]
S^ixE ?M S useS. Admits fresh air from the outside, which is washed and punfie.

can be moistened to any desired degree either %^-arm or cold dROSOPH(

The ATMOSPHERE of Spinning Rooms or yVeaving bheds where the DRObOi ±1<

is in nse is PERFECT, and there is no bad work even in the dryest and hottest

It STREWmENS the YARN, and destroys troublesome ELECTRICITY, and PRC
TION is INCREASED about 5 per cent ,>, Ail Mill I Q

Kingdom and abroad. ,. _, ... „. _^

Our system is being adopted by all the leadnig Textile Firms.
It is recommended by the Leading Medical Authorities
The " DROSOPUORE" is the only HUM DIFIER ^llVcn^rH^t nn nn^ ^V^tG

Beware of Imitations-Bringrinff Discredit on our Syste
FURTHER INFORMATION PROMPTLY GIVEN ON APPLICATION.
THE NEW AUTOMATIC SPRINKLER, Cheaper
Better than any other, DEFIES COMPETITION

The " DROSOPHORE " CO. LTD., 22, 23 and 24, ARCADE CHAME

ST MARYS GATE, MANCHESTER.

AGENTS : f^^^^^f^^^i^^o^'^'^^ri!^ .^f.SiSi.'"- ''^""
•• i°^^'Ji^a'ao?Saada-WM:'FIltVH?220, Devo,.Lir. Street. Bo.ton. U,

HIGHEST
AWARD,

G-Z3 JE&

FOR

3B!,

PYE'S PATENT UNIQUE HUMIDIFIER ^VENTILATOR

Atmosphere of suitable Humidity and Temperature guaranteed either
Summer or Winter. The only Humidifier and Ventilator which

Reduces the Temperature in hot weather while working,
Reduces Carbonic Acid Gas more than any other System, thereby

creating a healthier atmosphere for the operatives.
NO DRIPPINCS-THEREFORE SUITABLE FOR THE FINEST WORK

ROGCR I>YE,

Practical and Consulting Ventilating and Heating Engineer,
69, Darwen Street, BLACKBURN.

ESTABLISHED 18S9.

JNO. SWAILES & SONS,

PATEHTEES, COP TUBE MANUFACTURERS, MACHIMISTS, k.

Sole Makers of SWAILES' Patent Tubingf Apparatus, either
permanent or portable, which is acknowledged after numer-
ous tests by masters and workpeople to be the best for placing
<-•««■» m-.-.v.Ao nil +-ha ci-nii-iriif^a rif iVTiiles. TTO-iners. Itine: Frames.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

This PAMPHLET, POST FREE, from

LANCASHIRE PATENT BELTING

AND HOSE CO., /^g!

Itt JS.NCHE STE R. / ^J^^

'facts are stubborn! m^
things: ' ^^

A FEV/

FACTS /^p

BY THE

^^ / PIONEERS

^^/ OF THE INDUSTR'^

Textile Factories

OF EVERY DESCRIPTION

Designed, Erected

.^isrxD

-- Fully Equipped

IN ANY PART OF THE WORLD,
AND HANDED OVER, IF DESIRED,

In Full WorkingOrder

ADVERTISEMENTS.

National Telephone No. 2. Telegraphic Address : "WILSON, BARNSLE
ABC Code Used. E3T^B3LISE:EX) 1So2- a 1 Code Use

WILSON & CO

Attendance BARNSLEY LIMITED, Bx.£ord"E."£

Royal Exchange, wniii^w , Mondav=

Tu^r^rr'Sa.. BARNSLEY, -^ ^^-^^

And 15, MARKET STREET, MANCHESTER «'PP''£fJ|«y£^,';''^'

MAKERS OF EVERY DESCRIPTION OF

_ ^B^ s

Required In the various Textile Industries.

IVVEXT-R> ANL' PATENTEE^ 'jY

PATENT STEEL FLANGE PROTECTORS FOR WARPINI
WINDING, GASSING BOBBINS, &C.

Preventing BreakSere or "iae-in? of Y^i^^^i

•^z Pem-Ai-eiLt Sraootii E

PATEUT PROTECTORS for RING DOUBLING & TWISTING BOBB

En5i:ir:n^ C-.mplete Protection from Driving Studs on Spin.lles.
NOTE.-Old Bobbins may be fitted with this Latest improvement
nominal cost, making them almost as good as new.

PATENT RINGS OR HOOPS FOR RING TWIST BOBBlNSl RING WEFT PI

A Neat ani Heliaolc PreTe-:;.::Tc :f S: 1:":-^ :: ::-r5e rr:-^.c B. : r .- -.
MAKERS OF ALL KINDSOF

F :.r Lon^ or Short CoUar Frames. Fitted with Patent Steel Shields,

Makers of RING^IS^flTwm BOBBI

maKei S ^^\^^^^'^^-^^ patent brass shields.

.-.f ^-.t^ri.r Q-^a:::7.--re::.::7 Pre: o.rei f :r C::. -n: :.i:.^ ^ :-r:. : :. :::. ^. -

IMPERVIOUS TO STEAM, MOISTURE, OR OIL. Send for Sam

PRINCIPAL MAKERS OF n X D

BARLOW & LEACH'S New Patent Triple CombinanoD Ring B(

Tne Latest Improvement m tsis Class of Bobbin.

in dimensions and perfect accuracy in Fit and B.aance on bpmaies.

SAMPLES & PRICES ON APPLICATION TO BARNSLEY

TINKER, SHENTON & CO.

HYDE, near MANCHESTER.

TelegrapMc Address :-" DUPLEX, HYDE." Telephone No. 21.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

WILSON BROS., LTD.

MAKERS OF EVERY DESCRIPTION OF

BOBBINS, TUBES, CREEL
SKEWERS and SHUTTLES.

ESTABLISHED 1823.

THE LARGEST AND MOST COMPLETE BOBBIN WORKS IH THE WORI

Awarded 16 Highest Prize Medals for
Excellence of Manufacture.

ORIGINAL INVENTORS AND MAKERS OF

STEEL AND BRASS SHIELD PROTECTOI

Which are successfully applied to Card Room Bobbins of all sizes
and diameters. Beaded or straight.

CREEL SKEWERS

are fitted with Patent Metal Tips of Brass or Malleable Iron.

RING BOBBINS FOR TWIST AND WEI

are shielded with Brass or Steel Protectors of various kinds.

WARPING BOBBIN FLANGES

made unbreakable by a simple applied Steel Binder, which adds scai
any to the weight of the Bobbin.

SHUTTLES IN BOXWOOD, CORNEL & PERSIMMC

made to suit either for Cops or Pirn Bobbins.

WILSON BROS, are Sole Licensees and Users of the
PATENT ENAMEL PROCESS,

which renders Wood Bobbins impervious to Steam or Moisture use
conditioning yarn.

Bobbin Works-CORN HOLME MILL, TODMORDEI
Also at GARSTON, LIVERPOOL.
Show Room— 14, Market Place, MANCHESTER.

DUIIhKWUKm& UIUMN^JUN,

OK WORKS.

BURNLEY.

PLA1TBR0$.&G0.Ll

IMPROVED COTTON BALE BREAK!

PATEMT '"EXHAUST- OPEMERS.
SCUTCHERS. WITH PATENT PEOAL REGULATD
PATENT AUTOMATIC HOPPER FEEDING MACHIM

REVOLVING SELF-STRIPPING FLAT CAMWB^E^IU

PjiTon- cMmoKars fm wool, cottob »m wmnu^ y

NKAVMC SlWBWC ITEIIIEDI^TE AM iPn« f^

PATENT SELF-ACTIIC MULES t TWINER:

PATENT RING SPINNING FRAMES FOR WARP AND

RING DOUBLING FRAMES FOR COTTON. WOOLLl
WORSTED AND SILK.

PREPARING. COMBING. ROVING AND SPINNING Wl

ON BOTH THE F8EHCH AMD BRADFORD SYSTEMS

BOYD'S PATENT STOP-MOTION TWISTERS

Plam mad Faacy, i-- C " -

PREPARING MACHINERY FOR WEAVING,

WILLIAM RYDER,

Bee Hive Works, BOLTON.

MA>-UFACTURER OF ALL KIXD3 OF

FLUTED ROLLERS

Iron, Steel and Case-hardened.
PLAIN and LOOSE BOSS TOP ROLLERS

spindles^&Tflyers

(Fivers of Steel) of every description,
tor Cotton, Silk, and Woollen
Spinning.

MULE SPINDLES.

Telegraphic
Address —
"BEEHIVE,
^'] BOLTON."

' Telephone No. 55.

Manchester
Exchange,
Pillar P.

Licensed Maker of

RING
SPINDLES,;

WITH

WOODMANCY'S
PATENT COMBINED
OIL TUBE AND
HOLDER.

'C,

GENERAL
TOOL
s MAKER.

Inventor, Patentee and Maker of

ADVERTISEMENTS.

. . Telephone

Telegraphic Address. OLDHAJ

■'ASA. OLDHAM." ^0. 7- OLDHA

ASA LEES & C(

LIMITED,

Soho Iron Works

MANCHESTER OFFICE (Open Tuesdays and Friday.
27, HOF\%OOD AVENITE.

MAKERS OF

All Kinds of Machine

FOR

Preparing, Spinning, and Doubling Cotton and \

SOLE AGENTS FOR THE CONTINENT OF EUROI

BAERLEIN & Co.,

X2, Blacbifriars Street, Salford

MANCHESTER,

TO whom all Communications relating to Continental Bus
should be addressed.

AGENTS FOR INDIA:-

BRADBURY, BRADY & CO., Brnce Lane, Fort, B

Frictionless Engine Packing

COIVTF^ANY

CaWe Mills, Glasshouse St., OldMmM

REGISTERED

TRADE

MARK.

REGISTERED

TRADE

MARK.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

SAXONS, OPENSHAW.

No. »a».

GEORGE SAXON,

MANCHESTER.

iliiiiiiiiillililiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiK :5

!liiiiilli|ip'f'™'''§iiii^^^^^

!|!-^

ADVERTISEMENTS.

New Patent Hopper Feed

LORD BROTHER

TODMORDKN,

FOR

OPENING, CLEANING,

CARDING, SPINNING
AND WEAVING OOTT(

Telephone (Nati
No. 6.

Telegraphic Address:

"LORDS, TODMORDEN.'

MANCHESTER EXCHANGE, Tuesday and Friday, No. 12 Pi

I 1:1

ili

JOHN HEYWOQD'S TECHNICAL WOm.

CTT-nv PTTTF INSTRUCTOR. For instruction on Chadwick's Improved Slide Rule,
^^ contSnfeg Ne5 tad important Rules upon the present practice of Engineering. For
the use of Engineers, Millwughts, Mechanics and Artisans, Mill Owners Cotton
Spinners Calico Printers, Bleachers and Finishers. Colliery Propneiors, Blacksmiths,
Moulders and Steam Users generally. Br John Chadwick. This book gives a
greater variety of Rules and Questions and useful information upon the subject than
hS been before published in any work on the Slide Rule. Cloth, 2s A new and
vastly improved Rule has been designed and prepai;ed or this book It is boxwood,
with steel slide. Every figure has been accurately checked and verified. Price 7s. 6d.
VOUNG'S CS ) PRACTICAL ARITHMETIC Containing Rules and their application
^ to Merchants Cotton Spinners, Manufacturers, and Mechanical Calculations useful
to Artisans in general New Edition. Cloth lettered, 3s. 6d. loungs Key to
Arithmetic. Cloth, 4s.
qnUND LIGHT AND HEAT. Specially prepared (by Alfoxzo Gardiner Head Master
^°^of a Leeds Boatd school) for Science Classes, Grammar, Private Training, and other
Schools carefully revised, with numerous additions, in accordance with the New
Svnabu's of the Science and Art Department. An Appendixconta^ins the Kxammat^^^^^^
Papers set during the last ten years, with answers and full sohitions of a 1 the mathe-
matical questions. Eighteenth Edition, Revised. Cloth, stiff, 204 pp., Is. 6d.
TxATJ-mion-K- TO nOTTON SPINNING. Compiled for the general use of young Carders
^^^Sfspim-^5 OveTlo^kerr By J E Holme' Corrected and Revised by C, R Bkook.s,
MSA Senior Honours Medallist: Lecturer on Cotton Spinning W eaving and
Designing at the Blackburn Technical School. Fcap. 8vo, cloth gilt, Second Edition,

HANDBOOK FOR TRE USE OF COTTON MANUFACTURE STUDENTS. By

HAWDauUR r urj i ^ Medallist, late Lecturer on " Cotton Manufacture and

Wearing and PatternDesigning " at the Blackburn Technical School. Third Edition.

Crown 8vo, paper cover, 60 pp., sewn, Is.

PRESTWICH'S YOUNG MAN'S ASSISTANT TO COTTON SPINNING. Revised

and wilafged Containing a Collection of Useful and Practical Calculations (with

Remarks and Observations) in connection with Modern Cotton Spinning, Doublin?

Plain and Skein Reeling, Making Up, Weaving, etc.. each Rule bemg given with

Examples fully worked out in a plain, simple, and easy manner. Also some useful

Calculations, with Explanations on the Steam Engine and Boiler, for the use of the

Engineer. Cloth, gilt lettered, 4s. 6d.

MODERN BLEACHING AND FINISHING. By a Practical Bleacher. Illust. Cloth, 2s.

PRACTICAL PATTERN MAKING AND MOULDING. By W. H Wilson. For

^ St.idenTs Artisans, and Engineers. A thoroughly practiced work, illustrated with

over 300 Engravings and numerous examples of most modern and approved methods

S A^ols^if o"? CoNTENTs.-Examples of Geometry. Selection of Tools and Timber Green
c.^'/^t^^IsIh .,.H T,n«m Moulding. Machine Tool Work. Rope and Speed Pulleys.

ADVERTISEMENTS.

MechaniGal Stoker

PER CENT of Ordei
received are from ol
Customers, many
vrhom have bad tl
Stoker Tftrorking X
Years.

20 per cent. MORE DUTY. 10 to 15 per cent. IN ECONOI
eUARANTEED REMEDY FOR SMOKE HUISAMCE.

The First and only Inventor of the Radial SHovel wi
Tappet and Spring.

The ONLY MOVING BARS BEFORE the PUBLIC that can be WORKED in TI
DIFFERENT WAYS :-

i'n^ cL' bf pSt inrrS^out of gear and worlced intermittently
3rd- AS HAND-MOVING BARS.

Sole Patentee of Steam Bearer to Prevent the Bar Ends Bnrnmi

— LARGEST NUMBER OF REFERENCES IN THE TRADE. —

The Stoker has been before the Public over 17 Yearf
and is protected by lO dilTeren^atents. ^

WRITE FOR FULL PARTICULARS,

J. PROCTOR,

HAMMERTON STREET IRON WORKS,

,=. o

DATE DUE Q

IBRPI

.-'

MARg

1-1980

ILLO'

-J

0
O

/^^. /ro c^

ADVERTISEMENTS.

THE

"NON-DRIP" Shaft Beari

(ETCHELLS' PATENT),

re5;t and cheapest.

RAILWAY FOUNDRY, LEEDI

g I I ^^.»..K«r«a :-" UOCO, LEEDS."

Telegrams :-

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