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Ds, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
BOTANICAL DIVISION.
SO ree ENE AN oO Ss.
ln tC: @) il)
Or
SOME OF THE WORK OF THE DIVISION,
INCLUDING
EXTRACTS FROM CORRESPONDENCE AND
OTHER COMMUNICATIONS.
PREPARED BY
Dr. GEO. VASEY
AND
B. T. GALLOWAY,
- UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.
WASHINGTON:
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE.
1889.
11244—No. 8——1 |
LETTER OF SUBMITTAL.
Str: We have the honor of presenting a bulletin representing, in
part, the work of this Division, which we trust will be received as a con-
tribution of some value in advancing the mutual helpfulness and inter-
dependence which should exist between the Department of Agriculture
and the workers and thinkers in the line of agricultural and botanical
science.
Respectfully,
GEO. VASEY.
B. T. GALLOWAY.
Hon. NoRMAN J. COLMAN,
Commissioner of Agriculture.
INTRODUCTION.
-
In the progress of the work of the botanical division many facts and
observations are brought to light which hardly seem appropriate to be
incorporated in the annual reports, but which will be of interest to many
readers, and which will surely be welcomed in some form by special in-
vestigators in botanical science.
In the great work which the Government has undertaken, of furnish-
ing the means of an advanced practical education through the agricult-
ural colleges and experiment stations, new appliances and new facil-
ities for instruction are becoming a necessity. It has seemed to the
officers of this division that much valuable material can be furnished in
this direction by the occasional issuance of a bulletin especially adapted
to help forward the line of botanical work for teachers and students.
In the hope that this may be the result, the present paper is dedices
to the agricultural colleges of the country.
pes.
i
te
des al eraadl Ce
BOTANICAL DIV FSlON:
PREPARED BY DR. GEO. VASEY.
ee
BOTANICAL DIVISION.
Prepared by Dr. GrorGr VASEY.
GRASS EXPERIMENT STATIONS.
For several years past the Department of Agriculture has been making
special investigation of the grasses of the West, particularly those of
the arid districts, with a view of ascertaining what are the prevailing
or prominent species, what is their range of distribution as to locality
and soil, what their value for grazing purposes, and what kinds offer a_
reasonable prospect of being valuable for culiivation. Great interest
has been felt in this subject both by farmers and cattlemen, and Gov-
ernment aid has been invoked for the purpose of conducting suitable
experiments, and such aid has been strongly recommended by the Com-
missioner of Agriculture.
In response to these requests, Congress, a few months ago, made a
moderate appropriation for the purpose of establishing grass experiment |
stations. It was determined that one of these stations should be located.
west of the 100th meridian. Commissioner Colman immediately ap-
pointed Dr. Vasey, botanist of the Department, to proceed to the West
to select a location. After a careful investigation he made a selection
at Garden City, in southwestern Kansas, where a public spirited citi-
zen made a free lease to the Government, for five years, of 160 acres of
land on the high prairie two miles north of the city. Thisis so located
that irrigation can be employed on such portion of the land as may be
desirable. .The chief object of the station is to experiment with grasses
and forage plants, both native and foreign—with any kinds, in fact,
which give promise of utility and adaptation to the climatic conditions
of the arid piains, and furnish a substitute for the scanty pasturage
now existing. This isa great necessity. In order to secure the perma-
nent settlement of this portion of country, it should be ascertained
what can be depended upon in the occupation and cultivation of the dry
uplands where irrigation can not be applied. It is a vital question, af-
fecting the interests of thousands of settlers over a great extent of
country. |
Upon the location of the station the Commissioner appointed Prof.
J. A. Sewall, of Denver, as superintendent of the station; and he has
up to the present time had 80 acres fenced, 40 acres plowed, a quan-
9
1G Gs
tity of grass sods transplanted into prepared ground; has put up
a small seed-house, and made everything in readiness for more exten-
sive work next spring. The results of these experiments will be
watched with great interest; but definite results can not be expected
without the allowance of a considerable period of time.
The need of some grasses suitable to the climate of the dry region
lying mainly west of the 100th meridian has been long felt and ae-
knowledged. It is estimated that there are in eastern Colorado, west-
ern Kansas, western Nebraska, and southern Wyoming 120,000 square
miles, or over 76,900,000 acres, of this arid, elevated country. This
region was known to be covered principally by short grasses called
“ buffalo” and ‘ mesquit,” in some places thickly covered, in others
more and more sparsely, while in some portions the amount of grass
was exceedingly small. During the greater part of the last twenty-
five years this region has been occupied for cattle and sheep ranches,
for which purpose alone it was thought to be adapted. But even for
this purpose its ability to support the domestic grazing animals was
very small compared with its vast extent. This arises partly from the
fact that only such portions as were within reasonable distance from
water could be utilized, and partly from the scanty supply of grass.
The estimates as to the supporting capacity of these plains vary much
according to localities, some statements being that 40 to 50 acres are re-
quired to support one animal, others that 20 or 30 acres are sufficient,
and yet others that 10 to 15 acres are enough.
All these estimates are correct as to certain localities, and it may be
considered probable that over the entire region the average amount re-
quired would be 15 acres to the head of stock. This, however, was
under the wasteful ranch system. A limitation of the range and the
size of the herds, so that they could be properly cared for as to water,
shelter, and winter food, would greatly increase the grazing capacity of
the country.
But during the past five or six years there has been such an over-
whelming influx of settlers into that district that the ranchmen have
been nearly all forced to abandon the country in favor of homesteaders,
who are seeking to make farms of their quarter and half-sections. A
series of favorable seasons had occurred, during which the few scat-
tered settlers in the country had been successful in their agricultural
efforts, and then began a rush of immigration which soon absorbed a
great portion of the most desirable locations. The settlers were full of
the most sanguine expectations, and an army of boomers invaded the
country, located town sites and city sites, and a general inflation of
values occurred. A few well located towns will perhaps retain their
marvelous development, but many others have come to a stand-still,
and many will retrograde, for the reason that numerous thriving towns
can not exist in an agricultural country without the improvement and
successful cultivation of the surrounding land, and to this end the resi-
dents of that region must now direct their efforts.
ig
Sufficient time has not yet elapsed to determine what will be the ulti-
mate success of general agriculture in this section, but there can be no
doubt that the country is eminently adapted to pastoral uses, and the
settlers would do well to bestow their attention largely on stock-raising
and dairying. But it is evident that in order to make this business
profitable for small farmers or men of limited acres, some means must
be devised for securing an increased production of grass upon the land.
This is the present most important problem for the arid districts. It is
asserted that the commonly cultivated grasses will not be successful in
these arid lands except where irrigation can be applied. The native
grasses of the region, which are mostly “ buffalo grass” and “ grama
grass,” are acknowledged to be very nutritious, but the yield is so hgnt
as to require a large area for cattle to range over to obtain support.
The inquiry naturally occurs, “Can not some grasses be obtained which
will not only endure the aridity of the climate, but also make a more
vigorous growth and a more abundant production ?”
It may be safely laid down as a principle that no great improvement
in this respect can be expected without a cultivation of the soil. With
this even the buffalo and grama grasses may be expected to double
their production.
Theinquiry is sometimes made, ‘“* Which of our native grasses might be
reasonably expected to be adapted to cultivation in the said region ?”
We have already stated that the “ buffalo grass” (Buchloe dactyloides)
and ‘“‘grama grass” (Bouteloua oligostachya) were the prevailing na-
tive species on the prairie or upland districts. But there are others.
which deserve consideration, and some of them may be found to pos’
sess the qualities desired.
Andropogon provincialis, commonly called blue-joint, is a grass. of
wide range, being found from Massachusetts to Texas, and to the Rocky
Mountain region. It is also, sometimes, but improperly, called * blue-
stem” and “blue-grass.” Even the name “ blue-joint” is inappropriate,
for the joints are rarely if ever blue, and the most conspicuous color about
the grass is its purplish top, by which it may be distinguished at a
great distance. It commonly grows from 4 to 6 feet high, rather
sparsely on the ground, but with an abundance of long leaves, so that it
produces a large crop of hay. It was formerly plentiful on the prai-
ries of Illinois and Iowa, and still occurs largely in most of the states
west of the Mississippi, and is universally esteemed and cut for hay in
its wild state. It thrives best on rich bottom-land, not too moist nor
too dry, but is capable of considerable variety in that respect. It is
well known all over Kansas, being abundant in the eastern part of the
siate, and the general testimony is that it has been spreading westward
since the settlement of the country, and its extension in the West is
always regarded with pleasure. It starts growth late in the season,
and is chiefly valuable for summer and fall grazing, and for hay-mak-
ing. It is said that close pasturing for a few years kills it out.
12
2. Andropogon Hallii.—This species much resembles the preceding,
but the culms are stouter, the leaves thicker and more succulent,
the flower spikes are larger, and the flowers more hairy. It prevails
in very sandy soil, and is most frequent in western Kansas and Colo-
rado, alsoin Nebraska and northward along the Missouri River. The
leaves and stem are commonly of alight bluish-green color. This will
provably be well adapted to light sandy soils.
3. Andropogon scoparius.—This is very common on prairies, and is
sometimes called short or small blue-joint, sometimes bunch-grass, and
sometimes wire-grass. It grows in dense tufts cr bunches, both on
low land andin thin soils on bluffs and hills. It is in most places a
constituent of prairie hay, and if cut early makes good feed.
4. Stipa spartea, called porcupine grass, arrow-grass, and devil’s knit-
ting-needles, from the long, stiff, twisted awns inclosing the seed.
These awns are said to be injurious to stock, and particularly to sheep,
as their sharp points penetrate the wool and sometimes the flesh. But
the seeds ripen early (about the 1st of July, according to Professor
Crozier), and during the rest of the season the grass is well marked by
the tall culms bearing the bleached, empty, oat-like panicles. But the
long root-leaves continue to grow and furnish valuable feed until late in
the season. It should receive attention in any experiments for a past-
ure grass. It is the buffalo grass of the Saskatchawan region.
5. Sporobolus heterolepis, called bunch-grass, and wire-grass, from the
abundant, long, wiry leaves and stems. I found it a considerable ele-
ment in the prairies of southern Dakota, and it occurs southward to
Texas. It was also common on the prairies of [linois and Wisconsin
before the incoming of settlements. West of the 100th meridian, how-
ever, especially in sandy soils, this species is replaced by two others
of the same genus, viz: Sporobolus cryptandrus and S. airoides. All
these species should receive attention.
6. Deyeuxia Canadensis, frequently called red-top, and sometimes also
blue-joint. Professor Crozier, who spent some time in northwestern
Iowa and adjacent parts of Minnesota and Dakota, in studying the na-
tive grasses, says: ‘*This is considered by some to produce the best
hay, for cattle, of all the native grasses. It is very leafy and stands re-
markably thick upon the ground. The seed ripens early in July, but
the leaves remain green until winter. It is probably hardly equal to
some of the upland grasses in quality, but it gives a larger yield, and
is undoubtedly worthy of cultivation. It is usually found upon the
margins of ponds; it will thrive, however, on land that is only slightly
moist, and often occurs along the banks of roadside ditches. On rather
low land which has been broken and allowed to go back it frequently
comes in, and after a few years occupies the land to the exclusion of all
other vegetation.”
This species, athough promising for moist land, would perhaps fai: on
arid soil, but there are other species of the genus prevailing in the
13
mountain region, which are accustomed to dry soil, and may be found
serviceable for cultivation, particularly such as D. confims and D. syl-
vatica. :
7. Ammophila longifolia, a tall, coarse-stemmed grass occurring in
very sandy districts, or on sandy river-banks, is in some localities a
useful grass as aresort for cattle late in the autumn, and in winter it is
said to save many range cattle from starvation. Its long, creeping
root-stocks penetrate deeply into the soil and give it good staying qual-
ities, for which reason it may be valuable in some localities.
8. Oryzospis cuspidata.—This is one of the so-called bunch-grasses,
which occurs near the mountains, ia sandy soil, and has been called
indian millet. It will grow in very dry, sandy soil, furnishes a con-
siderable foliage, and large, spreading panicles of very nutritious seeds.
It is said that cattle keep fat upon the grass in the mountain 4dis-
tricts.
9. Panicum virgatum, sometimes called switch grass and sometimes
wild red-top. It occurs mostly in low or moist ground, usually near
streams, and varies in height from 2 to 4 feet, with long leaves and a
wide, spreading panicle. Professor Crozier says it yields two to four
tons peracre, and should be cut early to be of good quality. Its value
has been recognized in some parts of Colorado, and around Greeley
it has been considerably cultivated, with satisfactory resulf. It should
receive a fair trial in the experiments.
10. Another perennial species, Panicum obtusum, occurs in some parts
of Colorado and New Mexico which ought to receive attention. In.
New Mexico and Texas if is called vine mesquit and running mesquit,
from its habit of throwing out long runners, sometimes 6 to 10 feet long,
which at intervals form thickened, woolly joints, which sometimes take
root. I found patches of it growing in southern Colorado, making an
even, grassy surface, and appearing as if it would cut two tons per acre.
T also saw it occurring in considerable quantity in hay brought into the
Pueblo market. It deserves attention with reference to its agricult-
ural value.
11. Chrysopogon nutans is related to the Andropogons, particularly to
the tall A. provincialis. It often grows 6fect high, and has a drooping
panicle somewhat resembling oats, and hence, has been called wild oats.
It is of frequent occurrence on the prairies and isa nutritious grass, but
should be cut early, as at full maturity the stems are coarse and are
rejected by cattle.
12. Agropyrum glaucum.—This is known by different names, as Colo-
rado blue-stem, blue-grass, wheat-grass, wild quack-grass, and gumbo-
grass. It is closely related to the quack-grass or couch-grass, so com-
mon and so much dreaded by some in the older-settled parts of the
ccuntry. It has a stiff stem and leaves, which are usually of a bluish-
green color. On hard, dry soil its growth is low and sparse, only here
14
and there a scattered stalk with a flower spike, somewhat like a starved,
beardless head of wheat; but in low, moist ground it often grows with
great vigor 2 or 3 feet high, and is considered valuable for hay. On
the borders of ditches and on irrigated ground it yields a heavy cut-
ting. It has great persistence in the ground on account of its strong,
running root-stock. Whether it will, in cultivated ground become as
(lifficult to eradicate as its Eastern namesake can not now be predicted,
but when a persistent, nutritious grass is the great want of a country
it is worth while to take some risks.
13. Agropyrum tenerum.—Another species of this family is found in
Colorado, western Kansas, and Nebraska, which may prove valuable
for some qualities. It has a narrow, slim spike of flowers and stiff
culms. It does not have running root-stocks, but grows in clumps of
variable size. It furnishes a large quantity of foliage and matures
early, and for these qualities it may be desirable to cultivate it in a mixt-
ure of grasses for pasture. It is common on banks of ditches and on
the waste grounds in the city of Denver.
14. Several species of Elymus, particularly Elynius canadensis and
E. virginicus, are common and known by the name of rye-grass. They
are considered nutritious grasses, and are commonly cut for hay. They
are coarse and probably would not bear pasturage, but may be worth
cultivating for forage.
The above are the principal native perennial grasses which have oe-
curred to me as having promise of utility for the arid districts which are
now under consideration. Other species will come in for attention,
particularly some whose range is more restricted to the neighborhood of
the mountains.
I have already stated that the grama-grass should be placed under
cultivation, not only the most common species, Bouteloua oligostachya,
but others, as the B. racemosa. -There are also several strong-growing
species in Mexico which shouid be tried. The tall-growing buneh-
grasses of Arizona might also be experimented with. These include
several species of Sporobolus and Epicampes.
Panicum bulbosum, a vigorous grass of Arizona and New Mexico, hay-
ing thickened, bulbous root-stalks, should be tried, and if it would en-
dure the winters would probably be a valuable pasture grass. There are
also several species of Poa belonging to the mountain district which
might prove valuable in cultivation, as Poa tenuifolia, P. undina, P.
nemoralis, and others. There are also some native species of Festuca
which merit attention, such as Festuca scabrella, and several large forms
of Festuca ovina. Also several species of Bromus.
Some attention must also be given to annual grasses suitable for for-
age and hay. The necessary supply of hay for winter feeding of cattle
may sometimes be more profitably procured from the annual grasses, as
millet, Hungarian grass, and the various forms of sorghum. In this
15
class of annual grasses there is a wider field for selection than in the
perennials, and they are obtainable from our own and other countries.
There are also many fodder plants, other than grasses, which need
eareful trial. The family of leguminous plants furnishes a large num-
ber of these valuable species, such as the clovers, alfalfa, medicago, meli-
lotus, sainfoin or esparsett, vetch, peas, lotus, lupines, serradella, ete.
There are also some native forage plants which deserve experiment.
We have several species of Lupinus in the Rocky Mountain region which
are vigorous growers and of large size, apparently more productive
than the usually cultivated foreign ones. Of Vicia and Lathyrus we
have also promising native kinds. Some of the native species of Airi-
plex are well known to furnish valuable winter forage for cattle, and it
may be well to ascertain what will be their value under cultivation,
especially for unusually sterile or sandy soil.
Attention should be given to a combination of grasses for pastures,
some of which should be of early growth and some of later, so as to se-
cure a succession of feed during the entire season. The judicious blend-
ing of five or six species may be made to accomplish this result.
By using such a mixture the ground may be more uniformly covered
and there will be a better succession of tender foliage. Some recent
experiments at the Missouri Agricultural College fully bear out this
conclusion. A 50-acre lot was sowed with five varieties of pasture grass
and three of clovers. Upon this 50 acres fifty-two head of cattle grazed
throughout the season, without making use of an adjacent pasture, a
part of which contained excellent blue-grass, except at long periods,
and then only cursorily passing over it.
In England great attention has been given to combining several kinds
of grasses in meadows and pastures, and it is claimed that the practice
is better for the land, and gives a larger yield than when only one
variety is employed.
In any plan for experiments with grasses for the purpose above indi-
cated the element of time must receive large consideration. It must be
remembered that the seeds of wild species have first to be obtained in
small quantities and to be collected by hand, and that two years will
be consumed in getting fairly started.
Having once obtained preliminary beds from which a stock of seed
may be easily obtained, the trials can be made on a larger scale. Sev-
eral acres of each kind of grass or fodder plant should be secured, with
careful note of their relative merits as to quality and yield.
These experiments can not be completely satisfactory without ascer-
taining the conduct of the grasses in actual use as pastures, for it is
well known that some grasses will bear the tramping and grazing of
cattle, while others will not.
The least attempt at a series of experiments, therefore, should cover
a period of five years, and there is great reason to expect that they
may be profitably continued for twice that time,
oo
16
Experiments of this kind are difficult and expensive, and can not well
be made by private individuals. The great extent of country interested
in, and needing such work renders it highly expedient that the Govern-
ment should undertake it.
It is expected that another station for the trial of new grasses will
be located next spring, probably in one of the Southern States.
NOTES ON GRASSES.
On the south bank of the Arkansas River, at Garden City, in south-
western Kansas, there is a long range of sand hills or sand bluffs. The
citizens of the place say that a few years ago these bluffs were destitute
of vegetation, and the loose, white sand was blown about in clouds by °
the strong prevailing winds, but that recently they have become cev-
ered with grass. I crossed the river to ascertain what were the grasses
that had secured a foothold in the shifting sand beds, and found that
they are now sparsely covered principally with Adropogon Halltt and
Redjieldia flecuosa. The first grass is aclose relative of A. provincialis,
but with stouter culms, shorter and more succuient leaves, larger flow-
ers, and the whole plant of a glaucous-green color. Its roots are
strong and penetrate deeply in the sand to reach moisture. On sandy
ridges and prairies it often takes the place of A. provincialis, and is a
promising grass for such situations. The other grass, Redfieldia flexu-
osa, formerly called Graphephorum flexuosum, has not been collected by
botanists for many years, its known localities being very few. It was
therefore a great pleasure to rediscover it here. Its roundish, eylin-
drical leaves, one and one half to two feet long, were sparsely scattered,
and could with difficulty be pulled up from the long, deep, underground
root-stocks, which evidently were very efficient in holding the sand in
place. :
Unfortunately there were few flowering culms visible, and they were
immature and varied from the typical plant in having but one flower
developed in the spikelets. Whether this variation is constant in this
locality or is dependent upon the unusual dryness of the present sea-
son can not now be determined, but is deserving of future investigation.
Agropyrum glaucum and A. tenerum are both prevalent inthe dry dis-
tricts of Kansas, Colorado, and Dakota, particularly where the native
sod has been disturbed, as in old, abandoned wagon-roads and in the
neighborhood of ditches. Both kinds are conspicuous on roadsides in
the city of Denver, near the shallow irrigating ditches. A. tenerum
grows in clumps and does not have running root-stocks. It is anearly
grass, maturing in July, and afterwards is conspicuous by its whitened
culms and leaves.
In several places in Kansas, Colorado, and Dakota an crect, much.
branched, bushy form of Muhlenbergia glomerata was observed. Its ap-
17
pearance of thrift and greenness has been noticed, and my attention
was called to it by farmers and observant citizens. It would under
cultivation produce a large amount of forage, and it will be given trial
at the grass station.
What are the common grasses of the prairies ?
Near Wichita, Kans., the examination of a piece of native upland
prairie showed Stipa spartea, Panicum virgatum, Keleria cristata, Andro-
pogon provincialis, and Andropogon scoparius as the principal species.
Here and there occurred a little of Bouteloua racemosa and B. oligosta-
chya, with occasionally small patches of Buchle dactyloides. With these
were mingled Amorpha canescens, Psoralea floribunda, Petalostemon viola-
ceum, a Helianthus, Aplopappus rubiginosus, and Huphorbia marginata.
On lower ground were Panicum virgatum of larger: growth, Agropyrum
glaucum, Spartina cynosuroides, with Elymus virginicus and HL. canadensis.
A ride of 20 miles over the prairies of Butler County showed that the
principal upland grasses are the five species first mentioned. A very
intelligent farmer said they would yield a cutting of 1 to 24 tons per
acre. He had tried various tame grasses, but without much satisfac-
tion, as they mostly winter-killed, and he doubted if he could obtain
any grasses better than those of the virgin prairie. Old settlers say
that buffalo grass used to be very abundant, but it has nearly disap-
peared from this section. Blue-grass (Poa pratensis) is coming in, and
he thinks it will take the country.
In southwestern Minnesota and southern Dakota there yet re-
main extensive stretches of primitive prairie, and a careful examina-
tion showed that on the uplands the common grasses were mainly
the ones mentioned as prevailing in eastern Kansas, viz: Stipa spartea,
Andropogon provineialis, A. scoparius, Keleria cristata, together with
patches of Sporobolus heterolepis and Bouteloua racemosa. On moister
ground was Panicum virgatum, Hlymus canadensis, and in wet ground -
Spartina cynosuroides. Wherever the ground has been broken and not
cultivated, as on railroad embankmentsand roadsides, Agropyrum glau-
cum and A. tenerum had taken possession. According to the observa-
tion of Professor Crozier the native prairies of northwestern fowa are
characterized by the same species as above mentioned. Having been
familiar with the prairie vegetation in northern Illinois forty years ago,
I was struck with the similarity, the same species being then prevail-
ing ones in that region. The Stipa spartea is an early grass and ripens
its seeds about the first of July. Later in the season it is recognized
by the persistent bleached culms and empty glumes of the spreading
panicle. But the radical tufts of leaves continue growing green and
vigorous throughout the summer, frequently being 2 feet long. Al-
though somewhat coarse they make very good hay.
11244—No, 8——2
18
BOTANICAL NOTES.
There is great latitude in the popular use of the term “ mesquit
grass.” On the plains of western Kansas, New Mexico, Colorado, and
Nebraska it is generally applied to the prevailing grass of that region,
viz, Bouteloua oligostachya, although the same grass is also called buf-
falo grass, particularly northward. |
A correspondent in Texas sends three grasses under the name of mes-
quit, viz, Bouteloua texana, which he says is the common mesquit
(this species seems to be mainly confined to Texas); (2) Hilaria cenchro-
ides var. texana, which is running mesquit; and (3) Buchle dactyloides,
which there is called curly mesquit. There are several other species of
Bouteloua, common in New Mexico and Arizona, which are also gen-
erally recognized as mesquit grasses. Strangely, however, in the South-
ern States, according to Professor Phares, Holcus lanatus is sometimes
ealled velvet mesquit grass, and he states that so far as has come to
his knowledge nine tenths of all the so-called mesquit grass planted in
the Southern States is this Holcus.
Mr. Il. W. Anderson, of Great Falls, Mont., states that in that sec-
tion Lygodesmia juncea is becoming a bad weed in cultivated ground.
The somewhat related Huropean Chondrilla juncea is a very trouble-
some weed in Maryland and Virginia, extremely difficult to eradicate.
Tt was introduced at an early period in the settlement of the country.
P.S. Clark, Hempstead, Tex., writes that Sesbania vesicaria has cov-
ered the entire prairies this sammer, and caused the destruction of the
grass.
Considerable has been said recently in Florida agricultural papers
about a grass called maiden cane, which there is considered a great
nuisance. This grass is Panicum curtisti, or a variety of it. In swampy
land it grows 3 or 4 feet high, with strong culms and coarse running
reot-stocks and is almost invariably sterile. In dry, sandy fields it is
lower in stature, and has a branching panicle. It has been particularly
brought to notice by Mr. Simpson, of Manatee, and Professor Curtiss,
of Jacksonville (not the Curtis for whom the species was named, Rev.
M. A. Curtis, of North Carolina), has called it Simpson grass.
Polish wheat, Triticum polonicum, is frequently sent from Montana
and the Northwest, where it is partially naturalized under the name of
wild-goose wheat and Montana rye. A notion prevails that the seed
was dropped by wild geese. It has been sometimes cultivated, and is
very hardy and productive, but not of very good quality.
Mr. F. A. Swinden, Brownwood, Tex., writes that alfalfa (Medicago
sativa) seems in that locality to do well without irrigation. He will
plant 100 acres of it in the spring. He has an orchard of 400 acres of
pecan trees (Carya olivaformis).
R. Maitre, New Orleans, says that Panicum crus-galli delights in moist
ditches or furrows, and has the appearance of thrifty oat-stalks, and it
19
is eagerly eaten by horses, mules, or cattle. Professor Phares states
that in Louisiana, Mississippi, and some other States it is mowed annu-
ally, some farmers asserting that they harvest four or five tons per acre.
In one county in Mississippi hundreds of acres are annually mowed on
single farms.
The genuine Ranunculus repens, undoubtedly introduced from Europe,
according to J. G. Fish, Whitney’s Point, N. Y., is becoming a danger-
ous enemy to the farmer. When it once gets thoroughly rooted in the
soil, and particularly in meadow lands, clover, timothy, red-top, and
June grass are perfectly impotent to resist it. —
W. H. Williams, Crook City, Dak., sends specimens of two grasses,
(Agropyrum tenerum and Elymus canadensis) which he says are superior
to any kinds he has seen. They are found mostly on land that has been
broken and allowed to stand uncultivated. The growth is remarkably
heavy and the hay is of superior quality.
W. A. Sanders, Sanders P. O., California, sends a bunch of grass
(Hpicampes rigens) cut from his pasture, and says it is closely grazed
off wherever stock can get at it. He says it grows all summer without
water, and under excessive dryness cures into hay and makes palatable,
nutritious feed until spoiled (as all hay spoils) by autumn rains. It is
our best native dry land grass.
Dr. M. McKenzie, Centreville, Mo., sends specimens of Triodia ses-
lerioides, a tall, showy grass, which he introduced into his pastures and
finds that it is likely to become a pest.
Mr. E. W. Reasoner, of Manatee, Fla., sends specimens of a grass, a
species of Pennisetum, the seed from Northwest India, which he has
had in cultivation, and which he says is very luxuriant and grows to
the height of 6 or 7 feet, One plot 10 feet wide and 100 feet long aver-
ages 64 feet high. It was planted in June, and part of it was cut twice.
He has not yet determined whether it is annual or not, but considers it
@ promising grass.
Paspalum distichum.—Several species of Paspalum have received atten-
tion in the South, as being useful pasture grasses and very durable from
their creeping and rooting habit. Paspalum distichum is one of these
species. It grows principally in low, moist ground. Its stems and
culms are mostly prostrate and running, sending up here and there a
few flower-bearing culms. It is found in the Southern States and Texas,
thence to California. Farther south it is found in most tropical coun-
tries. Mr. W. A. Sanders, of Fresno County, Cal., writes recently as
follows: “Are you aware of the value of Paspalum distichum for seed-
ing pond-holes that dry up or nearly so in autumn? Such ponds are
usually spots of bare, stinking mud, but when well set to this grass will
yield all the way up to 80 tons (in the green state) of autumn feed for
stock, especially valuable for cows first, then follow with sheep till
every vestige is devoured. Surely it has an immense food value in
such places.”
= 20
THE GENUS PANICUM IN THE UNITED STATES.
This genus is one of great difficulty to the student, and the present
monograph, it is hoped, will be of essential benefit in the prosecution
of botanical investigation.
PANICUM, Linn.
Spikelets with one perfect terminal flower, and usually a second one
which is male only or rudimentary. Outer empty glumes two, ene of
which is smaller than the other, often very small, or rarely wanting,
membranaceous. The glume of the perfect flower with its palet are
usually of a coriaceous texture, and obtuse or obtusish. The second
flower, when present, is membranaceous. Inflorescence spicate or pan-
iculate. .
SECTION 1.—Digitaria.—Panicles of several spikes or spike-like
branches, which are digitate or approximate at the top of the cul;
spikelets usually small and in alternate pairs along one side of the flat-
tened rhachis, one sessile and one short-pedicelled; empty glumes two,
or sometimes three, the lower one then being minute.
1. P. glabrum, Gaud.
2. P. sanguinale, Linn.
3. P. filiforme, Linn.
4, P. serotinum, 7rin.
SEcTION II.—Trichachne.—Spikelets densely silky-hairy, or fringed
with long hairs, sessile or short-pedicelled, in pairs or clustered along
the rhachis of the numerous simple, erect, spikes or branches of the pan-
icle, acute; lower glume very minute.
5. P. leucopheum, A. B. K.
6. P. lachnanthum, Torr.
SECTION IIJ.—Subspicata.—Panicle linear or narrow, the branches
short, sessile, erect or appressed, or the apex spicate.
Branches densely flowered :
7. P. paspaloides, Pers.
8. P. Curtisil, Chap.
9. P. obtusum, H. B. K.
10. P. reticulatum, Torr.
11. P. Texanum, Buckl.
Branches lax flowered:
12. P. Chapmani, Vasey.
13. P. Reverchoni, Vasey.
14. P. subspicatum, Vasey.
15. P. stenodes, Gris. :
SECTION IV.—Platyphylla.—Panicle of few (three to six), simple,
mostly sessile, spreading branches, the spikelets sessile in two rows on
21
one side of a flattened rhachis, as in Paspalum, but with a small lower
glume.
16. P. platyphyllum, Munro.
17. PB. plantagineum, Zink.
SECTION V.—Brachiaria. Branches erect, orsomewhat spreading,
not appressed, mostly approximate and sessile.
18. P. prostratum, Lam.
19. P. cxespitosum, Sicz.
20. P. fasciculatum, Stwvz.
21. P. grossarium, Linn.
SECTION VI.—Polystachya.—Branches of the panicle numerous,
Spreading, single or subfasciculate, simple, or with some short branch-
lets, lowering to the base (except in P. hians), spikelets sessile or very
short pedicelled.
. P. barbinode, 7rin.
P. gymnocarpon, HUI.
. repens, Linn.
P. anceps, Mich. (some forms).
.laxum, Swe.
. P. hians, Hil.
SECTION VII.—Hupanicum.—Branches of the panicle subdivided,
single or fascicled, spreading and usually naked below, with the spike-
lets pedicelled, sometimes long-pedicelled.
Panicle small, narrow; branches few, erect.
28. P. ciliatissinum, Buckl.
29. P. xanthophysum, Gray.
30. P. pedicellatum, Vasey.
dl. P. depauperatam, Muhi.
32. P. angustifolium, HUl., non Chapman.
Panicle small but diffuse, oval or oblong:
ITI RE TSS) 1S) NG)
I oo
Ki
“1 SD Ot
rg
33. P. mtidum, Lam.
o4. P. laxiflorum, Lam.
30. P. dichotomum, Linn.
36. P. neuranthum Gris.
of. P. Joorii, Vasey.
38. P. nudicaule, Vasey.
39. P. consanguineum, Kth.
4). P. scoparieum, Lam.
41. P. Wilcoxianum, Vasey.
Panicle larger, oval, or oblong:
42, P. sperocarpon, Hl.
43. P. microcarpon, Muhl.
44, P. viscidum, Hl.
45. P. commutatum, Schultz (P. nervosum, Hl.).
46. P. clandestinum, Linn.
22 ES
Panicle larger, oval, or oblong—Continued.
47. P. latifolium, Linn.
48. P. scabriuseulum, £ll.? Chap.
Panicle effuse; branches capillary and much subdivided, except in P.
sparsiflorum (P. angustifolium Chap., non EHIL):
49. P. capillare, Linn.
50. P. autumnale, Bosc.
of Ptah; Vas:
52. P. proliferum, Lam.
53. P. miliaceum, Linn.
54. P. verrucosum, Jluhl.
55. P. sparsiflorum (P. angustifohum, Chap., non £Il.).
Tall grasses, with ample and diffuse panicle :
6 P. anceps., Miche.
. P. agrostoides, Miuhl.
59. P. maximum Jacq. (P. jumentorum, Pers.).
60. P. amarum, Hl.
61. P. virgatum, Linn.
62. P. Havardii, Vasey.
SEcTION VIII.—Frutescentes.—Culms frutescent, spikelets large and
turgid, empty glumes loose.
63. P. divaricatum, Linn.
SECTION LX.— Villifora.—Panicle diffuse, spikelets very large, the
glumes very silky-villose.
64. P. Urvilleanum, Ath.
Section J.—DIGITARIA.
1. P. glabrum, Gaud. (Digitaria humifusa Pers)—Culms spreading,
prostrate or erect, 5 to 12 inches long; leaves 1 to 2 inches long, smooth
or pubescent; spikes 2 to 6, spreading, 1 to 2 inches long, approxi-
mate; spikelets oblong, about 1 line long, obtusish; empty glumes,
nasty two (the lower one generally wanting), pubescent, both equaling
the flower.
In cultivated and waste grounds less common than the following.
Variety Mississippiensis, Gattinger.—Taller (6 to 20 inches high),
spikes longer (14 to 34 inches), spikelets acutish.
Vicinity of Nashville, Tenn. (Dr. Gattinger).
2. P. sanguinale, Linn. (Crab-grass).—Culm erect or decumbent,
usually rooting at the lower joints, leaves and sheaths smooth or hairy,
variable in length and breadth; spikes 3 to 10 or 15, spreading, digi-
tate or approximate, 3 to 6 inches long; spikelets oblong-lanceolate,
about 14$ lines long, acute, smoothish, pubescent; first glume minute,
second half to two-thirds as long as the spikelet, third equaling the
spikelet.
23
Variety ciliare (P. ciliare etz).
Naturalized everywhere.
3. P. fliforme, Linn.—(Digitaria filiformis Muhl.).—Culms very slender,
1 to 3 feet high, erect, simple, or Sparingly branched; leaves narrowly
linear, 3 to 10 inches long, erect, somewhat pubescent, and with sheaths
hairy, spikes 2 to 8, erect or somewhat spreading, 2 to 6 inches long;
spikelets 1 line long or less, oblong, acute; empty glumes two, the lower
slightly shorter and the upper equaling the flower.
Sandy or graveily ground; Maine to Florida and westward.
4, P. serotinum, Zrin. (Digitaria serotina Mr.; D. villosa Hll.).—Per-
ennial, extensively creeping, much branched, making a thick carpet;
flowering culms 6 to 10 inches ; leaves short, erect, hairy, 1 to 245 inches
long, Sheaths villous; spikes 3 to 5, about 2 inches long, narrow; spike-
lets less than 1 line long, acute, two empty glumes, the first one-quarter
to one third as long, and the second nearly as long, as the spikelet.
North Carolina to Florida and westward.
Section I].—TRICHACHNE.
5. P. leucopheum, 7. B. K.—Culms stout, 2 to 4 feet high, crect;
leaves broadly linear, 1 foot long, scabrous above, ligule ciliate; pan-
icle racemose, contracted, dense, 6 to 10 inches long, the simple branches
numerous, erect, fasciculate, 2 to 4 inches long; spikelets linear-lanceo-
late, acuminate, about 2 lines long; lower glume minute, second nearly
as long as, and the third equaling, the perfect flower, which is linear-lan-
ceolate and mucronate-pointed. Low, rich ground, South Florida,
(Chapman, Curtiss, eitc.).
6. P. lachnanthum, Torr.—Culms rather slender, 2 to 3 feet high;
leaves much narrower and shorter, panicle shorter, more slender, with
fewer and shorter spikes; spikelets smaller, 1 to 14 lines long, ovate-
lanceolate, the perfect flower ovate-lanceolate, acute and mucronate-
pointed. -
Mostly on dry hills, Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico.
Section IJI.—SuBSPICATA.
7. P. paspaloides, Pers.—Culms 2 to 3 feet high, decumbent and root-
ing below, smooth, stout, leafy; leaves narrow, 6 to 10 inches long, be-
coming somewhat involute, and with the sheaths smooth; panicle 5 to
10 inches long, strict, of 10 to 20 appressed, sessile, simple branches, the
lower ones 1 to 14 inches long, above gradually shorter; spikelets ovate-
oblong, obtusish, smooth, 1 to 14 lines long, imbricate in two rows on the
narrow axis, the lower glume truneate-obtuse, one-third as long, and
second glume two-thirds as long as the spikelets (also thin and obtuse).
In ditches or water, Florida to Texas and Mexico.
8. P. Curtisii, Chap.—Culms 3 to 4 feet high, often rooting at the
lower joints; leaves linear-lanceolate, plane, rigid, 6 to 9 inches long,
6 to 9 lines wide, smooth, sheaths smooth or hairy; panicle slender,
24
spike-like, 6 to 8 inches long, of numerous appressed slender, single, or
fascicled branches, the lower oues remote; spikelets ovate-lanceolate,
acutish, about 1 line long, lower glume acute, keeled, half as long as
the spikelet, the second a little shorter than the third, which equals the
. acutish perfect flower; second and third glumes strongly three to five
nerved, sterile flower triandrous. Closely resemuples the preceding.
Ponds and swamps, Florida to Texas.
9. P. obtusum, H. B. A.—Cuims 14 to 2 feet high, firm, leafy; send-
ing off long (sometimes 8 to 10 feet) runners from the base; leaves 4 to
6 inches long, 2 to 3 lines wide; panicle 3 or 4 inches long, nar-
row, composed of four to seven approximate, appressed, sessile branches,
the lower ones about 1 inch long, the upper becoming very short,
densely flowered ; spikelets mostly in alternate pairs of which one is
sessile, the other short-pedicelled, forming three to four rows, turgid,
oblong, obtuse, and 14 lines long, lower glume two-thirds as long as the
spikelet, five-nerved, second glume seven-nerved, third five-nerved, a
little longer than the fertile flower; sterile flower triandrous.
Mexico, Texas, New Mexico to Colorado.
10. P. reticulatum, Torr.—Culmns 19 to 15 inches high, much branched
below, leafy; leaves 14 to 3 inches long, acute, scabrous or pubescent,
as ao are the sheaths; panicle 2 to 3 inches long, lateral ones shorter,
close or dense; branches single or fascicuiate, unequal, 14 or 2 inches
long, the longer with interrupted spikelets; about 14 lines long, sin-
gle or in pairs, one sessile and one pedicelled, obovate, acutish; first
glume one-fourth to one-third as long as the spikelet, acutish, second
and third strongly five to seven nerved, and conspicuously reticulately
veined.
Texas to Arizona.
1i. P. Texanum, buckley.—Culms stout, 2 to 4 feet high, branehing
from a decumbent and sometimes rooting base, leafy, smooth; leaves
lanceolate, 4 to 10 inches long, 6 to 12 lines wide, smoothish or scab-
rous above and on the margins, sheaths softly and sparsely pubescent,
nodes pubescent; panicle (the base generally inclosed in the upper
sheath) 4 to 8 inches long, one-half to 1 inch wide, of 5 to 10 erect, rather
slender, simple, erect branches, 1 to 3 inches long, closely fereet
rhachis scabrous-pubescent; spikelets single or in pairs, alternate mene
the angular rhachis, oblong, lanceolate, acute, 2 to 24 lines long, smooth,
or finely pubescent; firstglume broadly ovate, half to two-thirds as long
as the spikelets, acute, five nerved, second and third glumes equaling
the spikelet, strongly five to seven nerved, perfect flower ovate or ob-
long-ovate, acutish, transversely wrinkled with fine reticulated strize.
Cultivated for a forage grass. Texas.
12. P. Chapmani, Vasey. (P. tenuiculmum, Chap. non Meyer),—Culms
filiform, 14 to 24 feet high, erect, simple; leaves chiefly radical, linear,
half as lene as the culm, aboune 2 lines wide, upper ones shorter; ama
6 to 12 inches long, of ete to twelve remote, slender, erect spikes, the
; 25
upper ones short and few (three’to six) flowered, sessile, one-half inch
long, the lower longer, sometimes subdivided, and with long, sheathed
peduncles; rhachis flexuous, bristle-like at the apex, spikelets about
one line long, ovate, lower glume one-half as long as the spikelet, ob-
tuse, upper glume nine-nerved.
Florida (Chapman, Curtiss, Garber).
13. P. Reverchoni, Vasey. (distributed by Reverchon as Setaria uni-
seta).—Culms filiform from a thick, strong rootstock, erect, 10 to 18
inches high, simple; leaves chiefly radical, long and narrow; half as long
as the culm; panicle 3 to 6 inches long, slender, an interrupted spike,
at least above, below with short, three to five-flowered, remote, fascicu-
late branches; spikelets 14 lines long, plano-convex, obtusish; lower,
glume one-half as long as the spikelet, three-nerved, second and third
seven-nerved; rhachis terminated by a short bristle, sometimes also a
bristle below the spikelets.
Texas (Reverchon),.
14. P. subspicatum, Vasey.—Culms 10 to 18 inches high, leafy; upper
leaves longer than the lower (lowest 1 inch, highest 5 inches), 1 to
2 lines wide, rather rigid, light green, acute; panicle spicate at apex,
below with five or six short, approximate, appressed, rather lax branches,
one-half inch to 1 inch long; spikelets 1 line long, a little curved,
lower glume one-half as long as the spikelet, second glume seven-nerved,
third glume five-nerved; rhachis with a short bristle at apex and
Sometimes a bristle below the spikelets. eaves shorter and more
rigid, spike shorter and closer, and spikelets smaller than in the pre-
ceding.
Texas (Buckley, Nealley).
These three (12, 13, and 14) form a natural group.
15. P. stenodes, Gris. (P. anceps var. strictum Chap.).--Culms 2 to 3
feet high, wiry, smooth; leaves erect, rigid, narrow (1 to 2 lines), 3 to
4 inches long; panicle narrow, 2 to 3 inches long, of five to six slender,
Short, appressed branches, sessile or nearly so, mostly single, some-
times two or three together; spikelets about 1 line long, lanceolate,
acute; first glume half as long as the spikelet; second and third five-
nerved, acute. In ponds and water. —
Florida to Alabama (Dr. Mohr) and Texas (Nealley).
Section IV.—PLATYPHYLLA.
16. P. platyphyllum, Munro.—Culms decumbent and rooting at.the
lower joints, 1 to 2 feet high, branching below, pale green in color;
leaves lanceolate, 3 to 4 inches long, 4 to 6 lines wide, smooth, firm,
the base clasping; margins scabrous, pale green; sheaths smooth, striate,
the upper one inclosing the base of the panicle, which consists of three
to five simple, sessile, alternate, slightly spreading, distant branches,
each 13 to 3 inches long; spikelets sessile, and alternate on a flat-
tened rhachis; lower glume thin, obtuse, one-third as long as the sec-
26
ond and third, which are five-nerved, smooth, and one-third longer than
the obtuse fertile flower; sterile flower of a glume only.
Texas (HK. Hall, G. C. Nealley).
17. P. plantagineum, ZLink.—Much like the preceding, but stcuter and
larger, with larger and wider leaves (6 to 10 inches by 6 to 9 lines),
the spikes more remote, longér (2 to 4 inches), and the lower peduncled
in the sheaths; spikelets much like the preceding.
Introduced on ballast ground at Philadelphia.
Section V.—BRACHIARIA.
18. P. prostratum, Zam. (P. cespitosum Siz ?).—Culms creeping
and rooting at the base, then ascending, 1 to 2 feet long, with rather
distant leaves, which are 14 to 2 inches long, lanceolate or cvate-lance-
olate, acute, clasping at the ciliate base, sheaths shorter than the inter-
nodes; panicle exserted, short, about 2 inches long, of five to eight simple
or subsimple branches, the lowest of which are 1 to 13 inches long,
closely flowered; rachis frequently with stiff hairs; spikelets three-
quarters of a line long, smooth, first glume one-quarter as long as the
spikelet, second and third equal; perfect flower striate-punctulate, mu-
cronate-pointed. Our specimens agree with Trinius, Fig. 185 A. 7
Louisiana (Langlois), Texas (Nealley).
19. P. cespitosum, Swz.?—Culms numerous, succulent, and thickish,
rooting at the base, ascending to 1 or 2 feet long; leaves crowded below,
erect, linear-lanceolate, 2 to 4 inches long, 3 to 4 lines wide, ciliate
on the margins, striate, lower sheaths inflated, panicle about 2 inches
long, of five to eight branches becoming long exserted, rhachis and
branches hairy and angular, lower branches about 1 inch long; spike-
lets 14 to 14 lines long, ovate-oblong, acute, lower glume one-third as
long as the spikelet, perfect flower as in the preceding but larger. The
whole plant pale green.
robably in Texas and New Mexico, certainly in Chihuahua, Mexico.
(Pringle, No. 375.)
20. P.fuscum, Swz. (P. fasciculatum Sw.).—Culms 1 to 3 feet high, de-
cumbent and branching at base; leaves linear or lanceolate-linear, 3 to
10 inches long, glabrous or pubescent; panicle 3 to 6 inches long, spread-
ing, the branches simple or more or less fasciculated below, the luwer
about 2 inches long; rhachis hairy; spikelets in pairs or in small clust-
ers, 14 lines long, acutish, lower glume about one-third as long as the
spikelet, deltoid, second and third glumes five to seven nerved, and
cross-nerved.
Texas.
Variety major; culms stouter, 2 to 3 feet high, branched, sheaths
and leaves scabrous-punctulate or smoothish, leaves broader, acumi-
nate; panicle fuller, 3 to 6 inches long, branches more humerous (up to
twenty or thirty), scattered and fasciculate, rhachis and branches
scabrous, and with seattered hairs.
Mexico (Dr. HK. Palmer).
27
Variety fasciculatum (P. fasciculatum, Swz.); leaves longer and wider
(8 to 10 iines wide), panicle 4 to 5 inches long, the branches very numer-
ous, Spikelets becoming dark brown.
Southern Florida.
21. P. grossarium, Linn.
Specimens from ballast ground at Philadelphia have been referred to
this species, but if correct it seems too near P. fuscum.
Section VI.—POLYSTACHYA.
[Small forms of P. anceps might come in this group. |
22. P. barbinode Trin. (Para-grass).—Culms 2 to 6 feet high, stout,
ascending; nodes vil:ous; leaves linear-acuminate, glabrescent; panicle
lax, 6 to 8 inches long, branches mostly simple or a few, fascicled,
spreading, about 2 inches long, somewhat distant, spikelets 1 to 14
lines long, glabrous, one-sided, spreading, lowest glume deltoid, one-
fourth as long as the spikelet, one-nerved, second and third equaling the
spikelet, five-nerved; fertile flower ellipsoidal, bluntish. Introduced
and cultivated in the South.
23. P. gymnocarpon, Hll.—Perennial. Culms 2 to 4 feet high, erect,
rigid, smooth; leaves lanceolate, smooth, 1 foot long or more, 1 inch or
more wide, cordate at base, sheaths shorter than the internodes, striate,
nodes black; panicle large, 9 to 15 inches long, branches 4 to 6 inches
long, erect-spreading, scattered or 2 to 3 together, racemose, spikelets
in nearly sessile clusters of 3 to 6, appressed along the branches, some-
what one sided, 245 to 3 lines long, lanceolate, outer glumes nearly alike,
lanceolate-subulate, rough-keeled, two to three times longer than the
perfect flower, first glume three-nerved, a little to one-third shorter than
the second and third, which are about five-nerved, the third glume or
neutral flower with a palet one-half as long.
TIlorida to Texas.
24. P. repens, £.—Culms 14 to 2 feet high, from strong creeping rhi-
zomas, leafy, covered below with loose sheaths with short or deficient
blades, the blades becoming longer upward, conduplicate or involute,
the uppermost 3 to 4 inches long, sometimes pubescent at the base;
panicle erect, thin, 3 to 4 inches long, the branches alternate, naked at
base, erect or slightly spreading, the lower ones each with two or three
rather long, appressed branchlets; spikelets short-pedicelled and ap-
pressed, interrupted or racemose along the slender branches, 1 line
long, oval, acute, smooth, the lower glume broad, obtuse, one-third as
long as the spikelet, second and third about seven-nerved.
Sandy shores of the Gulf, Florida to Texas.
Variety confertum, Vasey.
Culms shorter, leaves very divergent and rigid, panicle more con-
densed, the branches shorter and spikelets more crowded, lower glume
rather longer and less obtuse.
Mobile, Ala., to Vera Cruz, Mex. (2177 F. Muller.)
28
25. P. anceps, Mich.—See No. 56.
26. P.laxum Sv. of this group, common in the West Indies, is prob-
ably also in southern Florida, but I have seen no authentic specimens.
27. P. hians, £ll—Perennial, culms slender, smooth, 6 to 18 inches
high, simple, from slender, wiry, creeping root-stocks; leaves linear, 3
to 5d inches long, 1 to 2 lines wide, smooth, erect; panicle rather
small, 3 to 5 inches long, the slender, racemose branches 1 to 2-inches
long, erect-spreading, mostly single and distant, the lower third naked;
spikelets about 1 line long, in small, nearly sessile, approximate clus-
ters, outer glumes ovate, acute, generally three-nerved, the lower one-
half as long as the spikelet, third glume longer than the seeond and
having a thick, rigid, obovate palet rather longer than its glume, and
spreading apart from it, hence probably the name hians, from hio, to
gape.
North Carolina to Texas.
28. P. ciliatissimum, Buckl.—Culms procumbent and much branched,
often rooting at the joints, at first short-jointed and much condensed,
with leaves 1 to 14 inches long, and the panicles short and invaginate,
becoming elongated, with long-exserted panicles (lateral and terminal)
which become 14 to 2 inches long, narrow, with a few short, few-flow-
ered, appressed branches, and linear-lanceolate, acuminate leaves, 2
to 4 inches long, ciliate on the margins below, with sparsely ciliate and
hairy sheaths, the nodes white-woolly; spikelets ovate, acute, 2 lines
long, pubescent or villous; the lower glume lanceolate, acute, three-
nervéed; smooth, except at the base, two-thirds as long as the spikelet;
second, eleven to thirteen nerved ; pubescent to densely villous, with
a smooth, acute, hardened point; the third one, or flowering glume
of the sterile flower a little shorter than the second, five-nerved, ciliate
on the margins, its palet equally long, ovate, thin, the fertile flower one-
fourth to one-third shorter than the largest glume, obtusish, minutely
furrowed.
Texas,
Section- VII.—EUPANICUM.
29. P. Xanthophysum, Gray.—Culms erect, 1 to 2 feet high, simple
or branched near the base; leaves lanceolate, acuminate, 4 to 6 inches
long, 5 to 10 lines wide, smooth except the scabrous margins, strongly
nine to eleven nerved, rather contracted at the ciliate, clasping base;
panicle long-exserted, 2 to 4 inches long, of a few simple, erect or
appressed, few-flowered branches; spikelets obovate, 14 lines long,
minutely downy; lower glume about half the length of the spikelet,
second and third about nine-nerved.
Plant yellowish-green. Canada to Pennsylvania and Wisconsin.
30. P. pedicellatum, Vasey.—Culms 1 to 2 feet high, slender, branching
below, smooth ; culin leaves 2 to 3 inches long, 2 to 3 lines wide, gradu-
ally tapering to an acute point, erect, somewhat rigid ; main panicle long
exserted, the lateral ones less so, all small and few flowered, 13 to 2
oe
29
inches long, of four or five alternate short branches each only two to
three flowered; spikelets long-pedicelled, oblong-obovate, obtuse, 14
lines long, sparsely pubescent, the lowest glume at some distance from
the others, ovate, one-nerved, nearly half as long as the spikelet, second
and third glumes oblong, obtuse, seven-nerved.
Texas, J. Reverchon. |
Resembles P. angustifolium, H#Il., but is smaller, with smaller, fewer-
flowered panicle, and rather smaller spikelets.
31. P.depauperatum, Muhl.—Culms erect, simple, tufted, 6 to L6inches
high; leaves of the culm about three, erect, narrowly linear, 3 to 6
inches long, sheaths usually pubescent; panicle small, 1 to 2 inches
long, contracted, sometimes overtopped by the upper leaves ; spikelets
1 to 14 lines long, obovate, lower glume one-third the length of the
seven to nine nerved upper ones. Common east of the Mississippi.
Variety laxa.—Weaker stemmed, panicle with longer and more
spreading branches (14 to 2 inches) the lower ones single, or verticil-
late; spikelets smaller.
Virginia, Florida, Texas, Arkansas, Missouri.
32. P. angustifolium, Hil., non Chapman.—Culms weak, slender,
smooth, 1 to 2 feet: long, diffusely branched from the base; leaves
linear, 3 to 5 inches long, 1 to 2 lines wide; sheaths short, nodes thick-
ened; panicles simple, terminal and lateral, 3 to 5 inches long; the few
branches single, capillary, distant, 1 to 3 inches long, bearing each two
to six spikelets which are mostly in pairs at the end of the branchlets ;
spikelets oblong-obovate, acute, 14 lines long, the outer glumes papil- |
lose-hispid, the lower one minute, acutish.
South Carolina to Texas.
33. P. nitidum, Lam.—Culms 10 to 20 inches high, slender but firm,
rarely branched, smooth; leaves mostly at the base of culm, lanceolate
or lance-linear, 1 to 2 inches long, rather rigid, and with the sheaths
smooth, the culm leaves few and smaller; panicle ovate or oblong, 14
to 24 inches long; branches verticillate below, the lower ones, 1 to 14
inches long, spreading, capillary, numerously flowered ; purplish spike-
lets on pedicels 2 to 4 times aslong, oval, one-haif to two-thirds line long,
pubescent, the lowest glume one-fourth to one-third the length of the
spikelet.
(a) Variety minor (P. ramulosum of Chapman’s supplement, but I
think cannot be the plant of Michx.)—Lower than the type (6 to 8 inches
high); tufted; leaves narrower and smaller ; panicle 1 to 14 inches long ;
rhachis smooth ; spikelets smooth or nearly so; second and third glumes
five-nerved.
Florida.
(b) Variety ensifolium (P. ensifolium Bald.).—Radical leaves linear
lanceolate, 14 inches long, smooth, those of the slender (8 to 12 inches
long) culm, distant, small (about one-half inch), and horizontally diver-
30
gent; panicle depauperate, less than an inch long, the rays single and
few flowered. Described from Dr. Chapman’s specimens.
Florida. |
(c) var. major.—Here I could place several variable forms, mostly
smooth, with stouter culms, a more open, less dense panicle, with
fewer and stouter branches (sometimes reflexed), and fewer and larger
spikelets. |
34, P. laxiflorum, Lam.—Culms erect, weak, 6 to 18 inches high, rarely
branched, smooth below the panicle ; leaves linear or lanceolate-linear,
3 to 7 inches long, 3 to 4 lines wide, mostly radical, the 2 or 3 of the
culm little shorter, acuminate, nearly smooth except on tne ciliate mar-
gins, pale green or yellowish-green; sheaths mostly shorter than the
leaves, sparsely and retrorsely villose; ligule a ring of soft, white
hairs, panicle capillary, 2 or 3 inches long, branches sparingly divided
from the base, mostly single, alternate and few flowered, spreading; the ©
rhachis and branches sparsely long-hairy; spikelets long-pedicelled, 1
‘line long, oval, or elliptical, obtuse, strigosely pubescent, lower empty
glume ovate, one nerved, one-quarter as long as the spikelet; second
and third glumes seven to nine nerved; fertile flower as long as the
spikelet, acutish. In sandy woods.
Var. pubescens.—Culm rather stouter, and pubescent, 12 to 15 inches
high; leaves hairy, shorter, lanceolate, the lower 2 to 24 inches long, 3
to 5 lines wide, the upper about 1 inch, upper sheath elongated ; pani-
cle 2 to 34 inches long, the branches and spikelets more numerous, and
spikelets smaller; lowest giume roundish ovate, one-third as long as
the spikelets; second and third glumes five to seven nerved. Closely ap-
proaches P. nitidum, and is perhaps the P. nitidum, var. ciliatum, Torr.
35. P. dichotomum, Linn.—Culm 10 to 30 inches high ; at first mostly
simple, smooth, or pubescent, bearing a more or less exserted, spread-
ing, compound panicle, 1 to 4 inches long, and lanceolate, flat leaves;
those of the culm larger above, 3 to 4 inches long; those at the root
tufted, usually ovate-lanceolate, short, and thick ; the culms commonly
branching later in the season, the branches often clustered, and bearing
smaller, mostly included panicles; spikelets about 1 line long (two-
thirds of a line to 1 line), oblong-obovate, pubescent or downy, lower
glume one-third as long as the spikelet.
(a) Variety barbulatum.—With the nodes barbed, and with the
sheaths smooth or pubescent.
(b) Variety viride —Smooth all over, leaves light green and narrower.
(c) Var. divaricatum.—E ect, 6 to 9 inches high, slender, smooth, very
much branched above the base, caespitose, the radical leaves very short
and tufted, those of the culm and branches very narrowly linear or in-
volute, acuminate, about 1 inch long, divaricate, the numerous panicles
small, racemose, few flowered ; the spikelets on alternate, filiform ped-
icels one-half inch to 1 inch long; spikelets three-fourths of a line long,
oval-oblong, smooth, the lower glume one-third as long as the spikelet;
second glume one-third shorter than the spikelet, five-nerved ; third
ol
glume equaling the spikelet, seven-verved; fertile flower as long as the
spikelet.
(d) Variety villosum (P. villosum Hll.2—Culms decumbent, branching
from the first, leaves scabrous above, ciliate, sheaths and culms villose,
panicle thinner and fewer-flowered.
(e) Var. elatum.—Culms tall (2 to 3 feet), erect, smooth; cauline
leaves 4 to 5 inches long, 5 to 6 lines wide, smooth, very acute; pan-
icle 4 inches long, smooth, the branches long, erect-spreading, rather
sparsely flowered; spikelets a little more than 1 line long, smooth,
oblong, acutish, the lower glume ovate, acute or acutish, nearly half as
long as the spikelet, fertile flower shorter than the spikelet.
36. P. neuranthum Gris.—Erect or ascending, about 1 foot high,
slender, smooth; leaves linear-acuminate, 2 to 4 inches long, firm, flat
or subinvolute; terminal panicle long exserted, 1 to 2 inches long,
with few-flowered, divergent branches, the lateral panicles numerous,
narrow, short (less than 1 inch long), oval, pubescent, lower glume mi-
nute, deltoid, nearly nerveless, one-third to one-fourth as long as the
spikelet, second and third seven-nerved, equaling the fertile flower,
which is ovoid, obtuse, and smooth.
(a) Variety ramosum Gris.—Ascending, much branched, leaves flat or
involute, very narrow; spikelets 1 line long, elliptical, obtuse.
South Carolina, Florida to Texas.
ov. P. Joorii, Vasey.—Culms about 1 foot high, much branched above,
very leafy; leaves 4 to 6 inches long, 6 to 10 lines wide, thinnish,
smooth, those of the extreme branches smaller; panicles numerous,
small, inclosed in the sheaths, few-flowered; spikelets oblong, over 1
line long, sparsely pubescent.
Louisana (Dr. J. F. Joor); Mississippi (Professor Tracy).
This is very unusual in its abundant, large leaves, and condensed
form, growing in dense tufts.
o8. P. nudicaule, Vasey.—Culms 14 to 2 feet high, slender, with 2 or 3
long internodes; leaves mostly near the base, linear lanceolate 2 to 4
inches long, 2 to 5 lines wide, smooth, light green, the 2 to3 culm-leaves
distant, narrow, giving the culm a naked appearance; panicle long-ex-
serted, small, smooth, 2 to 3 inches long, 1 inch wide, sparsely flowered,
branches alternate; spikelets elliptical-oblong, acute, 14 lines long,
smooth, the lower glume very small ‘one-fifth as long as the spikelet),
second glume seven nerved, third, five nerved, fertile flower one-fourth
shorter than the spikelet.
Swamps, Santa Rosa County, Fla. (A. H. Curtis).
39. P. consanguineum, Ath. (P. villosum #Ul.).—Culms about 14 feet
high, erect, branching in age; leaves linear-lanceolate, mostly about 3
inches long, 2 to 5 lines wide, the later ones almost filiform, somewhat
pubescent, sheaths villose; panicle 2 to 3 inches long, open, rather thin;
spikelets 1 to 14 lines long, pubescent.
South Carolina to Florida.
32 =
40. P. scoparium Lam. (P. pane Hll.).—Culms erect, becom-
ing branched and reclining, 1 to 2 feet high, somewhat ScHIEDES: leaves
erect, about 2 inches long, 4 to 5 lines wide, faintly nerved, ceroans on
the margins, hairy-fringed near the base, the sheaths bristly with stiff,
spreading hairs, or smoothish; the panicle 2 to 3 inches long, spreading,
open, branches smooth, mostly simple, alternate, rather few flowered ;
spikelets 1$ to 12 lines long, oval to obovate, hairy or smoothish, lower
glume about one-third as long as spikelet.
New England to California and southward. A widespread species.
(a) Var. major (P. scoparium, /li.).—This differs from the preceding
in its stouter, rougher culm, larger leaves, 4 to 6 inches long, three-
fourths of an inch wide (1 to 13 inches wide, Elliott), which are soft-
pubescent below, and its spikelets 2 lines long.
We have only seen this from South Carolina ine Ravenel).
(b) Var. angustifolium.—Culms tall and erect, 2 to 3 feet high, branch.
ing; leaves longer and narrower than the faba: 3 or 4 inches long, 3 to
A lines wide, rather rigid, sheaths sparsely pubescent; panicle long-ex-
serted, 3 to 4 inches long.
South Carolina (Dr. Ravenel); Ilinois (Dr. Schenck); Fortress Mon-
roe, Va. (Vasey).
(c) Var. Liebergii (P. Liebergii, Scrib.).—Culms tall and erect, un-
branched, 2 feet high; leaves lanceolate, distant, 3 to 4 inches long, 6 to
9 lines wide, scabrous or papillose, hairy, about eleven-nerved, sheath
shorter than the internodes, ciliate, or the margins Somewhat scabrous
and sparsely hairy, panicle about 3 inches long, 1 ineh wide, the fewish
branches erect-spreading and few-flowered; spikelets obovate, obtuse,
13 lines long, the outer glumes papillose, hairy, lower glume ovate or
ovate-lanceolate, pointed, nearly half as long as spikelet, second glume
seven-nerved, third glume nine-nerved, equaling the flower, having a
hyaline palet of nearly its own length, and inclosing three stamens.
Plymouth County, Lowa (John Lieberg).
41, P. Wilcoxianum, Vasey.—Culms about 6 inches high, entire or
sparingly branched and with the leaves more or less white-hairy; leaves
linear-lanceolate, erect, acuminate, 2 to 3 inches long, hairy both sides,
rather rigid, sheaths striate, hairy, mostly longer than the internodes,
ligule obsolete; panicle oblong, rhachis zigzag, 1 inch long, lower
branches subverticillate, short, spikelets about 14 lines long, pubescent,
lower glume ovate, one-fourth as long as the spikelet, second aud third
glumes with five toseven broad nerves, the third hardly as long as the
flowering glume.
Nebraska (Dr. T. E. Wilcox).
42, P.spherocarpon, 4/l.—Culms 15 to 24 inches long, dto 7 lines wide,
lanceolate, acute, obscurely nerved, smooth except at the ciliate-cordate
base, sheaths shorter than the joints, smooth; panicle 3 to 4 inches long,
spreading, spikelets oval, five-eighths to three fourths of a iine long,
30
smoothish, lower glume one-third as long as the spikelet. Differs from
P. dichotomum in its more rigid, smooth, pale leaves, with cordate
base.
Dry or moist ground, of same range as the next species.
Var. Floridanum.—Culms 13 to 24 feet high, rigidly erect, leaves
rigid, erect, six to seven on the culm, lanceolate, smooth, about 3 inches
long, 5 to 6 lines wide, the margins near the base, and sheaths ciliate ;
panicle oval to oblong, 3 to 5 inches long, and spikelets one-half line
long, pubescent, the lower glume one-fourth or one-fifth as long as the
spikelet.
Florida. —
Described by Dr. Chapman as P. sphaerocarpon Hll., but it hardly
agrees with Elliott’s description. It isintermediate between P. micro-
carpon and P. spheerocarpon.
43. P. microcarpon, Muhl. (P. multiflorum, #l.).—Culms 2 to 3 feet
high, stout, erect, smooth ; leaves 4to 7 inches long, 9 to 12 lines wide,
lanceolate, gradually tapering to a slender point, with nine to eleven
nerves, roughish above and, on the margin, sometimes bristly-ciliate at
the rounded, clasping base, smooth on the under side, sheaths mostly
longer than the internodes, smooth except on the margins; ligule
nearly obsolete, panicle becoming long-peduneled, 3 to 7 inches long,
1 to 2 inches broad, spreading, multiflorous, branches mostly verticil-
late, very numerous, flowering to the base, spikelets mostly long-pedi-
celed, oval, five-eighths of a line long, nearly smooth, lower glume one-
fourth as long as spikelet, second glume 7-nerved.
Low ground, Massachusetts to Texas.
44, P. viscidum, Hll.—Culms 2 to 4 feet high, stout, becoming much
branched, leafy, velvety-downy all over, except a narrow ring below
each node; sheaths soft-downy, the hairs spreading or reflexed and
often viscid, leaves downy or smoothish, lanceolate, 4 to 8 inches
long, diffuse, the branches numerous and much subdivided, spikelets
fully 1 line long, oblong-ob: vate, pubescent, lower glume one-fourth
to one-fifth as long as the 7 to 9 nerved upper one.
Common.
45. P. commutatum, Schultz (P. nervosum, Muhl.).—Culms 2 to 23
feet long, erect, unbranched, rather siender, smooth; leaves at the base
rigid, ovate-lanceolate, the three or four culm leaves firm but not rigid,
mostly 3 to 4 inches long, 8 to 12 lines wide, acuminate, cordate at
base, smooth except on the margins, sheatas smooth or somewhat
pubescent, much shorter than the nodes; panicle peduncled, 3 to 5
inches long, 2 to 3 inches wide, open, rather thin, branches smooth,
single or subverticillate; spikelets rather long-pedicelled, oblong,
sparsely hairy, 1 to 14 lines long, lower glumes one-third as long as the
spikelet, second about five, and third seven nerved. A fine species, in
11244—No. 8 3
34
appearance like P. clandestinum, but more slender, with shorter leaves,
and smaller spikelets, which are early deciduous.
Pennsylvania to Texas.
V (a) Var. minor, differs from the preceding in its rather smaller size
(id to 2 feet) and smaller panicle, and the spikelets more persistent.
Southern States.
46. P. clandestinum, Zinn.—Culms rigid, 2 to 3 feet high, leafy to the
top, rarely branched, upper nodes smooth, the lower often hairy;
sheaths smoothish, or the lower ones often rough with papillose, bristly
hairs, shorter than the internodes, leaves large, lanceolate ‘to oblong-
lanceolate, 4 to 8 inches long, 9 to 15 lines wide, with a cordate, clasping
base, very taper-pointed, smooth except the rough margins ; panicle at
first partially sheathed, becoming long-pedunculate, somewhat oblong
in outline, 4 to 6 inches long, open and becoming spreading, branches
verticiilate ; spikelets 14 lines long, slightly pubescent or smooth, ob-
long-ovate to obovate, the lower glume acutish, nearly one-half as long
as the spikelet, second and third equal, many nerved; perfect flower ob-
jong, pointed.
New England to Virginia, North Carolina, and westward to Illinois.
47. P. latifolium, Linn.—Culms 1 to 23 feet high, smooth, mostly
simple, the nodes (generally) and the collar of the sheath soft wooly-
hairy, sheaths smooth or more or less pubescent; leaves broadly lance-
olate from a cordate, clasping base, 3 to 4 inches long, about three-
fourths to 14 inches wide, tapering to a point, roughish above, smooth,
or sparsely hairy below, eleven to thirteen nerved; panicle more or less
exserted, becoming long-peduneled, 2 to 4 inches ieng, the branches
mostly alternate, spreading, rather few flowered; spikelets 14 to 2 lines
long, obovate, sparsely pubescent, the lower glume one-third, or less
than one-half as long as the spikelet, upper one about nine nerved.
Maine to Texas.
(a) Variety molle; downy all over.
Virginia to Louisiana.
(b) Var. australis; leaves more contracted at base, and spikelets lar-
ger, 2 to 24 lines.
Alabama to Texas.
48. P. scabriusculum, Ell. ? Chap. (P. Nealleyi, Vasey).—Culms 3 to
4 feet high, firm, smooth, rarely branched; leaves linear-lanceolate, 4
to 8 inches long, one-half inch wide, long-pointed, firm, mostly smooth
except near the base, sheaths shorter than the joints, mostly smooth,
or sometimes sparsely pubescent; panicle larger, 5 to 8 inclaes long,
diffuse, smooth, branches mostly alternate, much divided, the larger
ones 3 inches long; spikelets ovate, acutish, sparingly pubescent when
young, becoming smooth, lower glume small, second glume strongly
seven to nine nerved.
North Carolina to Texas.
This is the P, scabriusculum described by Chapman, but does not ap-
35 .
pear to me to answer that of Elliott, who compares his with P. virga.
tum.
49. P. capillare, Lina.—Culms 10 to 20 inches high, mostly branched
at the base, rather robust, erect or ascending, sheaths and usually the
leaves copiously hairy or hirsute; panicles, lateral and terminal, half
to two-thirds the length of the plant, vaginate below, much branched,
the branches divaricate when old; spikelets ovoid to oblong or lanceo-
late, obtusish, acute or even acuminate, three-fourths to nearly 2 lines
long, smooth, on long capillary pedicels, lower glume one-half to two-
thirds as long as the spikelet, obtuse to acuminate, fertile flower ob-
tusisb, rather shorter than the spikelet.
All over the continent.
a. Variety campestre, Gattinger.—Culms slender, 14 to 2 feet high,
much branched, leaves and sheaths sparsely hirsute, panicle, rather
pyramidal, much shorter than in the type (4 to 6 inches long, more
open and thinly flowered, spikelets three-fourths of a line long, smooth,
oblong, rather acute, lower glume obtusish.
Tennessee, Dr. Gattinger.
b. variety flexile, Gatlinger.—Culms slender, 13 to 24 feet high,
branched below, leaves linear, 6 to 10 inches long, narrow, erect,
smooth or smoothish, sparsely ciliate on the margins and sheaths, pan-
icle longer and narrower than in the preceding, 5 to 9 inches long, 2 to
4 inches wide, branches slightly spreading, single or in twos, smooth;
spikelets 14 lines long, lanceolate-acuminate, lower glume acute, per-
fect flower one-third shorter than the spikelet.
Tennessee, Dr. Gattinger.
50. P.autumnale, Bose. (P. divergens, Muhl.).—Culms 12 to 18 inches
high, erect or decumbent below; leaves comparatively small, 2 or 3
inches long, 2 to 3 lines wide, smooth except on the scabrous or undu-
late margins, sheaths smooth or the lower ones, sparsely hairy, ligule
membranaceous, obtuse, conspicuous; panicle very effuse, one-third the
length of the culm or more, the capillary branches long and sparingly
divided, often reflexed at maturity, and somewhat scabrous, the axils
sometimes sparsely hairy, the branchlets or pedicels long, naked, and
terminated by a single spikelet, which is spindle-shaped or obovate, L
to 14 lines long, acute, the lower glume very minute (one-sixth to one
eighih as long as the spikelet), second and third glumes acute, ciliate
near the apex, or in southwestern specimens (variety pubiflorum), pu-
bescent all over, but little longer than the acute flowering glume.
Illinois to Texas and the Southern States.
51. P. Hallii, V. @ S—Culms slender, 1 to 2 feet high, branching;
leaves slender, 4 to 6 inches long; sheaths sparsely pubescent or
smooth; panicle open, diffuse, 4 to 5 inches long, sparsely flowered ;
spikelets 13 lines long, acute, smooth, lower glumes half as long as
spikelets, perfect flower a little sherter. More slender than P. capil-
36
lare, with smoother culms, smaller panicles, stouter branches, and rather
larger spikelets.
Texas.
This species has resemblanee to P. capillare on one side and to P.
proliferum on the other. From the first, it is distinguished by its more
erect slender culms, never more than sparsely pubescent, smaller pan-
icle, with erect spreading stouter. branches, and usually larger or
thicker spikelets; from the second, by its smaller size, more erect
culins, and smaller panicles, with shorter branches. -
52. P. proliferum, Lam.—Annual. Culms usually thickish, often
succulent, branching, geniculate at the decumbent or procumbent base,
14 to 3 feet long, glabrous; leaves linear, 6 to 12 inches long, sheaths
flattened, glabrous, ligule ciliate; panicles terminal and lateral, 4 to 12
inches long, the long, slender, primary branches at length spreading
and diffuse ; spikelets 1 to 14 lines long, pale green, sometimes purplish,
appressed, short pedicelled, lower glume broad, obtusish, about one.
fourth as long as the spikelet, perfect flower a little shorter than the
spikelet.
Damp places, Maine to Texas.
(a) Var. geniculatum (P. geniculatum, HIl.).—Culms 3 to 6 feet high,
succulent, Sometimes nearly an inch thick at the base, bent and branch-
ing at the joints, leaves sometimes 2 feet long and 6 to 10 lines wide;
sheaths much inflated when young, sometimes a little hairy at the base;
panicle sometimes 2 feet long, very diffuse. A valuable grass.
Southern States to Texas.
53. P. miliaceum, Linn.—Culms 2 to 4 feet high, erect, branched, pu-
bescent; sheaths loose, striate, hirsutely pubescent; leaves flat, linear-
lanceolate, 6 to 10 inches long, 4 to 8 lines wide, smoothish above,
sparsely pubescent below; panicle oblong, nodding, 6 to 10 inches long,
branches verticillate, erect-spreading (not diffuse), solitary or in pairs,
angular, hispid, or scabrous; spikelets ovate, acuminate, glabrous, 2
lines long, lower glume broad, very acuminate, five-nerved, about one-
half as long as the spikelet, the third glume seven to nine-nerved, a
little longer than the oval, acute, biconvex, perfect flower.
Cultivated, and rarely escaped from cultivation. Valuable for forage.
54. P. verrucosum, Muhl.— Culms slender, 1 to 3 feet long, somewhat
branching, smooth; leaves linear-lanceolate, 3 to 4 inches long, 2 to 3
lines wide, and with the sheaths glabrous; panicles mostly terminal, 6
to 10 inches long, diffusely-spreading, branches mostly single, capillary,
rather few flowered; spikelets three-fourths to 1 line long, obovate or
oval, obtuse or abruptly acute, the outer glumes roughened with fine
warts, the lower one about one-fourth as long as the spikelet; perfect
flower, acute, about equaling the spikelet.
New England to Florida and Mississippi. ,
55. P. sparsiflorum, Vasey. (P. angustifolium, Chap. non Zll).—
Culms weak, slender, smooth, 1 to 2 feet long, diffasely branched from
.
oT
the base; leaves linear, 5 to 5 inches long, 1 to 2 lines wide; Ser ules
short; nodes thickened ; panicles Shines Aonuma and lateral, 3 to 5
inches long, the few branches single, capillary, distant, 1 to 3 inches
long, bearing each 2 to 6 spikelets, which are mostly in pairs at the
end of the branchlets; spikelets oblong-obovate, acute, 14 lines long,
the outer glumes papillose-hispid, the lower one minute, acutish.
South Carolina to Texas.
56. P. anceps, Aichx.—Culms flattened, erect, 2 to3 feet high, less
stout than in P. agrostoides, from strong creeping root-stocks; leaves
rather broadly linear, a foot or more long, 4 to 5 lines wide, smooth or
the lower ones with the sheaths pubescent; panicles contracted, lateral
and terminal, 6 to 12 inches long, the branches from single to verticil-
late, rather distant, particularly below, generally very abundantly flow-
ered; spikelets 1 to 14 lines long, ovate to lanceolate, pointed, the
apex a little curved, lower glume about one-half as long as the spikelet,
ke elume five to seven-nerved.
VY (a) Var. pubescens.—Leaves and sheaths more or less ube conte
panicle and branches slender; spikelets ovate-lanceclate, acute, little
more than 1 line long.
Mobile, Ala. (Dr. Mohr).
v (b) Var. angusta.—Lower sheaths villose; leaves very long and nar-
row, erect, rigid; spikelets narrowly lanceolate, acuminate, 14 lines long,
the lower glume one-third as long as the spikelet.
Texas (G. C. Nealley).
¥ (ec) Var. densiflorum.—Leaves broad; panicle glomerate and inter-
rupted, the branches densely flowered; spikelets lanceolate, 14 lineslong.
Texas (J. FY. Riggs). |
57. P. agrostoides, Spreng.—Culms flattened, erect, stout, 2 to 4 feet
high, usually in thick clumps, glabrous, much branched above, the
branches erect; leaves linear, 1 to 2 feet long, 3 to 4 lines wide,
smooth, as are the compressed sheaths; panicles terminal and lateral,
4 to 12 inches long, oblong, becoming pyramidal, very full, the lower
branches 2 to 3 inches long, much subdivided to the base; spikelets
racemose, very short pedicelled, crowded and mostly one-sided on the
branches, ovate-oblong to lanceolate, three-fourths of a line to 14 lines
long, lower glumes acute or acutish, half as long as the spikelet, second
and third glumes five-nerved, half longer than the perfect flower, which
is alittle bearded at the apex. In wet ground.
Varies in the size and form of the spikelets, which in the Western form
seldom exceed a iinelong; there is an Eastern form in which the spike-
lets are lanceolate, about 14 lines long, and the perfect flower small and
conspicuously stalked.
58, P. bulbosum, H. Bb. #.—Rhizoma creeping, thick, bulbous; culms
4 to 5 feet high, smooth, stout, with long internodes; leaves long and
narrow (1 to 2 feet by 2 to 4 lines), smooth, or the lower ciliate below ;
panicle about 1 foot long, spreading, copious, pale green, branches
38
scattered and verticillate, the lower 4 to 5 inches long, much subdivided
nearly to the base, branchlets slender and numerously flowered; spikelets
sometimes in pairs or racemose, 14 lines long, smooth, obtuse or acutish,
not acuminate, lower glume half or rather more than half as long as the
spikelet, broad, three-nerved, acutish, second and third glumes equal,
five-nerved, the third with a narrow palet, perfect flower as long as the
spikelet, oblong, lanceolate, abruptly acute, the point sometimes a little
roughened. |
Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona.
Probably P. avenaceum /th. is not different.
V (a) Var. minor (P. maximum, var. bulbosum, Munro), a smaller form,
about 2 feet high, with the panicle much reduced.
In same region.
59. P. maximum, Jacq. (P. jumentorum Pers.).—Culms erect, 3 to 5
feet high, glabrous; nodes softly pubescent; leaves linear, 1 to 14 feet
long, 9 to 12 lines wide, rather rigid, margin scabrous, sheaths smooth ;
panicle 14 feet long, much branched, hispid or scabrous, the branches
verticillate, long and contracted, racemose, scabrous; spikelets mostly
short-pedicelled, 15 lines long, ovate, smooth, acute; lower glumes
about one-third as long as the spikelets; second glume shorter than the
spikeiet; perfect flower acute.
Introduced and cultivated in the South.
60. P. amarum, H/l.—Culms 2 to 3 feet high, from a stout running
root-stock, thick, columnar, nearly one-half inch in diameter; leaves
nearly flat, almost coriaceous, glaucous, 1 to 14 feet long, 4 to 6 lines
wide, tapering to a long, slender point; sheaths glabrous, striate; pan-
icle 1 foot or more in length, appressed, or becoming somewhat
spreading, the lower branches verticillate, 6 inches long, subdivided
nearly to the base, narrowly paniculate; spikelets rather racemose,
ovate, 24 lines long, acute; glumes thick, the lower glume about two-
thirds the length of spikelet, acute; second glume the longest, seven-
nerved, acuminate; third glume rather shorter and obtusish; perfect
flower linear-oblong, obtuse, one-fourth shorter than the spikelet.
Grows among the sand-hills on the seashore. South Carolina to
Florida.
v (a) Var. minor, V. & S.—Leaves involute; panicle shorter, narrower,
distantly branched, comparatively few-fiowered, the branches rather
glomerate and unequal; spikeletsrather larger (24 to 3 lines); the lower
glumes longer, or nearly as long as the spikelet.
Fortress Monroe, Va., and northward, near the coast.
61. P. virgatumn, Linn.—Stout, erect, unbranched, 3 to 5 feet high,
from strong, creeping root-stocks ; leaves flat, very long (1 foot or more),
3 to 4 lines wide, smooth; panicle compound, 6 to 18 inches long;
branches single to verticillate, generally very numerous and becoming
diffuse, spreading or drooping; spikelets on rough pedicels, 14 to 2 lines
long, ovate to ovate-lanceolate, pointed, smooth ; lower glume more than
half the length of the spikelet (sometimes two-thirds), five-nerved; sec-
39
ond, five-nerved; third, five to seven-nerved, acute to acuminate, larger
than the perfect flower. Sterile flower with3stamens. Widely diffused
and quite variable. The Atlantic form has spikelets about 14 lines
long. The Western form has spikelets about 2 lines long, the glumes
acuminate. A form on the Atlantic coast has the panicle quite close
and rather oblong, and may be called variety conferta; another form
(var. elongata) has a very long and narrow panicle, with spikelets even
24 lines long.
Maine to Florida, and throughout the interior of the country.
62. P. Havardii, Vasey. (P. virgatum var. macrospermum, V.).—With
the habit of western forms of P. virgatum, but much stouter; culms
5 to 6 feet high, with rigid, involute, long-pointed, glaucous leaves, li-
gule a ring of short hairs; panicle 14 feet long, diffuse, the branches
less abundantly flowered; spikelets 3 lines long; lowest glume one half
as long as the spikelet, prominently five to seven-nerved; second
glume nine-nerved, ovate, acuminate; third glume five to seven-nerved,
its thick palet nearly as long; fertile flower about one-fourth shorter
than the spikelet.
Guadaloupe Mountains, Texas; Dr. Havard, G. C. Nealley.
Section VII.—FRUTESCENTES.
63. P. divaricatum, Zinn.—Shrubby, smooth; culms 6 to 8 feet high
with short and spreading branches; leaves lanceolate, acuminate, 2 to
4 inches long, 2 to 6 lines wide, deciduous from the persistent sheaths ;
panicles terminating the branches, i to 3 inches long, nearly simple or
branched, the branches rather distant and diverging, half to 1 inch long,
rather sparsely subdivided; spikelets smooth, 2 lines long, tumid, obo-
vate, nodding, on pedicels as long or longer; lower glume triangular-
ovate, one-third as long as the spikelet; second and third glumes as long
as the spikelet, very broad, nine to eleven nerved ; apex of the fertile
flower downy-tipped.
Southern Florida.
Section [X.—VILLIFLORA.
64. P. Urvilleanum, Ath.—Culms 13 to 2 feet high, from a strong
running root-stock, the whole plant densely soft-hairy ; near the base
short-jointed and covered with weather-worn leaves or sheaths; leaves
rigid, 12 to 18 inches long, 3 lines wide at the base, becoming con-
volute, and ending in a long, setaceous point, the upper ones exceeding
the panicle, which is 6 to 10 inches long, open, but rather contracted,
the branches semi-verticillate or scattered, the shorter ones flowering
to the base ; the longer ones (3 to 4 inches long) racemosely subdivided
and flower bearing towards the ends or throughout; spikelets 24 to 3
lines long, ovate, acute; the empty glumes siiky-villous; lower glume
seven-nerved, two-thirds as long as the fifteen-nerved second glume};
third glume rather shorter, eleven to thirteen-nerved; perfect flower
oblong, glabrous, except on the margins, which are long-ciliate.
In sand, southern California to Arizona.
LAL 2 i:
SECTION OF VEGETABLE PATHOLOGY.
PREPARED BY B. T. GALLOWAY.
CONTENTS.
I. Potato Scab.
JI. Gum Disease, or Foot-rot of the Orange.
ilI. Parasitic Fungi of Missouri.
IV. Extracts from Correspondence:
. Remedies for apple scab.
. Apple rust.
. Bitter-rot of apples.
. Pear blight.
. Remedy for black-rot of grapes.
. Black-knot of the grape.
. Melon rust.
. Anthracnose of the bean.
. ** Malarial germ.”
43
SECTION OF VEGETABLE PATHOLOGY.
POTATO SCAB.
During the past year the Section has received frequent inquiries from
different parts of the country relative to this disease, and while it is not
our purpose in this paper to fully answer these, it is hoped that what
is here stated may lead to a better understanding of the nature of the
malady among those who are particularly interested.
Potato seab is not a new disease by any means, nor is it peculiar to
America, for we find frequent mention of its occurrence in Hurope; in
fact, most of the important papers on the subject are to be found in
German works on plant diseases.!
The cause of scab is a question that has long been discussed. Some
of the older writers held that it was due to the attacks of fungi, while
others attributed it to the depredations of animal parasites. At pres-
ent, however, it is the general belief of those who have given the mat-
ter careful study that it is not, as a general thing, due to either of the
foregoing causes, but is the result of certain physiological changes that
take place in the tuber when the latter is grown under certain condi-
tions. |
The potato is in reality an underground stem, and, like similar parts
of other plants, its outer covering consists of a thin, tough membrane,
which serves as a protection to the more tender parts within. This en-
veloping coat is made up of minute cells, the walls of which consist of
a substance known as suberine, or cork. The corky membrane is pro-
vided with numerous minute structures known as lenticels, by means of
which an exchange of gases takes place between the interior and exterior
of the tuber.2, In the presence of an excess of moisture the lJenticels
ereatly increase in size, and often appear as small, woolly tufts, scattered
here and there over the surface. At the same time the cork layer be-
comes thickened at these points, and as a final result of this process
small wart-like projections are formed. Where these occur the skin is
weakened, and, if the conditions which favor this development continue,
decay soon sets in. In its efforts to heal the wound thus produced the
tuber gives rise to new layers of cork cells beneath the diseased parts,
and, as a result of this continued dying of the outer cells and the form-
ation of a new growth beneath, a scab is produced.
Wherever the corky membrane is wounded the tuber immediately
makes an effort to repair theimjury. It would seem reasonable, there-
1 See Bibliography. 2 Stahl, Bot., Zeit. 1873.
45
46
fore, to believe that in some cases at least the primary injury is due to
the depredations of grubs, myriapods or other small animals,! or it may
be brought about by the irritating or corroding action of some substance —
in the soil. In any event the final result is practically the same as
where the original damage is caused by an enlargement of the lenticels,.
All who have thoroughly investigated the disease agree in the opin-
ion that extreme humidity favors its development, but what influence
beyond this the character of the soil has upon the malady is not posi-
tively known. There have been many theories advanced havin ga bear-
ing upon this question, but they are so conilicting that nothing of value
can be derived from them. During the vear 1887 a number of trials
were made at the New York Agricultural Experiment Station with a
view of testing (1) influence of the soil, (2) effects of excessive moisture,
(3) use of scabby seed, (4) effects of color of skin, (5) effects of fungicides,
and (6) effects of chemical fertilizers and stable manure upon the devel-
opment of seab. It was shown by these experiments that an excess of
moisture and the use of fresh stable manure materially increased the
number of scabby potatoes. The data obtained are summed up as fol-
lows:
‘¢(1) The scab is not primarily caused by a fungus.
(2) It is not due to the work of insects.
*©(3) In nearly every instance an increased yield was accompanied by
an increased percentage of scabby potatoes.
“6(4) Any marked change in the rapidity of growth, either an increase
or a decrease, tends to an increased production of scab.
(5) A continuous growth from the time of first vegetation until the
tubers are fully matured appears to be the condition least favorable to
the production of scabby potatoes.”
BIBLIOGRAPEY.
Arthur: Sixth Report of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, 1887, p.
344.
Beckwith: Sixth Report of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, 1887,
p. 307.
Frank: Krankheiten der Pflanzen, 1880, p. 140.
Plowright : Gardener’s Chronicle, vol. 23, 1885, p. 60.
Report of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, 1877, p. 67; 1886, p. 79.
Sorauer : Handbuch der Pflanzen Krankheiten, Ist ed., 1884, p. 84; 2d ed., 1886, p.
227.
1 Mr. Alfred Rose, writing to the Rural New Yorker under date of March 7, 1885, says
that he has experimented largely for forty years on potato culture, and he thinks
the wire worm (Iulus) causes scab; that these ‘‘ worms” are more prevalent and the
scab much worse on rather moist soils than on those light and sandy; that where
scab prevails, the sooner the potatoes are dug the better, and that anything that for-
wards the crop aids in escaping the scab. He has found that the use of lime slaked
with water which has been saturated with salt and into which 2 pounds of sulphur
have been stirred for each bushel of lime has effectually driven out these ‘‘ worms ”’
and prevented scab. He thinks that land infested with these worms should be
plowed in the fall and have 250 pounds of kainit and 5 bushels of lime, prepared
as above described, sown broadcast per acre and well cultivated in.
on
POTATO SCAB.!
This disease, which is known to practical gardeners as scab or scurf,
may be recognized by the brown, irregular concavities, with ragged,
often upturned edges, that make their appearance in the tuber. These
concave places spread gradually and become filled with brown, decayed
re-aains of cells, excrements of mites, mycelium threads, ete.
The deeper these places eat into the flesh of the healthy tuber the
greater is its loss of sound tissue, and consequently of food value; but
even if the scabby portions are not very deep and the decrease in food
value unimportant, the potatoes affected with scab spots lose consider-
ably in market value on account of their discased appearance.
If the small projections on the edge of the scab are examined they
will be found to consist of parenchyma cells, which once formed a part
_of the healthy tissue of the tuber, but are now dark colored, and mostly
without starch grains, in place of which the other cell contents are
massed together in a spherical shape. From these dead, suberified
cells there is either a gradual transition into the healthy, starch- bearing
tissue, or they are separated from the latter by a layer of true tabular
cork cells which have arisen, at the expense of the starch, from the cell
layers bordering on the scab spot.
The danger to the potato lies in the fact that as long as it remains in
the ground the edges of the scab very often begin to degenerate again
and the spot becomes deeper. If vhe potatoes are once dug, no further
penetration of the seab spot can be discerned, even when buried for the
winter. In case of early varieties that are gathered at different times,
a section of the scab spots shows that they are no deeper in those po-
tatoes dug at the end of the season than in the ones gathered some
weeks earlier. I conclude from this circumstance that the extension of
scab spots is not continuous,even while the potatoes remain in the
ground, but is confined to different periods, and perhaps in many cases
to one.
IT consider the times when hard showers follow a long continued drought
as such scab forming periods. This view is founded upon the changes
which occur when a potato is brought into a very moist atmosphere or
part of it into direct contact with dripping water. By this means the
development of the lenticels becomes so increased from their normal
condition that they are easily recognized by the naked eye as small,
white, woolly warts. Nearly all parts of plants which are covered by a
persistent cork layer possess interruptions on the surfacein form of len-
ticels or bark-pores, in which there is a loose, corky tissue provided with
air conducting intercellular spaces. This tissue usually arises beneath
the stomata and shares in their physiological work, 7 e., the exchange
of atmospheric air between the interior and exterior of the plant. In
1Translation of paper by P. Sorauer, Handbuch der Pflanzen-Krankheiten, 1386,
D. 227.
48
the wild cherry,’ privet, elder, ash, and willow, the lenticels arise under
one stoma, and in the black walnut aud poplar under several, by the
separation of the parenchyma cells underneath and surrounding the
breathing pores. In other plants—for example, barberry, broom-corn,
eurrants, and other species of Ribes—tie lenticels originate in the cork
cambium (phellogen). In the potato the rind is composed of tabular
cork cells (Fig. 1 *), and under this, as well as below the stomata? the
first beginnings of the lenticel formation oceur in the form of irregular
cells containing but little protoplasm. (Fig. 1a). The formation of
these cells is continually penetrating farther in, while the cells first
formed absorb water, swell up, and burst the cork rind, thus forming
the seab-producing lenticel, from which the loose cells within (Fig. 1 /)
emerge in a whitish, moist, flour-like mass. These cells soon degener-
ate, and the process of degeneration extends inward, so that the com-
pact, united lenticel cells (fig. 1 v) must always be looked for deeper
and deeper in the flesh, and the starch (Fig. 1 st) disappears propor-
tionally from the surrounding tissue.
We have, therefore, two processes to consider in the formation of
scab; the first is the growth of lenticel cells, which proceeds until the
discharge of the flour-like cell mass; and the second consists of the de-
LE. Stahl, Entwicklungsgeschichte und Anatomie der Leuticellen, Bot. Zeit.,
1873, Nr. 36-39.
2 Caspari in Sitzungsberichte der niederrheinischen Gesellschaft fiir Natur- und Heil-
kunde, v. 8, Jan., 1857, cited in Bot. Zeit., 1857, p. 116.
49
generation of the cells in the interior of the lenticel, and the consequent,
extension of cork formation into the interior of the tuber.
That this hypertrophied formation of lenticels is dependent upon an
unusual amount of moisture we conclude from the following facts:
During a long continued season of wet weather the lenticels of alder
trees stand out in the form of thick white protuberances; by immers-
ing a piece of cherry stem in water a luxuriant growth of cork can
be artificially produced ; finally, in ease of the potato, these cork warts
may be actually produced by keeping the potato for a long time in moist
air, Nobbe’ found, by a water culture of the potato, that the tubers
grownin water produced small warts whilestill very young. These warts
were caused by a local increase in growth in the cork formation, and
were not present in tubers produced in the air.
The view that superfluous moisture at an unseasonable time is the
cause of the increased growth of cork that produces scab is indorsed by
Caspari? and Schacht? as well by Frank. A later work by Stahl es-
tablishes the fact that if transpiration 1s stopped lenticels develop
beneath the stomata.? On the contrary, farmers assert that in the ma-
jority of cases the adding of lime and marl to the soil, and manuring®
with dung and street-sweepings causes the disease. Kuhn agrees with
Wallroth*‘ in the opinion that the formation of scab is caused by a fun-
gous growth (Hrysibe subterranea, Wailr.).
On the other hand, iron, when present ina low state of oxidation, is
considered injurious. In a field of potatoes at Newmarket three rows
which had been marled with light colored earth mixed with iron oxide
were found free from scab, while the rows that had received mar! that
was dark colored from the presence of ferrocyanate of peroxide of iron
were very scabby.®
The assertion has frequently been made by practical farmers that fresh
animal manure causes seab, especially in the thin-skinned varieties,°
and that the disease makes its appearance after an application of soap-
suds, while after a strong application of potash, which had proved very
injurious at another time, the tubers were free from scab."
1 Versuchsstationen, 1864, p. 58.
2 Bot. Zeitung, 1857, p. 116.
3 Bericht an,d. Kel. Landes-Oecomomie-Collegium iiber die Kartoffelpflanze und
deren Krankheiten, Berlin, p. 15.
4 Die Krankheiten der Pflanzen, 1880, p. 141.
5 Biedermann’s Centralbl., 1879, p. 714.
6 Landwirthsch. Zeitschr. f. Westphalen und Lippe, 1864.
7 Linnea, 1812, p. 332. Der Knollenbrand der Kartoffel, von Hofrath Dr. Wallroth.
He says: ‘‘Themuch discussed disease of the potato known in economic writings under
the name of potato scab, potato wart, scab disease, brown stain, and potato rot, I have
known for a long time as a kind of vegetable rust (Uredo, Ustilago, and Cwoma of
authors, Erysibe Theophr., Adans, Murr., Wallr., not DC.).
8 Landwirth, 1875, p. 352.
9Landwirth, 1875, p. 319 and 352.
10 Janovski, Kartofflenbauversuche. Prager Landw. Wochenbl., cited in Central
bl. f. Agrik.-Chemie, 1876, I, p. 430.
11244—-No, 8——4
50
I believe that Wallroth’s opinion is erroneous. It is true we find
fungous formations upon the dead parts, but none that attack healthy
tissues. Many have objected to the view that scab is caused by adding
lime, marl, or dung to the soil, but when it comes to final definite re-
sults the reports vary in regard to secondary circumstances. For ex-
ample, one person Says that seab made its appearance after the appli-
cation of marl, but that the greatest development of the disease did not
occur the first year,' during which the potatoes were perfectly healthy,
but that the disease steadily increased during the ten following years.
The same account claims that beets are similarly affected by marl. It
is interesting to note that where the marl was not used the potatoes
showed no scab. In Posnia, in the seventeenth century, marl was fre-
quently added to the loose soil of large estates for the purpose of raising
Medicago media. This was generally preceded by two crops of potatoes,
which were always marled. In spite of this, scab never made its ap-
pearance if the marl was drawn before winter and thoroughly mixed
with the soil.2 The same experiment was recorded a year earlier in
Saxony in the Zeitschrift des landwirthsch. Centralvereins (p. 219).
Heiden * reports a very thorough experiment at Pommritz in regard
to the use of lime. <A piece of new land was given heavy applications
of lime (3,600 pounds per acre) six times between 1868 and 1878, and in
1878 the land bore potatoes after a fresh application. The potatoes
when gathered were completely free from scab. It will be seen that in
this ground there was lime of different ages, from the fresh to that ten
years old, and no injury resulted.
Contradictory as these results appear, they may nevertheless be har-
monized if the theory should be confirmed that the frequently-oceurring
secondary action of lime may be the dangerous agent that causes the
death of the growing cork cells. Heiden directs attention to the facet
that the ammonia already contained in humus is set free by the lime ;
when a great deal of lime is employed and the soil is not at the time
able to absorb all the ammonia that is set free, a part of 1¢ will eseape.
This surplus ammonia will be very apt to destroy the loose cork cells
within the lenticels and cause the cork formation to penetrate farther
into the tissues. The ammonia will become harmless only when oxi-
dized into nitric acid, and we have a positive statement fn this direc-
tion. Kraus-Triesdorf? mentions the experiments of Dr. Schreiner, who
found that scabby potatoes were very abundant in almost pure quartz
sand which had been manured with ashes, pulverized turf, and nitrogen in
the form of ammonia; but when in the form of nitric acid no such effect
was produced. Quartz sand, without manuring, or with the ashes alone,
did not produce scabby tubers, even when mingled with turf. Iron filings,
'Landw. Zeit. f. Westphalen und Lippe, 1864, p. 106. Soe
*Tiihling’s Landwirthsch. Zeit., 1871, vol. 5, p. 391.
*Algemeine Hopfenzeitung, 1882, p. 295.
'C. Kraus., Mechanik der Knolienbilcung. Flea, 1877, p. 125.
51
iron oxide (turf ashes rich in iron), may perhaps act indirectly by cheek-
ing the formation of nitrie acid.
From our present knowledge it seems advisable to keep soils which
experience has shown to foster potato scab well aerated by means of re-
peated harrowing.
GUM DISEASE OR FOOT ROT OF THE ORANGE.
I. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.
For a number of years past the orange trees in Florida have suffered
from the attacks of this malady, and for the purpose of bringing to-
gether some of the facts in the case, as well as to awaken a deeper
interest in the matter, the following paper has been prepared :
Guin disease, or ‘‘foot-rof,” as the disease is commonly called in Flor-
ida, is not peculiar to the United States; but has long been known
in southern HKurope, and the loss it has there occasioned to the lemon
and orange groves is estimated at many millions of doilars. An Ital-
ian writer, referring to the injury it has occasioned in one district in his
country, Says :
The damage already done may be estimated at not less than 10,000,000 lire ($2,000,-
000), in fact so extensive have its ravages become through the kingdom, that it is now
looked upon as a national calamity.
The disease is supposed to have originated something over fifty years
ago in one of the Azores Islands, where it reached its maximum in 1840,
destroying in one year one-fourth of the orange trees on the island of
St. Miguel. According to Fougue! it appeared in Portugal in 1845, and
occasioned the greatest injury there from 1858 to 1861. Opinions differ as
tothe exact date itappeared in Florida. Judging from the reports of cor-
respondents, however, we conclude that it has been known in the State
for twelve or fifteen years. From statements made by Dr. A. H. Curtis?
it appears that the ‘bad cases” are found at points on both the eastern
and western coast, as well as in the interior, but whether it was intro-
duced from Kurope is not certainly known.
II. EXTERNAL CHARACTERS OF THE DISEASE.
The disease, as a rule, is first manifested by the appearance of a
gummy effusion which appears, principally in the spring and autumn,
on the trunk of the trees close to the ground, or directly upon the root.
ven before there are any outward signs of diminished health, small
drops of gum appear on the bark of the trunk ; these increase in size and
humber, and the bark appears to melt away or become honeycombed;
finally the gum liquefies, assumes a muddy brownish color and a disagree-
1 Revue des deux Mondes.
* Bulletin No, 2, Florida Agricultural Experiment Station.
52
able odor. In summer or winter when the effusion of gum decreases or
stops, the greater part of the bark around the point of infection dies and
becomes detached from the wood. When dry it springs away from the
wood and becomes hard and brittle. The surface of the wood under-
neath the bark is also aitected to some little distance in all directions
from the point of infection. The most vital part of the trunk, the eam-
bium layer, which lies between the bark and the wood, is destroyed,
and each year this destruction extends until it has made the round of
the trunk girdling the tree completely, thus cutting off alleeommunica-
tion of the vital fluids between the roots and the top, which is-certain
death to the tree. , :
When the disease attacks the roots the death of the tree follows more
rapidly—sometimes in less than a year. The sudden changing of the
leaves to a sickly yellow color is the first visible symptom of the disease
when the roots are attacked. lt must be kept in mind, however, that
the leaf-yellowing may be due to other causes. Such is the diagnosis
of the disease as it appears in Europe, and according to the reports of
correspondents it is evidently the same as that which prevails in
Florida. !
Ili. CONCLUSIONS AS TO THE CAUSE OF GUM DISEASE.
So far the cause of the disease is not certainly known, but this does
not appear to be due to a lack of interest; for many scientists have in-
vestigated the matter and large rewards have been offered to stimulate
these researches.2 According to Sorauer® the gum when carried to
healthy parts of the tree by the action of rain or other agents induces
disease; but all attempts made here to convey the malady to healthy
orange trees by inoculations have failed. A microscopic examination
of the diseased tissues and gum reveals the presence of a vast number
of bacteria and filamentous threads of some fungus or fungi, but what
connection these may have with the disease has not yet been ascertained.
It appears from Briosi’s* researches, that the disease in Italy is always
accompanied by a fungus to which has been given the name Fusarium
i Dr. Curtis,in the Bulletin already referred to, describes the disease as follows:
The prominent symptoms are exudation of a gummy or sappy fluid from near the base
of the trunk, and decay of the bark in that region and of the roots below.. The flow
of gum and attendant decay extend upwards and in a lateral direction until the tree
is girdled, also penetrating successive layers of wood. In some cases gum exudes
from cracks in various parts of the trunk, or even on the branches, and in others the
decay progresses without emission of gum. Attendant or premonitory symptoms are
excessive and rather late blooming, the flowers being small and~ mostly unfruitful,
and arrested and unnatural development of the foliage, which becomes yellow and
drops. ‘The disease manifests itself in the top on the same side as at the base, and
makes like progress above and below.
2 The Italian minister of agriculture has offered a reward of 25,000 lire ($5,000)
for an effectual remedy.
3’ Pflanzenkrankheiten, 1836; page 879.
*I] male di gomma negli Agrumi.,
53
limoni;' the body of this fungus consists of very slender, colorless
threads which are divided by frequent transverse partitions or septa.
The threads are found in all parts of the diseased tissues and in the
process of growth they give rise to numerous compact tufts of erect
branches upon the free ends of which are developed crescent shaped
spores or reproductive bodies; the latter are produced in prodigious
numbers and germinate readily in water or moist air. Referring to the
Fusarium, Briosi says:
It is not certainly known what connection this fungus has with the disease under
consideration. Whether it should be placed among the causes or be considered a
simple incident of the malady are questions that remain to be answered. * * * I
do not think there is any doubt, however, that its presence generally accelerates the
disorganization of the tissues.
In the Florida specimens which have been examined we have failed
to find the fungus described by Briosi; but in the Departmens green-
houses there is a fungus on the diseased trees which resembles Briosi’s
figures, and is probably the same as the one found by him. Many
theories have been advanced as to what extent the nature of the soil,
method of culture, manner of setting the trees, kind of manure used,
ete., influences the disease, but these are so conflicting that it is diffi-
cult to draw any practical conclusions from them. Those who have
given the matter careful study agree in saying that heavy manuring,
an excess of water in the soil, and frequent cultivation favors the de-
velopment of the disease.’
IV. TREATMENT.
From all the evidence at hand it appears that the only safe means
of preventing or checking the ravages of the malady are, (1) to bud at
least 3 feet above the ground on resistant stocks,’ (2) to plant on dry or
porous soil, (3) to irrigate sparingly, (4) to use the knife freely when-
ever the malady appears, and burn or destroy all diseased wood.
V. BIBLIOGRAPIHY.?
Ashmead : Foot-rot, Sore shin, or Gum disease; Bulletin No. 2, Florida Agricultural
Iixperiment Station, 1888.
Griosi: 11 male di gomma negli Agrumi, Botter, Giorn. d’Agricolt., Ser. N., anno
TBEvole Vivato 20521.
' Fusarium limoni, Briosi. (Penzig Annali di Agricoltura; p. 422; 18387).—Acervuli
gregarious, confluent, white; hyphz spreading, septate; conidiophores erect or as-
cending, with alternate or opposite branchlets; conidia very variable, acrogeuons,
continuous or septate in the middle, or bi-triseptate, oblong or fusiform, slightly
curved, attenuated, slightly constricted at the septa, hyaline, 26-27 u long, 2,4-2,8 ye
_ in diameter. .
* Sorauer affirms that the disease is promoted by the cultivation of such crops as
beans, pumpkins, tomatoes, etc., between the trees. He also states that analyses of
healthy, dead, and diseased trees show the latter to contain less phosphoric acid and
iron.
°In Florida it is claimed that sweet seedlings are especially liable to the attacks of
foot-rot, while all other stocks are practically resistant.
*Only some of the more important papers are here noted.
54
Intorno al mal di gomma degli Agrami, Roma, 1878, Staz. Chim. Agr. Sperim.
Relazione su alcune esperienze col metodo di Gregorio, ecc. (Cossa. Staz. Sperim.
ete, NL lores 23)
Curtis: Foot rot, Sore shin, or Gum disease; Bulletin No. 2, Florida Agricultural
Experiment Station, 1888.
Fluhler: Die Krankheit der Agrumen in Sicilien (Centrabl. f. Agriculturchemie
v. Biedermann, 1874, n. 5, p. 368).
Fonte: Sulle cause probabili della malattia degli Agrumi in Sicilia e dei modi per
evitarla e combatterla. Milano, 1883.
Francois : Communications sur la maladie des orangers de Blidah (Journ. de la Soc.
centr. d’hortic. de Fr., 2e sér.. t. VIII, p. 432).
Hubbard: Footrot; Insects affecting the Orange; U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Division of Entomology, 1885, p. 3.
Inzenga: Rimedi per la malattia degli Agrumi in Messina (Ann. d’Agricoltura
Siciliana, 1864, sér. 2a, p. 307).
Moore: Foot rot; Treatise and Hand-book of Orange Culture, 1881, p. 130.
Male della gomma (Ann. d’Agricoltura Sicil., 1874, n. 60).
Penzig; Fusarium limoni, Briosi: Annali di Agricoltura, 1887, p. 422.
tizzart: T1 mal di gomma degli Agrumi in Catania, e i] nuovo sistema di cura
(L’Agricolt. Ital., I, p. 528).
Sorauer : Gummifluss der Pomeranzen; Pflanzenkrankheiten, 18386, part I, p. 879.
Tomaschek : Sur la maladie des Orangers en Algérie (Illustr. Horticole, 1874, p. 135).
The disease of Lemon and Citron Trees in Sicily (Gardener’s Chronicle, 1875,
May 1).
Zirilti: Una proposta a rimediare al male degli Agrumi (Botter, Giorn. d’Agric.,
Vol. 19, 1873, p. 158).
A PARTIAL LIST OF THE PARASITIC FUNGI OF MISSOURI, WITH REMARKS
ON THE SPECIES OF ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE.
The present list was completed more than a year ago, but several
unavoidable delays have prevented its earlier publication. As it now
stands, the list includes about 400 strictly parasitic species, divided
among the following genera: Acidium, Caoma, Coleosporium, Gymno-
sporangium, Melampsora, Peridermium, Phragmidium, Puccinia, Restelia, ,
Uredo, Uromyces, Doassansia, Entyloma, Tilletia, Urocystis, Ustilago,
Cystopus, Peronospora, Phytopthora, Erysiphe, Microsphera, Phyllactinia,
Podosphera, Spherotheca, Uncinula, Asterina, Cercospora, Cladosporium,
Coniothyrium, Cylindrosporium, Diplodia, Entomosporium, Gleosporium,
Ramularia, Septoria, Epichle, Leptospheria, Phyllachora, Spherella, Ta-
phrina.
T am indebted to Prof. S. M. Tracy and Rev. C. H. Demetrio for valu-
able assistance in the preparation of the work, and to Mr. J. B. Ellis,
who has kindly determined many of the doubtful species.
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60 : :
EXTRACTS FROM CORRESPONDENCE.!
REMEDIES FOR APPLE SCAB.
I am preparing to spray 1,400 ten-year old apple trees with Paris green and want
to add something for the scab. Has sulphate of copper been used for the latter dis-
ease ?—(Charles Patterson, Kerksville, Adair County, Mo.)
Answer. IJ would suggest the use of liver of sulphur or sulphide of po-
tassium, using the solution of the strength of one-half ounce to the gallon
of water. This should be used as soon as prepared, or in other words, it
should not be prepared until you are all ready to make the applications.
In regard to the use of sulphate of copper, the strength of the solu-
tion which may be used has not been determined. The following prep-
aration may be tried experimentally: In 2 gallons of hot water dis-
solve 2 pounds of sulphate of copper (pure); in another vessel dissolve
24 pounds of ordinary carbonate of soda; mix the two solutions and
when all reaction has ceased add 1 pint of liquid ammonia; then dilute
to 25 or 30 gallons. This is easily applied with a good spraying pump,
and adheres strongly to the parts sprayed. Its preventive action
lasts for along time. The action of the liver of sulphur is soon dissi-
~ pated. 2
APPLE RUST.
Linclose some apple leaves, affected, as Isuppose, by a fungus. Please let me know
what it is and how to preventit. Only certain varieties are affected, but among those.
are some of the best for this climate.—(James8. Whitman, Dardanville, Ark.)
Answer. The leaves are affected with the apple-leaf rust—a species of
Restelia—whick is quite common throughout the Middle and Western
States, affecting more or less seriously certain varieties over others.
The fungus lives within the tissues of the leaves and fruit (when this is
attacked), and becomes visible on the surface when ready to produce
its spores or reproductive bodies. Itis important to slate that this fun-
gus as it appears on the apple is but one stage in its life history, an-
other form appearing earlier in the season on Cedar trees, causing the
growth of what is familiarly termed “cedar apples.” This stage on the
Cedar is regarded as the first and essential condition of that appearing
later on the apple, and it is also the stage by which the fungus hiber-.
nates, if we may so apply this term. |
Perhaps by making applications of the salts of copper or other fun-.
gicidal preparations to the apple trees before the spores from the *‘ cedar
apples” come upon them the development of the Restelia form may be
prevented; but so far as we are aware, no experiments have been made
to determine this question. The destruction of the cedars, together
with the application of preventive remedies is the only course of treat-
ment which a knowledge of the facts in the case suggest.
'The correspondence of the section consumes a large part of the time of the office
force, but it is believed that as an important means of disseminating useful informa-
tion it should receive all the attention possible.—B. T. Galloway.
61
BITTER-ROT OF APPLES.
(Gleosporium versicolor, B. & C.)
I send you several apples affected with a disease similar to grape-rot. The varieties
most subject.to the malady are Willow Twig and Ben Davis. Any information as to
the cause of the rot will be thankfully received.—(L. D. Grover, Cuba, Mo.)
Answer. The rot is due to the attacks of a minute parasitic fungus
closely related to that which causes the disease of the grape now com-
monly known as Anthracnose. As stated by you, the apple disease, at
least in its earlier stages, resembles that of the grape, caused by the
black-rot fungus. The disease under consideration first manifests itself
in the form of small, more or less circular, brownish or blackish spots,
which rapidly enlarge and run together, thus affecting the entire apple
in a very Short time. As the disease progresses the interior of the fruit
becomes brown and soft, and finally the whoie shrivels and dries up.
The effects just described are due to the development of the vegeta-
tive part of the fungus—known as the myceliunm—within the fruit. We
have found the spores in abundance on old apples collected under the
trees during the last of February. The rot frequently develops after
the apples have been stored for the winter, and in such cases it spreads
rapidly, and causes great injury.
The only course of treatment which a knowledge of the facts in the
case Suggests is to bury or burn all diseased fruit as soon as the rot
begins to show itself. Great care should be taken not to store fruit
that shows the slightest indication of the disease, and during the winter
it should be carefully looked over every few weeks, and all the apples
showing rot specks removed, for the disease will spread in the bin from
the diseased to the healthy apples. If this is thoroughly done serioug
loss during the winter may be avoided.
As far as we areaware noattempts have been made to apply preventive
remedies to the trees. As an experiment in this direction we would
suggest that next spring the trees be sprayed with a solution of sul-
phuret of potassium, one-half ounce of potassium tol gallon of water.
Make the first application when the fruit is about half grown, and if
possible use a force pump with a nozzle of fine aperture for applying
the liquid. Repeat the applications every two or three weeks through-
eut the summer aud note the effect, if any. The disease here described
is widely distributed. During the past year specimens have been re-
ceived from Mississippi, Texas, New Jersey, Arkansas, Missouri, and
other States. Irom our own experience with the malady, together
with the testimony of others, we feel warranted in saying that it is an
enemy to be dreaded, and fought against with every available means.
PEAR BLIGHT.
I send you by to-day’s mail some diseased pear cuttings of the Le Conte variety.
The trees from which the cuttings were taken I set four years ago, being one year old
at the time of setting. The trees are on well-drained sandy lands, which has been
well fertilized with stable manure, cotton-see:l meal, and phosphates mixed with a
62
large amount (1 bushel to the tree) of well-rotted swamp muck or peat. They have
been vigorous up to this year, but within the past month about every twelfth tree
on a tract of four acres has mainfested the ‘‘ die back,” beginning in the bud, gener-
ally of the highest and most vigorous shoot, and gradually extending downward
until in a few instances it has reached the root, thus killing the entire tree.—(C. H.
Franklin, Union Springs, Ala.)
Answer. Your samples show unmistakable signs of the disease which
has come to be generally known as “ Pear Blight.” This malady is
caused by one of the most minute of living organisms—a species of
bacterium, named by Professor Burrill, the discoverer, Microccus amy-
lovorus. They are frequently spoken of collectively as disease-produc-
ing germs, and the malady they occasion belongs to the same eategory
of germ diseases now definitely proven to occur among animals ana
plants. These germs areof extreme tenuity ; they are borne from place
to place and from tree to tree by the atmosphere, which is never so
quiet but that its movements are sufficient to keep such impalpable
bodies afloat. At present we know of no certain means for rendering
the trees insusceptibie to the disease. Fumigation, spraying, or wash-
ing the trees with various known fungicides, notably sulphur and lime,
have given no positive results. As the disease is local and spreads
through the tissue slowly, it is possible, as has long been kuown, to
effectually check its progress by amputation. The smaller limbs should
be cut off a foot or two below the lowest manifestation of the disease,
and the spots on the trunk and larger limbs should be shaved out, cut-
ting deep enough to remove all discoloration. The instrument for cut-
ting should be kept disinfected with carbolie acid or otherwise, to guard
against conveying the disease to freshly cut surfaces. The exposed
and newly cut surfaces ought to be at once painted over in order to
exclude the germs that might reach them through the atmosphere.
REMEDY FOR BLACK-ROT OF THE GRAPE.
Will you kindly inform me if you have any reason to expect good results from the
employment of the sulphate of copper remedies in the treatment of black-rot of
grapes ?
Answer. The treatments made this season at Vineland, N. J., by Col.
A. W. Pearson, under the direction of the Commissioner of Agricult-
ure, render it no longer doubtful that by the proper application of the
sulphate of copper remedies we can subdue or entirely prevent black-
rot. Inthe experiments above referred to the Bordeaux mixture, made
as follows, has given the most decided results:
Dissolve 6 pounds of sulphate of copper in 16 gallons of water; in
another vessel slake 4 pounds of lime in 6 gallons of water. When the
latter mixture has cooled, it is slowly poured into the copper solution, care
being taken to mix the fluids thoroughly by constant stirring. It is
well to have this conpound prepared some days before it is required
for use. (Thesulphate of copper ought to be purchased in a powdered
state, as it dissolves with difficulty in the ordinary crystalline form.)
63
The remedies were applied with the “ Kureka Sprayer” and the ap-
plications were made on May 29, June 4, June 22, July 2, and July 11.
On the treated vines the loss did not exceed 5 per cent., while vines in
adjoining rows not treated lost from 90 to 95 per cent. of their crop.
BLACK-KNOT OF THE GRAPE.
I send with this several specimens of grape vine affected with a peculiar disease.
Any information in regard to the matter will be thankfully received.—(C. Gere,
East Springfield, Erie County, Pa.)
Answer. This is a disease which the French have named Broussins,
the Germans Krebs or Schorf, and the Italians Malattia dei tubercoli.
The first name, ‘ Broussins,” meaning excrescences, is descriptive of the
disease, and is the one we will adopt. Professor Viala, in his work on
the Maladies de la Vigne, pp. 441, 442, has clearly described the dis-
ease in question, and illustrated it with two excellent figures. His
description is very complete, and the cause to which he attributes the
malady appears most reasonable, and we can not do better than to
translate in full what he has written :
Under the action of the frosts of autumn and winter, and especially those of spring,
peculiar malformations are developed upon the roots, the root crown, the side
branches, and the shoots left after pruning. Upon the roots they appear as little nod-
ules the size of a pea, more rarely as large as an egg, which are soft and spongy
when moist, but become firm and hard when dry. They have a warty surface, being
formed of smaller nodules, which run together where they unite with the root. Upon
the crown of the root there is sometimes produced a proliferation of tissues, compar-
able to the Broussins of the root, but which may arise from other causes than early
frosts. ‘These spongy masses, harder and less warty than those on the roots, some
times grow to a great size; specimens have been seen which had a radius of 34 inches.
Upon grafts the adjacent layers of generative tissues some times multiply to an un-
usual extent, giving rise to a spongy swelling, having the form of Broussins. But it
is especially upon the young branches and side shoots that these formations are most
frequent. Broussins usually appear at the insertion of the shoots upon the side
branches, but it also occurs over the whole length of the internode, or even several
successive nodes, entirely changing their normal appearance. There are formed sev-
eral masses of irregular excrescences, composed of a large number of shapeless nodules.
The wood thus covered is often enlarged to four or five times its proper diameter.
The bark is torn and often stretched in narrow strips over the irregular groups of
nodules. The latter are soft and spongy, but become very hard when dry.
The anatomical structure of these nodules has only been imperfectly studied. It
appears, however, that frosts have destroyed the generative cell-layers at certain
points and that about these points the unaltered bark and cambium cells multiply in
an abnormal manner, producing the tuberculous malformations which constitute
Broussins.
By some it is believed that the latent buds, which are very numerous at the inser-
tion of the shoots upon the old wood or of the roots upon the crown, can, when influ-
enced by the same phenomenon, make similar excrescences by all growing out at the
same time. Others contend that the excrescences on the vine are not composed solely
of cellular tissues. Von Thumen has tried to show in this disease the action of a
parasitic fungus which he has assigned to the genus Fusisporium, the development
of which he has not been able to follow. He is the only author who has given ex-
pression to this opinion, which now seems to be erroneous.
The branches and main stem should be cut off down to the healthy part; this is
the only means of arresting the unhealthy change of tissues.
64
MELON RUST.
(Gleosporium lindemuthianum, Sacc. & Magnus.)
I send inclosed a number of melon leaves affected with a disease commonly known
in this region as rust. The disease is very destructive, especially if the weather is
hot and moist. Any information as to the cause of the disease and the existence
of a remedy will be thankfully received.—(Edward Tillett, Harbinger, N. C.)
Answer. The disease of the melon known as “rust” is caused by a par-
asitic fungus which grows in the tissues of the leaves and rind. This
fungus is a plant like the vine upon which it lives; unlike the latter,
however, it has not the power of obtaining its food from the soil and
air, but depends entirely upon the juices of the vine for sustenance. In
order to build up its own body the fungus robs the melon plant of its
nourishment, and as a result of this action the tissnes turn brown or
“rust.”
With the aid of a microscope it is an easy matter to see little tufts of -
the fungus seated upon the brown spots, and further manipulation shows
that these are made up of an immense number of spores or reprodue-
tive bodies. The reproductive bodies being very minute are easily
wafted from place to place by the wind, and when they fall upon healthy
vines, and the proper conditions of moisture and heat are present, they
germinate just as seed will germinate when placed in a warm, moist soil.
In germinating, the spores send out slender tubes which penetrate the
tissues and ultimately give rise to the ‘‘rust” spots again.
Heavy dews, fogs, or an excess of moisture in any form favors the
development of the fungus, and this fact explains why the rust usually
appears during the prevalence of wet weather. It is possible that the
disease may be prevented by the application of some substance to the
plants which will prevent the spores of the fungus from germinating,
but so far as we are aware no experiments having a bearing on this
question have been undertaken. By way of trial I would suggest that
you spray the vines with a solution made as follows, taking care to
thoroughly wet the leaves, but not to drench them:
Dissolve 1 pound of sulphate of copper in a gallon of hot water; to
this solution add 1 pint of liquid ammonia, a little at a time, until all
the copper is precipitated ; the liquid is then turbid and blue in color.
Add 2 or 3 gallons of water and let stand to settle. Pour off the clear
liquid, which contains sulphate of ammonia—the compound which causes
the burning of the leaves. Then pour upon the precipitate left in the
vessel just enough liquid ammonia to dissolve it. The result is a clear
liquid of a beautiful deep bluecolor. When required for use, dilute to
22 gallons.
It would be well to make one application of this solution about the
middle of July, as the disease rarely appears earlier than this date. It
must be borne in mind that the copper acts merely as a preventive,
therefore it shoulda be applied before the disease makes its appearance.
65
ANTHRACNOSE OF THE BEAN.
(Gleosporium lindemuthianum, Sacc. & Magnus.)
For the past eight or ten years the gardeners of this city have lost most of their bean
crops from the attacks of a peculiar disease. The malady appears suddenly, frequent-
ly destroying the entire crop in one night. I have tried many ways of planting, dif-
ferent fertilizers, etc., but so far I have failed to discover a remedy. The only definite
information that Iam able to give you in regard to the matter is that the disease is
always more abundant during warm, ‘‘muggy ” weather.—(V. Anseman, New Orleans,
La. )
Answer. The beans are affected with a parasitic fungus which grows
in the tissue of the pods, producing the large brown spots with which
you are familiar. The little pinkish, mealy tufts seen in the center of
the spots are the spores or reproductive bodies of the fungus. These
are easily blown about by the wind, and when they fall upon healthy
bean-pods they germinate, providing there is sufficient moisture present,
and ultimately produce similar discolorations to those referred to above.
The disease is usually more abundant where the plants are too thick,
or where there is an excess of moisture in the soil. In some cases,
however, even the most vigorous plants are attacked by it, and on this
account it has come to be regarded by many gardeners as a most dan-
gerous foe. There is considerable doubt as to how the fungus lives
over winter, and it seems probable that this may be more easily deter-
mined from beans grown in the South, since the winter form will de-
velop earlier than with us.
The probability is that the spores which you see on the spots, or other
spores of a similar nature, fall to the ground and retain their vitality
until spring, when they get upon the young beans. The pods are prob-
ably infected early, but the fungus needs moisture in order to develop,
and a long shower furnishes this. Hence, you find the pods spotted
immediately after. So far little is known concerning a remedy for this
disease. I would suggest, however, the following treatment in the hope
of discovering a remedy for the pest:
1. Soon after the beans begin forming, spray the plants with a solu-
tion made by dissolving 1 ounce of hyposulphite of soda in 1 gallon
of water. Apply this mixture thoroughly to the young pods; it is per-
fectly harmless, and no injury to the plants or the person will result
from its use. Repeat the operation when the pods are one-half or two.
thirds grown, and again eight or ten days later.
2. Apply as described above, but to different plants, a solution made
by dissolving one-fourth ounce of sulphide of potassium in 1 gallon
of water. The chemicals here mentioned are for sale by all druggists,
and they ought not to cost more than 10 cents per ounce. Besides this,
it will be well to carefully burn all the vines and diseased pods, and, if
possible, to select another site for your bean plot which will be as dry
and airy as possible.
11244—No. 8——5
66
‘¢MALARIAL GERM.”
A friend handed me on yesterday a report of the Section of Vegelable Pathology
for 1886. In Plate II, Fig. 4, of this report, I find an illustration of what I suppose
is the cause of most of the diseases incident to this climate. The following extract
from the Texas Medical Journal contains an account of the discovery of what I
suppose to be the true ‘‘ malarial germ.” It was in Navarro County, Tex., dur-
ing the summer of 1861, that I noticed a deposit similar to dust upon the leaves
of the oak. Finding this upon leaves remote from ways of travel, where there
could be no suspicion of dust, I was prompted to make an examination; but havy-
ing nothing to aid me except a small pocket microscope, I came to the conclusion
that it was simply mold. But if mold, why was it invariably found upon the upper
side of the leaf? Why had it not formed during the previous wet spell, when the
earth was saturated with water*and vegetation filled with sap? These and similar
reflections caused me to believe that this deposit was nothing but undeveloped spores
with which the atmosphere was filled during that season of the year; and that those
spores required, for their full development, heat and moisture, both of which would
be furnished by the sun and dew in which they were deposited. * * * If this hy-
pothesis be correct, then I thought that an atmosphere so vitiated would have a dele-
terious effect upon the human economy, and that each appearance of this deposit
would be followed by disease, the type of which would depend upon the quantity of
these spores in the atmosphere, as evidenced by the quantity of this deposit. Obser-
vation then fully convinced me of the truth of that hypothesis. And now, after an
observation and experience of more than a quarter of a century in Texas, I am fully
persuaded that the cause of malaria is a spore, which rises from a dry, though pre_
viously wet soil, and is suspended in the atmosphere until washed out by a general
rain-fall. That the sample sentyou by Dr. Osburn was deposited with the dew, upon
the leaf, and developed into a visible germ by the action of the sun, there can I think
be no possible doubt.—(John L. Felder, Cleybourne, Tex.)
Answer. In reply to your inquiries concerning the so-called “ malarial
germ,” I would say that the substance that you describe as occurring
upon oak leaves is probably one of the common powdery mildews which
is abundant throughout the entirecountry. This mildew is atrue plant,
just as much so in fact as the oak upon which it occurs; it of course
differs greatly in habit from the latter and it is placed much lower in
the plan of nature. Thereis fully as much difference, however, between
the germs which are believed to be the cause of many diseases of the
human family and the mildew upon the oak as exists between the former
and the oak itself. :
To botanists the mildew occurring upon oak leaves is known as
Microspheria quercina, and like all true plants it lives, grows, produces
bodies analogous to seed, and finally dies. The black capsules men-
tioned as being found upon the leaves are the sacs or receptacles which
contain the spores or reproductive bodies of the fungus. The spores
are produced Jate in the summer and they fall to the ground with the
leaves, remain dormant during the winter, and the following spring
are set free, and, being very light, are easily wafted from place to place
by the wind. When they fall upon the oak leaves and the proper con-
ditions of moisture and heat are present they germinate and give rise
to the same kind of whitish threads from which they were derived. As
67
to this fungus being the cause of fever or any similar disease there is
not the slightest grounds for such a belief. There may be some con-
nection, however, between the parasite and certain fevers, as the same
climatic conditions that favor one may also influence the other. There
are in the United States about seventy-five species of the so called
powdery mildews, which occur on Hees different host plants. I send
with this a few specimens.
o)
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