-
BOOK
UNIVERSITY OF LOOTON PRES
BOOK I— THE AMERICAS
Edited by JAMES FAIRGRIEVE, M.A., F.R.G.S.
N(
BY
Bool
Bool
Boo
In "
The
sw Regional Geographies
for
Secondary and High Schools
LEONARD BROOKS, M.A., F.R.G.S.
Geography Master at the William f/.'/s S:hool
£ I. THE AMERICAS. [Ready
^ II. ASIA & AUSTRALASIA. [In the Press
£ III. EUROPE & AFRICA. [In the Press
These text-books provide a geographical survey
of the World, and lead up to GEOGRAPHY
AND WORLD POWER, by JAMES FAIR-
GRIEVE, M.A., F.R.G.S., F.R.M.S., the
Editor of the Series. In this last volume a
complete revision for Matriculation purposes
is provided.
fnree Books. Well Illustrated. Cloth, 3s. each
AT
UNIVERSITY OF LONDON PRESS, LTD
ST. PAUL'S HOUSE, WARWICK SQUARE,
E.G.
A REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY
OF
THE AMERICAS
BY
LEONARD BROOKS, M.A. (Gamb.)
F.R.G.S.
GEOGRAPHY MASTER AT THE WILLIAM ELLIS SCHOOL
GOSPEL OAK, N.W.
Xonoon : "{University of Xonoon press,
AT ST. PAUL'S HOUSE, WARWICK SQUARE, E.C.
1916
AUTHOR'S PREFACE
THIS book is the first of a series of four which are intended
to be used as text-books in the last four years of geographical
work in Secondary Schools. It deals with The Americas, and
the treatment is regional. There should be no sharp dis-
tinction between what is known as " Physical " and " General "
Geography. The chief facts of physical geography should
be introduced into the school course just where they come
quite naturally. In this book emphasis has been laid upon
that part of physical geography which deals with structure, the
Ice Age, river work, etc., but this has not been done to the
neglect of the historical, human and economic sides. Many
opportunities are given to encourage map drawing, and the
graphical representation of climatic data, trade returns, the
construction of population maps, etc. The latter exercises
are especially suitable at this stage of geography teaching.
In the second book, Asia and Australasia will be taken, and
emphasis will be laid upon the meteorological side of
geography, whilst in the third, when Africa and Europe will
be dealt with, the bias will be more definitely an economic
one. Thus the groundwork of General and Physical Geography
will have been covered, and the pupils prepared for a revision
of the whole world from a new point of view as given in
the fourth book, " Geography and World Power," in which
Mr. Fairgrieve has shown the influence of geographical
conditions upon world history.
Acknowledgments are due to the Royal Mail Steam Packet
Co. for permission to use the photograph of St. Lucia ; to
the Canadian Government for Figs. 23, 31 to 34; to the
vi AUTHOR'S PREFACE
Provincial Government of British Columbia for Fig. 36 ; and
to the Moravian Mission Society for Figs. 24 and 25.
In the preparation of this book, the author gratefully
acknowledges the help which he has received from The
Statesman's Year Hook, The American Reference Book, the
publications of the Canadian Government, and the works
of Professor I. C. Russell and the late Professor A. J.
Herbertson.
L. B.
Hampstead Garden Suburb, N. IV,,
November /<?/
INTRODUCTION
THIS series of books provides a course of world geography
for the three years immediately preceding that during which
special preparation is made for the Matriculation Examination.
The ground is covered in an order which has in practice
at the William Ellis School for the last eight years been
found extremely satisfactory. Account is taken of the
fact that the pupils are advancing in ability, so that while
there is a certain uniformity in that each book provides a
north and south section of the world, yet the arrangement
is such that the matter increases in difficulty.
It is only fair to say that, though Mr. Brooks has adopted
some of the special features of the scheme he found at the
William Ellis School, his general treatment is entirely original.
JAMES FAIRGRIEVE.
November 1915.
Vll
CONTENTS
CHAP. PAGE
I THE DISCOVERY OF NORTH AMERICA . . I
II THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF NORTH AMERICA . 9
III HOW THE MOUNTAINS, PLATEAUX AND PLAINS
WERE MADE . . . . .s .1?
IV THE GREAT ICE AGE ..... 30
V THE DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE AND RAIN-
FALL IN NORTH AMERICA .... 34
VI THE PLANTS AND ANIMALS OF NORTH AMERICA 44
VII THE PEOPLE AND POLITICAL DIVISIONS OF NORTH
AMERICA ...... 51
VIII BRITISH NORTH AMERICA: NEWFOUNDLAND . 62
IX THE MARITIME PROVINCES OF CANADA . . 65
X THE BASIN OF THE ST. LAWRENCE AND THE
GREAT LAKES *,. . . . .68
XI THE HUDSON BAY AREA . . . ,; 80
XII THE CENTRAL PLAINS OF CANADA ... 82
XIII THE WESTERN HIGHLANDS (INCLUDING ALASKA) 89
XIV THE CHIEF CANADIAN RAILWAY COMMUNICA-
TIONS ....... 98
XV THE GROWTH OF CANADA : ITS POPULATION AND
TRADE ....... IOO
ix
x CONTENTS
CHAP. PAGE
XVI THE UNITED STATES. NEW ENGLAND . . 107
XVII THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS . . .Ill
XVIII THE CENTRAL PLAINS OF THE UNITED STATES . I2O
XIX THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER AND THE WORK IT IS
DOING ....... 131
XX THE WESTERN HIGHLANDS . . . .141
XXI THE GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES : HER
POPULATION AND TRADE . . . -151
XXII LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE : LONGITUDE AND
TIME ....... 156
XXIII MEXICO . . . . . . i6l
XXIV CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE WEST INDIES . 166
XXV THE DISCOVERY OF SOUTH AMERICA . . 175
xxvi SOUTH AMERICA: PHYSICAL FEATURES . . 181
XXVII THE CLIMATE OF SOUTH AMERICA . . .189
XXVIII THE DISTRIBUTION OF NATURAL VEGETATION . 196
XXIX THE NATURAL REGIONS OF SOUTH AMERICA . 2OI
XXX THE COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA . . 2l6
XXXI COMMUNICATIONS AND TRANSPORT: THE DIS-
TRIBUTION OF POPULATION . . .22"]
INDEX ....... 231
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG. PAGE
1. The stepping-stones by which the Norsemen reached
America . . . . ... .2
2. The world, as known before the great voyage of Columbus 3
3. Stepping-stones to the Indies ..... 4
4. Distances in North America . . ' . .11
5. Key to the relief of Western North America . . . 13
6. Section across the Eastern Highlands . . . .15
7. Chief structural divisions of North America . . . 18
8. The formation of folded ranges . . . . .19
9. Diagrams showing more complicated folding . . 20
10. Diagrams to illustrate faults . . . , . 20
11. Sections of a laccolite . . . .. . . .21
12. Diagram to illustrate the formation of Block Mountains . 21
13. Diagram illustrating faulted and tilted rock . . .21
14. The volcanic girdle of the Pacific . . . .23
15. Diagrammatic section of a volcano . . . 24
1 6. Map of Mount Mazama and Crater Lake . . -25
17. January temperature map of North America . .36
1 8. July temperature map of North America ... 37
19. Seasonal distribution of rainfall in North America . 39
20. Mean annual rainfall of North America ... 40
21. Diagram to illustrate the chinook wind . . 41
22. The distribution of natural vegetation in North America 45
23. Coniferous trees in the Pacific forests .... 47
xii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
FIG.
PAGE
24. Eskimos in kayaks - 52
25. Group of Eskimos ... . • 53
26. The fishing grounds of Eastern Canada . 63
27. The Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence . 69
28. Diagram to show the position of Niagara Falls . 71
29. Diagrammatic section of Niagara Falls . . 72
30. The position of Montreal . . 75
31. View of Ottawa ... 76
32. View of Quebec . 78
33. The stock-rearing lands of Western Canada . . 84
34. A young prairie town ... -85
35. Map of the north-west coast . 91
36. An irrigated fruit orchard . . -94
37. Route across the Canadian Rockies . -95
38. The Fall Line .112
39. The environs of New York .... .114
40. The Hudson-Mohawk Gap . . . . . 115
41. The chief routes of Eastern United States . . .116
42. The Central Plains 121
43. Map of a portion of the course of the Kansas River . 135
44. The formation of ox-bow lakes ..... 136
45. The delta of the Mississippi 138
46. River profiles . . . '^S . . . 1 39
47. Section of a river valley from youth to old age . 139
48. The Western States 142
49. Section of a river valley, in horizontal strata . . 145
50. San Francisco and its environs . . . . 147
51. How the United States acquired her territory . -152
52. Diagram showing that latitude and longitude are angular
measurements . . . . . . .157
53. Time belts in North America . . . . 159
54. Map of Mexico 164
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xiii
FIG. PAGE
55. Former connection between Central America and the
Greater Antilles ....... 167
56. Map of the Panama Canal . . . " '. - . .168
57. View in St. Lucia . . . . . . .172
58. Chief events in the discovery of South America . . 176
59. The chief structural divisions of South America . .182
60. The drainage of South America ..... 186
61. January temperature map of South America . . . 190
62. July temperature map of South America . . . 191
63. Mean annual rainfall of South America . . . 192
64. Seasonal distribution of rain in South America . . 193
65. The distribution of natural vegetation in South America 197
66. Natural regions of South America .... 202
67. The River Cassiquiare ...... 203
68. Map of the Colombian region ..... 209
69. Map of the Peruvian and Bolivian Plateaux . . .211
70. Chief products of South America ..... 217
71. Means of communication ...... 221
72. Distribution of the population in South America . . 229
A REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY
OF THE AMERICAS
CHAPTER I.
|
THE DISCOVERY OF NORTH AMERICA.
The Norse Discovery. — The discovery of North America is
generally accredited to Christopher Columbus, but we now
know that hundreds of years earlier, the continent was reached
by Norsemen. Fig. i shows the stepping-stones by which
Norse explorations expanded. They are the Shetlands, the
Faroes, Iceland and Greenland. Near the end of the tenth
century, Eric the Red, outlawed from Norway on account of
his misdeeds, sought refuge in Iceland, which was then well
known. His lawlessness brought about his exile from that
island, and he sailed westwards to the land he named Green-
land, as a contrast to Iceland, and in order to tempt men to
go there. Greenland had been reached about a hundred
years before, but no attempt at settlement had been made.
When the period of his exile was completed, Eric returned to
Iceland in order to obtain colonists for Greenland. In this
task he was successful, and founded a colony which lasted for
four hundred years.
In the year 1000 A.D., Leif Ericson, son of Eric the Red,
landed on the mainland, and gave the names Helluland, or
slab land, on account of the great extent of rough flat rock ;
Markland, or tree land, and Vinland, or vine land. These
places were probably Newfoundland, Nova Scotia and some
part of the New England States respectively. Attempts at
colonization were not successful, and after the failure of the
colony of Greenland, settlement in America came to an end.
B
2 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
The Voyages of Christopher Columbus. — It was from the
voyages of Christopher Columbus and his contemporaries that
the existence of an American continent was made known
to the world, for at the time of these voyages people were
quite ignorant of the discoveries of the Norsemen. Fig. 2
shows the world as it was known to Europeans before the
FIG. i. — The stepping-stones by which the Norsemen reached America,
and the route taken by Columbus on his great voyage.
journey of Columbus. You will see that nothing was known
of America or Australia as well as of very large tracts of Asia
and Africa.
Columbus was born at Genoa about the year 1447, and first
went to sea when a boy of fourteen. When twenty-seven years
of age he went to Portugal and worked as a sailor, taking part in
journeys southwards as far as the Guinea coast and northwards
DISCOVERY OF NORTH AMERICA
as far as Iceland. At this time there lived in Florence a
doctor and astronomer named Paul Toscanelli, who wrote a
pamphlet, illustrated by a map, describing a new method of
reaching the riches of the east by sailing to the west. In
doing this he was reviving the work of the Greek geographer,
Ptolemy, whom he followed in under-estimating the size of the
earth, for he said that the distance between Western Europe
and Eastern Asia was about 5,000 miles. Toscanelli also
suggested that there were stepping-stones on the way from the
FIG. 2. — The unshaded area shows how much of the world was known
when Columbus made his great voyage in 1492.
West Coast of Africa to the Indies. They were the Canaries,
Antilia and Cipangu (Fig. 3). The last named was Japan,
whilst Antilia was a fabled island of seven cities, in which two
archbishops and five bishops had settled during the eighth
century. The word is now preserved in the names Greater
and Lesser Antilles, into which the West Indies are classified.
Columbus saw one of Toscanelli's pamphlets, and adopted all
his ideas, and it was this which filled him with the burning
desire to attempt the voyage. Although no copy of Tosca-
nelli's map now exists, it can be reconstructed from the first
globe which was made in 1492 by Behaim, one of the
GEOGRAPHY OF THE [AMERICAS
contemporaries of Columbus. He, too, adopted Toscanelli's
scheme ; and his globe, which is still preserved in Nuremberg,
shows no continent between the west coast of North America
and the east coast of Asia, but clearly marks the stepping-stones
referred to.
The Portuguese were too busy with their own schemes of
reaching the Indies by rounding the south of Africa, and
Columbus was refused help. This he sought in Spain, where
he was called before a council of scholars at Salamanca.
Columbus, of course, believed that the world was a sphere,
V »
•*&> Ca*
r,* •?» «5
. Spice <3
te<^£??«
AntJlia Canary-
FIG. 3. — The stepping-stones to the Indies.
and that the east could be reached by sailing westwards.
This was not accepted by his questioners, who showed the lack
of geographical knowledge in those days by asking such ques-
tions as, " Do you mean to tell us that there are people who
live on the opposite side of the earth, and that they walk with
their feet opposite to ours, and their heads hanging downwards;
that there is a part of the world where it rains, hails and
snows upwards ? " They also declared that even if men did
get to the other side of the world they would be unable to
return, for the rotundity of the earth would present a huge
mountain up which no boat could sail.
However, after many disappointments, Columbus was at last
given the help without which he could not have made his
DISCOVERY OF NORTH AMERICA 5
voyage, for he was a poor man, and on Friday, August 3, 1492,
set sail from Palos in charge of three small ships, the Santa
Maria, the Pinta and the Nina. The total crew numbered
eighty-eight, and these were obtained with the greatest diffi-
culty, the pressgang having to be resorted to. It is interesting
to notice that among the crew were one Englishman and one
Irishman. First the Canaries were made for, and a stay of
one month was made here. On September 9 the Canaries
were left behind, and Columbus steered his ship due west to
find out the mystery of the great unknown (see Fig. i). The
reason for this course was the map of Toscanelli. On
October 12, after many evidences of its presence, land was
sighted. It was soon realized that only a very small island
had been reached. To this island Columbus gave the name
San Salvador, but it is now known as Watling Island.
Sailing westwards, Cuba was reached, and later the large island
of Haiti, which was named Hispaniola. Off this island the
Santa Maria was wrecked, and since the Pinta had deserted
off Cuba, the Nina prepared to make the return journey alone,
but was rejoined by the Pinta soon after leaving. Columbus
had, however, formed a settlement, which he named La Na-
vidad, and left in charge forty-five men who were to get
together as much gold, spices, etc. as possible. On the
outward journey, the steady N.E. trade winds had been of
great help, and owing to the more northerly course taken on
the return journey, a quick passage was made, thanks to
the westerly winds (see Fig. i). On arriving in Spain
Columbus was received with great honour, his progress to the
court of Ferdinand and Isabella at Barcelona being one long
triumph.
In the autumn of 1493 Columbus made preparations for
another journey, and this time had no difficulty in obtaining a
fleet of seventeen ships and the necessary crews. There were
more than one thousand men, whilst the number of stowaways
is said to have been about a hundred. Practically the same
course as before was taken, but this time the island of Domi-
nica was touched first. Many of the neighbouring islands
were discovered and named ; but Columbus was most anxious
to reach Hispaniola to see how the men left behind at
La Navidad had been faring. To his dismay he found the
settlement in ruins, and learned of the fate of the men them-
6 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
selves. Some had died of sickness, the rest had quarrelled
and split up into small parties which raided the natives until
the latter had turned upon them and killed the remainder. A
new settlement was made, but it was soon apparent that these
islands did not produce the great wealth of gold, silver,
precious stones and spices which it was expected would be
found. Neither were there great cities to sack. Discontent
broke out, and many men drifted home. It is not necessary
to go into the unhappy quarrels and disagreements between
Columbus and the leaders, suffice it to say that in 1496 he had
to return to Spain in order to give at court an account of
his governorship. On this return voyage the course was set
against the trade winds, and a long and arduous journey was
the result.
Columbus made two more voyages, the third in 1498, and
the fourth and last in 1502. On the former he discovered the
island of Trinidad and saw the low const of the Orinoco, which
he believed to be another island. He revisited Hispaniola,
and found that conditions had reached a state of grave dis-
order. He was not able to set matters straight, and complaints
having reached Spain, a commission was sent out to make
inquiries. Columbus was arrested, and sent back to Spain in
chains. Upon his arrival he was freed, but was never restored
to favour, and did not forget the great injustice.
On his fourth and last voyage westwards he was forbidden
to land in Hispaniola. He reached the mainland of Central
America and sailed along the coast of Honduras, but still
found no sign of the great cities of Cathay, although he still
believed very firmly that he had reached the Indies, and
died, not knowing that he had really reached a continent, of
whose existence he had not dreamed. But he had proved
to sailors that there was no danger in boldly striking out into
the ocean. It had taken the Portuguese from 1418 to 1486
to reach the Cape of Good Hope, for they adopted the slow
method of clinging to the coast. Following the example of
Columbus, Vasco da Gama in 1497 made the journey from
Portugal to the Cape. Columbus died in 1506 at Valladolid.
Once Columbus had led the way to the west it was not very
difficult for others to follow. In 1497 John Cabot, a Venetian
resident in Bristol, obtained permission from Henry VII to
make an expedition towards the west. Taking a more northerly
DISCOVERY OF NORTH AMERICA 7
course than Columbus, he reached the coast-line of North
America, probably at Cape Breton Island, whilst he also saw
the large island of Newfoundland. On his return the thrifty
king rewarded Cabot by a grant of ^10. In 1498 a second
voyage was made, but John Cabot died during the outward
journey. Command was taken by his son Sebastian, who
succeeded in exploring a considerable extent of Canadian
coast-line.
The voyages of Amerigo Vespucci, of whom we shall learn
later, demonstrated that the Indies were still further eastwards,
and that a new land had been reached. The Portuguese,
after the successful journey of Vasco da Gama, succeeded in
their quest for a method of reaching the Indies by sailing
round the south of Africa, and the Spaniards were shown the
way westwards by Magellan, who rounded Cape Horn and
crossed the Pacific twenty-two years later. After some time
attempts were made to find a north-west route to the far east,
and if you examine your map of North America you will find
the names of the famous sailors who sought this passage per-
petuated in the names given to most of the bays, islands, etc.
They were Davis, Baffin, Hudson, Frobisher, Franklin and
others. It was not until 1903-6 that Captain Amundsen
navigated a boat round the north of Canada. The commercial
value of this passage is nil.
Now let us return to the Spanish discoveries in the West
Indies. By the year 1518, that is, twenty-six years after the
first landing of Columbus, the whole of the West Indies had
been discovered, coasting voyages had been made along the
east coast of Central America, and some settlements had been
made. Balboa had crossed the narrow isthmus of Panama
and had seen the Pacific Ocean. To the governor of Cuba,
Velasquez, were brought stories of natives quite unlike the
semi-savages of the West Indies. These were reported to live
among the high mountains in lands to the north and south of
the isthmus from which Balboa had seen the great ocean beyond,
and these countries were stated to be exceedingly rich in gold.
Hernando Cortes was instructed to investigate these stories in
the lands to the north, and he sailed from Cuba in November
1518. After calling at several places along the coast, he
selected a suitable point from which to begin his expedition
into the interior. The collection of huts which he built was
8 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
named Vera Cruz, and on its site is the modern port of the
same name. You should read elsewhere the full story of the
conquest of Mexico, for it is one of absorbing interest. After
two years, full of fighting and exciting incidents, Cortes became
master of Mexico, having conquered the Aztecs and captured
their capital, Mexico City. The astonishment of the Indians
when they first saw the strange dress, armour, cannon, and
horses of the invaders, was equalled by that of the Spaniards
when they found a very large population, well-built cities,
elaborate temples, and rich fields of maize. Mexico was soon
found to be enormously rich in gold and silver, which found
their way to Spain in great quantities. Very soon the whole
of Mexico and Central America had been discovered.
From Mexico the Spaniards later spread northwards, and
occupied the land which now forms the south-western states of
the United States. Ferdinand de Soto tried to find another
El Dorado in the countries to the north of the Gulf of Mexico,
and landed in Florida in 1539. From there he travelled
westwards until the Mississippi was reached, afterwards fol-
lowing that river as far as its junction with the Missouri.
Excursions were also made in the vast plains to the west of the
Mississippi, but no " lands of gold " were found. Instead,
his followers suffered untold hardships and privations, and
often were attacked by Indians. De Soto died of fever, and
after four years of wanderings the survivors returned to Cuba.
The first exploration of the St. Lawrence valley was accom-
plished by Frenchmen, Cartier (1535) and Champlain (1608).
It only remains to mention that Sir Francis Drake, the first
Englishman to sail round the world (1577-80), was the first
European to sail along the coast of north-western United
States. He called the country New Albion, and took posses-
sion of it in the name of Queen Elizabeth. Juan de Fuca
reached Vancouver Island in 1592, and reported that there
was a great inland sea, and this fostered the belief in a
north-west passage. Note the position of the strait which
bears his name. The maps of the period joined north-west
America to Asia, but the voyages of Bering in 1741 and
Captain Cook in 1774 corrected this.
CHAPTER II.
THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF NORTH AMERICA.
I. THE MAKING OF THE CONTINENT.
As we look at the map of North America and see to the
west a great system of mountain ranges and plateaux, to the
east another lower highland mass, and between these vast
plains, do we not wonder how these things came into exist-
ence? We have learned how America became known to
Europeans through the voyages of Columbus, and later we
shall learn of the discoveries of Vespucci, Magellan and other
great seamen. We know that white men have inhabited this
continent since the days of those voyages, and that before
them the red man had the land to himself. But the story of
the growth of the continent itself goes very much further back.
Continents are not made quickly : it takes probably millions
and millions of years, just how many we do not know. The
history of the making of a continent can be read in its rocks.
Men who study the rocks of which our lands are made are
called geologists ; but although they have been able to tell us
much, there is still a great deal that we do not know.
It is believed that at one time the earth was a very hot
sphere like the sun, and, like the latter, gave off heat into
space. Then the earth cooled very gradually, and after a
very long time the crust of solid rock was formed. The
interior of the earth is still hot. The temperature is much
higher at the bottom of a deep mine than at the surface ; and
you know that there are springs which give out hot water,
geysers which send into the air columns of boiling water, and
volcanoes from which pour streams of hot lava. These show
us that the interior of the earth is still very hot, although the
crust of rock has become quite cold. Indeed, it cannot
become cool, for all the time it is getting less or contracting,
and this process keeps up the heat. You must have noticed
9
io GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
that when an apple is drying the skin forms wrinkles. This
simple fact will help you to understand many things. We
have said that the interior of the earth is very hot, and is
always contracting as it cools. The skin of the apple forms
those wrinkles because it does not contract like the centre,
but has to accommodate itself to a smaller interior. In just
the same way, whilst the interior of the earth was slowly con-
tracting, the outer crust of solid rock had to wrinkle, crack
and settle down upon an interior of diminishing size. In the
great hollows or basins water collected, and oceans were
formed. The tops of the wrinkles and the higher rock areas
stood out above the waters and formed mountain chains and
land masses. Thus, very simply and briefly, you see how the
continents were made. You must be careful not to think that
the parts of the earth which are above the waters to-day have
always been so. During the long history of the continents
very many changes have taken place, and vast areas which
once were continents, are now the beds of the oceans and
vice versa.
Now let us learn something of the growth of North America.
The oldest part of the continent is the Laurentian highland
district of Eastern Canada. Although called a highland area,
it is not high enough to deserve the name of mountainous.
It was once very much higher, however, and during the count-
less ages it has been much worn down. Round this ancient
portion the rest of the continent appears to have grown. Next
in age are the Eastern Highlands, or Appalachian system,
which were pressed into folds and uplifted. Later came the
western range and plateaux. Of course, the uplift of these
great mountains would take place very slowly. Lastly,, the
plains themselves appeared and the greater part of the present
continent stood out from the ocean.
II. SHAPE, SIZE AND POSITION OF NORTH AMERICA.
Turn in your atlas to the map of North America. You will
notice that it is roughly triangular in shape, and that it is
broadest in the north. You will see that Alaska conies very
close to Asia, whilst the north-east corner is a long way from
Europe. What ocean washes its western shores ? Its eastern
and northern shores ? You will notice that in the south of
STRUCTURE OF NORTH AMERICA n
Mexico is a narrow, low isthmus, called the Isthmus of Tehu-
antepec. That is the southern boundary of North America,
which includes Mexico, the United States, Canada and Alaska.
FIG. 4.— -The circle has a radius equal to 1,250 miles. Places within the
dotted lines are more than 500 and 750 miles, respectively, from the sea.
In area, the continent is about 9,000,000 square miles, which
is two and a half times that of Europe.
Observe the position of North America with regard to the
12 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
Tropic of Capricorn and the Arctic Circle. You will see that
the whole of it, with the exception of the southern portion of
Mexico, lies outside the tropics, whilst the great islands in the
Arctic Ocean and the north coast-lands lie within the Arctic
Circle. The greater portion of the continent is in temperate
latitudes, and these lands have a great stretch in longitude,
that is, in an east and west direction. Look at Fig. 4, which
shows that North America is a fairly compact land mass. It
will be seen that a large part of the continent lies within a
circle of 1,250 miles radius, whilst the area which is more
than 750 miles from the nearest sea is not very large. It
should be noted, however, that 750 miles is a long way from
the sea. In Europe it is only in Russia that it is possible to
get 500 miles from the sea.
III. THE BUILD OF THE CONTINENT.
Let us first take a general look at the physical features of
North America. The three great divisions to which reference
has already been made are at once noted. They are —
1. The Western Highlands.
2. The lower Eastern Highlands.
3. The plains which occupy the trough between them.
i. The Western Highlands. — You will see that these are
much higher and broader than the Eastern Highlands. Where
are they broadest ? How broad are they here ? An examina-
tion of the map will show you that the Western Highlands
consist of very long, high ranges of mountains which run in a
north and south direction, and that between these ranges are
high plateaux which are themselves crossed by mountain
ranges. What range forms the eastern edge of the system?
Trace this range southwards into Mexico, where it is known
as the Sierra Madre or Mother Range. Fig. 5 will be of great
help in tracing these ranges. What range forms the coastal
mountains of Canada? Trace these further south and notice
that they are known as the Sierra Nevadas in the United
States. You will see that the western Sierra Madre forms
the western edge of the Mexican plateau. Look now at the
peninsula of Lower California and you will see that it consists
of a long chain of mountains. Trace these northwards, and
STRUCTURE OF NORTH AMERICA 13
notice that they become the Coast Range of the United States.
Where is there a break in this range? Further northwards
you will see that the Coast Range is represented by the islands
FIG. 5. — Key to the build of Western North America.
off the west coast of Canada. Between this long series of
coastal ranges, represented by Lower California, the Coast
Range and the islands, which are the higher parts of an old
range, and the western edge of the great western mountain
system, represented by the Cascades and Sierra Nevadas and
i4 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
the western Sierra Madre, are portions of the plain which
once probably ran the whole distance. The Gulf of California
is a sunken portion ; behind San Francisco you can see it in
the plains of the Sacramento and Joaquin rivers. To the
north of this plain notice the great volcanic peak of Mount
Shasta which blocks the valley. Further northwards the plain
reappears, and in Canada is represented by the drowned land
between the islands mentioned and the coast (see Fig. 35).
This complete system of mountain ranges and plateaux is
known as the Western Cordillera.
2. The Eastern Highlands. These include —
(a) The Laurentian Highlands of Eastern Canada.
We have already referred to these highlands as being the
oldest part of the continent. The region is an ancient high-
land area which has been worn down. It sinks in the west to
the central plains and rises to about a mile in height in the
Labrador peninsula. Its western end is marked by a chain of
great lakes.
(U) The Appalachian System.
This system extends from Newfoundland almost to the Gulf
of Mexico, running for about 2,000 miles in a north-east to south-
west direction. The Hudson River divides it into the North
ern and Southern Appalachians. Which are higher? In the
northern section, subsidence has separated Newfoundland and
Labrador from the rest, and has caused the lowlands to be
drowned. You will observe that much of the Northern
Appalachians is low land, and it consists mainly of hard rock.
The coast of Maine is bold and rocky, although it does not
reach a height of 600 feet above sea level. South of the
Hudson the Appalachians are much higher, and we can easily
distinguish —
(1) The Alleghany Plateau in the west. This plateau rises
gradually from the lowlands of the Mississippi
basin, and has a steep eastern slope facing south-
east. This steep slope is called an escarpment.
(2) The Appalachian Valley. This broad valley is be-
tween the Alleghany plateau on the west and the
parallel ridges of the Appalachians on the east.
(3) The Appalachians. These mountains are a series of
(4)
STRUCTURE OF NORTH AMERICA 15
parallel ranges and valleys, which until the days of
railways made east and west travelling very difficult
indeed. To the east they sink to the Piedmont
plateau, which, as its name implies, is at the foot
of the Appalachians. From the Piedmont plateau
eastwards and southwards to the coast are —
The Coastal Plains. These Atlantic and Gulf plains
are composed of newer rocks, and have been made
by uplift which has added to the continent at
different times land which was formerly under the
sea. The coast-line here is not like that of Maine.
Why ? Examine Fig. 6, which shows a section
across the Eastern Highlands.
FIG. 6. — A diagrammatic section across the Eastern Highlands.
3. The Central Plains. These occupy about one-third of
the continent. To the west they rise very gradually to the
Rockies. Notice how very low the divide is between the
Mississippi and the Red River. You will see that the same is
true of the divides between most of the rivers of the plains.
The Mackenzie drains the plains northwards, the Nelson,
Churchill and St. Lawrence eastwards, and the Mississippi
southwards. The map shows a very large number of lakes
on the northern plains. This Lake Plain, which surrounds
Hudson Bay, is composed of old hard rock which has been
glaciated. Hudson Bay itself is very shallow, and has been
formed by the sinking of the land.
In this brief sketch of the build of the continent you must
have noticed the references to sinking and uplifting. Gather-
ing together what has been learned, we see that sinking has
taken place on the north-west, the northern and north-east
coasts, whilst coastal plains have been formed by uplift along
the coast from the Hudson to Texas. The plateaux of south-
western North America have also been considerably uplifted.
1 6 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
This points to the fact that the 'whole of the north of North
America, roughly from the Hudson River to the Columbia
River, has been sinking, and this has caused a corresponding
uplift in the south.
EXERCISES.
1. Using your physical map of North America, draw three sections
across the continent from west to east, and one from north to south. Be
careful not to exaggerate the vertical scale too much.
2. Make a map to show the physical features of North America.
Select three contours from your atlas, and show the position of the great
mountain ranges by printing their names in correct position.
3. What change would there he in the appearance of North America
(i) if the continent were uplifted 600 feet ; (ii) if the continent were
submerged 600 feet ?
4. Turn to Fig. 60, which shows the drainage areas of South America.
Make a similar map for North America, shaded so as to show the areas
drained (i) to the Arctic ; (ii) to the Atlantic ; (iii) to the Pacific ; (iv) to
continental basins. What broad comparisons do you notice between this
map and Fig. 60 ?
CHAPTER III.
HOW THE MOUNTAINS, PLATEAUX AND PLAINS
WERE MADE.
WE have been speaking of mountain ranges, plateaux and
plains and we shall now learn something of the way in which
they were made. You remember that the interior of the earth
is gradually cooling and that this causes it to contract, whilst
this contraction in turn causes the hard crust of rock to
sink, wrinkle, or crumple. Fig. 7 shows the chief structural
divisions of North America, and you will see from it that the
Western Highlands consist of plateaux and several types of
mountains ; the Central Plains of a worn-down highland and a
large area of sedimentary rocks ; and the Eastern Highlands of
mountains which are the remains of a much older mountain
system.
MOUNTAINS.
We shall first consider what are known as folded mountains.
i. Folded Mountains. — Suppose there are some pieces of
thick cloth of similar size placed in a pile as in Fig. 8. At one
end there is a block of wood which is nailed so as to keep in
position. At the other end is another block which is not fixed.
If the latter be pushed towards the fixed block, the pieces of
cloth will be thrown into a fold or folds which will become
more pronounced the more the block of wood is pushed along.
In a similar way, if lateral or side pressure is exerted the rocks
composing the crust of the earth will be forced to take up less
space and crumpling will follow. Very often a number of
parallel ranges is the result, as in the Jura Mountains between
France and Switzerland, or in the first foldings of the
Appalachian Mountains. Of course, the folds are not always
so simple as they are in Fig. 8, and sometimes they take the
forms shown in Fig. 9. Neither do the rocks always bend
17 c
I
GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
hern limit reached by Ice sheets
Jhe Western Cordillera
l of young folded mountains.
plateaux, fault block
mountains, volcanoes, etc.
pip] Unfolded plains of
sedimentary rocks.
Plains of Denudation
The thick dotted line marks the Sou
FIG. 7. — The chief structural divisions of North America.
THE MAKING OF THE MOUNTAINS
without breaking, despite the fact that the pressure may be
steadily exerted over a great length of time. Very often
breaking or faulting takes place whilst the rocks are assuming
folds and a slipping or falling of the strata takes place along
the fault (Fig. 10).
Examples of folded ranges in the Americas are found in the
Rockies, Cascades, Sierra Nevadas, Coast Range and Andes.
We must not forget, however, that as soon as mountains begin
,. Fixed
FIG. 8. — -Diagram to illustrate the formation of folded ranges.
to grow, the forces of nature, such as running water, frost, ice,
wind, etc., all set to work to reduce them. This process of
wearing down and sculpturing is known as denudation. We
have just learned that the chief cause of earth folding is the
crumpling of the earth's crust, due to the contraction of the
interior; but another very simple cause may be mentioned
here. We shall learn later of the work carried on by rivers
and of the immense loads of rock waste which, in the course of
time, they remove from the higher to the lower parts of their
20
GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
basins. The Mississippi alone carries to its delta 400,000,000
tons of sediment every year. This transference of such
enormous weights of material from high lands to plains is in
FIG. 9. — These diagrams illustrate more complicated folding. A shows
a series of overfolds ; B illustrates what is known as Jan structure, in
which there are many minor folds on the flanks of the main uplift.
Naturally, denudation makes great changes in the appearance of
both A and B.
itself sufficient to provide the lateral force necessary to cause
the earth's crust to fold.
B
FIG. 10. — Diagrams to illustrate faults in horizontal and folded strata.
Another type of folded mountain is produced as follows :
Lava is sometimes forced upwards and introduced beneath
layers of rocks which are thus compelled to assume a dome-
THE MAKING OF THE MOUNTAINS 21
shaped or mushroom-shaped uplift, the plan of its base being
a circle. Fig. n illustrates this. An uplift of this kind is
known as a laccolite.
The best examples of mountain masses of this type are
the Henry Mountains of Southern Utah and there are also
many examples in the Rockies. Naturally, denudation will
considerably modify their original appearance.
FIG. ii. — Diagram to illustrate the formation of a dome-shaped uplift
caused by the intrusion of lava.
2. Mountains due to Faulting. — These are sometimes known
as fault block mountains and there are many examples of these
in the Western Cordilleras of the Americas. Fig. 1 2 illustrates
the formation of the simplest type of block mountains. In the
Blo ck Mountain
Bio ck Mountain.
FIG. 12. — This figure illustrates the formation of block mountains as being
due to faulting, separating blocks of crust from each other.
Great Basin of the Western Highlands of North America (see
Fig. 5) there are many examples of another type of block
mountain and Fig. 13 explains how these are formed. Instead
of folding, faults occur and the blocks of strata are uplifted
and tilted. Such mountains have a steep slope and a gradual
slope. In a region like the Great Basin where denudation
does not take place so rapidly the steep slopes often preserve
their cliff-like appearances. Some of these mountains are from
4,000 to 5,000 feet high; they vary in width from 10 to 20
miles, and in length from 50 to 100 miles. Most of them run
22
GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
north and south, a direction followed by the rivers, which
generally end in salt lakes. The tilting of these blocks has
not yet ceased, for earthquakes are not uncommon. Even a
movement of a few inches would be sufficient to cause earth
tremors, whilst a sudden movement of about a foot would
cause very disastrous earthquakes.
3. Residual Mountains. — These are mountains which owe
their origin to the fact that some of the land has been worn
away and intervening portions have been left standing as high
ground. They, too, have been lowered, but not so quickly as
their surroundings. The Appalachians may be placed under
this heading. Originally they were a series of folded ranges
and these were worn down to a plateau. Then this plateau
was uplifted from 1,000 to 2,000 feet and denudation was
hastened. The rivers have carried away the softer layers of
a. Gradual Slope
b. Steep Slope or Escarpment
. f. fault
Debris carried fron
Mountains by wind
and streams.
FIG. 13. — This diagram shows strata which have been faulted and tilted.
rock, thus etching out the hard rocks as mountain ridges. It
is these latter which at present form the parallel ridges already
referred to (see p. 15). In our own country, the Highlands of
Scotland are residual mountains, for they have been made by
the denudation of an old plateau.
4. Volcanoes, or mountains of accumulation, have been
made by the piling up of material on the surface of the earth.
Most of the processes of nature go on almost unnoticed and
without great violence. In earthquakes, hurricanes, and storms
of thunder and lightning we see something of nature's violence,
but most of all in the eruption of a great volcano, for not only
is the sight itself terrible to behold, but prosperous cities are
• overwhelmed and often thousands of lives are lost. We have
learned that deep in the earth are rocks which are heated to a
very high temperature, and to this we can now add that the
pressure of the rocks above them is so great that they cannot
become liquid until that pressure is diminished. Fig. 14 shows
THE MAKING OF THE MOUNTAINS
23
some of the volcanoes of the Americas. You will notice that
they are all on the great northern and southern line of the west
coast bordering the Pacific Ocean. The same figure shows
that the volcanic belt is continued through the Aleutian
Islands and along the peninsula of Kamchatka, through the
FIG. 14. — The volcanic girdle of the Pacific Ocean,
represent volcanoes.
The dots
eastern festoon islands of Asia to New Zealand. In the
Antarctic the belt is represented by Mount Erebus, near to
which were the winter quarters of Scott and Shackleton. Thus
we have what has been called " The Fiery Ring of the Pacific."
These volcanoes are in a belt of young folded mountains. If
you look at the map of the Pacific Ocean, you will see that it
24 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
is a huge deep basin. It is supposed that the bed of this vast
ocean has collapsed and that this was accompanied by a
pressure towards the ocean from the surrounding lands and
in this way the folded ranges were made. As these mountain
masses were being uplifted, extensive faulting must have
occurred, rinding a way for the lava to force a passage through
on its way to the surface. The fact that there are still so
many active volcanoes in the Americas goes to prove that the
forces which produced these mountain masses are still at
work. Quite recently San Francisco and Valparaiso have
been visited by disastrous earthquakes.
Steam plays a very important part in assisting volcanoes to
eject materials. Water sinks into the ground, where, deep
a. CL. Minor Cones, b Crater, c.c. Sheets of Lava, Ashes, etc.
FIG. 15. — A diagrammatic section of a volcano.
down below the surface, it is heated. When the pressure
is diminished, owing to lava being ejected, it turns into steam
which has tremendous power, and there is no doubt that it is by
means of this that rocks may be raised and fragments hurled
out of volcanoes. It probably has much to do in helping
streams of molten rock, which have been forced to rise owing
to the pressure similar to that which causes the earth's crust to
fold in mountain building, to reach the surface.
In some cases the early stages in the growth of a volcano
have been observed. First, earthquakes are experienced. These
also occur during the upward passage of the lava which breaks
through the strata to the surface (see Fig. 15). When the
eruption is accompanied by steam and explosions of gas much
of the lava is blown into fragments, the smallest of which are
the so-called cinders and ashes. The large fragments build
a conical heap round the point where the materials are ejected.
VOLCANOES 25
The steam and gases keep a passage through this heap, the
cup-shaped depression at the top being called the crater. But
when not accompanied by violent explosions, the lava flows up
the passage which has been made and runs down the sides of
the young volcano. In this way a volcano of very great eleva-
tion may be built up. The volcano of Jorullo in Southern
FIG. 16.— Map of Mount Mazama and Crater Lake. Notice the small
craters and cones in the neighbourhood.
f
Mexico was made in a single night on September 29, 1759. In
June of the same year subterranean noises were heard and
frequent earthquakes took place. After a period of calm the
terrible noises began again on September 28. The inhabitants
fled to the mountains, and in what had been plantations of
sugar-cane and indigo, a volcano made its appearance during
the night. The eruptions continued for about six months,
many cones, the highest of which is Jorullo, being formed.
26 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
Fig. 15 shows a section of a volcano and illustrates the
structure of the cone as being generally of sheets of lava and
ashes. Very often there are branch vents and thus we have
smaller cones being built on the slopes of the larger one.
Mount Etna, in the island of Sicily, has nearly two hundred
such secondary ones.
In many volcanoes the upper part of the cone is destroyed
either by violent explosions, by underground disturbances, or
by the collapse of the cone owing to the removal of lava
beneath it. In this way the crater becomes very large. Ex-
amine Fig. 1 6, which is a map of an extinct volcano named
Mount Mazama. The crater is occupied by Crater Lake,
which is the deepest lake in the United States. Notice the
island to the west of the lake. It is a volcano which has
grown up within the old crater.
After eruptions the tube becomes filled with a plug of hard
lava. Sometimes all the rest of the volcano is denuded ex-
cepting this plug, and many of these strange-looking derelicts
are met with in the Western States.
PLAINS AND PLATEAUX.
i. Plains. — In the Americas we have the following types —
(a) Those formed by the uplift of the sea bottom.
(b) Those which have been highlands and have been
worn down to a rough plain.
(c) Those which have been made by deposition.
(a) Those formed by Uplift of the Sea Bottom.- — Examples
of these are the Gulf Plains bordering the Atlantic from the
mouth of the Hudson to Texas. They have been formed by
the uplift of the southern portion of the continent, causing
the sea bottom to become dry land. The parts of the sea
bottom which have been uplifted were portions of the
continental shelf.
Other examples are the great Prairie Plains in the interior of
the continent. The rocks under these plains are horizontal,
and consist largely of limestone which was deposited on the
floor of the ancient sea, which for countless ages separated the
Eastern and Western Highlands. The Prairie Plains rise
imperceptibly towards the Rockies, and become the High
Plains. These are formed of many layers of clays, sands and
PLAINS AND PLATEAUX 27
gravels, which have been washed from the mountains, carried
by the rivers to the sea, and there spread over the bottom in
layers. Uplift raised these layers above sea level.
(b) Those luhich are Denuded Highlands. — The best example
is the Great Lakes Plain of the Hudson Bay area. This is
the oldest part of the continent, and the wearing down of
countless ages, especially the work of the various ice sheets
which have covered the area, has produced a region of hard
rock which is a peneplain, that is, almost a plain. You would
not expect the surface to be so level as that of a plain which
is composed of horizontal rocks. Many parts of the Northern
Appalachians are peneplains.
(c) Plains of Deposition. — These are associated mainly with
rivers.
(1) The Dzlta Plains, such as those at the mouths of the
Yukon, Mississippi, Orinoco and Amazon.
(2) The Alluvial Plains. — These have been formed by
the filling up of shallow seas by the deposits of the
great rivers. Examples are found in much of the
Mississippi Plain below Cairo, and in considerable
areas of the plains of the Orinoco, La Plata and
Amazon in South America.
(3) Smaller plains are made by the silting up of lakes by
the materials brought into them by rivers, for the
current receives a check on entering a lake, sedi-
ment is deposited, and a delta is made. In time
this fills the lake. The valley of the Red River of
the North, an important river flowing northwards
into Lake Winnipeg, was once an enormous lake
much bigger in extent than all the Great Lakes of
the St. Lawrence basin put together. The fine
deposits which were spread over the floor of this
lake, known to geologists as Lake Agassiz, are now
the finest wheat lands in the world. There are
very many similar lake plains in North-eastern
America, and the lakes of which they were once
the beds were formed by the great barrier of the
Ice Sheet (see Chapter IV) which, when receding,
acted as a dam across north-flowing streams, and
filled their valleys with the water from the melting
ice. When the ice sheets finally receded the lakes
28 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
were drained. The plateau lakes, Great Salt (Utah)
and Titicaca (Bolivia) were formerly far more ex-
tensive than to-day, and their former beds are now
lake plains. These lakes have diminished in area
owing to the drier conditions which now obtain
in those regions.
2. Plateaux. — The following are the chief types of
plateaux —
(a) Plateaux made of accumulated materials.
(If) Plateaux which have been made by the elevation of
a former plain.
(f) Highland areas which have been worn down to
plateaux.
(a) Plateaux of Accumulation. — A good example is the
plateau across which the Snake River flows. This is com-
posed of horizontal sheets of lava which have reached the
surface and spread out, building up what is known as the
Idaho plateau, across which the Snake River has cut very
deep gorges. The Snake gorge is 4,000 feet deep, and the
river has not reached the bottom of the lava. Look again at
Fig. u. The lava in that case does not reach the surface,
but thrusts the strata upwards. But if it pushes right through
the strata and reaches the surface it then may spread out
in great sheets, gradually building up a plateau. There are
similar plateaux in other parts of the Western Cordillera,
especially in Mexico.
(£) Plateaux due to the Elevation of Plains.
(1) The High Plains already noted may be included
under the heading of plateaux, for they reach an
elevation of more than a mile ; but the increase in
elevation is so gradual that they are spoken of as
plains.
(2) The Plateaux of the Cordilleras of North and South
America. — The growth of the great mountain ranges
of these systems was accompanied by the uplift of
the adjoining plain, and of the land between the
ranges. Thus the High Plains just mentioned
were uplifted as the Rockies were formed ; similar
high plains are found at the eastern base of the
Andes. Similarly, the Alleghany plateau to the
PLAINS AND PLATEAUX 29
west of the Appalachians accompanied the growth
of those mountains. The land between the ranges
is sometimes raised very high indeed, as between
the Rockies and the Sierra Nevadas (7,000 to 8,000
feet) or the Bolivian plateau (over 12,000 feet).
As a rule these plateaux are tilted, and are broken
by great faults, but not sufficiently to lose their
plateau character.
(c) Highland Areas which have been worn down to Plateaux.
— We have examples of these in the Laurentian plateaux of
Eastern Canada and the Piedmont plateau east of the
Appalachian ridges.
EXERCISES.
1. Explain each of the following : Cordillera ; fault ; peneplain ; crater ;
plateau ; mesa.
2. Explain, using diagrams, the difference between folded mountains
and those which are remnants of plateaux. Give examples of each.
3. Describe very simply how the growth of mountains maybe illustrated.
4. Where are the largest number of volcanoes in the Americas? Why
is this ?
5. Make a collection of as many pictures of volcanoes as you can and
classify them.
6. Draw a section through Mount Mazama and Crater Lake (Fig. 16).
How wide is this lake ? How does this compare with its depth ?
CHAPTER IV.
THE GREAT ICE AGE.
QUITE recently, as a geologist reckons time, but an immense
number of years ago as time is ordinarily reckoned, we know
that the north of North America was buried beneath a great
ice-sheet. We do not know exactly how long ago, but we
do know that it was long after the great folded mountains,
plateaux, plains, etc. were made. There is evidence that
during the Great Ice Age there were several advances and
retreats of the ice-sheet, so that over some areas the ice passed
several times. Fig. 7 shows the farthest limits south reached
by the ice during its several advances, and not the limits
reached during any particular advance. These great ice-sheets
had so very much to do with the forming of waterfalls and
lakes, with the grinding of the rocks, and with the sinking of
the northern portion of the continent, that it is very important
for us to learn something about them. Why they came we
do not know, although we can be certain that the climate must
have been very much colder than to-day, and that they receded
as the climate gradually became warmer. Ice-sheets very
similar to those which covered the northern parts of North
America can be seen to-day in the Danish island of Greenland
and in the Antarctic Continent.
Let us briefly examine the Greenland Ice-Cap, which covers
the whole of the land excepting narrow strips along the coast.
It resembles a very gently sloping plateau. The slope is
seldom more than i°, so that the surface has the appearance
of a plain. Only towards the coasts do the summits of
mountains appear above the surface of the ice. This ice-cap
is made of snow, which accumulates on the interior in great
amounts. The weight of the upper layers of snow presses
heavily upon the snow underneath and turns it into ice, just
in the same way that you can turn a snowball into ice by
3°
THE GREAT ICE AGE 31
pressing it very hard in your hands. The ice moves very slowly
outwards, just as a lump of plasticene does if you leave it on a
flat surface with a weight on the top of it. When the coast
is reached, the outward movement continues to push out the
ice until great fragments break off and float away as icebergs.
Great as are the Greenland icebergs, they are exceeded in
size by those of the Antarctic. Naturally, as they move south-
wards, they are getting into warmer latitudes and begin to
melt, and it is very seldom that they reach so far south as
latitude 40° N. The sea, too, in polar regions freezes, and the
great sheets of frozen sea which move southwards in early
summer are known as ice-floes. Icebergs have their place of
origin on land.
Let us now return to the great ice-sheets which have covered
the north of North America, and of which the Greenland ice-
sheet is a remaining fragment. The latter is known to be of
enormous thickness, for the mountains which have been spoken
of as having only their summits peeping above the ice are over
5,000 feet in height, and are not very far from the coast. So
that if we speak of the American ice-sheets as being over a
mile deep in their thickest parts we shall not be exaggerating.
As one of these great sheets passed over the land it would
carry away the soil which had already been made. Pieces of
rocks under the ice were carried along, and the great weight
above them caused them to scratch and scrape the 'rocks over
which they passed, whilst many rock fragments were ground to
powder. We can, therefore, see that a great amount of rock
waste was carried along underneath the ice-sheet, which all the
time was moving southwards. As it stretched southwards it
reached warmer latitudes, so that the end was always melting.
Whilst melting exceeded the rate of flow the ice-sheet naturally
receded. When the melting was just sufficient to keep pace
with the movement, the edge of the ice-sheet would be in the
same place, and we know that this must have been so for long
periods. All the rock waste carried under the ice is eventually
dragged along to its edge, and if that is stationary for a long
time a line of low hills will be formed of the rock load. Some
of these reach a height of two hundred feet. Such masses of
clay, gravel and rock are called moraines. Morainic hills are
known as hummocks, and their irregular distribution shows
that the melting edge of the ice-sheet was by no means regular.
32
GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
In the end the ice-sheet receded, and, as we have said, its
remnants still exist in Greenland and many of the islands to
the north of Canada. Let us consider briefly what work these
great ice-sheets accomplished as they passed over the country,
scraping, scratching, digging, carrying, and dumping. We may
consider this work under the following headings —
1. They made Lakes. — If we look at a large scale map of
the New England States, we shall observe a very large number
of lakes. An atlas map of the Hudson Bay area will show
the same feature. Indeed, this is a common feature of glaciated
regions. The lakes have been formed in the following ways —
(a) The ice-sheets left loads of rock waste and clay,
irregularly deposited on the land. These would
sometimes be left so as to block a river valley.
When the sheet receded, water would fill up the
valleys behind the barrier, and lakes would thus be
formed. Such lakes will cease to exist when the
rivers which drain them cut through the barrier so
as to drain off the water of the lakes. We have
already learned (see p. 27) that lakes cease to exist
when filled by sediment brought into them by
rivers. Indeed, lakes are not permanent features.
(l>) As the ice-sheets passed over the ground they ex-
cavated hollows by their power of digging and
scooping into the rock itself. Lakes occupying such
hollows are known as rock-bottom lakes.
The Great Lakes drained by the river St. Lawrence were
not in existence before the Ice Age. They occupy very broad
but shallow valleys, which have been deepened by the scooping
of the ice-sheets and blocked by drift thrown across them.
2. They were the Cause of ] Waterfalls. — Very often the ice-
sheets, by putting a barrier of drift across a river valley or by
partially filling one, made the stream take a new course when
the ice receded. When the new course lay over ledges or
steep slopes, waterfalls and rapids would be the result. Niagara
and numerous other falls were made by this means. These
falls are of great value to man, for, by their aid, power for
manufacturing is obtained. This has been of very great value
to the New England States.
3. They had a Great Effect on Soils and on Surfaces over
THE GREAT ICE AGE 33
which they passed. — The soil which existed before the ice-sheets
came was removed, and in its place much glacial soil was left.
Where this soil is very fine, it forms exceedingly good material
for the growth of useful products, for it is a mixture of soils
ground from many kinds of rocks. Where it is stony it is very
difficult for agriculture. Not only are small stones found, but
very often huge boulders of great size and weight are met
with. They must have been carried along by the ice and left
standing when the latter melted. These boulders are often
interesting, for sometimes they are not of the same kind of
rock as that of the neighbourhood in which they are now
found. Large areas are often either devoid of soil or have
only a very thin covering, and so are of little use for agriculture.
This is because pre-glacial soils have been removed, and
sufficient time has not elapsed since the ice age for new soils
to form. The surface of the rocks has also been polished and
scratched by the rock fragments held under the ice. All these
scratches point towards the north, and thus are an indication
of the direction from which the ice-sheets came.
EXERCISES.
1. Collect pictures which show lake-covered areas and polished and
scratched rocks over which the ice-sheets passed. There are often some
of these in the booklets issued by the Canadian Government or the
Canadian Railways.
2. Make a list of the reasons why we know that a great ice-sheet once
covered the north of North America.
3. Describe the way in which the great ice-sheet made (a) lakes, (6)
waterfalls.
CHAPTER V.
THE DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE AND RAINFALL
IN NORTH AMERICA.
Temperature. — The first thing to observe is that the north
coast of Canada, the greater part of Greenland, and the islands
in the Arctic Ocean lie within the Arctic Circle, whilst
southern Mexico is within the Tropics, so that the great bulk
of the continent is situated in temperate latitudes. Elevation
has an important influence on temperature, so we must recall
that the continent contains great tracts of plains, extensive
plateaux and mountain ranges of great height. Distance from
sea, too, influences temperature, and Fig. 4 shows that a
considerable area is more than 500 miles from the sea. The
sea takes in heat much more slowly than the land, but retains
its heat for a longer period. Thus in the summer the interior
of North America will have a higher temperature than the
coast-lands in the same latitude, but in winter the conditions
will be reversed. Coastal districts in winter have their tempera-
tures raised by the air blowing from the sea, whilst in summer
the sea breezes lower the temperature. Notice these figures —
Place.
January.
July.
Range.
Sydney (Cape Breton Is.)
21° F.
6i°F.
40° F.
Fredericton (N. Brunswick)
12
66
54
Montreal
12
69
57
Duluth (Lake Superior)
IO
66
56
Bismark (on Missouri R. )
7
70
63
Seattle (Puget Sound) .
40
64
24
These places are about the same latitude, but they get farther
and farther away from the Atlantic Ocean. Note (i) that
34
TEMPERATURE IN NORTH AMERICA 35
the winters get colder, and with the exception of Duluth, the
summers warmer, as distance from the sea increases ; (ii) the
range of temperature increases with distance from the sea.
The temperature at Duluth is influenced by its being on the
large Lake Superior. The range of temperature at Sydney is
high. Compare it with that of Seattle on the west coast and
you will see at once that the latter has a much more typically
equable climate than Sydney, which is on the east coast.
Now examine Figs. 17 and 18, which give the isotherms
for January and July. An isotherm is an imaginary line along
which the temperature is everywhere the same It should be
noted that these maps show what the temperature would be if the
continent were at sea-level. As one ascends a mountain the
temperature drops about i° F. for every 300 feet of ascent, so
that in making these maps this has to be allowed for. You
will see that in the January map, the isotherms bend south
where they meet the land and the most southerly part of the
bend is about the middle of the continent. Now compare the
bends of the isotherms in July with those of January. It will
be seen from the January map that a very large proportion of
this continent has a temperature below 32° F. in this month.
This is the temperature of freezing-point. In some Canadian
cities it is the custom to make ice palaces during the winter
months, and in these various amusements are held. The 32° F.
isotherm does not appear in summer, excepting in Greenland.
Look again at Fig. 1 7 and compare the temperature of the
north-west and north-east coast-lands. You will at once see
that the east coast is much colder than the west. Vancouver
harbour is never frozen, whilst Montreal cannot be reached
during the winter on account of the freezing of the St. Lawrence.
The prevailing winds in each case are the westerlies, but these
are sea-winds on the west and land-winds on the east. Which
will be warmer ? Again, the coast of British Columbia is washed
by a warm ocean current, whilst the east coast has flowing
past its shores the cold Labrador current from the Arctic Seas.
Refer to your atlas map of ocean currents. Naturally winds
blowing over these waters have their temperatures influenced
and so affect the temperatures of the lands over which they
blow.
We have already compared the temperatures of Seattle and
Sydney, Cape Breton Island. The following figures are given
36 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
as additional illustrations of the marked difference between
the east and west temperate margins of North America —
FIG. 17. — Temperature map of North America for January.
Place.
Latitude.
January
Temperature.
July
Temperature
Range.
i Portland (Ore.) .
45° N.
39° F.
66° F.
27° F.
Victoria (B.C.) .
48
38
60
22
Port Simpson (B.C.) .
54
33
57
24
Quebec
47
10
67
57
St. John's (N.B.)
47
24
60
36
Nain (Lab.)
56
-7
48 55
I
RAINFALL IN NORTH AMERICA
37
The hottest area in summer is in the south-west, on the
higher Colorado and Mexican plateau. The isotherm for 50° F.
FIG. 18. — Temperature map of North America for July.
(July) is important, for it marks the poleward limit of trees,
which cannot thrive unless the average temperature for at least
one month reaches this amount. Notice how far north this
line is.
RAINFALL.
The north of North America is in the region of the prevail-
ing westerly winds, and in the south the winds are the N.E.
Trades. The westerlies are stronger but not so reliable or
38 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
constant as the trades. Now keep in mind the general build
of the continent, and the general distribution of rain will not
be very difficult to understand. Fig. 19 gives the seasonal
distribution of the rain. The north-west coast is exposed to
the westerlies all the year round, so that rain (snow in winter)
will fall at all seasons, as this coast is very mountainous, thus
forcing the rain-bearing winds to deposit their moisture as
they ascend their western slopes. Farther south along the
coast is a region in which the rain falls mainly in winter.
This is due to the fact that this area has westerly winds at that
season and N.E. Trades in summer. Continuing southwards,
we come to an area which has the N.E. Trades all the year
round ; and since these are dry land winds, this region, the
Colorado basin, receives very little rain and is a desert.
Farther south still, Mexico, too, is in the trade winds area, but
these bring a copious rainfall to the east coast as they have
crossed a great extent of water and are forced to ascend on
meeting the eastern Sierra Madre. Mexico, however, receives
most rain in summer, and this is explained as follows : — On
March 2ist the sun is overhead at the equator, and from that
date is seen overhead at noon farther and farther northwards
until on June 2ist he is overhead at the Tropic of Cancer,
which is 23^° north of the equator. From June 2ist to
September 23rd the sun is seen overhead at noon nearer and
nearer the equator. From September 23rd to March 2ist he
is seen overhead in the southern hemisphere, reaching his
farthest limit south on December 2ist, when he is overhead at
noon at the Tropic of Capricorn. As the sun migrates north-
wards in our summer, and southwards in the southern summer,
the rain belts follow and that is why Mexico, Central America and
the West Indies get most of their rain in summer. That is also
the reason why the trade winds blow farther north in summer,
giving California dry trade winds in summer, and therefore
summer drought. (See Fig. 19.)
Now notice that the east coast from Newfoundland south-
wards has rain all the year round, and that as the centre of the
continent is approached, the rain gradually decreases. Fig. 20
gives the mean annual rainfall, and you will see that west of
the line of longitude 100° W., the rainfall is small in quantity.
Indeed, east of this line the central lowlands have sufficient
rain, whilst to the west the rainfall tends to be deficient. It
RAINFALL IN NORTH AMERICA
39
H Rain at all Season.
FIG. 19. — The seasonal distribution of rain in North America.
40 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
marks a rough boundary between the lands used for the growing
FIG. 20 — The mean annual rainfall of North America.
of crops and those used for ranching. The central plains
receive most rain in summer, when the winds from the Atlantic
RAINFALL IN NORTH AMERICA 41
Ocean penetrate into the interior. The winds from the Pacific
bring little or no moisture to the interior plains, as the western
mountains form such a great barrier.
In the belt of little rainfall which runs at the foot of the
Rockies from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico, warm dry winds
from the mountains are experienced. These are known as
Chinook Winds, which may be explained in connection with
Fig. 2 1 as follows : — A rain-bearing wind from the Pacific
Ocean meets the western slopes of the Cordillera and is forced
to rise. As it rises it loses rapidly in temperature and also
expands, because the air is colder and less dense the higher we
ascend. As the air gets colder and less dense, its power of
holding water vapour is decreasing, and rain falls. The
Western Cordillera are so high that the rainfall on their wind-
Windward X
side ^
FIG. 21. — This diagram illustrates what occurs when a rain-
bearing wind crosses a mountain uplift.
ward slopes is very considerable. Of course, on the higher
slopes, the moisture will be deposited in the form of snow. All
the rain is not forced from the air. What remains can be held,
for as the air descends to the plateau it gets warmer and denser
and thus is enabled to hold its moisture. Therefore these
intermont plateaux suffer from insufficient rainfall. On reach-
ing the eastern ranges, or other ranges which cross the plateau,
the air is again forced to ascend and some rain falls. If you
look at Fig. 20 you will see a belt of rain marking the position
of the Eastern Cordillera. After crossing the Cordillera from
west to east, the air descends on the leeward side to the central
plain, gaining in temperature and density at a much quicker rate
than it lost these in ascending. Hence it descends as a warm,
dry wind over an area which you will remember is more suited
for ranching than for the growing of cereals. Study these
figures —
West Coast Towns.
Mean .Annual
Rainfall.
Towns East of
Rockies.
Mean Annual
Rainfall.
Portland (Oregon) .
New Westminster (B.C.)
Port Simpson (B.C.)
46-8"
6l'9"
94"
Cheyenne .
Calgary
Edmonton.
1 1 -9"
14-9"
139"
It should be noted that the rainfall of Portland and New
Westminster is not nearly so heavy as that of the higher, more
exposed western slopes of the coast ranges.
This " chinook effect " is not only true in North America,
but is true of any rain-bearing wind which is forced to ascend
a mountain barrier. The leeward slopes of mountains are
always drier than the windward slopes. There is just one
other area to notice. Look at the rainfall maps and you will
see that the northern coast areas, the islands, and the greater
part of Greenland get very little rain. The winds are chiefly
from the Arctic regions and are cold and dry. In any case
they would deposit little moisture, for they are blowing from
cold to warmer regions, and therefore, as they become warmer,
increase their power of holding moisture.
EXERCISES
i. Define an isotherm. If your school has a room containing a stove or
open fireplace, spread boys about the room and let each take a temperature
reading. On a plan of the room, mark the position of each boy and write
at the side his temperature reading. Then draw the isotherms and write a
short description of your results, accounting for any irregularities you may
notice.
Average Annual
Temperature.
Average Annual
Rainfall.
Summit of Ben Nevis (4,400 ft.) .
Fort William ....
31 7° F.
47-1° F.
170 inches
80 inches
Find these places on the map of Scotland and account for the differences
in temperature and rainfall. On an average how many feet of elevation
lowers the temperature i° F. ?
2. Examine temperature figures given in Exercise 7 on p. 129. What
do they show as regards the temperature of New Orleans compared with
places further north and inland ?
TEMPERATURE AND RAINFALL
43
MEAN MONTHLY TEMPERATURES IN
DEGREES FAHRENHEIT.
*> t:
j=
c
g
3
=c
|
V
5
^
O.
J
0
Si
^
to
s
<
S
->
<
w
O
Z
Q
( San Francisco
SO
SI
S3
S4
S6
S7
S7
S3
tp
S8
S6
Si
55
\ New York .
3°
31
38
48
59
68
74
72
66
56
64
34
52
( Vancouver .
-( Winnipeg
^Montreal
34
-7
12
35
-2
16
44
12
24
47
35
41
55
51
55
58
62
65
60
66
69
65
67
57
53
58
5°
38
46
63
18
32
36
19
49
33
42
MEAN MONTHLY RAINFALL IN INCHES.
j=
^
c.
S
a
£
V
^
tf
a
r;
>
y
o >•
t—\
*
8
"->
->
<
w
6
z
a
{San Francisco
4 '3
3'7
3'i
1-8
•8
'2
o
6-0
o'3
i'3
2-5
4'2
22 '3
3 ft
3 7
4 i
3 3
3 2
3 3
45
4 h
3 6
3 7
3 4
34
44 '0
TNew Westminster.
-f Winnipeg
8'6
09
6 2
I'O
6-5
I'O
s
2 '2
3'o
3'3
2 '2
2'3
3 '4
2°O
5 '5
i '7
8'2
i'i
0-9
6i'9
21 's
3 8
3 *
34
2 4
3 2
40
3 '
^ 4
4 »
29
3 3
396
Represent the above figures graphically, keeping together the first two
and last three towns respectively. The graphs for temperature and rain-
fall must also be made on separate paper, and columns should be used
to represent the rainfall figures. When you have drawn the diagrams
write a short account of what may be learned from them concerning the
comparative climates of these towns. (N.B. — In the rainfall figures New
Westminster has been substituted for Vancouver. There is little difference,
however, between these towns.)
CHAPTER VI.
THE PLANTS AND ANIMALS OF NORTH AMERICA.
THE distribution of the Natural Vegetation of North
America is shown in Fig. 22. We must see how this is the
result of the climatic conditions, and in some cases of the
soil. As regards rainfall we may state generally that regions
of no rain will be deserts, regions of little rain will be grass-
lands, and regions of much rain, forests.
77/(? Forests. — First, let us notice the distribution of forests.
Fig. 22 shows temperate and tropical forests. If it is compared
with the rainfall maps it will be seen that forests are found
everywhere within the influence of rain-bearing winds from the
ocean. There are no forests in the north because of the lack
of rain, the great cold, and the strong winds. The Northern
Forests stretch in a belt from the Pacific to the Atlantic,
extending over 3,000 miles from west to east and being about
600 miles in average width. The chief trees are spruce, aspen,
larch, balsam, fir and grey pine, the first being most common
and the one found farthest north. In spite of its enormous
size, this forest contains few areas where the trees are of great
economic value, except for the making of wood pulp, as their
wood is generally of inferior quality. It must not be forgotten,
though, that these forests shelter large numbers of fur-bearing
animals whose skins form an important Canadian export.
The Forests of the St. Lawrence Basin and the New
England States. — These forests contain the trees which have
been of greater commercial importance than any on the
continent. Southern extensions are found along the line of
the Appalachians. In the north the trees are mainly conifers,
but towards the south broad-leaved trees appear.
Conifers are evergreens, that is, they do not normally shed
their leaves in winter. The leaves are like spindles or needles,
so that very little surface is exposed, and this prevents the
rapid evaporation of moisture by winds or sun. Broad-leaved
44
PLANTS AND ANIMALS OF NORTH AMERICA 45
±J Tundra & Ice -cap
* I
Wfemprrate Forests
Tropical Forest
mi desert or Scrub Lands
De seres
FIG. 22. — The distribution of natural vegetation in North America.
46 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
or deciduous trees grow in regions of heavier rainfall, and so
require greater leaf surface in order to get rid of surplus
moisture sent upwards from the roots. In winter these trees
shed their leaves, and by this means check excessive transpira-
tion caused by the cold winter winds. As showing how trees
adapt themselves to their surroundings, it is interesting to
note that the broad-leaved trees in the southern states become
evergreens, that is, they do not shed their leaves in winter
because the southern winters are not cold. Again, in sandy
areas, even in places which have a warmer climate than is
usually associated with coniferous forests, the famous yellow
pines are found because of the dryness of the soil. Thus,
the sandy belts of the Atlantic and Gulf Plains have conifers.
To return to the forests of the New England States and the
Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Basin, it is worthy of notice
that the most important tree is the White or Weymouth Pine.
It is a very large tree, reaching from 70 to 150 feet in height
and from 3 to 9 feet in diameter at the base. Maples, firs
and spruce are also found. From the maple sugar is obtained.
South of these forests are those of—
Eastern United States. — When white men first came to
North America the whole of the area marked on Fig. 22 was
forested. Now, of course, great areas have been cleared and
agriculture is extensively followed on lands once forested. We
have already learned that in the southern areas the broad-
leaved trees become evergreens and that on the sandy areas
pines are found. The chief broad-leaved trees are the oak,
elm, maple, chestnut, etc., and since the wood of these trees
is much harder than that of the coniferous trees, it is much
used in the making of such articles as furniture, tools, carriages
and farming implements. From the pines important substances,
such as tar, turpentine and resin, are obtained. Savannah,
in Georgia, exports great quantities of these products.
The Pacific Forests cover British Columbia and extend along
the mountains farther south, the tree limit getting higher as
the equator is approached. Conifers are the chief trees (see
Fig. 23), although it should be noted that evergreens of the
warm temperate variety are found in the Californian region of
winter rainfall, and that the forests of the Sierra Madre of
Mexico are evergreen on the middle slopes and on the highest
slopes coniferous.
PLANTS AND ANIMALS OF NORTH AMERICA 47
The :famous Douglas fir of British Columbia and the red-
wood pines grow to enormous sizes. The former frequently
attains a height of from 200 to 275 feet, with a diameter at
the base ranging from 8 to 14 feet, whilst individual trees
have reached a height of 300 feet. Compare this with the
height of some tall building with which you are familiar. The
FIG. 23. — A view in a British Columbia forest. Note the use of horses
and the great logs they are hauling.
amount of timber yielded by these gigantic trees is very great.
The redwoods frequently reach over 300 feet in height, with a
diameter at the base of from 15 to 20 feet. The celebrated
" big trees " of California should not be confused with the
redwoods, although they, too, are conifers. They are found
very commonly on the Sierra Nevadas, below an elevation of
from 6,000 to 8,000 feet. One very tall tree measured
325 feet, whilst one of the broadest was nearly 36 feet in
48 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
diameter four feet from the ground. Compare this with the
breadth of your class-room. In order to prevent their ruthless
destruction, many of the big tree areas have been taken over
by the Government of the United States. These gigantic trees
grow in climates which are more favourable for growth than
conifers generally enjoy.
Tropical Forests are found in southern Florida and the
coastal plains of Mexico and Yucatan. These forests are
situated in those parts of the continent which have consider-
able heat and moisture. The most important trees are those
which yield rubber, and cabinet woods such as mahogany
and ebony.
The Animals of the Forests. — The trapping of the fur-
bearing animals was one of the chief occupations of the first
Europeans to arrive in Canada, and is still a very important
occupation in the coniferous forests of the north. The famous
Hudson Bay and other fur-trading companies have depots to
which the skins are brought for sale or barter, but Montreal
and Winnipeg are the most important centres for furs. The
chief of the fur-bearing animals are the fox, beaver, sable,
ermine, mink, otter, etc. These forests not only attract men
who obtain a living by trapping, but also large numbers of
sportsmen. The Governments of Canada and the United States
have found it necessary to make laws which prohibit the shoot-
ing of these animals excepting at certain seasons and then
in fixed numbers. The trappers themselves are white settlers,
or, in many cases, Indians, and in their work they use steel
traps and guns. Successful trapping requires a knowledge of
the habits of the animals, a healthy body, hardiness and
quickness of thought and action.
In the forests of the Rocky Mountains, large animals such
as the grizzly and brown bear, the lynx and the puma are
found, whilst in the tropical forests of Mexico and Central
America, where the vegetation is so prolific, are innumerable
gaudily coloured parrots, paraquets, humming-birds and insects.
Of the animals, snakes, many of which are poisonous, tapirs,
monkeys, and in the rivers alligators, are very common.
The Grass-lands. — These are found chiefly in interior plains
which have little rainfall. Look at the rainfall maps again,
and you will see that they receive most of their rain in
summer. Thus the rain and heat come during the same
PLANTS AND ANIMALS OF NORTH AMERICA 49
season and the former is only sufficient to water the top
layers of the soil. These conditions are favourable for grass,
which is short rooted, and lives, forms its seed, and dies
quickly. Trees are not met with excepting near rivers where
sufficient water can be obtained. The area of these grass-
lands has been extended eastwards by the cutting down of
the trees, so that in places where Indians formerly hunted
are prosperous farming settlements. These great grass-lands
are called Prairies and are very similar to the grass-lands
in the interior plains of other continents. Similar vegetation
is also found in the Sacramento Valley and on the Mexican
plateau, although large tracts of the latter are scrub-land
and semi-desert.
The Animals of the Grass-lands. — Formerly great herds of
bison roamed over the prairies, but they have now disappeared,
being found only in Government preserves ; and in their stead,
horses, cattle and sheep are reared, especially in the drier
lands to the west of 100° W. long. In these dry pastures
the cattle roam about in a semi-wild condition and are reared
chiefly for their flesh and skins. (See Fig. 33.)
The Scrub-lands. — These are found in the plateau of Idaho,
the Great Basin, the Colorado Basin and Northern Mexico.
They are accounted for by the fact that they are either shut
off from rain-bearing winds or have dry land winds all the year
round, and thus have a very slight rainfall.
The Deserts. — (i) The hot deserts are found at the head of
the Gulf of California. This region receives dry land winds
all the year round and thus the rainfall is very slight. Con-
siderable areas of the north-west Mexican plateau and other
adjacent areas are very little better than desert. The chief
vegetation consists of different species of cacti, whose whole
structure is designed for protection and to resist evaporation.
Some of these grow to very great sizes.
(ii) The Tundra, with a short, warm summer and a long,
dreary winter, is really a cold desert, for it receives very
slight rainfall, and its vegetation consists of small berry-bearing
bushes, mosses and lichens. Towards the south, stunted trees
appear, and these increase in size and number as the coni-
ferous forests are reached. The reindeer is represented by the
caribou, which is not domesticated, therefore there are not so
many inhabitants in this area as in similar lands in the Old
E
50 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
World. The reindeer has, however, been recently introduced
into Alaska with considerable success. Besides the caribou,
the musk-ox, the polar bear and the Arctic fox are found.
The musk-ox, like the caribou and the reindeer, feeds on the
berries and mosses, but the Polar bear and the small Arctic
fox are carnivorous animals. In the Arctic seas the walrus
and the whale are found. Of birds there is a very great
number, amongst them being the ptarmigan, which is a land
bird, and many varieties of sea birds. These birds, as well
as many of the animals, migrate southwards during the winter,
some of the birds reaching as far south as North Carolina.
EXERCISES.
1. Describe the different types of vegetation that would be met with on
a journey alnng the west coast of North America from Alaska to the
Isthmus of Tehuantepec.
2. Give examples which show that in some regions the vegetation is
largely dependent upon summer rainfall, whilst in others rain at that
season is of little value.
3. Which areas in North America are deserts ? What reasons can you
give?
4. In which areas of North America are coniferous forests most exten-
sive ? Account for the presence of conifers in the Gulf and Atlantic
plains.
5. Give some examples of the way in which plants adapt themselves
to their environment.
CHAPTER VII.
THE PEOPLE AND POLITICAL DIVISIONS OF
NORTH AMERICA.
WHEN Europeans first arrived in North America, they
found that it was already inhabited, and Columbus gave the
name Indians to the people who were living in the islands
which he discovered. Those in the extreme north are now
called Eskimos, a word which means flesh-eater, but with this
exception, the name Indians has been given to all the natives
of both the Americas. When we consider its great size,
North America was very sparsely peopled at the time of
its discovery. The great majority of the inhabitants had their
homes either in the warmer southern regions or along the
great rivers and lakes.
The Eskimos. — At the time of the discovery, the Eskimos,
as now, lived in the cold bleak lands and islands of the
far north and in Labrador, and their manners and customs
have probably changed very little, except for slight alter-
ations caused by intercourse with traders and other people
who visit these lands. The climate is of such severity, and
has so little to recommend it or to induce emigrants to settle
there, that the people have been left practically alone. The
Eskimos give themselves a very strange name, Innuit, meaning
" the people," which implies that they consider themselves, of
all people, the most important. The land, being so barren, is
not capable of supporting much life, and so the natives, for
most of their requirements, are compelled to resort to the
sea, on which their very existence depends. For this purpose
they need boats, and use a peculiar kind, called kayaks, which
consist of a framework of driftwood, covered with seal-skins,
and are propelled by means of double-bladed paddles. (See
Fig. 24.) Weapons are also necessary, and the chief ones are
harpoons, lances and darts, all of which are very skilfully
52 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
made. With these they hunt the walrus and the seal, which
give them almost all they need for their somewhat primitive
existence. As the climate is so very severe, it is essential that
Eskimos should have food which gives warmth to the body,
and so most of their food consists .of fat, eaten in the form
of seal blubber. For a change of diet they catch river fish,
especially salmon. But indeed they eat any flesh which they
can get, whether from seal, whale, walrus, caribou or deer.
The greatest help to the Eskimos are their dogs, which are
FiG. 24. — Eskimos fishing in kayaks.
probably domesticated wolves. These dogs do not cost as
much to support as one would think, as they eat all remnants
of fish and flesh which are left by their owners. They are also
as fit to stand the severe climate as the people are, and are
of the greatest use in hauling sledges across the frozen land
and sea. Few Eskimos are without dog teams.
In summer-time, Eskimos live in tents made of skins which
are stretched upon a framework of driftwood. These tents
are portable and are carried about as the people move
from place to place, following their occupations of hunting
and fishing. Winter is spent in houses called igloos, which
are composed of blocks of snow and are dome-shaped. The
PEOPLE AND POLITICAL DIVISIONS
53
igloo is entered by means of a tunnel which is so low that
the Eskimo has to crawl along it on his hands and knees.
This tunnel, which has a skin door at the end of it, is built
to keep out both the cold winds and wild animals. Where
drift-wood is obtainable, the roofs of the houses are made
of it and then covered with snow. Clothing consists chiefly of
skins which are always turned so that the warm fur is inside,
FIG. 25. — Photograph of an Eskimo family. The picture was taken
in a Labrador missionary hospital. Note the different dresses.
and owing to the fact that all dress very much alike, it is often
hard* to distinguish men from women, or boys from girls.
Sealskin is utilized in still another way, as mothers carry their
babies on their backs in hoods made from it. In spite of
the very unfavourable conditions under which they live,
Eskimos are strong, sturdy people. Their faces are generally
round, and their hair is black and straight, whilst their eyes
remind one of those of the Chinese. (See Fig. 25.) In fact,
54 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
some people think that long ago the natives of America came
from Asia before the Bering Straits were formed.
In spite of their sturdiness, the Eskimos are slowly declining
in numbers, and, sad to note, this is caused by contact with
white men, from whom they obtain intoxicating liquors, and
contract diseases which cause the death of considerable
numbers. Not only this, but they are very gradually changing
methods of living so as to be more like the white people, and
many of the changes are not suitable for the climate of their
country. They will sell to traders skins which they ought to
use themselves, and in return they receive cotton cloth, which
they wear and cover tents with. They even get new kinds of
food, such as flour, which are substituted for the heat-giving
diet to which the race has been accustomed for ages. Thus
they are in danger of slow starvation. In Greenland, trading
with Eskimos is a monopoly of the Danish Government, which
has also built many schools for Eskimo children.
TJie Indians. — This name is, of course, due to the mistake
of Columbus in thinking that he had arrived at the Indies.
It is applied to all the natives of North and South America
south of the lands occupied by the Eskimos. They are some-
times called " Red " Indians, and are often referred to as
copper-coloured. They live over an enormous area, which
contains many varieties of climate and vegetation, so that of
necessity the many tribes differ from each other considerably.
Generally speaking, they are brown, with a kind of reddish
undertone. In stature they are fairly tall, and their hair is
black, long and straight, whilst the face is beardless. The
eyes are generally deep set and black, the nose usually
prominent, and the mouth rather large. Add to these a
prominent lower jaw and usually expressionless features. Such
are the features found in the Indians, although it must be
remembered that there are many variations in the different
tribes. It should be noted that many popular ideas of Indians
are incorrect. We usually think of them as splendid horse-
men, trappers and scouts, and many of them are ; but in these
occupations white cowboys surpass them easily, as do the
white trappers and trail followers.
By nature many Indians are very cruel, and the tortures
which were inflicted upon those of the early settlers who were
unfortunate enough to get captured by them were very
PEOPLE AND POLITICAL DIVISIONS 55
terrible. They were cowardly, also, because their greatest
cruelties were often practised upon those who could not
defend themselves, whilst their mode of fighting was by
ambush and treachery. They are very vain, and delight in
making themselves as gaudy as they can, by means of feathers,
beads, claws and paint.
Both in North and South America, in the lands which have
been settled by Europeans, the Indian has not been able to
hold his own, and has therefore declined in numbers. In
Central America, where the climatic conditions have been
unsuitable for white people, he has managed to maintain his
position. When North America was discovered, there were
tribes who were absolutely savage, others who were more
advanced, and in the south-west of what is now the United
States and in Mexico, dwelt tribes who had almost reached a
state of civilization. In South America even more advanced
tribes inhabited the high Andean plateaux. The savage
Indians were hunters and fishers only, but the more advanced
added the growing of " Indian " corn and tobacco. Both,
however, had no permanent homes but lived wandering lives.
The dwellers of the plains lived in tents made from the skin
of the bison, which roamed over the prairies in such great
numbers that the Indians often killed them for their tongues
and hides only. The women and children remained behind
to look after the crops whilst the men fished in the lakes and
rivers, or hunted on the prairies or in the forests. They had
to hunt on foot, because there were no horses in America
until they were introduced by white men. Had there been
horses, cattle and sheep, the Indians might have lived more
settled lives, for many would have become shepherds. When
horses and guns were introduced, and they became very clever
in their uses, the bison decreased in number at a very rapid
rate. We have learned that the Eskimos are decreasing in
number, due to their contact with white people. For a time
this was equally true of the Indians. White men's diseases
played havoc with them, for even such an illness as measles
carried off large numbers of those who contracted it. It
should be noted, however, that so far as it is possible to
ascertain, the Indians of Canada and the United States now
appear to be holding their own.
In Central America, Mexico and south-western United
56 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
States, the first Europeans to arrive found Indians much more
advanced than those of whom we have just learned. In the
states of New Mexico and Arizona, and in Mexico are Indians
living almost the same kind of life as when first visited by
Spanish explorers. This region is very arid, and thus settlers
have avoided it just as they have avoided the barren lands
inhabited by the Eskimos. Many of the Indians, here live
in very large stone or sun-dried mud-brick houses called
pueblos. Pueblos are occupied by very many families, and
look like fortresses, as they rise in terraces, which are reached
by means of ladders, and have very few windows on the out-
side walls. A pueblo may be compared with a vast hive,
sometimes containing as many as four or five thousand people,
each family having a separate apartment, but all sharing the
land and the products raised by careful irrigation. Pueblos
are dwellings, fortresses — behind whose thick walls the occu-
piers could 'resist the attacks of wandering bands of robber
Indians — and granaries
The sites often selected were the flat-topped mesas, which
easily lend themselves to such buildings. Many Indians
in New Mexico and Arizona reside in dwellings built under
the overhanging ledges of cliffs, whilst others occupy caves
hollowed out of the solid rock.
The best known of the more advanced tribes at the time of
the Spanish Conquest was the Aztec. These Indians occupied
Mexico City, and had made themselves masters of the sur-
rounding country. They mined and made various articles of
gold and silver; they grew cotton, maize and sugar, and
constructed irrigation works. But they had no domestic
animals, and on this account, despite their advancement in
other directions, were cannibals who sacrificed and ate large
numbers of men and women. It is even said to have been
the custom to attack a hostile town or district every month in
order to obtain captives, who were sacrificed and eaten. Like
most of the Indians, they had advanced so far as to be able
to express their thoughts and ideas by means of pictures, but
they were not able to write.
The Indian Reservations. — The Indians were driven from
their hunting grounds by the settlers as they advanced west-
wards. This movement led to much fighting and frequent
massacres of whites by Indians ; but in the end the Indians
PEOPLE AND POLITICAL DIVISIONS 57
were outnumbered and conquered. In Canada there are
nearly 100,000 Indians, and in the United States (with Alaska)
about three times as many. The question of their welfare has
given great trouble to the governments of these countries.
The Indian, whilst apparently showing friendship for the white
man, has generally regarded him with jealousy and suspicion.
In Mexico and Central America the Spaniards and Indians
largely amalgamated, and thus the struggle which has gone on
in the United States and Canada did not take place there.
In the latter countries the Indians have been gathered in
areas known as Indian reservations. These are situated in
the east as well as the west. In Canada, some Indians still
roam at will in the Rockies and the Hudson Bay forests,
living as formerly by hunting and fishing. But most of them
live in reservations under Government control. Where land
occupied by Indians is wanted for settlement by white men,
the Government buys it from the Indians and holds the
purchase money in trust for their benefit. The interest and
some of the capital is spent on education and in helping the
Indians to follow settled occupations. There are as many as
10,000 Indian children in Canadian industrial schools, whilst
very many of the men have become successful farmers and
ranchers.
In the United States the problem has been more difficult
than in Canada. The Indians are confined to reservations
which are found in all parts of the country, but the largest is
north of Texas, and is known as "Indian Territory." The
aim of the Government was to help the Indians to live settled,
peaceful lives, and, as in Canada, large sums of money have
been spent with this object in view. Treaties have been made
with the various tribes, and in many cases the Government
agrees to provide each Indian with a certain amount of food
and clothing. Representatives of the Government live on the
reservations for the purpose of control and distribution of
these supplies. In some cases this has worked very well, and
there are many Indians who work their small farms with
considerable success, whilst a large number of Indian children
receive industrial training in Government schools. But in the
majority of instances, this method, instead of encouraging thrift
and industry, has had the opposite result of increasing their
natural laziness, for the Indians know quite well that they will
58 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
not be allowed to starve. The failure has not always been
the fault of the Indians, because in many cases unsuitable
land has been allotted to them, and in others, the agents have
been dishonest in their management of the reservation. On
the whole, however, the Government has done its best to deal
with the Indians, and the lack of success of the reservation
schemes has been due in the main to the Indians themselves.
And it is not altogether to be wondered at, for after living a
free life of hunting and fishing it is difficult to take up settled
occupations.
Negroes. — In 1910 there were 9,827,763 negroes in the
United States. That is, they formed nearly 17 per cent, of
the population, and were in number 37 times as many as the
Indians. They are found chiefly in the south and south-
eastern states, and are the descendants of the slaves who
were brought from Africa to supply the demand for cheap
labour on the cotton, sugar, tobacco and rice plantations,
some of which were very large. At first, some were also taken
to the New England settlements, but it soon became apparent
that they were best suited for work in the south. As the
result of the great Civil War in 1861-5, tney received their
freedom. To very many of them freedom did not mean
better treatment, for their owners had never ill-treated them.
Those who were not so fortunate as this were generally owned
by large companies, or persons who left the management of
their estates to other people. The whole system was wrong,
however, and it was well to change it. The problem of
improving the negro is quite as difficult as that of improv-
ing the Indian. Very much is now being done by suitable
methods of education. The figures opposite are from the
Statesman's Year Book.
No state is entirely without negroes, but in these 15 states
they are most numerous. There are also large numbers
of negroes in the West Indies and in some of the South
American states.
EUROPEANS.
The Spaniards soon crossed the narrow lands of Mexico
and Central America, and pursued their explorations north-
wards along the west coast. Their territories stretched
PEOPLE AND POLITICAL DIVISIONS 59
THE DISTRIBUTION OF NEGROES IN THE UNITED
STATES AT THE CENSUS OF 1910
Percentage
State.
Number of
Negroes in
Total
Population.
of Negroes to
total number
of people (to
1910.
nearest whole
number).
Georgia .
1,176,987
2,609,121
45
Mississippi
1,009,487
I,797,"4
56
A labama
008,275
2,138,093
42
South Carolin
i
835.843
i, 5 15,400
55
Louisiana
713,874
1,656,388
43
North Carolin
i
697,843
2,206,287
3i
Virginia .
671,096
2,061,612
33
Texas
690,049
3,896,542
18
Tennessee
473,088
2,184,789
22
Arkansas
442,891
1,574,449
28
Florida .
308,669
752,619
41
Kentucky
261,656
2,289,905
II
Maryland
232,250
1,295,346
18
Oklahoma
212,624
1,657,155
13
Pennsylvania
I93>919
7,665,111
2'5
northwards from Mexico to beyond San Francisco. Notice
the number of names given by Spaniards, such as New
Mexico, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Sacramento, Sierra
Nevada, etc.
The French settled in the Mississippi and St. Lawrence
basins, and left evidence of their occupations in such names
as New Orleans, St. Louis, Louisville, Lake Champlain,
Louisiana, etc. There is still a large French-speaking popu-
lation in eastern Canada, especially in Montreal and Quebec.
The English settled along the east coast and soon gained
control of other settlements made there by the Dutch and
Swedes. But the present population of North America con-
tains many more elements than Eskimos, Indians, Spaniards,
French, English and negroes. Whilst in Mexico the majority
of the inhabitants are of Indian, Spanish or mixed race, in
the United States and Canada there are representatives of
every European race. The threatened invasion of Chinese
and Japanese was largely stopped by means of legislation,
although, in spite of this, there are very many on the western
coast.
60 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
The welding of such diverse peoples has been attended
with very considerable success. Naturally, some return to
their own countries, but they are generally those who either
expected to find in North America a place where they could
succeed without hard work, or, before emigrating, had insuffi-
cient knowledge of the country in which they wished to make
their homes. In one of its booklets, the Canadian Govern-
ment points out to prospective emigrants that its national
emblem is the beaver, which is, amongst animals, the repre-
sentative of intelligent industry ; and that in Canada the men
who do not work are looked upon with doubt. The conditions
of life there all tend to and require personal effort, but what
is important is, that these same conditions contribute to the
success of such effort. In both Canada and the United States
there is plenty of room for newcomers, and the way in which
these newcomers adapt themselves to their new surroundings
and the institutions which they found, form a very interesting
study, especially as regards Canada, for the majority of those
who make their homes there are of our own race.
POLITICAL DIVISIONS.
We are now in a position to study the various parts of
the continent in more detail, and we will consider them in
the following order : British North America and Alaska, the
United States, Mexico. It is not necessary to add more about
Greenland to what we have learned in Chapters IV. and VII.
In South America we shall find the political position is much
more complicated, and we shall at first disregard it. In North
America, however, we have very few political divisions, and
in the case of Canada and the United States, these are of very
great size. Notice the political boundaries of North America.
The frontier-line between Alaska and British Columbia is not
a natural boundary. For the greater distance it is a line of
longitude, and in south-east Alaska is a line ten leagues inland
parallel to the windings of the coast. It is interesting to notice
that it is impossible to tell exactly where this boundary runs,
for the area has very high mountains and a large number
of glaciers. Between Canada and the United States, the
boundary, from the west coast to the Lake of the Woods, is the
line of latitude 49° north, after which it is a water boundary
PEOPLE AND POLITICAL DIVISIONS 61
running midway along several of the Great Lakes and their
connecting rivers. In the extreme east it is again a land
boundary. Between Mexico and the United States the
boundary is for 900 miles the Rio Grande, and in its western
part a land boundary.
From what we have learned of the physical features, the
climate, the vegetation, and the people of the continent, we
shall at once see that these boundaries do not coincide with
physical, climatic or vegetation units. Thus, although we
shall learn of British North America, we must keep clearly
in mind that the boundary between Canada and the United
States does not separate different kinds of regions, for the
Columbia River is like the Fraser; the central plains do not
differ on each side of the boundary; the northern Appalachians
are found in both countries, whilst it is impossible to separate
the northern and southern shores of the Great Lakes.
EXERCISES.
1. What have we in abundance that Eskimos lack ? What do they use
instead of these things ?
2. Collect pictures illustrating the lives and work of Eskimos, Indians
and negroes.
3. Make a list of towns, rivers, etc. which have Indian names. Are
they confined to a small area or are they widespread ?
4. On an outline map of the United States shade the 15 states which
have most negroes (p. 59). Use a darker shading for those states in which
negroes form more than 40 per cent, of the population. Why are so many
negroes found in these states ?
CHAPTER VIII.
BRITISH NORTH AMERICA : NEWFOUNDLAND.
NEWFOUNDLAND belongs to the Appalachian system, from
which it has been separated by sinking. It occupies an
important position at the entrance to the St. Lawrence estuary,
to enter which ships have to approach by the Strait of Belle
Isle or Cabot Strait. In area it is rather larger than Ireland.
Notice the comparative straightness of the western coast and
the north-western peninsula. Your map will also show many
smaller peninsulas, all of which take the same direction. The
island shows very many traces of glaciation and much of the
surface resembles the Hudson Bay area in having a large
number of lakes and morainic hills.
The interior is a low plateau whose prevailing vegetation is
coniferous forests. These forests supply very many paper-mills
with wood pulp. But the chief wealth of the island is in its
fisheries. Look at Fig. 26, which shows that off the shores of
eastern Canada there are extensive areas of shallow seas.
Notice the position of the Grand Banks. These fishing
grounds are larger than Newfoundland itself and are probably
the most important in the world. They are portions of the
continent which have been sunk below sea level and may be
compared with the shallow seas which surround the British
Isles.
These gently sloping submerged platforms between the 100
fathom line and the sea-coast are known as "Continental
Shelves." Beyond the 100 fathom line the slope of the sea
bed increases much more rapidly. Fig. 26 shows that the
St. Lawrence River is continued by a deep channel which
can be traced right to the edge of the continental shelf. This
is the old bed of the St. Lawrence. Flowing past the shores
of Labrador and Newfoundland is a cold Arctic current, called
the Labrador current, which deposits on this submerged plat-
62
NEWFOUNDLAND
form the tiny organisms which form food for fish, chief
amongst which are cod and herring. The Grand Banks are
often covered by fogs which are due to the cold air from over
JOHN'S
GRAND
BANKS
FIG. 26. — The fishing grounds of eastern Canada. The shaded parts
of the sea are less than 100 fathoms in depth.
the Labrador current meeting the warmer air from the Gulf
Stream drift. Newfoundland fishermen visit the coasts of
Labrador in spring for seal catching. The seals rear their
64 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
young on the frozen sea or ice-floes, and when these drift south-
wards with the Labrador current, and break up owing to the
increasing warmth and the coming of spring, the strongly built
ships of the sealers push their way among the broken ice-fields.
Upon reaching a number of seals, the men run on the ice and
kill as many as possible, afterwards returning to each in order
to obtain the blubber and skin. Here it should be noted that
the seal which gives the skin that is so much prized for warm
winter clothing is only found in Bering Straits. Sealing is
dangerous work, for sometimes men cannot get back to their
boats and so perish on the ice. When the sealing season is
over, many of the most strongly built ships make journeys
farther northwards in order to search for whales. The Grand
Banks fishing season usually lasts .from June to November
and engages at least 50,000 men. St. John's, which is the
capital of Newfoundland, has miles of wooden erections, on
which the cod are salted and dried in the sun, and is the chief
fishing centre of the island, although many fishermen from
ports on the mainland are also engaged.
Besides its fisheries and its forests Newfoundland has great
mineral wealth, although at the present time little mining is
carried on. Some iron which is mined near St. John's is
exported to Sydney in Cape Breton Island, where there are
large ironworks.
St. John's is connected by rail with Port au Basques on
Cabot Strait. Near to Capes Race and Ray are wireless
stations which receive messages from Europe. The small
islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon belong to the French and
are used by them as fishing centres.
Newfoundland, which does not form part of the Dominion
of Canada, also owns the Labrador coast, which has an area
equal to that of the United Kingdom, and a population of
4,000, most of whom are Eskimos.
EXERCISES.
1. Account for the great fishing industry of Newfoundland.
2. Explain the term "continental shelf." Draw a map to illustrate
your answer.
CHAPTER IX.
THE MARITIME PROVINCES OF CANADA.
THESE are the provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick
and Prince Edward Island, which, with the New England
States of the United States,. form part of the northern Appala-
chian system. We have learned that these areas, unlike the
southern Appalachians, have been glaciated and largely worn
down to a rough plain or peneplain. Lakes and waterfalls are
common everywhere, whilst there are many morainic deposits.
Look at the map and see how portions of the maritime
provinces are almost separated from the remainder of Canada.
Yet these parts are of the utmost importance to the Dominion,
for here are the winter ports of Halifax and St. John. The
latitude of these provinces is that of southern France, and
yet the summer climate is like that of northern England, and
its winter climate comparable with that of Sweden. Being
on the east coast, the climate is more extreme than in
similar latitudes on the west coast. Notice the funnel-shaped
Bay of Fundy. The height of the tide is so intensified that in
the Minas Basin, the more easterly of the openings at the head
of the bay, the difference between high and low tide is about
70 feet. Fertile silt is deposited by these high tides, and this
is used as a fertilizer, no artificial or other fertilizer being re-
quired. The River St. John enters an arm of the Bay of
Fundy over a ledge 15 feet in height. When the tide rises,
not only do the falls disappear, but the sea water rushing up-
stream gives the appearance of rapids in the opposite direction
from that in which the river flows.
The wealth of the maritime provinces lies in their fisheries,
forests, minerals and agriculture. Cod, lobsters, mackerel
and herring are the chief fish caught. The total annual value
of the fish catch in Nova Scotia exceeds the large sum of two
65 F
66 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
million pounds, and in New Brunswick rather less than one
million pounds.
The forests are of greatest importance in New Brunswick,
where lumbering is an important occupation, especially in the
valley of the St John River. The chief trees are spruce, fir,
hemlock, pine and cedar, and the most important saw-mills
are at Fredericton and St. John.
Mining is most important in Nova Scotia, in which province
it ranks next to agriculture in importance. There are coal and
iron fields in Cape Breton Island, where you will remember
the iron ore brought from Newfoundland is smelted at Sydney.
In 1891 Sydney had only 2,426 inhabitants, whilst in 1911 it
had 17,723; so you will see the iron trade has grown very
considerably. Coal and iron are also mined at Picton in the
north of Nova Scotia. The coal deposits are owned by the
State, which leases the mines to companies, and the revenue
derived from this source pays half of the taxes required by the
provincial government.
Agriculture is the most important occupation in the Maritime
Provinces. Wheat is not grown in great quantities, because it
can be bought more cheaply from the prairie states. Oats,
barley and root crops, especially potatoes, are the chief field
crops. Fruit in great quantities is produced, the apples of the
sheltered valley of Annapolis, in western Nova Scotia, being
very famous. It is interesting to note that Annapolis is the
oldest town in North America, north of Florida. Cherries,
peaches and plums are also exported. Mixed and dairy farm-
ing are great features in the Maritime Provinces, especially in
Prince Edward Island, which has been described as the
" million acre farm." The majority of these farms are situated
in areas that have been cleared of forests. Every help is given
to the farmer by means of model farms and travelling schools
of instruction, the cost of which is borne by the provincial
governments.
The chief towns : — Halifax and Sydney are the largest towns
in Nova Scotia. The former stands on a peninsula which
projects into a splendid harbour, and is an important winter
port, being ice free at that season. You will recall that during
the winter months the St. Lawrence is frozen, so that Montreal
and Quebec cannot be reached by steamer. Halifax is the
chief naval station of eastern Canada, the terminus of the Inter-
MARITIME PROVINCES OF CANADA 67
colonial Railway, and the capital of the province. Sydney, in
Cape Breton Island, is an iron and steel manufacturing town.
Charlottetown, the capital of Prince Edward Island, has a
good harbour, and is the centre of the island's mixed and
dairy farming industry.
St. John and Fredericton are the most important towns of
New Brunswick. The former disputes with Halifax the honour
of being Canada's premier winter port. It is ice free, and is
the terminus of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Fredericton is
the capital of New Brunswick, and is an important lumbering
centre.
EXERCISES.
1. Read Longfellow's " Evangeline. " Where is the country of
Evangeline ?
2. Why is it that Halifax and St. John are the chief winter ports of
Canada? Compare the advantages of each for the position of Canada's
premier winter port.
3. Halifax is one of the oldest cities in Canada. Can you suggest
reasons why it has not grown into a very large city ? At the census of
1911 its population was 46,619, and in 1901 41,000.
CHAPTER X.
THE BASIN OF THE ST. LAWRENCE AND THE
GREAT LAKES.
Ax the western end of Lake Superior is the American lake
port of Duluth, near to which the St. Louis River enters the
lake. This river is the head stream of the St. Lawrence, which
drains the five great lakes, Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie and
Ontario (see Fig. 27). Lake Superior is the largest sheet of
fresh water in the world, its area being about the same as that
of Ireland. The heights of these lakes above sea level in the
order given above is 602 feet, 578 feet, 576 feet, 566 feet,
24 feet. You would, therefore, expect to find hindrances to
navigation in the form of rapids or falls between Lakes Superior
and Huron, and between Lakes Erie and Ontario. In the
former case are the rapids of the short St. Mary River, whilst
in the latter case the Niagara Falls account for about 160 feet
at one drop. Compared with their size, the Great Lakes are
very shallow indeed. In fact, if the water could be removed,
their beds would have the appearance of plains. The St.
Lawrence and Great Lakes waterways, with their canal systems,
form a magnificent way right to the heart of the continent,
and compete very successfully with the railways. When the
proposed canal from the Georgian Bay of Lake Huron to
Ottawa is built, the routes from Lake Superior westwards will
be very considerably shortened, and even United States
produce will find its outlet along the St. Lawrence.
Formerly the greater part of this area was forested, the chief
trees being mainly coniferous in the north and coniferous and
deciduous in the south. To-day the agricultural areas are in
the extensive forest clearings. If the cargoes of boats passing
through the Sault Ste. Marie or " Soo " canals, which avoid the
rapids of the St. Mary River, were examined, they would be
found to consist mainly of wheat, timber, and iron ore. The
68
THE BASIN OF THE ST. LAWRENCE
69
70 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
wheat would be coming from the ports of Duluth (U.S.A.) and
the Canadian twin ports ot Port Arthur and Fort William. It
is brought to these ports by rail from the prairie farms farther
west, and stored in grain elevators, ready to be transferred to
specially made steel grain boats called whalebacks. The iron
ore is very largely obtained from the rich iron mines on the
shores of Lake Superior, and is on its way to such towns as
Cleveland (U.S.A.), on the southern shores of Lake Erie,
either to be smelted there or sent on to Pittsburg.
Reference has been made to the " Soo " canals which avoid
the rapids of the St. Mary River. There are three, two
American and one Canadian, and these canals carry more
than four times the tonnage of the Suez Canal. There are two
towns named Sault Ste. Marie — one on the American side
and the other on the Canadian side. The shores of Lake Michi-
gan are in the United States, and we will consider them later.
Sudbury, north of Lake Huron, has very rich deposits of
nickel and copper. It is on the main line of the Canadian
Pacific Railway. Between Lakes Huron and Erie is the
St. Clair River, which passes through a small lake of the same
name. In order to take larger ships the river has been
deepened. The American town of Detroit has a splendid
position for tapping the trade which passes along the Great
Lakes and the land routes from Montreal via Toronto and
Detroit to Chicago. Lake Erie is the next lake, and between
it and Lake Ontario, which is the smallest of the Great Lakes,
are the great Niagara Falls, to avoid which the Wei land Canal
has been constructed. In order to take larger ships this canal
is being deepened.
Niagara Falls. — Figs. 28 and 29 show diagrams of the
falls. The falls are divided by Goat Island into the American
and the Canadian, or Horseshoe, Falls. The former is
1,060 feet wide and 167 feet high, whilst the latter is 3,000
feet wide, but 9 feet lower than the American fall. After
tumbling over the brink, the water rushes through a gorge
which is seven miles long. We have seen that Lake Erie
stands on a p'atform which is higher than the level of Lake
Ontario. This platform, or upland, ends in a steep face which
is called an escarpment. When the falls first began, and you
will recall that this was after the great ice sheets had receded,
they would be over the edge of this escarpment. Since then
THE BASIN OF THE ST. LAWRENCE
LAKE ERIE
566 feet above
Sea Level
LAKE ONTARIO
24 feet above Sea Level
^a^^AU*i
FlG. 28. — This diagram shows the position of the Niagara Falls.
GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
they have cut their way upstream, thus making this seven-mile
gorge. The way in which they have done this is illustrated
in Fig. 29. You will notice that the top layer is made of
limestone, which is a hard rock compared with the layers of
shale. The softer shales, which are more easily worn than the
harder limestone and sandstone, thus get cut back, especially
where the force of the water hurls the rock fragments against
them with great force. The harder rocks fall as they get
undercut, and so the falls recede at a rate which at present is
estimated at one foot per year.
The falls are an enormous source of power. Some of the
HflA GARA RIVER
'V •.—.••.»..
SOFT LAYERS OF SHALE =
HARD LAYERS Of LIMISWHI
SOFT LAYERS OF SHALE
HARD LAYERS OF LIMESTONE
SOFT LAYERS OF SHALE
HARD LAYERS OF SANDSTONE HIM mil mill 1 1 III! 1 1 1 III II II lllllimTTT
SOFT LAYERS OF SHALE
HARD LAYERS OF SANOSTONE
SOFT LAYERS OF SHALE
FIG. 29. — Diagrammatic section of Niagara Falls (after Gilbert).
waters above them are deflected into sluiceways and tunnels,
and the power derived from these is used in driving machinery
to generate electricity, in order to supply heat and power to
the towns of the neighbourhood. Cheap power from Niagara
is used even so far away as Buffalo and Toronto, for one of
the great advantages of electricity is, that it need not be used
just where it is generated.
THE LAKE PENINSULA.
Examine Fig. 27, and it will be seen that part of the pro-
vince of Ontario has water on three sides. This is the most
southerly part of the Dominion and is known as the Lake
THE BASIN OF THE ST. LAWRENCE 73
Peninsula. Which countries of Europe are in the same
latitude? You will, therefore, expect this part of Canada to
enjoy a more equable climate than its position so far from the
sea would warrant. The winters are not so cold as at Montreal,
and the summers are cooler. The soil is very fertile, giving
great variety to the vegetable productions. For these reasons
you will not be surprised that this Lake Peninsula is the
most densely peopled part of Canada.
The chief occupation is agriculture, and although wheat is
largely grown the farming generally is of the "mixed" type
as compared with that of the Prairie Provinces. The rich
pastures support large numbers of cattle, and dairy farming is
an important occupation. Horses are reared in great numbers,
and in connection with this occupation it should be noted
that oats, which are largely used in horse-rearing, are the chief
crop in the province of Ontario. The Lake Peninsula has
been described as a vast fruit farm, whose peach orchards and
vineyards constitute one of the sights of Canada. The apple
crop is exceedingly large. Modern methods of cold storage,
and of transport in refrigerator cars are working wonders with
the fruit trade of this part of the Dominion.
The chief city is Toronto, which has many industries,
including the making of agricultural implements, shipbuilding,
biscuit making, etc. It has an excellent position on Lake
Ontario at the point where the routes from Georgian Bay
reach that lake, and is the centre for many railway and steamer
routes. Other Lake Peninsula towns are Hamilton and
London, both of which are on the Grand Trunk Railway
from Quebec to Chicago. Hamilton rivals Toronto as a
lake port and railway centre, for its position at the western
end of the lake gives it more facilities for railway connections,
especially with the United States. London is a rising agri-
cultural centre with important manufactures.
THE LOWER ST. LAWRENCE.
Near the eastern end of Lake Ontario is the town of
Kingston, from which a canal has been constructed to Ottawa.
This canal, the Rideau, avoids the Lachine Rapids to the
south of the island of Montreal. The river leaves Lake
Ontario in a very broad channel so studded with wooded
74 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
islands that it is called the Lake of the Thousand Isles. It
is here that the name St. Lawrence is first used for the
river.
Montreal. — About 160 miles from Lake Ontario is the island
of Montreal, on which stands the important town of the same
name. This name is derived from the Mount Royal, which
rises as a background for the city. It is the largest city in
Canada, and is still rapidly growing. Between the island and
the right bank are the Lachine Rapids. River boats can go
down, but the rapids form an upstream barrier for steamers,
so that it has been necessary to cut the Lachine Canal through
the island. Now let us consider the causes which have led to
the great importance of this city.
In the first place, it is situated at the farthest point up the
river that can be reached by large ocean-going vessels, and is
300 miles nearer Liverpool than New York. Therefore at
this point there will be a transference from ocean vessels to
river vessels and vice versa. It is here that the ocean vessels
are loaded with the products of the interior. In this con-
nection we must notice that the river has been much improved
and deepened between Quebec and Montreal, to the great
advantage of the latter town.
Many water and land routes converge upon Montreal, and
in this connection refer to Fig. 30. It is here that the
Ottawa River enters the St. Lawrence, whilst a little nearer
the mouth the River Richelieu enters on the right bank.
We shall consider the Richelieu in more detail later, but for
the present notice that the Richelieu-Hudson valleys give
a direct lowland route between Montreal and New York.
Montreal is the headquarters of the Canadian Pacific and
Grand Trunk Railways, and the western terminus of the Inter-
colonial Railway. The Canadian Pacific Railway leaves the
island by the Victoria Bridge, and runs westward to Ottawa.
Eastward the same line runs to Quebec and St. John.
The Grand Trunk Railway links Montreal with Quebec, and
south-westwards with Toronto and eventually Chicago, whilst
another line runs to Portland, Maine. From an atlas it
will be seen that Portland is the nearest ice-free port to
Montreal, and thus, from a Canadian standpoint, it is un-
fortunate that it is not a Canadian port. All these advantages
have combined to make Montreal the largest city in Canada,
THE BASIN OF THE ST. LAWRENCE
75
and if it were not for the fact that the St. Lawrence freezes
in winter, the city would probably be the greatest on the
continent, for it is 1,000 miles from the mouth, and therefore
there is a saving of carriage charges for water transport as
compared with land transport, whilst it has a water route by
which large river and lake boats can proceed for another
1,200 miles right into the heart of the continent.
Thus railway and water routes bring to Montreal products
from all points of the compass, either to be manufactured there
FlG. 30. — This figure shows the importance of the position of Montreal.
by the cheap power supplied by the Lachine Rapids or shipped
to other countries, whilst it is the great distributing centre for
the country's imports.
The Ottawa Valley. — The Ottawa River, which forms the
boundary between the provinces of Ontario and Quebec, flows
through one of the finest lumbering areas in the world. In
these forests the commonest trees are conifers. Lumbering
parties go to the forests in autumn and remain there during
the winter, which is a season of hard trying work, for the cold
is very intense. Snow covers the ground and gives the means
76
GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
of making easy roads for the haulage of the logs to the river.
The trees ready for felling are cut down, the small branches
lopped off, and the trunks then dragged by horses to the
nearest river. The rivers are frozen, and thus it is possible for
the logs to be piled up on the ice. When spring comes the
lumbering season ends. The rivers, swollen by the melting
FIG. 31. — View of the Parliament Mouses. Ottawa. Notice the pine-
covered slopes of the high ground on which the Parliament Buildings
stand, and the lumber rafts in the river. Note the huts on the rafts.
of the snow and ice, carry the logs along towards the saw mills,
which are generally placed near to falls or rapids on account
of the power which these give. It is always best to let the
logs go as far down the rivers as possible, even to their mouths.
We often find towns, where the timber is sawn up and made
into many useful articles, placed at the point where the current
is not strong enough to take the logs farther.
THE BASIN OF THE ST. LAWRENCE 77
Ottawa, the capital of the Dominion, is on the right bank
of the Ottawa River, at a point where that river is joined by a
tributary, and is the chief lumbering centre in Canada, its
lumber, pulp and paper mills deriving power from its two
rivers. It is a very handsome city and is constantly being
improved, for the government allows an annual grant for
its beautification. The Parliament Buildings are amongst
the finest of their kind in the world, and very much resemble
the Houses of Parliament at Westminster. (See Fig. 31.)
Ottawa became the capital in order to avoid jealousy between
Toronto, Montreal and Quebec. The provinces of Ontario
and Quebec now contain more than half of the population of
Canada, so that the original advantage of being in a central
position still holds good. Aided by two small canals, there
is steamboat connection between Montreal and Ottawa. In
the future, when Ottawa is joined to the Georgian Bay of Lake
Huron by canal, it will be possible for large steamers to reach
the western end of Lake Superior along this short route.
On the river opposite Ottawa is the rising lumbering town
of Hull.
The St. Lawrence below Montreal. — Continuing our journey
towards the mouth of the St. Lawrence from Montreal, we
should notice that the banks of the river are lined with
prosperous farming communities. Fruit and vegetables, live
stock and dairy produce are the chief products. Canada is
the world's greatest cheese-producing country, and the province
of Quebec is the chief one engaged m this industry. Formerly,
Quebec was covered by forests, and it is in the clearings that
agriculture is now carried on. The first stage in the develop-
ment was the hunting and trapping of animals. At a later
stage lumbering took the first place, and large areas of forest
lands were cut, whilst the land is now utilized for agriculture.
Quebec, next to Montreal, is the most important town on the
Lower St. Lawrence, and has played a very important part in
Canadian history. The word Quebec is an Indian word for
"narrows," a name which is very suitable, for at this point the
river narrows to about three-quarters of a mile in breadth.
This is due to a promontory projecting into the river on the
left bank. Below Quebec the river widens very considerably.
The older part of the city, including the citadel, is built on the
heights, and thus commands the river with ease. Indeed, it is
78 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
one of the finest natural positions on the continent for a
fortress. (See Fig. 32.) Old Quebec is most interesting, for
it is like a bit of the old world placed amidst modern sur-
roundings. The modern commercial city is on the lower
ground at the foot of the heights. Reference has already
been made to the loss which Quebec suffered owing to the
improving of the river. It has also lost its importance as
Canada's first lumbering centre because of the growth of
such towns as Ottawa and Hull in positions nearer to the
FIG. 32. — View of Quebec from Levis, a town on the opposite side of the
St. Lawrence. Notice the citadel on the Heights of Abraham, and the
modern port at the river level.
best lumbering areas and with great sources of power.
There are, however, still many lumber mills, but the chief
trade is leather manufacturing, and, connected with this, the
making of boots and shoes. It will increase in importance
when the new Transcontinental Grand Trunk Pacific Railway
is completed, for Quebec will be its eastern terminus after a
more direct route from Winnipeg than is given by the Canadian
Pacific Railway. Next to Montreal, Quebec is Canada's chief
summer port.
Below Quebec, the river gets broader and broader, being
THE BASIN OF THE ST. LAWRENCE 79
about 25 miles wide at Rimouski, which is a small port on the
right bank. Steamers take on or leave mails at this point.
It was just below here that the Canadian Pacific Railway's
steamship, the Empress of Ireland, sank after collision with
a boat which was taking coal from Cape Breton Island to
Montreal. It has been proposed to make a further outport
at Gaspe on a bay of the same name. The advantage of
outports such as Rimouski and Gaspe' is, that mails and
passengers can be picked up or set down there, and time
can be saved owing to the superior speed of the railway train
compared with the steamer. Notice, in your atlas, the large
wooded island of Anticosti, and trace the old course of the
St. Lawrence right across the continental shelf to the deep
waters of the Atlantic.
EXERCISES.
1. Draw maps to show the position and importance of Toronto, Ottawa,
Montreal and Quebec.
2. Describe a journey in a lake steamer from Port Arthur to Montreal,
mentioning where there are obstructions in the course of the river and how
these are avoided. Draw a section to show the different levels.
3. Of what articles do the cargoes of boats passing through the " Soo"
canals mainly consist ? Where have these articles come from and what is
their probable destination?
4. What do you mean by saying that the Niagara Falls are cutting their
way back upstream ? Explain by means of diagrams what evidence there is
of the work they have already done in this direction.
5. Imagine that you are spending a month's holiday in a lumber camp.
Write a letter to a friend describing the work that is taking place. If you
can, enclose a few " photographs" (pictures from guide-books, etc., to be
pasted in note-book).
6 Draw a map of the basin of the St. Lawrence, marking and naming
the Great Lakes ; Niagara Falls ; the "Soo," Welland, Rideau and Erie
Canals ; the chief towns in the basin ; the chief seats of the fruit-growing,
lumbering, and iron-mining trades.
CHAPTER XI.
THE HUDSON BAY AREA.
TURN in your atlas to the physical map of Canada. On
the west this area is bounded by the chain of great lakes, such
as Great Bear, Great Slave, Athabasca, Winnipeg, whilst also
to the south the boundary is the chain of the Great Lakes and
the St. Lawrence, although we have already considered the
area which is drained into the St. Lawrence by its left bank
tributaries, such as the Ottawa, in connection with the basin
of the St. Lawrence.
Hudson Bay has been formed by sinking, and forms the
lowest part of this region. The whole area may be compared
with a saucer, the lowest part of which is represented by
Hudson Bay, and the edges of the saucer have been broken
at Hudson Strait and at the channels between the islands
to the north of Hudson Bay. We have already learned that
this is the oldest part of the continent, and that it consists
of an ancient highland area which has been worn down to
a rough plain. The lakes which skirt its western and southern
edges have been formed at the junction of the hard and the
softer, more soluble rocks. (See Fig. 7.) You will also notice
that the area within this lake fringe is dotted by lakes of all
sizes. These owe their existence to the great ice sheets which
long ago covered this part of North America.
In the north this region consists of sparsely inhabited barren
lands and tundra. The rest is mainly coniferous forests, ex-
cepting in the south, where these have been cleared and
agriculture is carried on. Hunting and trapping are the chief
occupations in the valleys of the rivers draining into Hudson
Bay. The Hudson Bay Company has stations at such places
as Fort Churchill at the mouth of the River Churchill, and
York Factory at the mouth of the Nelson River. Here the
skins of animals such as the deer, fox, ermine, beaver, sable,
bear, etc., are sold or bartered in exchange for food, clothing,
So
THE HUDSON BAY AREA 81
guns, ammunition, etc. Notice the Nelson River and you will
see that it drains Lake Winnipeg, into which flow the Red and
Assiniboine from the south and the Saskatchewan from the
west. The Nelson, like all the rivers of the Hudson Bay area,
has very many rapids. The divides between the rivers are
low, and Indian trappers have no difficulty in making their
way about the country by means of the rivers, carrying their
light canoes on their backs across a portage or divide, or when
falls or rapids cannot be negotiated. In winter, when the
rivers and lakes are frozen over, the trapper can move at a
rapid rate on snow-shoes.
A Government railway is being built to connect the Cana-
dian Northern Railway system with Fort Churchill, thus
giving railway connection between Winnipeg and Hudson
Bay. This will be used during the very short time that
Hudson Bay is ice free in order to provide an outlet for the
wheat from the prairies. When completed this new means of
exportation will give the shortest route between the wheat-
fields and the British Isles, and although it can be used for a
short time only, this time is just when the railway is most
required, for at harvest there is a difficulty in dealing with the
ever-increasing amount of grain which is sent eastward along
the Great Lakes route.
As regards population, the Hudson Bay area has very few
people compared with its great size. This is accounted for by
the severity of the climate, especially in the northern parts,
and the fact that neither tundra nor coniferous forests support
large numbers of people.
EXERCISES.
1. Draw a map of the Hudson Bay area, shading in some distinctive
way tundra, forests, hard rock, soft rock. The chief lakes, rivers and
trading stations must be marked.
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of Fort Churchill as a
port for the wheat lands of Canada?
CHAPTER XII.
THE CENTRAL PLAINS.
THIS area includes the whole of the land from the Hudson
Bay area lake-boundary to the Rockies, although the title
may include the greater part of the Hudson Bay area. Ex-
amine the physical map of Canada in your atlas. You will
see that the central plains have a long gradual slope north-
wards. They also rise as the Rockies are approached, three
distinct prairie levels or terraces being traced. The Red
River area is nearly 800 feet above sea level. West of this are
two terraces of an average elevation of 1,600 feet and 3,000 feet
respectively. Winnipeg is 760 feet, Calgary 3,400 feet above
sea level, and since they are about 750 miles apart, the average
ascent between those points is about 3^ feet per mile.
Its northern portion is drained by the Mackenzie and other
rivers, such as the Peace and Athabasca. The Arctic coast-
lands are barren lands, whilst further south are pine forests
which stretch into the northern parts of Manitoba, Saskat-
chewan and Alberta. The only trade of importance is that in
furs, the splendid water-ways of the Mackenzie being the chief
scenes of the trapping. Flowing as it does into an ocean which
is ice-blocked for the greater part of the year, the Mackenzie is
of very little commercial importance.
The southern portion of the central plains is drained by the
Saskatchewan, Assiniboine and Red rivers into Lake Winnipeg,
and includes the southern parts of Alberta, Saskatchewan and
Manitoba.
The climate of this area is illustrated by the following figures —
Place.
Latitude.
Height
in feet.
Coldest
Month.
Warmest
Month.
Mean Annual
Rainfall.
Winnipeg
Calgary
Edmonton
49° N.
51° N.
53° N.
740
3,390
2, 1 60
-7°F.
12° F.
6°F.
66° F.
60° V.
62° F.
21 •$"
14-9"
13-9"
82
THE CENTRAL PLAINS 83
From this you will see that the winters are very cold. The
ground is generally frozen by November, and from then until
April ploughing must be suspended. The summers are long
and very warm, and it is at this season that most of the rain
falls. Indeed, the climate is typical of the lowlands in the
centre of land masses. The smaller rainfall nearer the Rockies
and the warmer winters are accounted for by the chinook
winds.
A very great change has taken place on these plains as the
following figures will show —
I— POPULATION AND AREA UNDER CULTIVATION.
Population.
Area under Cultivation.
In 1901.
In 1906.
In 1911.
In 1908.
In 191.1.
Area represented by^i
the present pro-
vinces of Mani- >
toba, Saskatche-
wan, and AlbertaJ
4OO,OOO
8o8,000
2,823,989
2,500,000
acres
17,500,000
acres
II.— PRODUCTION IN BUSHELS OF WHEAT, BARLEY
AND OATS IN 1913.
Province.
Wheat.
Barley.
Oats.
Manitoba.
Saskatchewan .
Alberta .
53,331,000
121,559,000
34,372,000
14,305,000
IO,42I,OOO
6,334,000
56,759,000
114,112,000
71,542,000
III.— HORSES, CATTLE, SHEEP AND PIGS IN 1913.
Province.
Horses.
Cattle.
Sheep.
Pigs.
Manitoba
Saskatchewan
Alberta .
300,753
580,386
484,809
456.936
663,098
779,294
54, 142
115,568
178,015
248,254
386,784
350,692
84 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
In 1896 the total wheat crop of these states was 15,000,000
bushels, which had increased by 1913 to 212,000,000 bushels.
We have already learned that the western plains are generally
too dry for wheat owing to the chinook winds, and that they
are mainly used for the rearing of cattle, sheep and horses.
There has been rapid development in the stock-rearing in-
dustry, but it is on the parts of the plains where wheat, oats,
barley, etc., can be grown that the most rapid development
FIG. 33. — A view of the ranching country in the drier western grass-lands.
has taken place. (See Figs. 33 and 34.) Even in the drier
lands nearer the Rockies, farming is rapidly encroaching upon
ranching in those districts where the rainfall is sufficient or
where irrigation is possible. The climate and soil are generally
very suitable for the growth of these cereals. The sowing
time is about April, before the frost is fully out of the ground.
The moisture supplied by the melting of the snows helps the
seeds to germinate. Growth is assisted by the early summer
rains, and the long, warm, dry days of late summer bring the
grain to maturity. The soil is usually a deep, rich mould
THE CENTRAL PLAINS 85
upon which, year after year, crops can be grown without any
appreciable detriment to it. Two great advantages of the
prairie, from an agricultural point of view are, first, that the
soil contains no stones, and second, that the prairie has very
few trees : usually, therefore, the soil is ready at once for
ploughing.
The very best wheat-lands are in the valley of the Red
River and in the neighbourhood of Lakes Winnipeg and
Winnipegosis. This region shows unmistakable evidence of
the great ice-sheets which once covered it. The Nelson now
FK;. 34. — A young town on the prairie. This is a view of Melfort, in
Saskatchewan. Note the wooden buildings, the grain elevator, the
railway line, and the general relief of the land.
drains these lakes. When the great ice-sheet was receding, but
still covered the valley of the present Nelson River, a great
lake was held up in front of it, and this was drained south-
wards into the Mississippi. Gradually the ice receded and
the Nelson drained off the waters of the great lake, which
is called Lake Agassiz, into Hudson Bay, but not before rich
deposits of clay and silt, over which are now thick layers of
mould or loam, had been spread over its floors. Thus Lakes
Winnipeg and Winnipegosis are only fragments of a former,
more extensive lake, the floor of which is now the rich wheat-
lands of the Red River valley. So flat is this ajea that after
rains the water stands on the ground in sheets.
86 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
On these prairies it is not difficult to construct railways, and
these have had a very important part to play in the develop-
ment of the area, for it is not profitable if the farms are far
removed from railways. Winnipeg, which stands at the con-
fluence of the Red and Assiniboine rivers, is the great railway
centre. Viewed from the standpoint of Canada west of Win-
nipeg, that city is the "Gate to the East," whilst to eastern
Canada it is the " Gate to the West." From it railways run
westwards to Calgary (Canadian Pacific) and to Edmonton
(Canadian Northern and Grand Trunk Pacific). These lines
are linked together by branch lines. Eastwards, Winnipeg is
connected with Port Arthur, and beyond, with Montreal and
the East by the Canadian Pacific, while the completion of the
Grand Trunk Pacific system will give it another outlet in
Quebec. Southwards it is connected with the railways of
the United States, whilst, as we have already learned, it is
proposed to make Fort Churchill a summer port, thus con-
necting Winnipeg with Hudson Bay. It is said that at harvest-
time the twenty miles of railway sidings at Winnipeg are filled
with trains which take the crops eastwards. The town has
grown with amazing rapidity, for in 1870 it had less than
1,000 inhabitants, whilst at the census of 1911 it had 136,035.
Originally, Winnipeg was a small Hudson Bay Company fur
centre ; but, although it is still a very important depot for the fur
trade, its chief importance is as a grain centre. Flour-milling,
leather-making, and the manufacturing of farming machinery
are also carried on. Second in importance to Winnipeg in
the State of Manitoba is Brandon, which is an important
agricultural centre on the main line of the Canadian Pacific
Railway.
Saskatchewan is higher and more undulating than Manitoba,
and produces more than twice as much wheat and oats as that
state. Stock-rearing is also more important than in Mani-
toba. The most important town is the capital, Regina, on
the Canadian Pacific main line. Saskatoon, on the Grand
Trunk Pacific, and Prince Albert, on the Canadian Northern,
are rapidly rising agricultural centres. Its proximity to the
forest belt has also made Prince Albert a lumber and trapping
centre.
Alberta is higher than Saskatchewan, so that its rivers have
cut deep trenches. Being to the lee of the Rockies the
THE CENTRAL PLAINS 87
chinook winds have an important effect upon the climate. The
winters are so warm in the south of the province that wheat
sown in late autumn is grown, although wheat sown in spring
is six times as important. Alberta has always been noted for
its stock-rearing, but considerable quantities of wheat, oats
and barley are now grown, although the chief industry is still
the rearing of horses, cattle and sheep. There is always a
great demand for horses for work on the farms, and all three
of the prairie provinces are engaged in meeting that demand,
Alberta leading the way. The warm, dry winds turn the grass
into natural hay, making it possible for the animals to be fed
out of doors all the year round.
The capital of the province is Edmonton, which owes its
original importance to a portage between the North Sas-
katchewan and Athabasca Rivers. It is the centre of a new
wheat-growing district and a very important railway centre,
being on the branch line of the Canadian Pacific which con-
nects it with Calgary, and on the main lines of the Canadian
Northern and the Grand Trunk Pacific. The latter has been
carried over the Yellowhead Pass and will be continued to
Prince Rupert, whilst it is proposed to carry the Canadian
Northern also over the Yellowhead Pass and to follow the
Canoe and Fraser rivers to Vancouver. The chief town of
Southern Alberta is Calgary, the centre of a great ranching
country. It is situated on the Bow river, a tributary of the
South Saskatchewan, and of recent years, owing to irrigation
methods, has also become noted as a centre for wheat. The
main line of the Canadian Pacific Railway here sends branches
northwards to Edmonton and southwards via Macleod and
the Crow's Nest to the rich mining-lands of the Upper
Kootenay valley. Medicine Hat, near the Saskatchewan
boundary, is the centre of an excellent ranching district.
It is on the main C.P.R. line.
EXERCISES.
1. Describe and account for the vegetation units of the Central Plains
of Canada.
2. Examine Fig. 30, which shows the importance of the situation of
Montreal. Make a map on similar lines, so as to bring out clearly the
importance of the situation of Winnipeg.
3. Write a short account of the causes which have helped to make the
88 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
Winnipeg area one of the most important wheat-growing districts in
the world.
4. Write a descriptive account of a journey on the C. P.R. from Port
Arthur to Calgary, describing what may be seen from the observation
car. You may illustrate your answer by suitable views taken from guide
books, etc.
5. Represent graphically the comparative numbers of horses, cattle, etc.,
in Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta.
CHAPTER XIII.
THE WESTERN HIGHLANDS (INCLUDING ALASKA).
THE general structure of this area has been described in
Chapter II. It is politically divided into Alaska, and the
Yukon territory and British Columbia province of Canada.
THE BASIN OF THE YUKON.
Alaska and Yukon consist mainly of the Plateau basin of
the Yukon river. The Yukon, which is over 2,000 miles in
length, runs through the centre of the region, and has its
mouth, a great delta, in Bering Strait. It is navigable from
June to October for boats of shallow draught, and in winter
time, when frozen, it makes a good sledge route into the
interior. The west coast mountains contain the highest peaks
in the continent, Mount McKinley being 20,464 feet; and
owing to the high latitudes there are innumerable glaciers,
very many of which reach down to the sea. When in 1867
the United States bought Alaska for about one and a half
million pounds, there were many complaints that worthless
country had been obtained. But already it has repaid the
purchase money many times over. The political map will show
that the position of the boundary between Alaska and Canada
gives to the former a considerable stretch of coast-line, the
hinterland of which is Canadian, and thus the territory of Yukon
has no access to the sea. This coast-line has very rich fisheries,
although these are little developed owing to the distance from
markets. Whaling and sealing employ very many men. The
fur seal is of great value on account of its soft fur, which
makes warm winter clothes. Great care is taken that killing
shall not go on recklessly, causing extermination of the seals,
and the Government of the United States issues rules to
regulate the trade. The Pribilof Islands in Bering Sea are
the chief centre for fur seals.
9o GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
There are extensive forests, and lumbering may become
important in the future ; but the chief wealth consists in the
rich deposits of gold, silver, copper and other minerals. The
most important mining area is on the Alaskan and Yukon
boundary. In 1897 gold was found in the gravel of tribu-
taries of the Klondike, a tributary of the Yukon, and the gold
rush which took place was one of the most remarkable events
of recent years. Very many returned without the fortunes
they went to seek, some made fortunes, many remained, and
were the pioneers in a country which undoubtedly contains
enormous mineral wealth. The most important mining towns
are : Dawson City, a Canadian town, situated at the junction
of the Klondike and the Yukon, and Nome on Bering Strait.
The best way of reaching Dawson City is by a railway from
Skagway, a small port in United States territory. The line is
carried over the White Pass to the head of the navigation on
the Lewes, one of the headstreams of the Yukon. From this
point river steamers run to Dawson City.
In 1891 sixteen reindeer were introduced into Alaska from
across the Bering Strait. There have been a few importations
since, but the number at present in the state is 40,000, of
which about 25,000 are owned by natives. Alaska and Yukon
are at present very sparsely peopled. In the former there are
about 31,000 whites and 33,000 coloured people, the latter
being Eskimos and Indians, whilst Yukon has a population of
8,500. It is not unlikely that Yukon will in the near future
become part of British Columbia.
BRITISH COLUMBIA.
The islands of the sunken coast range, the drowned plain
between the islands and the Cascades, the great plateau
between the Cascades and the Rockies, crossed itself by many
ranges, are all well marked. (See Figs. 35 and 37.) The
province very much resembles Norway, although if you
compare the latitudes of the two countries, you will see that
Norway is very much farther north, so that British Columbia
has a great advantage in this respect. The climate varies with
the altitude, the most equable parts being naturally the
southern coast-lands, where the range of temperature is not
great, whilst the plateau has a more extreme climate. The
WESTERN HIGHLANDS (INCLUDING ALASKA) 91
rainfall is heavy on the coast range, for the prevailing winds
are the westerlies; but in the valleys behind the mountains
the rain is considerably less, although on meeting ranges like
ik
wl)
JV ^
DIXON ENTRANCE
RUPE8T
FIG. 35. — A map of part of the sunken north -west coast. Observe its
indented character. Prince of Wales Island is a portion of the old
coast range. What islands are separated from Prince of Wales
Island by Dixon Sound ? Find out from your atlas.
the Selkirks, the winds once more ascend and precipitation
takes place. (See Figs. 20 and 21.) Naturally, the mountains
more to the east have less rain than those nearer the west,
92 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
and this accounts for the greater rainfall and snowfall on the
Selkirks than on the Rockies. The Selkirks are noted for
their magnificent glaciers. You will thus see that as regards
rainfall, there is a series of wet and dry belts.
Rivers. — The north-east part of the province is drained to
the Mackenzie by the Peace and Lizard rivers, but you will
notice that this area is part of the Central plains, not of the
Highlands. The drainage is mainly to the Pacific, and the
chief rivers are the Skeena, Fraser and Columbia. Notice
carefully the courses of the Fraser and Columbia. Each has
its source in the trough between the Cariboo and Selkirk
mountains on the one hand and the Rockies on the other. (See
Fig- 37-) Each flows northward, the Columbia bending round
the north of the Selkirks and the Fraser round the end of
the Cariboo mountains. Turning southwards, each now runs
in a valley parallel to its upper course. Breaking through the
coast-ranges by magnificent gorges, they finally enter the
Pacific. Now notice the Kootenay, a tributary of the
Columbia, and you will see that instead of flowing northwards,
it first runs southwards along the same trough as the Upper
Columbia, and after bending round the southern end of the
Selkirks, and flowing a little northwards, joins the main
stream. Where the rivers run along the "graining" of the
country, they are called "longitudinal" streams, but where
they cut through the separating mountain ranges they are
"transverse," because there they are flowing across the "grain-
ing" of the country. These types of valleys have one very
marked difference in appearance. The transverse valley
naturally tends to be narrow and gorge-like, whilst the
longitudinal valley is usually broad and open.
Natural Wealth. — Let us now consider the natural wealth
of the province. From the formation of the coast-line we
should expect (i) fishing, and we have learned that the pro-
vince contains forested areas, so that we shall have (2) lumber-
ing. From the fact that British Columbia is mountainous and
has many rivers at work, deepening their valleys, we should
expect any minerals the rocks contained to be exposed or
more easily obtained than in an area where the rocks had
not been disturbed. The Rockies are exceedingly rich in
minerals, so that (3) mining is an important source of wealth.
(4) Agriculture we should expect to be carried on only on the
WESTERN HIGHLANDS (INCLUDING ALASKA) 93
lowlands of the river valleys such as the Fraser, but this
industry is rapidly becoming one of the province's chief assets,
for it has rich arable and pasture lands. The best arable
lands are the lower Fraser valley, and the lowlands of
Vancouver Island and the mainland opposite that island.
Pasture lands are found in the intermont plateaux and valleys.
In the drier regions, cultivated areas are being extended by
means of careful irrigation. So we see that British Columbia's
wealth consists chiefly in its fisheries, its forests, its minerals
and its agriculture.
1. Fishing. — In the year 1911 the value of the British
Columbian fisheries was nearly two million pounds, of which
five-sixths was accounted for by salmon alone. Halibut and
herring fishing is, however, rapidly developing, and will be of
more importance as time goes on. Salmon live in the ocean,
but come to the rivers every year in order to spawn or to
lay their eggs. They manage to overcome many obstacles in
pushing their way inland, even leaping many feet into the air
in order to reach the stretches of river above the waterfalls.
Whilst travelling up the river, they are caught by various
means, such as nets spread across the river, or by dip nets as
they leap in order to ascend a small waterfall. The canning
trade is very important and employs a large number of people,
especially at New Westminster near the mouth of the Fraser.
The chief rivers noted for their fisheries are the Fraser and
Columbia, and although your map will show you that the
latter has its lower course in the United States, you must
remember what has been stated before, that the political
frontier is not a natural boundary, for these river valleys are
very similar in character.
2. Lumbering is very important in this province and is
increasing, owing to the great demand for wood from the
untimbered prairie provinces. (See Fig. 23.) In British
Columbia, trees, especially the Douglas firs, attain a greater
size than anywhere else in the Dominion.
3. Mining. — Coal is extensively mined in Vancouver Island
and in the region of Crow's Nest Pass. The former supplies
the Western Pacific towns and the British Pacific Naval
Squadron, whose headquarters are at Esquimault in the south
of Vancouver Island. The coal-mines of the Crow's Nest
Pass region supply the Canadian Pacific Railway and the
94
GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
gold, silver, copper and lead mining area in the south-east
of the province. The chief centre of this busy mining district
is Rossland, a town near the Columbia and almost on the
U.S.A. frontier. You will, therefore, see that the chief mining
areas are in the southern portion of the province, but this
must not be taken to indicate that minerals are not found
elsewhere, for there are in many parts mineral deposits which
i
FIG. 36. — Fruit-growing by means of irrigation at Kelowna,
British Columbia.
only await the construction of railways, without which they
cannot be developed.
4. Agriculture. — Little need be added to what you have
already learned. The greatest development of recent years
has been in fruit-growing, and British Columbia is rapidly
becoming famous for its apples and pears. In 1891 the total
fruit-growing area was 6,500 acres. By 1901 this had been
increased by 1,000 acres only, but during the next ten years
the increase was so rapid that in 1911 there were over 40,000
WESTERN HIGHLANDS (INCLUDING ALASKA) 95
acres of land producing fruit. Fig. 3-6 shows a view in a
typical fruit-producing area.
Routes. — Railways enter the state from the East by the
FIG. 37. — Route across the Canadian Rockies.
Yellowhead, Kicking Horse and Crow's Nest Passes. In
following these lines of communication a physical map should
be used in conjunction with Fig. 37. The Grand Trunk Pacific
has already crossed the Yellowhead Pass after leaving
96 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
Edmonton, and is being constructed along the Fraser River
to where that river turns southwards, from which point the
line projected follows one of the Eraser's tributaries. Striking
the Skeena River this line has already been constructed along
that river from its terminus at Prince Rupert.
The Canadian Northern at present has not been constructed
very far beyond Edmonton, but it is proposed to carry it over
the Yellowhead Pass, then along the Canoe and Thompson,
both of which are tributaries of the Fraser, its last stretch
being along the lower Fraser to its Pacific terminus, Vancouver.
The chief railway is the Canadian Pacific, the main line of
which crosses the Kicking Horse Pass to the Upper Columbia,
and then the Selkirks, passing magnificent mountain scenery.
Reaching the South Thomson, the railway follows that river to
its confluence with the Fraser, along which it runs to Vancouver.
A branch of the Canadian Pacific crosses the Rockies at the
Crow's Nest Pass and taps the rich mining districts of the
Upper Kootenay and Rossland. Both the main line and the
branch line are connected with the railways of the United
States.
In following these railways on the map, you will have
observed the close connection between the rivers and the rail-
way routes. Naturally, in a mountainous country, the river
valleys will give the best routes and easiest gradients, and that
is why they are used. On country such as the central plains,
there is no need to keep to the rivers, for railway construction
is easy.
THE CHIEF TOWNS.
The capital of the province is Victoria, on Vancouver Island.
It is an important port, and has a splendid harbour. It has
many lumber mills, and is the head-quarters of the Canadian
fur-sealing fleet. Near to it is Esquimault, the naval port for
the Pacific. Coal and iron are found in the vicinity.
Vancouver is the largest town in British Columbia, and has
grown very rapidly owing to the great advantages which it
possesses. In 1886 the site of the town was forest land — the
public park still contains very many Douglas firs — whilst in
1911 it had a population of over 100,000, or more than three
times that of Victoria. The site was selected on account of its
magnificent deep-water harbour, one of the finest in the world.
WESTERN HIGHLANDS (INCLUDING ALASKA) 97
We have already seen that it is the terminus of the Canadian
Pacific, and that it will be the terminus of the Canadian
Northern when completed. Its position at the mouth of the
Fraser also makes it the outlet of the agricultural lands of the
lower valley of that river. From Vancouver steamship lines
run to the western ports of America to Australia and the ports
of eastern Asia.
Neiv Westminster is one of the oldest towns in British
Columbia, and is situated near the mouth of the Fraser. It
has important fruit-canning works, and is the chief centre of
the growing fruit trade.
EXERCISES.
1. Describe the route taken by the Canadian Pacific Railway from
Calgary to Vancouver, and show how it is related to the physical features.
2. What industry in British Columbia is being rapidly developed by
careful irrigation ? Examine Fig. 36. Describe the means by which the
fields are being watered.
3. The chief exports of British Columbia are minerals, fish, and fruit.
Are these what you would expect to be the chief articles of trade? Why?
4. Describe the coast-line of British Columbia. What do you know of
its formation ? Mention similar coast-lines in America and Europe.
5. Give the position and importance of Victoria (U. C.), Vancouver,
Rossland, Dawson City and Prince Rupert. Draw sketch maps to bring
out clearly the points you mention.
CHAPTER XIV.
THE CHIEF CANADIAN RAILWAY COMMUNICATIONS.
IN going over the different regions of Canada, the chief
communications have been referred to as regards each region.
Now let us link all these together, at the same time following
them on a map. There are four great railway systems — the
Intercolonial, Canadian Northern, Grand Trunk, Canadian
Pacific.
The Intercolonial belongs to the Canadian Government and
connects Montreal with the winter ports of St. John, Halifax
and Sydney.
The Canadian Pacific is the only completed transcontinental
line in Canada, and except for the Trans-Siberian Railway is
the longest continuous line in the world under the control of
one company. It connects Halifax and St. John with Mont-
real, and from Montreal runs westwards via Port Arthur,
Winnipeg, Regina, Calgary and Kicking Horse Pass to its
Pacific terminus of Vancouver.
Its branch lines, especially those in the Central Plains, are
very important.
The Grand Trunk. — This line connects Montreal with the
American port of Portland (Maine), its nearest winter port, and
with Chicago, via Kingston, Toronto and Detroit. The
Grand Trunk Pacific is an extension of this company's system,
and when completed will run from Quebec to Winnipeg, north
of the route taken by the Canadian Pacific. From Winnipeg
the line is taken via Edmonton to beyond the Yellowhead
Pass. The Pacific terminus is Prince Rupert. This route
will give a quicker journey across the continent than that of
the Canadian Pacific Railway. From Quebec the line will
be connected with the Intercolonial system, thus reaching the
Canadian winter ports.
Canadian Northern. — The chief operations of this railway
CANADIAN RAILWAY COMMUNICATIONS 99
are as yet confined to the central plains, the main line extending
from Port Arthur to Edmonton, although eventually it will be
a third transcontinental line. This company has already lines
in British Columbia, and in Nova Scotia, Quebec and Ontario.
A United States railway, the Great Northern, which runs
from Duluth to Seattle, has many branch lines in British
Columbia and the Central States, which connect it with the
railways of Canada.
EXERCISES.
1. Make an outline map of Canada, and mark on it the chief railway
lines of the Dominion. Mark and name all the great railway centres and
the ports reached by the various lines.
2. Describe a journey by the Canadian Pacific Railway from Halifax to
Vancouver. Describe the different types of scenery that would be seen
during the journey.
CHAPTER XV.
THE GROWTH OF CANADA: ITS POPULATION AND
TRADE.
I. BRIEF HISTORICAL OUTLINE OF THE GROWTH OF
CANADA.
WE have learned that the first Europeans to visit Canada
were the Norse sailors, who founded colonies in the East long
before the eventful voyage of Columbus. Newfoundland was
discovered in 1497 by Cabot, but settlements were not made
until the end of the next century. In the meantime, French
explorers were pushing their way into the interior by means of
the great St. Lawrence waterway. Jacques Cartier made three
voyages of discovery, on the second of which he reached the
island of Montreal, whilst Champlain at the beginning of the
seventeenth century founded Quebec, and explored the vari-
ous rivers leading from the St. Lawrence into the interior.
These men led the way for a French settlement of the basin
of the St. Lawrence. First came the traders and trappers,
who gradually pushed their way to the great lakes, and beyond
to the valley of the Ohio, and finally to the mouth of the
Mississippi, although their hold in the latter portion was very
slight. This was not very difficult, for you know that there are
no obstacles in the nature of mountains to prevent this gradual
spreading. It had the disadvantage, however, of causing the
colonists to be very scattered, whilst the English settlements on
the east coast were more compact, owing to the limited area of
the eastern plains of the Atlantic seaboard. This was especi-
ally true of the English settlements in the New England States,
where men of the same Puritan faith were strongly banded
together. Thus, when the conquest of Canada was under-
taken, New France, as the French colony in the St. Lawrence
basin was called, fell into English hands when the stronghold
of Quebec was captured, and a large number of French-speak-
101
ing people became British subjects. Even to-day about four-
fifths of the people of the province of Quebec speak French.
The conquest of Canada was entered upon by England in
defence of the American colonists, for eventually the latter
crossed the Appalachian barrier and reached the great central
plains. Naturally conflicts took place not only in this area,
but along the St. Lawrence, and the French took steps to keep
the English on the east coast plains, hoping at some future
time to drive them out of the continent altogether. In 1756
the struggle between the English and French was begun. It is
not necessary here to go into the details of all that happened
during the campaign, and how it was finally brought to an
end in 1759, by the victory of General Wolfe at Quebec.
The fall of Quebec ended the American part of the Seven
Years' War, and the Treaty of Paris, which was signed in
1763, transferred Canada to England, with the exception of
two small islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
The Great War of Independence took place only sixteen
years after the capture of Quebec, and during that time an
attack on Quebec was frustrated. At the close of that war
the American colonists, who had remained loyal to England,
were stripped of all lands and possessions. About 30,000 of
them were shipped to Nova Scotia, whilst very many settled in
what is now the province of Ontario, at the town of Kingston.
In this way the valley of the St. Lawrence became inhabited
by the French in its lower half, and by the English in its
upper half. These areas became known as Upper and Lower
Canada, and to-day correspond roughly to the provinces of
Quebec and Ontario.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century there were settle-
ments in Upper and Lower Canada, the maritime provinces of
Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, and
in Newfoundland. The west and north-west were almost
unknown. In 1670 the Hudson Bay Company was founded.
It acquired rights over the whole of the area draining into
Hudson Bay, and later over lands farther west. The fur
traders resented any interference or attempts at settlement, and
until 1869, when the Government took over the Company's
rights, very little had been done in the way of settlement or
development west of Upper Canada, excepting in British Colum-
bia, where the Californian gold rush of 1849 was succeeded
102 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
by one to that province in 1857. Before this time there
had been numerous trapping stations in this province which
belonged to the Hudson Bay Company.
Thus, in 1867, when the Dominion of Canada was formed,
British Columbia was entirely shut off from the east, for there
was no road across the Prairies and the Rockies. British
Columbia joined the Dominion because of the promise to
construct a great railway across the continent. The only
province to refuse to enter the Dominion was Newfoundland,
which still stands out. The development that followed the
construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway, completed in
November 1885, was wonderful, and put an end to the belief
that west of the Great Lakes was fit only for hunting and
trapping.
II. MODERN CANADA AND THE PRESENT DISTRIBUTION
OF THE POPULATION.
Modern Canada is made up of nine provinces and two terri-
tories (Yukon and North-west), the latter being administered
as one. Your atlas will show what the boundaries of these
provinces are. You will see that British Columbia is the
Pacific Province ; Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba are
the Prairie Provinces; Ontario and Quebec are the Provinces
of the St. Lawrence Basin; Prince Edward Island, Nova
Scotia and New Brunswick are the Eastern or Maritime
Provinces. Northern Canada is made up of the Yukon and
North-west Territories, whilst Newfoundland and Labrador
are under separate government.
Each province has responsible government of its own, and
looks after all matters which are of a provincial nature. The
Dominion Government meets at Ottawa, and is responsible
for all matters relating to immigration and the development
of the unoccupied lands of the Prairie Provinces. It also
controls all matters which affect the Dominion as a whole
and its relation with other countries. There is a House of
Commons and the Senate, the former being elected by the
people, and the latter by the Government. Representing the
King is a Governor-General, whilst at the head of each pro-
vincial government is a Lieutenant-Governor, who is appointed
by the Governor-General.
THE GROWTH OF CANADA
III. POPULATION.
103
The following tables are quoted from the Statesman s Year
Book—
INCREASE IX POPULATION OF CANADA
FROM l8oi TO iil.
Year.
Population.
Year.
Population.
1801
24O,OOO
1881
4,324,810
1825
581,920
1891
4,833,239
1851
1,842,265
1901 5.371,315
1861
3,090,561
I9II 7,206,643
1871
3,635 024
Notice the great increase in the years 1901—11.
AREA AND POPULATION OF EACH STATE
IN 1901 AND igil.
Population.
Total area
in square
miles.
Population
1901.
Population
1911.
Population
per sq. mile
1911.
Prince Edward Is.
2,184
103,259
93,728
42-9
Nova Scotia
21,428
459,574
492,338 22'9
New Brunswick .
27,985
331,120
351,889 12 6
Quebec
706,834
1,648,898
2,003,232 5 -6
Ontario
407,262
2,182,947
2,523,274
9-6
Manitoba .
251,832
255,211
455,614 6-1
British Columbia
355,855
178,657
392,480 i'o
Alberta
255,285
72,841
374,663 1-4
Saskatchewan
351,700
91,460
492,432 i -9
Yukon
207,076
27,219
8,512 0-04
North-west Territories
1,242,224
20,129
18,481
First it should be noted that the boundaries of several of
the provinces were changed during the years 1901-1 1. It will
be seen at once that the majority of the people are still in
older Canada, that is, Quebec and Ontario ; that the great
increase has been in Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta,
but that there is still plenty of room for newcomers in those
104
GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
states. Note the decrease in Yukon and Prince Edward
Island.
Now notice the figures giving the places of birth of the
inhabitants of Canada at the census of 1911.
POPULATION ACCORDING TO BIRTH, 1911.
Canada
British Isles
Other parts of Empire
United States .
Austria-Hunga-y
5,619,682
784,526
29,188
303,680
121,430
Norway
Sweden
Russia
China
Elsewhere
20,968
28,226
89,984
27,774
89,250
France
Italy
39,577
17,619
Total .
7,206,643
34'7j9
Next to the figures of those who arrive from the Mother-
land, the most interesting are those which show the number
who enter Canada from the United States. This number
is increasing, for in the year 1912 there were over 140,143
immigrants from across the frontier. Notice the number of
Chinese in Canada. These, as you would expect, are mainly
to be found on the Pacific side. Every Chinaman entering
Canada has to pay a tax of 500 dollars, but despite this 6,083
Chinese entered the country in the year 1911-12.
In 1911 the towns with more than 50,000 inhabitants
were —
Population in
1911.
English Towns of
approximate size.
Montreal j 470,480
Sheffield
Toronto .....
376,568
Bristol
Winnipeg; .....
136,035
Blackburn
Vancouver .....
100,401
Halifax
Ottawa . . .
87,062
Walsall
Hamilton . . . , . j 81,0,69
Devonport x
Quebec . . . . . 78,710
Bournemouth
Finally, the trade of Canada is shown by the following
figures.
THE TRADE OF CANADA
THE TRADE OF CANADA
Exports for year ending March 31, 1913.
Imports for year ending March 31, 1913.
Millions.
Wheat and flour . . £21 "j
Iron and steel .
Millions.
£20-6
Timber and wood-pulp . 9*9
Coal and coke .
8 2
Minerals (gold', silver,
Cotton goods and raw
copper) . . . 8 '2
cotton ....
6-1
Dairy produce (mainly
Woollen goods and raw
cheese). . . . 5 "2
wool ....
5'2
Cod, salmon, lobster . 2*4
Sugar ....
3-4
Hides, skins, furs . . 2-4
Fruit and nuts .
2-9
Agricultural implements . i '2
Timber ....
29
„ • ro
Chemicals
2'6
Fruits .... o'9
Oil, flax, wines, tobacco,
Re-exported foreign pro-
and minor imports
86-5
ducts and minor exports 257 !
"138-4
78-6
The chief countries with whom trade was carried on were —
Countries.
Value of Exports
in million £,.
Value of Imports
in million £,.
United States ....
United Kingdom
France .....
Germany .....
33-4
35-6
°'5
o b
88-2
277
3-0
2-8
You would expect Canada's leading exports to be wheat and
flour, timber and wood pulp, minerals, and dairy produce;
and her leading imports to be manufactured articles. Perhaps
you also would have expected that most of the trade would be
carried on with the mother country. But you must notice
that the United States is able to supply all the manufactured
articles which can be obtained from the United Kingdom, and
in spite of a high duty which is charged on all goods entering
Canada, and of the fact that goods from the mother country
have this duty reduced by about one-third, the proximity of
the United States is so important a factor that she sends to
Canada most of that country's imports. This is not true of
the exports, for, as you probably know, most articles enter
io6
GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
this country free of duty, whilst the United States places a
tax on all articles entering her territory. Besides, the United
States produces in greater quantities most of Canada's
products.
EXERCISES.
1. Construct a graph, showing the increase in the population of Canada
from 1801 to 1911. Notice the intervals between the years 1801 and 1851.
2. Draw a circle of about 2j inches radius. Divide it into sectors
which show proportionately the number of people in Canada who are of
Canadian, British, American, Austrian, Russian, South European, etc.,
birth. Use the figures given.
3. Represent the exports and imports of Canada by the method adopted
in the last exercise.
4. Make map-; or diagrams showing the comparative acreage and yield of
wheat, barley and oats in the following Canadian Provinces ; mention any
points you notice. —
Thousands of Acres.
Millions of Bushels.
Wheat.
Barley.
Oats.
Wheat.
Oats.
Barley.
Manitoba ....
2804
496
1798
53'3
I4-3
56-8
Saskatchewan .
5720
332
2755
121-6
io'4
II4'I
Alberta ....
1512
197
1639
34 'A
6-3
7I-5
Ontario ....
850
48 5
2814
19-8
14-6
I°5'2
Quebec ....
5«
89
1303
i
2-3
39
Nova Scotia
13
5
IOI
•3 'I
3 '3
CHAPTER XVI.
THE UNITED STATES. NEW ENGLAND.
IN area the United States is rather smaller than British
North America, but it has a population nearly thirteen times as
large. Its area is 3,568,000 square miles, or about as large
as Europe without Spain.
As in Canada, the three great physical divisions — the
Western Highlands, the Central Plains and the Eastern High-
lands— are well marked, although we must notice that the
Western Highlands are much broader than in Canada, whilst
there are broad margins of lowlands between the Eastern
Highlands and the Atlantic Ocean. You will remember that
we have divided the Appalachian system into a northern and
southern portion (see p. 14), and the Western Highlands into
the Snake Plateau, the Great Basin, the California Valley and
the Colorado Plateau (see Fig. 5). The Central Plains fall
naturally into the Great Lakes basin and the basin of the
Mississippi. We shall consider the United States, taking these
areas as units.
THE NORTHERN APPALACHIANS : THE NEW ENGLAND
STATES.
This region is that part of the Appalachian system north-
east of the river Hudson. The United States portion is the
New England states, although your atlas map which gives
state boundaries will show that the state of New York owns
a narrow strip of land east of the Hudson.
From what has been learned about the Great Ice Age,
we are already familiar with many of the chief factors of
the physical features of these states. We have learned that
the Northern Appalachians have sunk, and if you look at the
coast-line of New England, you will see that this sinking has
107
io8 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
made it very irregular, and in so doing, many good harbours
have been formed. There are also very many lakes and
waterfalls, the origin of which is described in Chapter IV.
In many places, especially in the south, there are moraines,
whilst much of the surface is boulder strewn. You will see
from your map that the lowland is near the coast, and that
the land rises towards the west and north to the Green and
White Mountains. The direction of the drainage is south
or south-east, the river occupying wide longitudinal valleys.
Notice the Merrimac and Connecticut rivers.
Industries. — When the Pilgrim Fathers settled here in the
seventeenth century, these states were much more forested
than they are to-day, and lumbering and shipbuilding were
among the earliest industries, fishing, too, was one of the
first occupations, for the character of the coast would help
this. In this part of North America, owing to the hardness
of the rocks from which it has been derived, the glacial soil
is, as a rule, difficult for agriculture on account of its stony
character, and the development of the prairie lands of the
central plains has made it unnecessary for these states to grow
much wheat, etc., so that the agriculture is confined mainly
to fruit-growing, and the production of milk, butter, cheese,
eggs and vegetables, all of which are easily sold in the large
cities. It will be recalled that lumbering, fishing and mixed
farming are the chief occupations in the Canadian maritime
provinces, especially in New Brunswick. But New England
has gone a stage further, for it is the chief manufacturing
section in the United States, and this in spite of the fact that
most of its raw materials for manufacture have to be imported.
One reason for this is the great supply of water and electric
power provided by the numerous falls and rapids. But large
numbers of the mills and workshops are worked by steam-
engines, for the inhabitants have become so skilful in manu-
facturing that their trade has enormously increased. It is
important to notice that in New England neither coal nor
iron is found. Its chief manufactures are cotton, wool, leather
and iron. Cotton is brought by water from the southern
states, wool from Ohio and the states further west, as well
as from Argentina and Australia. Leather making was one
of the earliest manufactures, and is aided by the great supplies
of trees, especially hemlock, whose bark gives the tannic acid
THE NEW ENGLAND STATES 109
used in tanning. The manufacture of boots and shoes is the
most important branch of the leather trade. Owing to the
fact that iron is not found in New England, and that coal
has to be brought from other states, the metal manufactures
are, as a rule, those which require little raw material but
considerable skilled labour. In this respect they may be
compared with similar industries in Switzerland. Thus, articles
such as jewellery, watches, clocks and firearms are manu-
factured. The watches made in Waltham and Waterbury are
sold all over the world.
Chief Cities. — The largest and most important city in New
England is Boston. It ranks fifth in size in the United States,
and is second to New York in importance as a port. It has a
splendid harbour, which is at a point where several drowned
river valleys meet. From Boston, railway lines run to the
manufacturing districts, for which it acts as a collecting centre
for goods for export, and a distributing centre for the raw
materials imported by sea, besides being a port at which many
steamships for foreign countries call. It is a great manufactur-
ing town, especially of clothing. If you examine your atlas
map (or Fig. 41) you will see that in order to reach the
Mohawk Gap, mountains have to be crossed, thus making
the approach to the Central Plains from Boston much more
difficult than from New York, and therefore enabling the
latter to outstrip Boston in importance. Nevertheless, Boston
exports a considerable amount of meat and grain from the
Central Plains.
Portland, in Maine, we have already heard of in connection
with Montreal, for when the St. Lawrence is frozen, and
Canadian trade is carried on through the winter ports, much
of it passes through Portland, owing to the fact that it is the
nearest ice-free port to Montreal. It is a terminus of the
Grand Trunk Railway, and an important fishing centre. Of
the manufacturing towns the chief are —
Fall River on the south coast. As will be gathered from its
name, it has power derived from falls. This town is the largest
cotton manufacturing centre, and has the extra advantage of
having a harbour deep enough to accommodate the ships
which bring its raw materials. It also has woollen mills.
Manchester is situated near the Falls of the Merrimac,
and like Lou<e//, which is on the same river, and Providence
no GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
(R.I.) manufactures cotton goods. New Haven is the largest
city in Connecticut, and is on Long Island Sound. The two
oldest of the American Universities are in New England :
Harvard, founded in 1636, being at Cambridge, three miles
from Boston, and Yale, founded in 1701, at New Haven.
EXERCISES.
1. Account for the greater density of the population in Massachusetts,
Rhode Island and Connecticut, than in the other New England States.
(See figures, on p. 153.) Make a map to show the density of the popu-
lation in these states.
2. Why is it that the New England States are very important for
manufacturing despite the lack of the raw materials, and the coal and iron
required for manufacturing?
3. Give reasons why Boston has become such a large and important
city. Why has it been outstripped by New York? Of what importance
is Boston to the busy cities in the vicinity? Of what importance are they
to Boston ? Draw a map to illustrate the position of Boston.
4. In what ways did the great ice sheet influence (i) the agriculture,
(ii) the industries, of the New England Slates?
CHAPTER XVII.
THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS.
THIS area is south of the Hudson, and has been described
on pp. 14 and 15. The Southern Appalachians have not been
glaciated like the Northern Appalachians, so that the uni-
formity of the latter is absent, and in its place we have marked
contrasts between the Alleghany plateau, the Central Valley
the Appalachian ridges, the Piedmont plateau, and the Coast
Plains. The whole area has been uplifted, and thus the
coastal plains from New Jersey to Mexico were formed. How-
ever, it should be noticed that a slight sinking of the land
allowed the sea to drown many of the mouths of the rivers,
especially those of the Delaware and the rivers flowing into
Chesapeake Bay, and thus the wide openings which you will
see on the map were formed.
The Fall Line. — You will remember that the Piedmont
plateau is east of the Appalachian ridges. It is an old
peneplain which has been uplifted, thus causing the rivers
which cross it to deepen their valleys. As this area has
not been glaciated, the soil remains, and is very fertile,
forming splendid agricultural land, especially important
where the climate is suitable for the growth of cotton and
tobacco. When the rivers leave this belt of old hard rock,
they meet the newer softer rocks of the uplifted coastal plains,
and this difference in hardness of the rocks has caused the
rivers to make waterfalls. You will not be surprised to hear
that many of the most important cities of the country are
on this Fall Line, for there power for manufacturing can be
obtained. See Fig. 38, and notice the towns which are on
the Fall Line, and the rivers on which they stand.
The Coastal Plains vary from 30 to about 100 miles in
width. They have been formed by successive uplifting and
sinking. At one time uplift would take place, and part of the
112
GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
sea bed would become dry land. At another time sinking
would take place, but not all of the previously uplifted land
would be submerged. This must have taken place many
times, and thus the new land which has been added is in great
THE TALL LINE
This line connects the Falls on
the rivers leaving the Piedmont
Plateau for the Coastal Plains.
1 Montgomery
2 Macon
3 Augusta
4 Columbia
5 Raleigh
6 Petersburg
7 Richmond
8 Washington
9 Baltimore
10 Philadelphia
11 Trenton
FIG. 38.— The Fall Line.
belts roughly parallel with the seashore. This is important,
for these belts are not always of the same material, some
being of sand and some of clay ; so that owing to differences
of soil there are differences of vegetation and of occupation.
The sandy belts are usually pine forested, and lumbering is
important, whilst the more fertile areas are cultivated. If you
THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS 113
visited this region and compared the rivers below and above
the Fall Line, you would be struck by the great difference.
On the older and harder lands of the Piedmont plateau, they
are small and rapid, and often not navigable even for a small
canoe ; but on their plain courses they broaden, flow slowly,
and generally have broad estuaries navigable for large ships,
especially in the case of the sunken Chesapeake and Delaware
Bays. The lower courses of these rivers are tidal, and thus
towns grow up at the tidal limit, and if this should be at the
Fall Line, as in the case of Philadelphia on the fall line of the
Schuylkill and at the head of the tidal water of the Delaware,
the town has a double advantage of site. Baltimore, Richmond
and Washington enjoy similar advantages.
Naturally the last belt to be uplifted was the coastal one,
and this is usually marshy, but where the climate is suitable
it can be used for the production of rice, which forms such an
important part of the food of the large negro population of
the south-eastern states.
The coast is fringed by many islands which enclose lagoons
between them and the coast. Notice Cape Hatteras, which
has been formed by the joining of two of these bars. These
are not only opposite the mouths of the rivers, in such a
position as to make the harbours poorer, but the waves and
tides have built them where the waves are broken by the
shallow waters off the coast. The lagoons in the course of
time will be filled by blown sand, vegetation, etc., and thus
the islands will be attached to the mainland. The islands off
the coast of Georgia and South Carolina are noted for the very
best of all cotton — sea islands cotton. They are also holiday
centres for the white population of the south-eastern states, as
the sea breezes temper the summer heat.
ROUTES ACROSS THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS.
The parallel ridges and valleys of the Appalachians are very
well marked, and formed serious barriers to communication
from east to west until railways were constructed following
rivers which have cut gaps in the ridges. We shall now notice
what routes the chief lines of communication take. The best
are those which follow the Hudson, Delaware, Susquehanna
i
ii4 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
and Potomac rivers, and of these by far the easiest is the
Hudson route.
New York and ike Hudson-Mohawk Gap. — Fig. 39 is a map
of the environs of New York, and it shows that the city is
built mainly on islands at the sunken mouth of the Hudson,
ENVIRONS OF
NEW YORK.
FIG. 39. — The environs of New York City,
densely populated.
The shaded portions are
thus giving miles and miles of river frontage suitable for docks
and landing stages. The old bed of the Hudson can be traced
as far as the Continental Shelf extends, and the submerging of
the lower parts of the river has given to New York a protected
harbour behind Long Island. The first settlement was made
by the Dutch, who called it New Amsterdarr, a name which
THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS
was afterwards changed to New York on its capture by the
English in the reign of Charles II. What has made modern
New York the second largest city in the world, and far away the
most important port in America, is the unrivalled combination
of a splendid harbour and easy lines of communication with
FIG. 40. — The Hudson-Mohawk Gap. This figure illustrates the
importance of the position of New York.
the interior. Look at Fig. 40 : you will see that following the
lines of the Hudson-Richelieu and the Hudson-Mohawk are
low routes right through the Appalachian barrier. Notice the
position of Albany which is at the tidal head of the Hudson.
From here canals to Buffalo (Erie Canal) and to Lake Cham-
plain (Champlain Canal) give water communication between
n6 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
New York and the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence.
The Erie Canal was built in 1825, and in consequence of
increased modern requirements is now being enlarged. You
will expect that these routes will be followed by railways, and
so they are — the Mohawk Valley being followed by no less
Fir,. 41. — Chief routes of eastern United States. Notice (l) the railway
keeping to the eastern plains ; (2) the value or rivers as routes across
the mountain barriers ; (3) the value of the Appalachian valley as a
route.
than seven lines. Although many railways now cross the
Appalachian barrier, the very easy gradients of this route still
give it pre-eminence.
In summarizing the advantages of its situation, we may say
that New York owes its greatness to the fact that it is on the
THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS 117
eastern seaboard facing the chief European countries, whilst
its magnificent harbour, combined with its easy routes to the
St. Lawrence, the Great Lakes and the Central Plains have
made it unrivalled as a terminus and starting point for land
and sea routes. New York is also a great manufacturing
centre, and, as at Boston, one of the most important is the
manufacture of clothing. Iron and coal are found near at
hand, and the making of iron goods of all kinds is also very
important. You know that New York has some very tall
steel and concrete buildings which are called sky-scrapers.
As will be seen from Fig. 39, there is not much room for
expansion in Manhattan Island, so that it became necessary
to build these huge structures.
Other routes across the Appalachians are shown on Fig. 41,
the most important being those following the Susquehanna
and Potomac rivers.
Philadelphia. — This city has a population of over one and
a half millions, and is the third largest city in the country.
As we have already seen, it enjoys the advantages derived
from being situated on the fall line of the Schuylkill and at
the tidal limit of the Delaware. Like New York, it has in
its neighbourhood quite a large number of other important
towns. Being near to coal-fields it supplies coal to places
along the Atlantic coast, especially to the New England
manufacturing districts, whilst it is itself a great industrial
centre, chiefly for the manufacture of machinery, locomotives
and the making of steel ships, including warships. It has
excellent railway connections with the cities to the north
and south, whilst it is connected with Harrisburg and Pitts-
burg by lines crossing the Appalachians. In what state are
these three cities? You will recall that the Pilgrim Fathers
settled in New England and the Dutch at New York. The
Delaware area was settled by Quakers, who, under the
leadership of William Penn, founded Philadelphia, which was
the city out of which grew the state of Pennsylvania. One of
the most notable buildings in the city is Independence Hall,
in which the Declaration of Independence was made. Pitts-
burg, although in close connection with the great cities of the
east, is geographically situated in the Central Plains, and so
we will consider it later.
Baltimore. — Like Philadelphia, this city has the double
n8 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
advantage of being at the tidal limit and fall line of an im-
portant waterway. It is near to the coal and iron districts,
and has become a great manufacturing town. South of Balti-
more cotton growing becomes important, and this has helped
its cotton manufacturing, for it has greater advantages than
the New England cotton manufacturing towns on account of
the fact that the raw materials for its manufacturing industry
are close at hand. Iron manufacturing is also very important.
Baltimore is the chief city of Maryland. This name was given
by the Roman Catholic settlers who followed the Chesapeake
and Susquehanna routes, and named their colony after Queen
Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles I.
Washington is unlike New York, Philadelphia and Baltimore
in one respect, because it was not founded until after the War
of Independence, when, in order to avoid jealousy, it was
decided to build a new capital city. Its makers knew that
one day it would become a great city, and so it was carefully
planned and today is one of the most attractive cities, not
only in North America, but in the whole world. Its position
on the Atlantic seaboard is accounted for by the fact that
when it was founded in 1800, it was about the centre of the
then settled area. It is situated in what is known as the
District of Columbia (area, 60 square miles) which was ceded
by Maryland in 1791. Its great buildings are not factories or
workshops, but government buildings, chief of which is the
Capitol in which the National Assembly meets.
Richmond stands at the tidal limit and on the fall line of the
James, and has easy means of communication with the central
plains. It is the most important city in Virginia. It was
in this state that the chief settlements of English Churchmen
were made, and the state received its name from Raleigh,
who named it after Elizabeth, the Virgin Queen. Virginia
is a great tobacco-producing state, and Richmond is the chief
centre for this trade. Cotton is grown, although in insufficient
amounts to supply the state's own needs. The chief cereals
produced are maize and wheat, the former being five times as
important as the latter. About one-third of the population
are negroes.
The states of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and
Alabama are southern Appalachian marginal states, but they
are in climate and products so much like the southern Missis-
THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS 119
sippi states, that their fuller consideration will be delayed. In
common with the states farther north, the Piedmont plateau
and the Belted Coast Plains are present, but in these states they
are much wider, as a glance at the map will show. Owing to
the warmer climate, these states are able to produce cotton and
rice, as well as great quantities of maize. The sandy belts are
pine-forested and lumbering is very important. Such towns as
Montgomery and Macon, which are on the Fall Line (see Fig.
38), are noted for their manufacture of furniture, doors, etc.
The negro population is very large, as will be seen by an
examination of the figures quoted on p. 59. This is owing
to the climate being unsuitable for white labour.
Notice the position of the town of Atlanta (Ga.) which is
the largest in these four states. It is one of the few large
towns away from a river, and is known as the "Gate City."
In the south-east of the Appalachians there is no easy pass
across the mountains, and so Atlanta has grown up at a
meeting-place of routes at the southern extremity of those
mountains. (See Fig. 41.)
EXERCISES.
1. Compare the waterway from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Lake
Superior with that from New York to Lake Superior. Why was the Erie
Canal constructed from Lake Erie and not from Lake Ontario?
2. In what ways has geographical position aided the growth of each of
the following cities : \Vashington, Richmond, Baltimore, Philadelphia ?
Illustrate your answer by sketch maps.
3. Explain what is meant by (i) the Fall Line ; (ii) the Belted
Coastal Plain. Explain the origin of each.
4. Describe and account for the differences between the coastal lands
in Maine and those in North Carolina.
5. Explain why it was that the Appalachians were a check on western
migration. Why are they not such a serious obstacle to-day ?
6. Fig. 41 shows the chief routes across the Appalachian barrier. Name
the towns at the ends of each of these. Which line utilizes the Central
Valley ? Give the importance of the position of Chattanooga.
CHAPTER XVIII.
THE CENTRAL PLAINS.
You will remember that the boundary between the United
States and Canada is almost entirely artificial, and that it is in
no way a boundary separating natural regions. In the north
of the plains of Canada there are the Barren Lands, and these
merge into a forest belt, which in turn gives way to a prairie
belt, in the cultivated parts of which wheat is the chief crop.
This wheat belt stretches on both sides of the international
boundary line. As we proceed southwards the temperature
increases, as does the rainfall, and with these changing climatic
conditions there are changes in the typical products. In the
Upper Mississippi basin are the wheat-lands ; in the belt
including the lower basins of the Ohio and Missouri and the
central basin of the Mississippi, the chief crop is maize or
Indian corn, whilst the southern states are in the cotton belt.
We have learned that the high plains to the west are droughty,
and cattle-rearing is more important than the growing of
cereals. We shall consider the Central Plains of the United
States under these headings: (i) The Wheat Belt; (2) the
Maize or Corn Belt; (3) the Cotton Belt; (4) the High
Western Plains.
i. The Wheat Belt. — This comprises the Upper Mississippi
Basin and the states immediately south of the Great Lakes.
Wheat is also grown in the Corn Belt, but it is not nearly so
important. The climate and soil have been dealt with (see
pp. 84 and 85). As in Canada, the best wheat-lands are in
the valley of the Red River, on the floor of an ancient glacial
lake. Oats and barley are, of course, also very widely grown
in this belt. The most important town in the United States
wheat belt is Minneapolis, which has become the greatest
milling centre in America, owing to the fact that it is located
THE CENTRAL PLAINS
121
near the Falls of St. Anthony, on the Upper Mississippi. It is
also a great lumbering centre. St. Paul is a great distributing
122 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
and collecting centre for the smaller agricultural cities in the
vicinity, and with Minneapolis makes a great " twin " city at
the limit of the navigation of the Mississippi. Milwaukee, on
Lake Michigan, has a great brewing trade, using for this
purpose great quantities of grain.
The chief outlets for the crops of the wheat belt are Duluth
and Chicago. The former is the centre of a region producing
timber and iron as well as wheat, and exports these in great
quantities. Of Chicago we shall have much to say later.
Other large towns in this belt, but on the Great Lakes, are
Detroit, on the St. Clair river, between Lakes Huron and
Erie, at a point where the Canadian roads and railways from
the Lake Peninsula cross into the United States, and Cleve-
land and Toledo, on Lake Erie. The latter has ironworks
and flour mills, whilst Cleveland is one of the largest and
busiest towns on the Great Lakes. Its inhabitants are en-
gaged in the building of steamers for lake navigation, in the
manufacture of iron and steel goods, and in the refining of
petroleum, these being in addition to a considerable trade in
grain and lumber.
2. The Maize or Corn Belt. — On your atlas map which gives
the political divisions of the United States find the following
states : Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas and
Nebraska. These are the chief maize-growing states, although
other crops, such as wheat, oats, barley and tobacco, are by no
means unimportant, especially the two former. This belt has
longer, warmer summers than the wheat belt (see Ex. i at the
end of this chapter), and that is why maize becomes of first
importance. It is used for many purposes, but chiefly for the
feeding of cattle and hogs, for the distilling of whisky, and for
making into bread. If the grain is required for the fattening
of cattle and hogs it is cut before the frosts, so that the kernels
are soft and juicy, for if left until after the frosts they become
hard. The slaughtering of cattle and hogs is very important
in the towns of Omaha, Kansas City, Chicago, St. Louis and
Cincinnati. Find these places on Fig. 42. Many of the cattle
are brought to these centres by rail from the great ranching
area of the high plains. The meat is packed in cans and sent
to all parts of the country and to Europe. Naturally, the
towns on the east coast will export the meat to Europe, and
thus the Central States help to make eastern cities prosperous.
THE CENTRAL PLAINS 123
The same applies to the vast quantities of wheat exported from
the wheat belt.
But the maize belt is not only important for its maize, cattle,
hogs, etc. Parts of it are rapidly becoming great industrial
areas. Notice the positions of the chief coal-fields as shown on
Fig. 42. You will see (i) a coalfield on the margin of the
Alleghany Plateau ; (ii) a second, chiefly in Illinois, between
the Mississippi and the Ohio ; and (iii) a third farther west.
Besides coal, there are rich deposits of oil and natural gas,
but these are not as widespread as the coal deposits, although
great quantities are obtained in Western Pennsylvania, West
Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, and other states in this belt.
The result of the discovery of these valuable minerals has
been that the population in the Central States has increased
enormously, and towns like St. Louis, Chicago and Cincinnati,
which were formerly agricultural and slaughtering centres only,
are now great manufacturing cities.
CHIEF CITIES OF THE MAIZE BELT.
Chicago. — The growth of this city has been phenomenal.
In 1840 it had a population of 4,470; in 1870, 300,000; in
1890, 1,100,000; and in 1910, 2,185,000. This development
is typical of that which has taken place in the Central Plains
during these years, and owing to its excellent position, Chicago
has shared that development to a remarkable extent.
Notice its position near to the southern extremity of Lake
Michigan. At the beginning of the nineteenth century it was
a small French trading port named Fort Dearborn. A small
river, the Chicago, enters Lake Michigan at this point, its
mouth giving a good, though small, harbour. Find on your
map the river Illinois, which rises near Chicago and flows to
the Mississippi. The watershed separating it from Chicago is
very low, and is crossed by a canal. You will readily see that
Chicago is a great outlet for the trade of the Upper Mississippi
basin. Look at the map again, and you will see that railways
from the east coast north of Chesapeake Bay would have to pass
round the end of Lake Michigan in order to proceed north-
westwards. In this way Chicago grew in size, and as it grew
more railways were made, until at present it is a centre from
which railways radiate to all parts of the country. It is within
124 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
easy reach of coal, whilst iron ore can be brought by water from
the shores of Lake Superior. It has, therefore, become a great
engineering centre, especially for the making of railway stock,
agricultural implements and machinery. Its position with
regard to the wheat, maize, and stock-rearing areas has made it
a great grain port, as well as the largest of all the towns
engaged in slaughtering and canning. Reference has been
made to the canal which connects Chicago with the river
Illinois. Should this be made broad and deep enough to take
large ships, the city will then be reached by steamer, not only
from the mouth of the St. Lawrence, but from New Orleans
and the Gulf of Mexico.
St. Louis. — This city is on the river Mississippi, near to its
junction with the Missouri, and not very far from the point
at which the Ohio enters the main stream. The Mississippi
can be bridged at St. Louis, and thus it forms an important
point on east and west railways, whilst it is also on lines
which follow the direction of the Mississippi. Thus land and
water routes have made St. Louis a very important centre.
It trades chiefly in the products of the maize belt, and has
iron, boot, shoe, canning and tobacco industries.
Louisville, Cincinnati and Pittsburg are on the Ohio. The
former is the centre of a rich tobacco producing region, and of
recent years has also become a manufacturing centre. Cincin-
nati is even more important as a manufacturing centre. Its
manufactures are very varied, but iron and steel, leather,
pottery and clothing are of chief importance. It still retains
its first importance as an agricultural and canning centre.
Pittsburg is at the junction of the headwaters of the Ohio,
the Alleghany and Monongahela rivers. The Alleghany gives
routes to Lake Erie, the Monongahela and Potomac rivers
make an easy route across the Appalachians, whilst the Ohio
leads westwards to the Mississippi. Originally a French fort,
Fort Duquesne, it has grown enormously since the develop-
ment of the great resources of coal, iron, oil and natural gas
of the district. Its iron and steel works cover a very large
area. The local supplies of iron ore are insufficient, and the
deficiency is supplied by ore brought from the shores of Lake
Superior.
3. The Cotton Belt. — This belt comprises the states of North
and South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi,
THE CENTRAL PLAINS 125
Arkansas, Louisiana, Texas and Oklahoma. These states are
so far south that even the winters are warm, whilst the summers
are hot. The physical map will show that they are largely
low-lying plains to which the damp winds from the Gulf of
Mexico bring an abundant supply of rain. An exception must
be made to this in the case of western Texas, which is drier
and forms part of the high plains. As in the Atlantic plains,
the sandy belts are forested, pine trees which yield hard timber
being the commonest trees. Rice is the chief crop on the low-
lying, wet, coastal margins and is grown in all the coastal states
from North Carolina to Texas. The rainfall of the coastal
lands is too heavy for the principal crop, cotton, so that it is
chiefly cultivated some distance inland. The climatic require-
ments for the successful cultivation of cotton, are a long summer
free from frost, for the plant is very sensitive to frost, and a
moderate, but not excessive, rainfall. Too much moisture leads
to an increased crop, but of poorer quality, whilst insufficient
moisture causes a diminished yield. It usually takes about
seven months from the sowing time, the end of March or early
April, to the picking season, hence the necessity for a long
summer. In this connection examine the figures giving the
average monthly temperature of New Orleans. (See Ex. i at
the end of this chapter.) In the United States, the seeds
are planted in rows a yard apart, and when full-grown, the
plants reach about the same height. The flowers produce
a pod in which are the seeds and the cotton. The picking
is done by hand, and when the seeds have been removed,
the cotton is tightly packed into large bales, each weighing
about 500 Ib. In 1913 the Southern States produced nearly
fourteen million bales of cotton, of which three-fifths was
exported, very largely to supply the great cotton manufactur-
ing region in South-east Lancashire. The seeds not required
for sowing can be used in the manufacture of cotton-seed
oil used in sonp-making, and oil cake, which is used for
the feeding of cattle. Sugar is also grown, being especially
important in the Mississippi delta and flood plains.
The large negro population in these states (see p. 59) is
accounted for by the fact that the climate and work are unsuited
to white labourers, and that in order to supply the need,
slaves were introduced.
126 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
CHIEF TOWNS.
New Orleans, the largest city in this belt, is the chief cotton
port. Its position on the Mississippi, which is a great highway
of commerce, gives it water communication with towns so far
away and apart from each other as Pittsburg, Minneapolis and
Kansas City. Find these places on the map. The immediate
hinterland of this port is the Mississippi basin portion of the
cotton belt, but owing to the ease with which the Mississippi
can be navigated by large steamers, it is the gateway to the
greater portion of the basin, whilst railways from the Coastal
Plains, the Appalachian valley, the Mississippi basin and the
west coast converge upon it. (See Fig. 42.)
You will remember that the city was originally founded by
the French, and it still has a considerable number of people —
about one-sixth of its 340,000 inhabitants — who are of French
descent and are French-speaking.
Galveston, Mobile, Savannah and Charleston are all engaged
in exporting cotton and timber. Atlanta, the "Gate City,"
has already been noted (p. 119). The presence of a coal
and iron field on the western flanks of the Alleghany plateau
has been mentioned, and we have just learned that west, south
and east of the southern Appalachian system, cotton is grown.
You will recollect, too, that the chief cotton manufacturing
area is in the New England states, and perhaps you have
already wondered why cotton is not manufactured where it
grows, especially as great supplies of coal and iron are either
on the spot, or within easy reach. The development of cotton
manufacturing is rapidly taking place, and every year sees an
increase in the number of mills. One difficulty is the obtaining
of workpeople, for although he is much more advanced than
formerly, the negro is not quite suitable for the skilled work
required ; still, even in this respect, improving education is
making a change. Notice the town of Birmingham at the
southern end of the Alleghany plateau. In 1880 it had a
population of 3,000 which had increased to 60,000 in 1900;
whilst at the census of 1910 its inhabitants numbered 133,000,
and it is now the centre of a coal and iron region only second
in importance to that of the Pittsburg area. Besides iron and
steel goods it manufactures cotton. There are scores of other
towns which are now engaged in cotton manufacturing, amongst
THE CENTRAL PLAINS 127
which, Atlanta, Augusta and Columbia have already been
mentioned in other connections. What special advantages
for manufacturing have Augusta and Columbia ? Now find
Memphis, which is the largest city on the Mississippi between
New Orleans and St. Louis. It is a great market for raw cotton
and timber.
The State of Florida deserves a little special mention. The
southern portion consists of limestone which has been made by
the millions of coral polyps which are able to live owing to
the warmth of the water. In this part of the state there are
a large number of lakes which occupy hollows where the lime-
stone has been dissolved. Southern Florida is known as The
Everglades, a region almost impenetrable on account of the
dense vegetation and swamps. Find the town of Key West,
which is situated on one of the long line of coral islands
stretching westwards from southern Florida. Besides being
an important naval station, it has many tobacco factories owing
to its nearness to Havana in Cuba. The town is reached
by a railway which crosses long bridges on its journey from
island to island. As it is so far south, Florida has a very high
temperature, and so tropical and sub-tropical fruits, such as
pineapples, coco-nuts, bananas, oranges and lemons can be
grown, and these form important exports. Even in winter the
temperature is warm, and many towns are engaged in catering
for visitors from the colder northern states, whilst in the hot
summer many of the richer inhabitants of Florida travel north.
Jacksonville, the largest town in the state, is a noted winter
holiday resort.
4. The High Western Plains. — Fig. 42 shows that the western
tributaries of the Mississippi (Missouri, Platte, Arkansas, etc.)
flow across the highest portion of the Central Plains, which
rise gradually as the Rockies are approached. The Canadian
portion of this belt of High Plains is found in the province of
Alberta. We have learned that west of Longitude 100° W.
the rainfall is generally too little for agriculture, except
where irrigation is possible. These vast plains, treeless except
near rivers or sources of water, are grass-covered, and therefore
the chief occupation is stock-rearing. The cattle can remain
out of doors all the year round, for not much snow falls ; whilst
owing to the dryness, the grass, without being cut, is natur-
ally turned into hay by the sun.
i28 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
The ranches are usually of very great size, because it is
necessary to allow the cattle to roam long distances in search
of food. As a rule, the " round-up," or gathering together of
the cattle, takes place only twice yearly. The first is in early
summer, the object being to brand the calves which have been
born during the winter. As there are no fences on the
plains, cattle from different ranches get mixed, thus making
it necessary to brand them by some distinctive letter or sign
in order that those belonging to different owners can be
distinguished. The second round-up takes place in the fall,
or autumn, and its object is to select cattle for killing.
These are despatched by train to the slaughtering centres of
which we have already heard. Whilst rounding up the cattle,
or moving them from one place to another, the cowboys ride
long distances every day, sometimes even so much as between
60 and 80 miles, and very often are forced to spend day and
night in the saddle. It is no wonder, therefore, that they are
excellent horsemen.
There are some parts of the High Plains which are unsuit-
able for cattle rearing. Find on Fig. 42 the areas marked Bad
Lands and Staked Plains. The former are chiefly in south
Dakota and the latter in Western Texas. The Bad Lands
were formerly the beds of old lakes in which were deposited
layers of sandstone, limestone, clay, etc. The area suffers
very much from lack of water, but when rain does fall, every
little temporary stream is at work wearing out a steep gully.
There is little or no washing in of the sides, so that steep
sides are not rounded. One writer says of the Bad Lands
that their name is expressive of the strangest, and in many
respects, the most repulsive, scenery in the world. They are
of no use either for stock-rearing or agriculture.
The Staked Plains. — These plains are situated in western
Texas and eastern New Mexico. Like the Bad Lands they
lack rain, and owe their name to the fact that through the
scarcity of water, travel routes were at first marked out by
stakes. Underground sources of water have been found, and
parts of the region have become good ranching country ; but
on the whole the Staked Plains have well been described as
" an ocean of prairie desert."
THE CENTRAL PLAINS
CHIEF TOWNS.
129
The chief ranching centres are Kansas City and Omaha.
Each of these towns is a great market centre for cattle, horses,
sheep, hogs and grain, and as they are nearer the ranching
area they have some advantage over Chicago as canning and
packing centres. Both are on the Missouri, near to junctions
with important tributaries. What advantage does such a
position give ?
CHIEF ROUTES OF THE CENTRAL PLAINS.
Railway construction is easiest in this part of the country.
In connection with the consideration of the positions of
Chicago, St. Louis and New Orleans, we have seen how routes
from the east coast converge upon those cities. Examine
Fig. 42 and find the towns of Helena, Cheyenne, Pueblo,
Santa Fe and El Paso. They all control passes or easy
routes, along which the railways can pass on their way west-
wards from the cities just mentioned.
EXERCISES.
1. \Vhat are the climatic conditions which help to give a great variety of
productions in the Mississippi basin?
2. What advantages does each of the following cities owe to its
geographical position ? Add a sketch map on which are indicated the
points made in your answer : Chicago ; St. Louis ; Pittsburg ; Kansas
City ; New Orleans.
3. Describe a "round-up" on a large cattle ranch.
4. Give reasons why the eastern Mississippi basin is more thickly
populated than its western half.
5. Describe a journey on a Mississippi steamer from St. Louis to New
Orleans.
6. In what ways are the Southern States and the New England States
dependent upon each other?
7. MEAN MONTHLY TEMPERATURES, DEGS. FAHR.
4
s'g
c
-2
t?
c
bi
a.
J
o
o
> u
u.
«
t$
"-»
->
C/3
O
•z
Q
St. Paul . . .'
12
IS
28
46
S8
67
72
70
60
48
V
19
44
St. Louis
New Orleans
53
34
44
62
56
68
66
74
75
So
79
81
77
81
7°
70
61
36
54
56
68
GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
MEAN MONTHLY RAINFALL IN INCHES.
ti
•— >
1
J3
1
1
<
X
a
Z
3
>— .
X
3
i— i
1
V
t/2
u
g V
Z, Q
Total
for Year.
St. Paul
•9
•8
1-6
2 '3
3'6
4'4
3 '4
3 "5
3 '4
2-3
1-3 i.i
-,8-7
New Orleans
2 3
4-6
4 '5
34
5'3
3 b
4 '9
4 *
3 '9
4'5
6'2
3 4
6-5
•2 •;
S'6
a y
4'8
* 4
2 '9
3'8 4'5
37 *
57 '4
St. Paul, St. Louis and New Orleans are in the wheat, corn and cotton
belts respectively. On squared paper draw graphs to illustrate these
figures — one for the temperature and one for the rainfall. On the hack o
each write a short account of what you can learn from the graphs about the
climates of these three cities.
CHAPTER XIX.
THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER AND THE WORK IT IS DOING.
IN Chapter III we considered the making of mountains,
plateaux and plains, and several times reference was made to
the denudation of these features. Nature is full of change,
and although in a man's lifetime there appears to be little
alteration in the physical features with which he is very
familiar, slowly but surely changes are taking place. The
growth of a mountain range is accompanied by an attack on
that growth by the forces of Nature, which in time, however
far distant that time may be, will completely alter its appear-
ance and wear it down to a low level. Sunshine and rain, heat
and cold, frost and ice, wind and running water are the
attacking forces. In this chapter we shall learn something of
the work accomplished by running water, and at the same
time learn more of the Mississippi River, for in the last
chapter we considered the climatic belts into which its basin
may be divided, but very little was learned of the river itself.
In the first place, the Mississippi, whether we consider its
length, the area which it drains, its volume, or its navigable
waterways, is one of the world's greatest rivers. The follow-
ing figures will give some idea of the greatness of this river
system. —
River.
Length in Miles.
Area Drained
(in square miles)
Mississippi-Missouri
Mississippi .....
4,200\
2,490/
1,253,600
Missouri .....
2,900
519,500
Arkansas . . . .
I.SH
185,671
Red River .....
I,2OO
89,970
Ohio
1,200
201,720
131
1 32 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
The total navigable waterways of the Mississippi Basin
exceed 10,000 miles. The name "Mississippi'' means "P'ather
of Waters." The river rises in Minnesota, in a small lake
which is situated amongst glacial hills. In its upper course
there are many waterfalls, the chief of which are the Falls of
St. Anthony, which give power for milling to Minneapolis.
Below these falls, the river enters upon its middle course and
receives two long tributaries, the Missouri (which itself has
large rivers such as the Platte and the Kansas flowing into it)
and from the east, the Ohio. Below Cairo is the lower
course, the chief tributaries joining in this section being the
Arkansas and the Red River, both of which come from the
west. In its lower course, the Mississippi flows across a plain
which varies in width from 20 to 75 miles and is in length
about 600 miles. At the mouth there is an enormous delta,
to which it is estimated the river brings 400,000,000 tons of
sediment yearly, causing its front to advance about 340 feet
per annum. It has also been estimated that every year the
Mississippi carries to the sea 2,850,000,000 cubic feet of
mineral matter in solution. It may be noted here that the
salt in the sea has been carried there by rivers.
Now let us see what work the river is accomplishing. We
have divided it into (i) the upper course, (2) the middle
course, (3) the lower course. All rivers may be so divided, so
that it is important that we should dwell upon these for a short
time.
i. The Upper Course. — Rivers have their sources in springs,
lakes, or glaciers, and these are supplied by rain or snow.
Evaporation is constantly taking place over the great water
masses, especially the oceans. Winds carrying the water
vapour pass over the lands, and on meeting highlands are
forced to rise, thus causing the precipitation of rain, or on
the higher levels, of snow. The latter either helps to feed
glaciers, or, on melting in the spring or summer supplies
rivers with an abundance of water. Of the rain water, much
goes back to the air by evaporation, but a great deal of
that which sinks into the ground, eventually, perhaps in some
cases not for months, finds its way back to the surface in the
form of a spring. It is this water which is so useful in keeping
up the supply of water in a river, for, if it were to depend
entirely upon the surface water which quickly gets into a river
THE MISSISSIPPI AND ITS WORK 133
after rains, it would run dry between the rains. Whether fed
by rains, or snow, or both, the river is the means whereby the
land is drained, and the water once more reaches the sea.
The Mississippi rises in a small lake, and there enters upon
its upper course. Since the slope of the bed is here greatest,
it follows that the river will flow fastest, and will have sufficient
strength to move along loose stones which will rub against the
bed and deepen it. The sides of the valley are steeper rear
the source, as the river bed is lowered more rapidly than the
sides are won back. Rock fragments are loosened and get
washed into the stream by the rains, and this increases the rock
load the river has to carry. Some of these will be too large for
the current to move, except during floods, but smaller stones
are continually being driven against them and in this way they
get worn. During floods, most of the rock waste will be carried
on at a considerably increased rate, and this enables the river
to accomplish its work of cutting downwards its bed at a much
more rapid rate than in normal times.
One of the characteristics of the upper courses of rivers is
waterfalls, for some streams have to make such rapid descents,
that they sometimes leap from height to height in a series of
waterfalls or cascades. W'aterfalls are also found where streams
flow over strata of different hardness. Softer rocks are more
easily cut through than hard rocks, so that often waterfalls are
met with where streams flow from hard to soft layers. You
will remember that the falls on the "Fall Line" are due to
this, but the best example of all is at Niagara. Here, the
work of cutting upstream is retarded by the harder layers
resisting erosion until the softer layers are removed from below.
(See Fig. 29.)
Thus we see that in their upper courses rivers are vigorous,
the valley sides are steep, and it is here that waterfalls or
rapids are to be found. These conditions are met with in the
upper course of the Mississippi and in the mountain courses of
its great tributaries.
2. The Middle Course. — Since the slope of the bed in this
section is less steep, the river will flow more slowly, and thus
will be able to pay more attention to the widening of its valley.
Obstacles, which would be easily overcome in the upper course,
arc often sufficient to make a river turn aside in its middle and
lower sections. The river swings from side to side, wearing
134 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
not only its bed, but its banks, and since in the case of the
Mississippi, the Ohio and the great western tributaries, this
part of the course is over loose material, they have broadened
their valleys considerably, so that they now flow across
plains bordered by low bluffs. (See Fig. 43.) In times of
flood, the stream exceeds its ordinary bounds and its waters
spread over the valley depositing silt or alluvium, building in
the course of time, flood plains, in which, due to the looseness
of the soil, it is not difficult for the river to swing or meander
from side to side of the valley or to change its course. In
spring and early summer, when the snow on the Rockies is
melting, the western tributaries are very much greater in
volume than at any other time of the year. The Missouri has
a maximum volume in June, containing in that month about
thirty times as much water as in November, when it is at its
lowest, whilst it carries along so much sediment that it is
known as " Big Muddy." The Platte is so loaded with
sediment that it has a great difficulty in getting through the
vast amount it has brought down and deposited in its valley.
You will readily see that since the current is not so swift in
the middle as in the upper course, much sediment has to
be dropped to the bottom.
3. The Lower Course. — The Mississippi enters upon its
lower course below Cairo and for six hundred miles flows across
a low flood plain varying in width from twenty to seventy-five
miles. The upper portion cf this section is bordered by bluffs
which recede farther and farther from the river, and finally
disappear before the coastal plains are reached. Memphis
and Vicksburg are situated on the eastern bluff at points where
the river swings against it. In the flood plain portion of the
valley there are many lakes known as " cut offs," or " ox-bow "
lakes, whose formation is illustrated in Fig. 44. The river
meanders to such an extent that in time it forms great loops,
some of which are five miles in diameter. It cuts through the
neck of the loop, leaving as a lake a portion of its old channel.
In this way the river straightens itself, only to go on repeating
the process.
In the lower course so much sediment is deposited on the
bed, for the current is not strong enough to carry it all to the
sea, that the level of the water is constantly rising. Successive
floods have built natural embankments, which, as you would
THE MISSISSIPPI AND ITS WORK
135
6 Miles
FIG. 43. — This map gives a part of the course of the Kansas River. Note
the windings of the river. The greater part of the unshaded area
consists of flood plains. The lake has been left behind by the river.
(See Fig. 44.)
136 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
expect, are highest near the river, but very often these embank-
ments, or levees, are not strong enough to keep the river to its
channel and disastrous floods occur, the cotton plantations
• 44- — These diagrams illustrate the formation of an ox-bow lake. A
meandering river forms a loop, and since cutting of the banks takes
place at "a," the neck of the loop is eventually cut through, the river
straightens itself, and an ox-bow lake is formed. Note the ox-bow
lake on Fig. 43.
especially suffering. It is therefore necessary to strengthen
the levees or to build artificial embankments.
Much of the lower valley of the Mississippi is land that has
THE MISSISSIPPI AND ITS WORK 137
been reclaimed from the sea, for so much sediment is brought
to the Gulf of Mexico that the land area is being added to
every year. Deltas are more easily formed in shallow than in
deep seas, in seas where there is little rise and fall of the tide,
and along coasts where uplift of the sea bed has taken place.
The Mississippi has all these advantages, and the growth of its
delta has accordingly been increased. The load of sediment
has to be dropped when the current receives a check, and this
load is so great that the river pushes out finger-like projections
before filling up the sea in between. Notice on Fig. 45 how
Garden Island Bay has been silted up, owing to a break being
formed in one of the distributaries or channels, by which the
river is enabled to carry its waters over the flat delta plains to
the sea. The same figure also shows jetties which have been
constructed in order to force the current to run fast enough
to keep the passes open and deep enough for ships, and to
confine the water to definite channels.
Thus we see that rock waste from the Appalachians, the
Central Plains and the Rockies is being brought by the
Mississippi to help it in its great task of filling up the Gulf
of Mexico, whilst year by year its own basin is being slowly but
surely lowered.
All rivers have not reached the same state of advancement
as the Mississippi. Some, from mouth to source, are more
like the upper course of the Mississippi and may be described
as youthful. Some have advanced farther and perhaps are
doing little cutting downwards, but are busily engaged in
broadening their valleys. These may be described as having
reached middle age, or as mature rivers. Some rivers have so
reduced their slope from source to mouth, that there is no
more cutting downwards of the bed taking place ; they have
valleys gradually broadening from upper to middle courses, and
in the latter and lower courses extensive plains which they
themselves have built up, and on which man can develop
great agricultural industries. Such a river may be said to
have reached old age, a condition almost reached by the
Mississippi.
You must not think that because one river has a youthful
appearance, it is therefore younger in years than one which has
the appearance of old age, for some rivers have more work
to do than others and do it under less favourable conditions.
GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
FIG. 45. — Map of the delta of the Mississippi. The "ntw lands " have
been made since the last survey. Notice the finger-like projections.
THE MISSISSIPPI AND ITS WORK 139
An example of such a river is the Colorado, which we shall
consider later. Again, a river may reach old age and then be
rejuvenated, as was the St. Lawrence when the ice-sheet turned
Source
Source^
yjalls
.Falls
_Mouth
FI<J. 46. — The upper line shows the profile of a river in youth. The
lower line shows the profile when waterfalls have disappeared. It
should be noted that even in old age the greatest slope is nearest the
source.
its waters over an escarpment and formed Niagara Falls.
Rejuvenation has also occurred in the upper courses of the
Mississippi itself. An uplift of the area in which a river has
FIG. 47. — This diagram shows successive sections of a river valley during
its history from youth to old age.
its source will also cause it to begin again at the task of
reaching its base line, that is, attaining such a slope of bed
from source to mouth that the river has ceased to lower its
bed, therefore having no waterfalls or rapids in its course
(Fig. 46). This does not mean that the river has no more
work to do, for it has still to complete the work of widening
i4o GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
its valley, and finally of reducing its basin to a rough plain
(Fig. 47). This work is first accomplished near the mouth,
but in time is actively carried on near the source, where
youthful streams may exist for a very long time.
EXERCISES.
1. Make a rough wooden trough, and having placed sand, clay or gravel
on the bottom, allow water to run down it. Vary the rate at whicli the
water runs and write a short account of your observations.
2. Make an examination of the nearest stream to your home or school.
If you can do so, visit its source and find reasons for its position. Examine
a bend and compare the rate of flow nnd the depth of the stream at both
banks. Which bank is steeper? Where is sediment being deposited?
Can you find a flood plain? Examine stones taken from the bed. Which
part of the stream moves fastest ? Why ? If possible, visit the stream after
heavy rains and note any difference you observe. Get a sample of the river
water. Is there much sediment? If there are any "cut-offs," make
drawings of them. Examine a pond or lake into which a stream runs.
What traces of a delta can you find ?
3. Explain the formation of each of the following : deltas, flood-plains,
waterfalls, ox-bow lakes. Add diagrams to illustrate your answer.
4. At what points along a river are important cities likely to be found ?
Give examples from the Mississippi Basin.
5. What do you understand by the use of the following words in
connection with rivers : youthful, mature, old age ?
CHAPTER XX.
THE WESTERN HIGHLANDS.
IN Chapters II and V we have described the physical
features and climate of this region, and have seen that it may
be divided into the following units : I. The Basin of the
Columbia-Snake; II. The Great Basin; III. The Colorado
Plateau ; IV. California.
I. THE BASIN OF THE COLUMBIA-SNAKE.
The Columbia should be compared with the Fraser. It
flows through an area rich in timber, it is noted for its salmon
fisheries, whilst its lower valley is a great agricultural region.
Notice on Fig. 48 the extensive area in the lower valley below
1,500 feet. Next to the Central Plains this is one of the
chief wheat-producing areas in North America. It is also a
great fruit-growing region.
The Snake flows across a great lava plateau in which it
has cut a deep canon (see p. 28). Unlike the Columbia
Valley, which receives rains all the year round from the
westerly winds, the area drained by the Snake has insufficient
rain, for it is to the lee of the Cascade and Sierra Nevada
Mountains. Large areas are semi-desert, and only in the
more exposed, and therefore wetter, parts is agriculture
carried on.
You will therefore expect that the chief centres of popula-
tion will be in the lower valley of the Columbia. The largest
town is Portland (Ore.), which is 120 miles from the mouth
of the Columbia. Farther north, on Puget Sound, are Seattle
and Tacoma, both of which are in Washington. These ports
trade in wheat, lumber, wool, canned fruits and salmon.
Yellowstone Park. — This region, which is not quite as large
as Yorkshire, lies in the Rocky Mountains in the north-west
corner of the state of Wyoming. It is on the watershed, or
141
142
GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
FIG. 48. — Map of the Western States. The shaded areas are over
1,500 feet in elevation.
THE WESTERN HIGHLANDS 143
Great Divide, between rivers flowing westwards and those
flowing to the Mississippi, and is at an elevation of about
7,000 feet above sea level.
The Park contains, amongst other wonderful things, hot
springs, boiling mud springs of very many colours, geysers,
canons, lava flows and extinct volcanoes, besides beautiful
lakes, waterfalls and magnificent forests. The whole area has
been set aside as a National Park so as to preserve for ever
one of the most wonderful regions in the world. The laws
also protect animals and birds. One very famous geyser
deserves special mention. It is called " Old Faithful,"
because with the greatest regularity it shoots, every sixty-three
minutes, a great column of water to a height of from 120
to 150 feet. There must be a narrow tube in which water
collects after an eruption. This water is heated, perhaps by
hot lava rocks deep in the earth. Owing to the weight of
water above, that near the bottom of the tube lias to be heated
much above the ordinary boiling point before it can change
into steam. When it reaches the required temperature and
changes into steam, it lifts the column of water above and
some flows away at the surface. This, of course, reduces
the pressure, and immediately more of the intensely heated
water can change into steam, the great force of which can
send the column of water in the tube, high into the air.
After an eruption, the noise of escaping steam can be heard.
In the case of " Old Faithful," it takes about sixty-three minutes
for this process to be repeated. Some geysers, such as the
" Minute Man," erupt every few minutes, but their columns
of water are only sent a few feet, others erupt every few hours
or days, whilst many have become inactive.
II. THE GREAT BASIN.
This plateau region is bounded on the west by the Sierra
Nevadas and on the east by the Wahsatch Mountains, and
is crossed by many north and south ranges (see p. 22).
This region, like the Snake plateau, lacks rainfall and for
the same reasons.
There is not one large basin of inland or continental
drainage, but many, for there are many rivers which drain
the basins between the parallel chains and find their mouths in
salt lakes of varying size. The largest river is the Humboldt,
144 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
which is over 500 miles in length. It flows east and west
and ends in Lake Humboldt. The largest lake is Great Salt
Lake, which is only a remnant of a former lake of much
greater size. On the sides of the surrounding mountains are
beach lines and wave-cut caves, which indicate its former
extent at a time when the rainfall exceeded its present amount.
When the amount of water taken away by evaporation began
to exceed that brought by rainfall, the lake began to shrink in
size. The former extensive lake, known as Lake Bonneville,
was a fresh-water lake, but continued evaporation made the
lake more and more salt. When it ceased to have any outlet,
there was no means of getting rid of the salt. Large areas
which once were the bed of the lake are encrusted with salt,
and the Great Salt Lake itself contains so much dissolved
mineral matter, that a man cannot sink in its waters.
Despite the prevailing drought, the district surrounding Salt
Lake City, has, by careful irrigation, been turned into farming
lands. Salt Lake City, the largest town in this region, had
a population of 93,000 at the census of 1910. The greater
portion of these are Mormons, a peculiar sect founded in 1830.
It is the Mormons who have reclaimed, by irrigation, former
wastes. The discovery of minerals has brought to the district
a mining population, and this, together with the making of the
railways, has resulted in the settlement of large numbers of
non-Mormons. The main railway line between Chicago and
San Francisco passes through Ogden, which is north of Salt
Lake City.
III. THE COLORADO PLATEAU.
This region, like the Great Basin and the Snake plateau,
is arid, large areas being true desert.
The rivers, which rise in the Rockies, and thus are supplied
by snow and rain, have cut deep canons in the plateau. Of
these the most notable is that of the Colorado river, which
flows for nearly two thousand miles across an arid country.
In this remarkable canon the rocks are arranged in layers,
one on the top of the other. They are sedimentary rocks
which were once deposited at the bottoms of seas and now
form a plateau, in parts over 8,000 feet above sea level. Tht
deepest of the canons is the Grand Canon, in which the
river for over 200 miles flows at the bottom of a chasm over
THE WESTERN HIGHLANDS 145
6,000 feet in depth, and varying in breadth from 10 to 12
miles. The journey from the edge of the canon to the river
below is long and difficult. How was the river enabled to
make this large chasm ? We have learned that, as rivers
become older, they tend to reach what we have called " base-
line," and in order to do this they must lower their beds.
But in places where there is plenty of rain, not only does
the bed become lower, but the sides are weathered, and the
river valley becomes shaped like the letter V. But the
Colorado and its tributaries flow over an arid region, and
a3 a.2 CL' a, b V b2 b3
. .
SOFT
sorr
FIG. 49. — This diagram shows successive sections of a river which flows
over an area of horizontal strata arranged in alternate layers of relatively
hard and soft rocks.
the work of broadening the valley takes place very slowly, so
that the river keeps on deepening its valley, which is shaped like
a very narrow letter V. What irregularity of outline the sides
of this valley or canon possesses, is due to the fact that some
layers of rock are softer than others, so that they form gentle
slopes, whilst the harder rocks stand out as steep slopes or
cliffs (Fig. 49). One of the most wonderful sights in this
canon is the colouring of the rocks ; the grey of the limestone,
the red of the sandstone, and the darker colours of the very
old layers below the sedimentary rocks, through which the
river has now cut. Needless to say, such a river valley makes
communication between opposite sides very difficult indeed, for
no railway can cross. It will readily be seen that in time
the river will divide the plateau into a number of tabular
blocks of mountains. There are many flat-topped, steep-sided
L
146 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
mountains in the Colorado basin, and they are known as
mesas, which is a Spanish word meaning table. The smaller
flat-topped mountains, which are often detached portions of
mesas, are called buttes. Mesas form excellent sites for the
Pueblo Indians to build their dwellings upon.
The work the Colorado is doing is much the same as that
done by the Mississippi. The former has more to do, and,
owing to the aridity of the region it drains, takes longer to do
it. But eventually the valleys will grow wider and wider, the
surface will be reduced in height, and in its old age the
Colorado basin will be almost level again.
In its lower course, the Colorado flows across true desert
lands, for here the prevailing winds are the Trades. To the
west of the river is the Mohave Desert in California, and to
the east the Gila Desert in Arizona.
The areas of greatest population are either the railway or
mining centres, although in the high plains between the
ranges of mountains, and in the valleys of many of the rivers
rising in the Rockies and flowing to the plains, agriculture and
stock-rearing are carried on. Here, intermont plains are
called parks. Notice the favourable positions, at the entrance
to parks, of Helena, Cheyenne, Denver and Pueblo.
IV. CALIFORNIA.
The state of California includes the Mohave Desert and a
small area of the Great Basin, but the most important portion
is the plain between the Coast Range and the Sierra Nevada,
drained by the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers. This flat
plain has been made by the sediment which has been brought
from the neighbouring mountains by rivers. A break in
the Coast Range gives these rivers an outlet to the Pacific,
and gives San Francisco its magnificent harbour. This region
receives most of its rain during the winter season. It has a
climate like that of the countries bordering the Mediterranean
Sea, having droughty summers and winter rains, and such
fruits as vines, mulberries, oranges, lemons and figs grow
very well. The forests are evergreen. In the valley of the
Sacramento large quantities of wheat are grown. The coastal
lands are much cooler in summer than the Californian valley,
in which great heat is experienced. The rainfall is also less
in the sheltered plains, and in the drier areas it is necessary
THE WESTERN HIGHLANDS
147
for irrigation to be practised, water for this purpose being
supplied by the rivers which rise in the high Sierra Nevadas.
Very great success has rewarded the efforts of the government,
FIG. 50. — San Francisco and its environ^. Note the extensive area
occupied by San Francisco, San Pablo and Suisun Bays. These are
connected to the Pacific by the Golden Gate. What advantage of site
has Oakland over San Francisco?
private companies or individuals who have planned irrigation
schemes, so that even in the droughty summer the fields shall
have water.
San Francisco is the largest city on the western coast
of the Americas. It has a magnificent situation, as Fig. 50
will show. The break in the Coast Range, which was
148 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
formed by sinking, is the entrance to the large San Francisco
Bay, and is known as the Golden Gate. From the mouth
of the Columbia to San Diego, near the Mexican frontier,
there is no other good harbour, so that the port his no
immediate rivals. The produce of the Californian valley
finds an outlet through San Francisco, and has given that city
many industries, such as flour milling, brewing, woollen
manufacturing, etc., which are based on these products. The
building of steel ships, both war and merchant, is a very
important industry. A disadvantage from which San Francisco
suffers is the lack of coal, but against this, California is the
greatest oil-producing state in the country. Railways from
the east converge upon the city, whilst its ships sail to all
parts of western America, the Sandwich Isles, eastern Asia,
New Zealand and Australia. With the completion of the
Panama Canal, San Francisco will become more important
still, for the journey by sea between it and the ports of
western Europe will be 6,500 miles shorter, and that between
San Francisco and New York and the manufacturing districts
of the New England states, 9,000 miles shorter than the
present routes round Cape Horn.
The city was partly destroyed by earthquake and fire in
1906, but since then a new and more beautiful city has arisen.
At the 1910 census it had a population of 417,000. Fig. 50
shows that there are many towns near to San Francisco, the
largest being Oakland (150,000), which is connected with
San Francisco by ferry. At Berkeley is the noted University
of California, which had 7,132 students in 1913.
Los Angeles is the second city in California, having a
population of 319,000 at the last census. In 1890 its
inhabitants numbered 50,000. This increase is due mainly
to the valuable deposits of oil which have been discovered
there, but it is also the centre of a great wheat-producing
region. Sacramento, the capital of the state, is on the river
of the same name, and comes next in size to the three towns
mentioned, although it contains only 45,000 people.
MINING IN THK WESTERN STATES.
It was mining which first attracted settlers to the western
states, and the industry has so grown that to-day these states
form the most important gold, copper, silver and lead mining
THE WESTERN HIGHLANDS 149
regions in the world. The first great rush of miners took place
in 1848, when gold was discovered in the gravel of the beds of
Californian rivers. The gold had been washed into the rivers
as the rocks which contained it crumbled, and being heavy,
had sunk to the bottom amongst the gravels of the river bed.
The first miners obtained it in a very simple way, for all it was
necessary to do was, to place river gravel in a pan of water and
rock the pan so that the heavier gold became separated from
the lighter materials. Very little " panning " takes place to-day,
for most of the gold so easily obtained has been taken away.
River gravel is now raised and gold separated therefrom by
the most elaborate and complicated dredging machines. Oiten,
the gold is washed from gravel by powerful jets of water,
but most gold-mining is done by sinking shafts from which
tunnels follow the veins of pold in the hard solid rock.
The chief mining centres are in the Sierra Nevadas and the
Rockies, and in most places gold, silver and copper are found
together, but naturally in varying quantities. The most important
copper mines in the world are at Butte City, in Montana ;
gold is mined at Heleuc., Montana, and Cripple Creek, Colorado,
and lead at Leadville, Colorado. Denver is the largest of all
the mining centres, although it is more important as a centre for
the surrounding mining towns than for its own mining, which
is not very great. The ores are smelted there, and mining
machinery is manufactured. The city is also the centre of a
rich stock-rearing and agricultural area, which is supplied by
irrigation canals with water from the south Platte. There are,
of course, scores of mining towns besides these, for not one
of the western states is without gold, silver, or copper mines.
Routes of the Western States. — We have already learned
that Helena, Cheyenne, Pueblo, Santa Fe and El Paso (the
pass), are so situated as to command the five great railway
lines which cross the Western States. The three southern
lines go to San Francisco, and the northern lines to Portland
and Seattle, whilst the Southern Pacific also continues from
San Francisco to Portland. The routes taken by these rail-
ways in reaching the west coast can be followed on Fig. 48.
EXERCISES.
1. Describe the various methods of gold mining adopted in these states.
2. Compare the Colorado river with the Mississippi with legard to the
work each is doing.
150 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
3. What are the advantages of the geographical position of San Fran-
cisco, Denver, Helena, Seattle? Draw maps to illustrate your answer.
4. Give an account of the distribution of rainfall over the Western
States, and show the relation between the rainfall and vegetation.
5. Make a list of places which have names of (l) Spanish origin,
(2) Indian origin.
6. Refer to the figures giving the mean monthly temperature and rain-
fall of San Francisco (p. 43). Notice (a) how very little the temperature
differs throughout the year, (i>) the wet winters and droughty summers.
Account for these facts.
CHAPTER XXI.
THE GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES : HER
POPULATION AND TRADE.
I. How THE UNITED STATES ACQUIRED HER TERRITORY.
REFERENCE has been made to the comparative ease with
which the Spaniards spread northwards from Mexico, and took
possession of the south-west portion of the United States.
We have also learned that the English settlements were on the
east coast, whilst the French occupied the Central Plains,
having reached them along the easy route of the St. Lawrence
valley. The Treaty of 1763 (see p. 101) not only gave Canada
to England, but also the French colonies east of the Missis-
sippi, and the Spanish possession of Florida. When the great
struggle between the American colonies and the mother
country ended in the victory for the colonists, Florida went
back to Spain, so that the portion of the present United States
that remained for the colonists was all the land east of the
Mississippi excepting Florida. (See Fig. 51.) From this nucleus
the present country has grown. In 1803 the remainder of the
French possession of Louisiana was purchased for ,£2,500,000.
Sixteen years later Spam sold Florida for ^1,000,000. In
1821 Mexico became independent of Spain, and owing to the
large number of settlers from the east who made their homes
in Texas, that state, which had been part of Mexico, was
annexed in 1845. Trouble arose about this and the deter-
mination of the boundary, and war with Mexico was the
result. The outcome of the war was, that Mexico ceded the
remaining portion of what had been formerly Spanish territory.
This occurred in 1848, and several years later a smaller portion
south ot the ceded territory was added by purchase from
Mexico, the price paid being ^2,000,000. There is still the
north-west to account for. Claim was laid to this by both
152
GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
Canada and the United States, and the boundary was fixed in
1812. Disputes occurred, and it was not until 1848 that the
49th parallel of latitude was agreed upon as the international
boundary. It is notable that there are neither fortresses nor
military works along this great length of boundary.
Alaska was purchased from Russia in 1867. The conclu-
sion of the war between Spain and the United States led to
the annexation of the Philippine Islands and Porto Rico in
Massachusetts
Rhode Island
Connecticut
Hex/Hampshire
New York
NewJersey
Delaware
ferinsylvania
Maryland
Virginia
North Carolina
South Carolina
Georgia
FIG. 51. — How the United States acquired her territory.
1898. The Hawaiian or Sandwich Islands, and some of the
Samoan Islands, also form part of the foreign possessions of
the United States.
II. THE PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF THE POPULATION
OF THE UNITED STATES.
The figures given below show the number of people per
square mile in each state at the last census (1910). Trace
from an atlas an outline map of the United States and
insert the state boundaries. Select a suitable scale and
THE UNITED STATES: POPULATION
153
scheme for shading, and shade each state according to the
distribution of its population.
It is evident that in each state the population has to be
spread out over the whole area, although it may be con-
centrated in some particular part of the state, or a portion
of the state may be too mountainous to support a dense
population. Despite this fault, your map will bring out the
following important points —
(a) That, except Florida, the states east of a line from the
north-west corner of Minnesota to the south-western
corner of Louisiana, have a much larger population
than the states west of this line.
(6) That the Mountain and Pacific states, except California
and Washington, have less than ten people per square
mile. The greater proportion of the population in
these states is centred round such mining centres
as Butte and Denver, and the vicinity of Salt Lake
City. How do you account for the denser population
of California and Washington ?
(c) That the belt of states in she latitude of New York,
from the Mississippi to the Atlantic coast, has the
densest population. Why is this ?
POPULATION PER SQUARE MILE IN EACH STATE (1910).
Maine . . 24-8
North Dakota .
8-2
f Mississippi 38'8
New Hampshire 47 7 ',.
South Dakota .
76
; Arkansas .
30-0
Vermont . 39-0
Nebraska
j Louisiana
3^'5
Massachusetts
418-8 j
Kansas
207
I Oklahoma
23-9
Uhode Is.
508-5 •
Delaware .
103-0
i Texas
14-8
Connecticut
23I-3 '
Maryland
130-0
j Montana .
2-6
New York
191-2 )
District of \
•r ¥ •» -ft
1 Idaho
3 '9
New Jersey
3377 i!
Columbia j -
,517 "
i Wyoming
1'5
Pennsylvania
171-0 J:
Virginia .
51-2
J! Colorado .
77
Ohio
117-0 i
West Virginia .
50-8
'! New Mexico
27
Indiana .
74-9
North Carolina
45'3
=' Arizona .
1-8
Illinois
100*6
South Carolina
497
Utah
45
Michigan .
48-9
Georgia .
444
Nevada .
07
Wisconsin
42-2
Florida .
137
Washington
17-1
Minnesota
257 i
Kentucky
57-o
j Oregon .
7-0
Iowa
40 o
Tennessee
52-4
• California
KM
Missouri .
47-9 |
Alabama . .
417
" ~
154 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
THE INCREASE IN THE POPULATION
FROM 1790 TO IQIO.
\enr.
Total Population.
Year. Total Population.
1790
1810
1830
1850
3,929,214
7,239,881
12,866,020
23,191,876
1870 38, 558, 37 1
1890 62,947,714
igiO 91,972,266
THE ORIGIN OF THE FOREIGN-BORN WHITE POPULATION
1910 CENSUS.
England
Scotland
Ireland
Wales
Total for British Isles .
Germany
Russia
Italy .
876,455
261,034
1,3^2,155
82,479
Canada
Austria
Sweden
Hungary
Norway
Other countries .
Total .
. 1,196,070
• 1,174,924
. 665,183
495,600
. 403,858
. 1,261,115
2,572,123
2,501,181
1,732,421
1,343,070
'3'34-,545
The most interesting points to notice are, the large number
of people now in the United States who were born in Ireland,
Germany and Canada. At the census of 1910 one seventh of
the population was of foreign birth.
THE CITIES WITH MORE THAN 500,000 INHABITANTS.
City.
Population
In 1910.
In 1830.
In 1890.
New York ... . 4,766,883
197,112
.i.S'S.Soi
Chicago .... 2,185,283
4,470(1840)
1,099,850
Philadelphia . . . 1,549,008
80,462
1,046,964
St. Louis .... 687,029 : 14,125
45r>77°
Boston . . . . 670,585 | 61,394
448,447
Cleveland ....
560,663
1,076
26i,353
Baltimore ....
558,435
8o,620
434,439
Putsburg ....
533,905
12,568
238,617
The figures for 1830 and 1890 are stated for the purposes of comparison.
THE UNITED STATES: TRADE FIGURES 155
III. TRADE FIGURES, YEAR ENDING MARCH 1913
Chief Imports.
Chief Exports,
Value in
million £•
Raw and manufactured '
Raw cotton
109-4
fibres . . . . 25-2
Iron and si eel manu-
Coffee .... | 23-8
factures
60-9
Hides and skins . . 23-4
Breadstuff's
42'2
Silk, raw and manu-
Meat and dairy products
3°7
factured . . . 21- 1
Copper and manufactures
Sugar . . . .207
ot
28-6
Chemicals, drugs and [
Mineral oils .
27-4
dyes . . . . ; 19-9
Wood and manufactures
Rubber and gutta-percha 19-5
of ....
23-1
Cotton, raw and manu- ;
Coal ....
I ?'O
factured . . . | 17-8
Leather and manufactures
J J w
Wood and manufactures
of ....
I2"7
of wood . . .12-3
Other articles .
1377
vyiner articles . . . ^7^ 9
Total
0
Tolal . . ! 362-6
THE CHIEF COUNTRIES WITH WHOM THE TRADE WAS
CARRIED ON, YEAR ENDING MARCH 1913.
Countries.
Value in million f, \ Value in million £
of imports from of exports to
United Kingdom ....
59'i
"94
British North America .
24-3
84-0
Germany
37-8
66-3
France .
27-4
29-2
Holland
7-6
25-2
Italy .
10-8
15-2
EXERCISES.
1. Compare the foreign-born white population in the United States with
that of Canada (see Fig<. on p. 104).
2. Compare the chief exports and imports of the United States and
Canada (see Canadian Figs, on p. 105). Suggest reasons for the leading
contrasts.
3. " The United States is the America of achievement, and Canada the
America of opportunity." Discuss this statement.
4. Briefly desciibe and account for the general distribution of the popu-
lation of the United States
CHAPTER XXII.
LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE: LONGITUDE AND TIME.
Latitude and Longitude. — We mention these words so fre-
quently that it is well to devote some time to see what they
really mean. On wall maps and atlases you will be quite
familiar with the two sets of lines which form the map-network.
Those which cross the map from east to west are lines of
Latitude, and those which run from north to south are lines
of Longitude. Examine a globe, and you will see that every
line of latitude is a circle. The greatest circle is the equator,
and all the others are smaller and smaller as the poles are
approached. Each circle has as its centre, a point on the
earth's axis, and since all the circles are parallel to each other,
they are spoken of as parallels of latitude. The equator is
numbered o, and the others from i to 89, the poles being
points numbered 90. But it is not quite correct to speak of
a place, say New York, which is about 41° north of the
equator, as being 41° north of the equator as measured on
the earth. If one line be drawn from New York to the centre
of the earth, and another from a point on the equator, in
the longitude of New York to the centre of the earth, the
angle made by these lines will be one of 41° (see Fig. 52);
so you can see that latitude is measured by angles, not in
miles. However, the distance along a line of longitude
subtended by an angle of i° at the centre of the earth is
about 69 miles.
Lines of longitude are all great circles passing through the
poles. The only great circle of latitude, or circle as large as
any drawn on the earth can be, is the equator. The line
passing through Greenwich is numbered o, and is known as
the Prime Meridian, although any line may be so numbered.
The longitude of New York is 74° W., and this means that
the angular distance of New York is 74° west of Greenwich.
156
LONGITUDE AND TIME
157
(See Fig. 52.) The distance along the equator subtended by
an angle of i° at the centre of the earth is about 69 miles,
or, as we commonly say, the length of a degree of longitude
at the equator is 69 miles, which is the same as a degree of
latitude. But as the poles are approached a degree of longi-
tude decreases, for all lines of longitude, or meridians, meet
at the poles. The meridians are numbered from o to 180,
east and west of Greenwich, the meridians 180° W. and 180°
E. being, of course, identical. If we know the latitude and
longitude of a town we can easily find its exact position on the
map, for since New York
is in latitude 41° N. and
longitude 74° W., it must
be at the intersection of
these lines.
Longitude and Time.
You will be quite familiar
with the fact that the
sun rises in the east and
appears to move across
the sky through the
south and sets in the
west, and you will pro-
bably know that it is
the earth's rotation from
west to east which gives
this appearance. The
east coast of North
America is in the sun-
light before the west coast. New York, or any other city,
should call its time 12 o'clock noon when the sun is in
the south, or at its highest, in that city. Places east of
New York have noon earlier, and places west later than that
city. The earth makes one complete revolution on its axis, or
turns through 360°, in twenty-four hours, which is equal to
15° in one hour, or i° in four minutes. Therefore a city 15°
E. of New York would have its noon one hour earlier, and a
city 15° W. of New York would have Its noon one hour later
than New York. North America is so large that it would be
absurd for San Francisco to take the same time as New York,
for the former place would be calling the time 12 o'clock noon
Fin. 52. — Diagram showing latitude and
longitude and angular measurements.
158 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
when sun noon would not occur for three hours later. If all
the cities of North America had their own noon when the sun
was highest at each particular place, there would be the greatest
confusion, and such things as railway time-tables would be
exceedingly difficult to follow. Since the time changes one
full hour for 15° of longitude, the United States and Canada
take each meridian divisible by 15° as a central meridian,
from which all the towns situated within a belt y£° on each
side of the central meridian, take their time. This would be
the ideal scheme, but it is not exactly adhered to, for in many
cases the meridians cross almost uninhabited districts, or
a meridian may give two times for a compact, well-peopled
area, so that adjustments are made, but chiefly for railway
convenience. If you were to travel by railway across the
United States from New York to San Francisco, you would
find that the times are changed at one of the great cities in
each belt. Leaving New York at 4 p.m. eastern time, it
would be necessary to put back your watch one hour upon
arriving at Pittsburg in order to be right with central time, and
this would be repeated at Cheyenne, and again upon arrival at
San Francisco.
You will appreciate what a great deal of annoyance and
confusion are saved by the use of time belts ; but you must
notice that the standard time is only correct for such places
in each belt which happen to be situated on the central
meridian, and that for all others, the standard time is incorrect.
Fig. 53 gives the name by which each of the time belts is
known. You will observe that Canada has one more belt
than the United States, the Colonial time belt, which is four
hours behind Greenwich time. Newfoundland has not come
into line with this arrangement for standard time, but takes
its time — 3 hrs. 30 min. 44 sees, behind Greenwich — from
St. John's the capital. That is, when the clocks in England
give the time at 12.0 noon, Newfoundland clocks show nearly
8.30 a.m.
Besides Canada and the United States, Australia and
Europe have also adopted standard time. In South Australia
the time is taken from 142^° E., which gives 9^ hrs. ahead
of Greenwich. This is due to the fact that the population
centre is nearer that meridian than the 135° E., for this
one passes through an almost uninhabited area. Australia
LONGITUDE AND TIME
159
takes time from the meridians 120°, 142^°, and 150° east of
Greenwich.
It is very interesting to notice that if a traveller goes round
the world westwards without altering his watch, he finds on
completing his journey that he has lost a day, whilst if his
journey is eastwards he has gained a day. If it were possible
for him to travel westward as fast as the sun, and he set out
'05° w
Pacific / Central \ Colonial
Time Mountain Time Eastern Time
Time Time \
Central
States
Manitoba
States
bordering Rocky
the facific Mountain
and States
British Alberta
Columbia and
New Brunswick
Atlantic Nova Scotia
States Prince Edward Is.,
Ontario
and
FIG. 53. — Diagram to illustrate the divisions of Canada and the United
States for the purposes of time. The clocks show the time when it is
noon at Greenwich.
on his journey, say at noon on Saturday, there would be
no change in his time, yet somewhere Saturday must end and
Sunday commence. Were he to travel eastward at the same
rate he would meet the sun in long. 180° E., and it would
apparently be noon on Sunday for him. If he approached
the meridian from the west it would be noon on Saturday.
Again, when the time at Greenwich is 9.0 a.m. on Monday, it
is 3.0 a.m. Monday in long. 90° W., and 9 p.m. Sunday in
160 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
long. 180° W. When it is the same time at Greenwich it
would be 3 p.m. Monday in long. 90° E., and 9 p.m. Monday
in long. 1 80° E. But i8o°E. and 180° W. are the same,
although if approached from the west, it is 9 p.m. Sunday, and
if approached from the east 9 p.m. Monday. It is therefore
very necessary that a line should be drawn somewhere on
maps where it is convenient to get these dates straight. In
all probability it will be found marked on an atlas map. of the
Pacific Ocean or of Australasia. It follows the meridian 180°,
excepting for one or two deviations which are made in order
to suit the convenience of certain islands which lie very near
to the meridian. If a ship approaches the line from the west
on a Saturday, the next day is called Monday, whilst if the
line is approached from the east, Saturday is repeated.
Alaska was discovered by Russians who journeyed eastwards,
and until that land was purchased from Russia by the United
States, was a day in front of the rest of America in time. The
Philippines, for very many years, were a day behind surround-
ing islands, for they were discovered by Magellan who sailed
westwards. Magellan was killed in these islands, but the
ship continued its journey under Sebastian del Cano, and
great was his astonishment to find, on arrival at Spain, that
a day had been lost.
EXERCISES.
1. Explain carefully what is meant by the statement that the latitude
and longitude of New Orleans are respectively 30° N. and 90° W.
2. Explain why it is that during the Australian cricket season, London
noon newspapers give the results of play up to the close at 6 p.m. on the
same day.
3. When it is (a) 9 a.m. at Greenwich, what time is it in New York ?
(6) 8 p.m. in Chicago, what time is it in New Orleans?
(c) 10 p.m. Monday, in the Mountain Time Belt, what
time is it in London ?
(d) 6 a.m. in Halifax, Nova Scotia, what is the time in
Berlin (time taken from 15° E.)?
4. What is meant by Standard Time? Illustrate your answer by
reference to the time belts of the United States.
CHAPTER XXIII.
MEXICO.
Area, 786,000 sq. miles.
Population, 15,500,000 (estimated in 1912) : 19 per cent, white ; 43 per
cent, mixed ; 38 per cent. Indian.
THE high plateau enclosed by the eastern and western
Sierra Madre is a continuation of the plateaux further north,
and in many respects resembles these very much indeed.
Bordering the coasts are narrow plains, broader, however, on
the east coast than on the west. The Gulf of California is
the drowned lowland between the western Sierra Madre and
lower California, which is a continuation of the coast range
of the United States. North America ends at the Isthmus
of Tehuantepec ; but politically included in Mexico is the low
limestone plateau of Yucatan, and the northern extremity of
the mountains of Central America. (See Fig. 54.) To the
south of the plateau is a volcanic range of mountains, which
runs from west to east. In this range are such giant volcanoes
as Orizaba (18,314 ft.), and Popocatepetl (17,880 ft.).
Mexico lies in the track of the N.E. trade winds, so that
the east coast receives more rain than the west coast. As
regards temperature, owing to its nearness to the equator, for
the southern half of the country is within the tropics, the
coastal plains are hot in winter, and very hot in summer. The
plateau, as we should expect, is much cooler than the plains.
These climatic facts may be illustrated by the following rainfall
and temperature figures —
MEAN MONTHLY RAINFALL, IN INCHES.
B
rt
i— i
,6
£
1
'fc.
D.
<
|
s
d
c
3
•— >
&
"a
>->
w
<
d
&
O
>'
o
5£
o
Q
s
3£
£&
Colima . . •.
°'5
o
o
0
•7
6-8
7'i
6-7
7 '4
4*1
°'S
°'3
34'i
Vera Cruz .
°°4
°'S
0-6
O'2
' 9
4 '3
3 9
12'S
4 i
14-8
4 7
8-9
4 •
n-6
9'°
05
3'2
2*0
68-0
i
161
H
1 62 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
MEAN1 MONTHLY TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES FAIIR.
-:
0 u
a n
iSM
n
o
d
£
r'
•>.
ti
^
.
B|
4;-*1
K"rt y.
d
•—i
V
Si
o.
s
9
Z
3
J?
0
&
<<S
Feet.
Colima . .
Mexico City .
660
7>474
69
S4
70
74
60
77
64
81
6s
81
64
79
6,
79
62
78
61
77
75
11
76
60
Vena Cruz
0
72
73
75
79
81
81
82
82
80
76
75
71
77
Find the positions of these towns on the map. It is evident
that considerably more rain falls in these places in summer
than in winter. This is true of the whole country.
There are no important navigable rivers in Mexico, for the
rapid descent from the plateau to the plains makes them
useless for navigation. The plateau rivers suffer very much
from lack of water, and many of them never reach the sea.
This lack of navigable waterways has very considerably hindered
the development of Mexico.
Three well-marked climatic belts are found in Mexico,
Central America, and the north-western regions of South
America. They are (i) the Tierra Caliente, or Hot Lands,
(2) the Tierra Templada, or Temperate Lands, (3) the Tierra
Fria, or Cool Lands.
In Mexico the hot belt comprises the coastal plains, which
are often very unhealthy, and the slopes of the mountains
below 3,000 feet. The wetter parts of this belt are densely
forested with tropical trees, such as palms, rubber, mahogany,
etc., whilst many tropical fruits, such as bananas and pine-
apples, grow wild. The lower lands are also noted for the
cultivation of cotton, rice, sugar and cacao. On the lower
slopes of the mountains, maize, tobacco and coffee are grown.
The temperate belt is below a height of about 7,000 feet, and
includes a considerable portion of the plateau. The climate
is one of perpetual spring. Wheat, corn, beans, and temperate
fruits can be grown where irrigation is practised, as in the
district round Mexico City, which in this respect may be
compared with Salt Lake City. The water for irrigation is
supplied by the snow and rain which fall among the neigh-
bouring mountains. The cactus is very common, and often
grows to considerable dimensions. One species known as the
agave is cultivated for its milky juice, which is made into
pulque, the commonest drink in Mexico. The thick leaves,
MEXICO 163
like those of another similar plant, have a fibre which is a
rival of jute. This fibre is known as henequen, or sisal hemp,
and forms the chief product of Yucatan. Apart from the
cultivated lands, there are large areas where irrigation cannot
be practised, but nevertheless are suitable for the rearing of
cattle, horses, mules, sheep and goats. Owing to the very
slight rainfall, more than half of the plateau, especially the
north-west, is of no value even for pastoral occupations.
The cool lands are above an elevation of 7,000 feet, and
contain splendid forests of pines and firs.
Mining. — One of the most important occupations in Mexico is
mining, as the country is exceedingly rich in minerals. You
will remember that it was partly from Mexican mines that the
Spaniards obtained great supplies of gold and silver. The
most important mineral is silver, which is mined in nearly
every state in Mexico. The best known towns engaged in
silver mining are Guadalajara, Zacatecas and San Luis Potosi.
Copper, gold, lead, iron, coal and petroleum are also important
mineral products. Owing to 'the great increase in the use of
petroleum, the Mexican supplies have become very important,
and the production has increased from two and a half million
barrels, in 1909, to fifteen and a half million barrels in 1912.
The chief petroleum deposits are in the neighbourhood of
Tampico.
ROUTES, CHIEF CITIES, ETC.
The plateau is reached from the United States by two main
railway lines (Fig. 54). From El Paso, on the Rio Grande,
one line runs southwards through Zacatecas, and before
reaching Mexico City is joined by another which serves the
eastern plateau and passes through Saltillo and San Luis
Potosi. Mexico City is also joined by railway to its port,
Vera Cruz, as well as to the chief ports on the west coast.
The low isthmus of Tehuantepec is crossed by a railway which
is largely used for transporting goods from Pacific to Atlantic
steamers.
The capital, Mexico City, is also the largest town. Its
population in 1910 numbered 470,000. It is in the south of
the central plateau, its elevation being about 7,500 feet above
sea level, and, although shut in by mountains, is surrounded
164
GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
by the best cultivated area in the country, in contrast to which
the giant volcanoes to the south of the city stand out in bold
relief. The city is built on the site of the old capital of the
Aztecs. Guadalajara, St. Luis Potosi and Zacatecas have been
referred to as important centres for silver-mining. Pueblo,
south-east of Mexico City, is situated near to an ancient Aztec
town, or pueblo, and is an industrial centre. On the east
coast, the chief ports are Tampico and Vera Cruz. Both these
ports are situated on the low-lying, unhealthy, coastal plains
Rio Grande delNorte
Gulf of Mexico
Tampico
Merida
Campech
VERA. CRUZ
FIG. 54. — Map of Mexico. Areas over 1,200 feet are shaded.
and have poor harbours, upon which large sums of money
have to be spent in constructing breakwaters. Merida and
Campeche, in Yucatan, export henequen. On the west coast
Mazatlan and Acapulco have the best harbours.
Mexico obtained her independence from Spain in 1821.
Since then the country has been governed either as a kingdom
or empire, or as a republic. At present it is a republic whose
government is modelled on the lines of that of the United
States, but it is not by any means so peaceful or as well
governed as that neighbouring republic. The country is not
MEXICO 165
in a very advanced state. Its agriculture is generally carried
on by the most primitive methods, whilst most of the mines
are owned by foreigners. This can easily be understood in a
country where 38 per cent, of the people are 1 ndians, 43 per
cent, of mixed race, and only 19 per cent, are whites.
The part of Mexico which is most densely peopled is the
southern plateau, which, owing to its situation, has a temperate
climate, whilst it is the most important agricultural area in the
country. The houses of the poor people are often wretched,
for most of them are built of sun-dried clay and straw bricks,
or adobes, and very often a house contains only one room.
In the large cities, however, there are many splendid buildings,
especially cathedrals, most of which were built by the
Spaniards. The Cathedral of Mexico, Mexico City, was
begun in 1573 and not completed until 1811. It is a magnifi-
cent building, and is built on, or close to, thft site of an old
Aztec temple destroyed by Cortes in 1521. The Mexicans,
like the Spaniards, are mainly Roman Catholics.
•
EXERCISES.
1. Compare the climates of the Pacific coast, the plateau and the Atlantic
coast of Mexico.
2. Using your physical map of Mexico, construct a section across the
country from west to tast.
3. Mexico is to-day the most backward country in North America,
although at the time of the discovery of the continent, its inhabitants were
the most progressive. Can you give reasons for this ?
4. Give examples of the close connections between elevation, climate
and vegetation in Mexico.
CHAPTER XXIV.
CENTRAL AMERICA AND THE WEST INDIES.
Physical Features. — Open your atlas at the physical map of
Central America and the West Indies and examine it in con-
nection with Fig. 55. Central America extends from the
Isthmus of Tehuantepec to the Isthmus of Panama, and occu-
pies an exceedingly important position between the Atlantic
and Pacific Oceans. Although it is an isthmus joining North
and South America, its connection with these continents was
made in recent geological times.
In the large island of Hispaniola three distinct mountain
ranges can be traced. The northern range is connected by
submarine ridges through the highlands of north-west Cuba
to the limestone plateau of Yucatan. The central range is
represented in Cuba by the Sierra Maestra, which in turn is
connected with British Honduras by a submarine ridge on
which stands the island of Grand Cayman. The southern
ridge of Hispaniola can be traced through -Jamaica to Hon-
duras. In the island of Porto Rico the three ranges of His-
paniola form one highland mass. Thus it will be seen that
Central America is very intimately connected with the large
islands which make up the group known as the Greater
Antilles. Indeed, Central America and the West Indies are
the remains of an ancient continent, which formerly extended
much farther west than at present, and farther east than the
ridge on which stand the West Indies. The West Indies
have been separated from Central America by subsidences
which allowed the water of the Atlantic Ocean to form the
Caribbean Sea.
Look again at the physical map of Central America, and
notice that there is a belt of high ground running very closely
to the west coast and parallel with it. This is volcanic, and
contains peaks nearly three miles high. To the east of the
volcanic belt and between the Tehuantepec and Guatemala
166
CENTRAL AMERICA
167
narrowings, the low plateau of Yucatan points northwards.
This has already been described in connection with Mexico.
Between the narrowing in Guatemala and that in southern
Nicaragua are ranges which run east and west, making the
isthmus very broad along the boundary between Honduras
and Nicaragua. There is a further narrowing at the Isthmus
of Panama. These narrowing points are of considerable
importance to trade. A railway crosses the Isthmus of Tehu-
CARIBBEAN SEA \
' «* MB
aj
FIG. 55. — This diagram illustrates' the •former connection which existed
between the Greater Antilles and Central America.
antepec (Fig. 54) ; and it is interesting to notice that it is
cheaper to send goods from New York to San Francisco by
steamer, rail and steamer, despite the charges at the isthmus
for unloading and reloading, than it is to send them on the
transcontinental railways. The Isthmus of Tehuantepec is
about 130 miles broad, and is not very high, whilst the second
narrowing in Guatemala is half as wide again, and is a much
more difficult barrier to cross. Nevertheless it is crossed by
two railway lines (Fig. 55). The narrowing in southern Nica-
ragua is about 150 miles across, and it was once proposed to
i68
GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
utilize it for a canal, making use of the river San Juan canal-
ized, and Lake Nicaragua.
77/(? Panama Canal. — The fourth narrowing is at the
Isthmus of Panama, where the canal which has been made
by the United States is situated. Here it is under forty miles
from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Fig. 56 shows that the
canal has been constructed from Colon to Panama. The
chief difficulty in making it was the cutting through of the
Culebra Hill. Great quantities of earth constantly slid into
the cutting and hindered the work considerably. Unfortu-
nately, even since the canal has been completed, slides of
FIG. 56. — Mnp of the Panama Canal. Water surfaces are not shaded.
earth have taken place. Boats ascend by three locks near
to Colon and descend by three locks at the Pacific end, the
bottom of the canal between the locks being forty feet above
sea level. Notice the artificial Gatun Lake which has been
made by placing a dam across the River Chagres. The
French were the first to attempt the making of a canal across
the isthmus, but abandoned the project largely owing to the
the ravages of tropical diseases and fever. The Republic of
Panama, through whose territory the canal is constructed,
sold a belt of land five miles on each side of the canal to
the United States, and one of the first tasks was to render
the area suitable for a large number of workers to live in,
as the climate was very unhealthy. This was accomplished
by skilful attention to drainage, water supply and sanitary
matters generally.
CENTRAL AMERICA 169
A map of the world will show that the canal will shorten
considerably steamship routes from New York and the other
eastern and gulf ports of North America to the chief ports
of western North and South Amercia. The journey between
New York and San Francisco will be shortened by nearly 8,500
miles, and between Liverpool and West European ports and
San Francisco by 6,000 miles.
The distances between Atlantic and Gulf ports and Austral-
asia, China and Japan will also be less via the Panama Canal
than by the shortest possible present route. It is not likely
that the Panama Canal will take from the Suez Canal much
of the trade between European ports and eastern Asia and
Australasia, for the present route is shorter; but it is worth
while noting that it will give New York and the manufacturing
New England States a much shorter journey to Japan and
Australia (not to China) than that from the chief West Euro-
pean ports via the Suez to these places.
Climate and Vegetation. — Reference to an atlas will show
that the whole of Central America lies between the equator
and the Tropic of Cancer, so that its prevailing wind is
the north-east trade. From this it follows that more rain
will fall on the east coast or windward side, than on the
west coast, or leeward side. Except in the elevated regions,
where it is reduced, the mean annual temperature is high. It
should be noticed that more rain falls in summer when the
sun is overhead north of the equator, and that although at that
time of the year the temperature is higher, there is not very
much difference on the coastal lands between summer and
winter owing to nearness to the equator (see Exercise i at the
end of this chapter).
On the eastern plains, owing to the heat and rains, there are
forests and jungles, the coast-lands being malarial and very
unsuitable at present for cultivation and occupation by man.
It will be seen, therefore, that the majority of the inhabitants
will live either on the high plateaux where grass-lands are found
and pastoral occupations are followed, or on the drier west
coast. As in Mexico, the Tierra Caliente (from sea level to
about 3,000 feet), the Tierra Templada (3,000 to 7,000 feet)
and the Tierra Fria (above 7,000 feet) are well marked. In
the first belt the chief products of the forests are rubber, and
such valuable woods as mahogany and logwood, whilst tropical
170 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
fruits such as cacao, bananas, pineapple, etc., are cultivated
and exported.
The second belt is forested on the wetter east, whilst on
the west coast it is mainly a grass-land with scattered patches
of trees. Pastoral occupations are carried on, and the chief
cultivated product, and the most important export, is coffee.
In the third belt are extensive areas suitable for pastoral
pursuits and for the growing of grain.
Political Partition. — If you refer once more to the atlas, you
will see that there are six independent republics and a British
possession (British Honduras) in this small area. Guatemala
is commercially the most important of the republics, selling
more produce to foreign countries and buying from them more
than any other state. Salvador, though the smallest country
in America, is the most densely peopled of the Central
American republics. In this connection notice its position.
The largest cities are Guatemala (90,000), San Salvador
(66,000) and Leon, Nicaragua (63,000). The inhabitants of
Central America are mainly Indians, Spaniards, or half-breeds,
and owing to the very backward condition of most of the
people, manufacturing is unimportant.
THE WEST INDIES.
1. The Greater Antilles. — These consist of the large islands
of Cuba, Hispaniola, Porto Rico and Jamaica. Refer to
Fig. 55 again and revise what we have learned about their
former connection with Central America.
2. The Lesser Antilles. — These represent the tops of a sub-
merged ridge, and stretch from Porto Rico to Trinidad, which
is a portion of South America detached from the main mass.
Notice what an island-protected fringe the Caribbean Sea has.
Can you picture to yourself what the West Indies and the
surrounding seas would look like if the waters of the seas were
removed ? The Lesser Antilles maybe classified in two ways.
The northern islands are known as the Leeward Islands,
and the southern ones as the Windward Islands. A better
classification is according to their formation. If you examine
your map carefully you will see that there are two chains of
islands — an eastern and a western. The eastern islands are
made of limestone, whilst those to the west are of volcanic
origin. Observe the peculiar outline of the French island
THE WEST INDIES 171
Guadeloupe. Its eastern half is limestone and its western
half volcanic. Violent eruptions are not uncommon in these
islands, the most recent being the great eruptions of Mont
Pele (Martinique), and La Souffriere (St. Vincent), which took
place in 1902.
3. The Bahamas. — What is the position of the islands with
regard to the Tropic of Cancer ? They stand on a sub-
marine continuation of the limestone peninsula of Florida.
There is a very large number of islands in this group — about
3,000, and they are composed of coral. The waters of the
Gulf Stream, a warm ocean current which issues from the Gulf
of Mexico between Florida and Cuba, sweeps over the sub-
marine banks on which they are built. In these warm waters
the tiny coral polyps can live and build reefs. The action of
the waves has brought the coral particles together and formed
them into bars, the coral sand has been blown by the wind,
and thus dunes have been made and islands formed. The
Bahamas were at one time a centre for buccaneers.
Climate. — Like Central America, the West Indies, with the
exception of the northern islands of the Bahamas, lie within
the Tropics. Since they are islands their climate will be more
equable than that of Central America. There is very little
difference of temperature between the hottest and the coolest
months, and the seasons are more distinguished by difference
of rainfall, considerably more rain falling in summer than in
winter. The prevailing winds are the North-East Trades, and
the windward slopes of all the islands receive most rain.
Vegetation and Products. — Since most of the islands are
mountainous, many types of vegetation are to be found. Fig.
57 shows a view in the island of St. Lucia. Notice the vege-
tation. Forests are plentiful, especially on the wetter wind-
ward slopes ; in the largest islands these forests are very
extensive, and cabinet and dye woods, and tropical fruits, .such
as bananas, coco-nuts and pineapples, are of considerable
importance. One of the most interesting trees found in the
West Indies, especially in Cuba, is the royal palm. All parts
of the tree — trunk, leaves, fibres and seeds — are of value to the
inhabitants. Sugar, cacao, coffee and tobacco are cultivated
in most of the islands. Indeed, every temperate and tropical
crop can be produced. Sugar is the most important product,
although since the increased production of sugar-beet in
172 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
Germany, Holland, Belgium and northern France, the trade
with Europe has very largely declined. Cuba exports most
sugar, and sends it chiefly to the United States. This island,
the chief town and port of which is Havana, also produces
great quantities of tobacco. Jamaica exports bananas and
other fruits, coffee, spices and tobacco. Its chief town and
port is Kingston. The opening of the Panama Canal will
FIG. 57. — The Harbour. Castries, St. Lucia. Notice (i) the hilly nature
of the island, (ii) the forests.
make Jamaica especially important. The most important
straits used by steamers in entering the Caribbean Sea from
the Atlantic are the Windward Pass, between Cuba and Haiti,
and the Mona Pass between Haiti and Porto Rico. Jamaica
is excellently situated with regard to the former. In Trinidad
is a great pitch lake from which asphalt is derived. Asphalt is
an almost solid substance which is formed when petroleum
deposits are exposed to the air. It is used for paving. In
the Bahamas henequen and pineapples are grown, whilst
sponge-fishing and turtle-catching also find occupation for
many people.
THE WEST INDIES 173
Formerly all the West Indies, by virtue of discovery, be-
longed to Spain, but to-day not one island is Spanish.
Jamaica was the first to be lost, for it became a British
possession in the days of the Commonwealth, and it has
remained so ever since. Besides Jamaica, the whole of the
Bahamas, and most of the Lesser Antilles are British. You
can easily find out from your atlas which islands in the Lesser
Antilles are owned by France, Holland and Denmark. As
a result of the war between the United States and Spain in
1898, Porto Rico became a possession of the United States,
and Cuba an independent republic under the guidance of that
country. Hispaniola consists of two independent negro repub-
lics, Haiti and San Domingo, the former showing the influence
of French occupation in so far as it is French-speaking, whilst
the latter is Spanish-speaking. The island is in a very back-
ward condition, and altogether it cannot be claimed that the
experiment of native-controlled republics has been a success,
for the inhabitants are too lazy to take advantage of the
island's natural fertility.
THE BERMUDAS
Although not part of the West Indies, this is the most
appropriate place to mention the group of small islands some
600 miles east of North Carolina, known as The Bermudas.
Their total area is only about ip square miles. Like the
Bahamas they are composed of coral, and it is interesting to
notice that they are among the very few coral islands outside
the tropics. This is due to the fact that their shores are washed
by warm ocean currents which give the necessary mean annual
temperature of not less than 70° F. required for the growth of
coral polyps. The foundations of the Bahamas are laid on
a volcanic cone which stands up from the bed of the ocean.
Such a foundation is necessary, because these tiny creatures
cannot live in deep water. The Bermudas are noted for their
splendid climate, for the winter is never cold, neither is the
summer heat oppressive. This, of course, is due to the influ-
ence of the sea. The excellence of the climate is reflected
in the fact that every year about 28,000 Americans spend their
holidays in the islands.
The Bermudas have been British for more than three
hundred years, and form a very important naval base, dock-
GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
yard and victualling establishment on the North American
and West Indies station. They are noted for the raising of
early vegetables, especially onions and potatoes, which find a
ready sale in the American markets. There are also extensive
areas devoted to the cultivation of the Easter lily. The popu-
lation numbers about 19,000, of whom 12,000 are coloured,
mainly negroes. Hamilton, the largest town, has a population
of about 3,000.
EXERCISES.
I. MEAN MONTHLY TEMPERATURES, IN DEGREES FAIIR.
_:
0) u
M rt
'.SP >~
.a
u
*k>
>,
£
3
oo
.
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Belize . . o
75
77
79
80
82
82
82
82
81
79
76
74
79
Colon . . 164
79
79
79
70
79
79
80
79
79
79
79
79
79
Guatemala . 4,850
61
6}
6s
68
68
66
6s
6s
6s
64
61
61
64
San Salvador . 2,096
72
73
74
76
75
74
74
74
73
72
70
7'
73
MEAN MONTHLY RAINFALL, IN INCHES.
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for Year.
Belize
Colon ...
Guatemala .
San Salvador
8o'8
1 27 '6
52'5
68-6
5 a
•j 7
* i
5 o
7 7
97
39
» 5
4 J
13 2
167 15-3 12-7 14 i
3
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5
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b 7
6'6
1 1 '7
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8 o
I2'6
1 1 '7 1 1 '6
i
o 7
io'5
'9 '2
I'9 '4
Find these places in your atlas. Represent the statistics graphically,
remembering that the rainfall figures should be shown by columns. Write
a short description of the climate of these towns, accounting for the
differences you notice.
2. Make a list of the political units which constitute Central America.
Find the name of the capital and chief port in each.
3. Describe the difficulties which had to be overcome before the Panama
Canal could be completed. Which countries will benefit most by the
construction of the canal ?
4. Account for the name West Indies. Where are the East Indies?
Compare their geographical positions.
5. Make a tabular statement showing to what countries the West Indies
belong, and which are independent.
6. Classify the islands of the West Indies according to their formation.
7. Draw a sketch map to illustrate the account of the structure of Central
America (see pp. 166 and 167).
8. Is the group known as the Leeward Islands correctly named ? To
which islands may the name be given ?
CHAPTER XXV.
SOUTH AMERICA.
THE DISCOVERY OF SOUTH AMERICA.
IT will be remembered that, in 1492, Columbus landed on
one of the Bahama Islands, and that his first settlement was
on the island of Hispaniola. On later voyages, for in all he
made four, he discovered Trinidad, saw the mouth of the
Orinoco, and sailed along the coast of Central America, but
he never realized that it was a new continent which he had
reached, and died believing that he had reached the Indies
and the east coast of Asia. Whilst Columbus was making
these great voyages, the Portuguese explorers were following
the old, slow coasting methods along the west of Africa, in
their endeavour to find a new way to the Indies, round the
south of that continent. To Columbus belongs the great
credit of being the first explorer who boldly left the coast and
had no fear of the vast ocean. His example was followed by
other explorers, with the result that the object of the Portu-
guese was quickly accomplished, and within thirty years of his
landing on Watling Island, the first voyage round the world
had been made.
Inspired by the work of Columbus, a Florentine named
Amerigo Vespucci made four voyages of discovery, of which
the third, made in 1501-2, was the most important. This
voyage was made on behalf of Portugal. It is important to
notice that at this time the two nations most engaged in
exploration were the Spaniards and the Portuguese. The
latter tried to reach the Indies by sailing eastwards and the
former by the westward route. When Columbus reached the
West Indies, the Pope issued a Bull in which it was stated
that a line should be drawn from pole to pole 100 leagues
west of the Azores and the Cape Verde Islands, and that the
Spaniards were to have all the land they discovered to the
west of that line. On consulting an atlas it will be seen that
175
i76
GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
these groups of islands are not in the same longitude. Of
course there was little accurate geographical knowledge in
those days. Meetings were held and the Treaty of Tordesillas
FIG. 58. — The chief events in the discovery of South America.
was signed in 1494. This Treaty moved the line of de-
marcation another 270 leagues westwards, or in all, about
1,110 miles west of the Cape Verde Islands. Fig. 58 shows
THE DISCOVERY OF SOUTH AMERICA 177
the approximate position of this line. You will see that it
gave some of South America to Portugal, although of course,
at that time, none of this had been discovered. Six years
later, in the year 1500, Cabral, in making a voyage from
Portugal to the Cape, took a great bend westwards and dis-
covered that there was land within the Portuguese sphere of
influence. Of course, he had reached Brazil. He sent the
news to Portugal, and Amerigo Vespucci, who had made his
first two voyages in the service of Spain, and had become
noted, was invited to take charge of the expedition to explore
the new land. This has been dwelt upon at length because
we shall see later that this line of demarcation had important
influences upon the future of South America. It is interesting
to notice that this voyage may be almost reconstructed by
studying the names which were given to various topographical
features. The method seems to have been that of giving the
feature for which a name was desired, the name of the saint
for the day. Examine Fig. 58, and you will find a selection
of places with the dates appended. The name Rio de Janeiro
is probably of later origin.
Having made four voyages to the mainland of South and
Central America, Vespucci could not fail to recognize that it
was a new continent which had been reached by Columbus.
The animals, plants and people were very different from those
of the old world. The continent was first named after Vespucci
by a German professor named Waldseem tiller, who published
in 1507, "An Introduction to Cosmography," in which he
included Vespucci's letters and suggested that the new land
should be called America, although at first the name applied
only to that portion which he had visited. The unfolding of
the east coast of South America was continued by Juan Diaz
de Solis, who reached the mouth of the Plate River whilst in
search of a passage to the East Indies. It was on the banks
of this great river that he was killed by the natives.
In 1513 Nunez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama,
and was the first European to see the Great Pacific Ocean
which he called the " South Sea," as he thought it lay off the
south coast of Asia. A few years later, on September 20, 1519,
Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese sailing for the Spaniards,
set out on his great journey. Arriving at Brazil, his ships
slowly coasted along the east of South America. He had
N
178 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
great difficulty in controlling his very mixed crew, but suc-
ceeded in quelling rebellions with a firm hand. The name
Patagonia was given by Magellan. It means " broadfooted,"
and was given before he had seen any of the native Indians,
from the impressions which he found in the sand. On Octo-
ber 21, 1520, he passed through the strait which now bears his
name, and was the first navigator to sail the ocean, which he
named the Pacific on account of its calmness. The name
does not by any means describe this ocean. It took him
thirty-eight days to get through the Magellan Straits, and for
another hundred days he steered north-west before touching
the Ladrone Islands. These were days of great suffering from
lack of food and water, for they had no idea of the vastness
of the ocean separating America from Asia. Only one ship
got back to Spain after an absence of three years. It was
captained by Sebastian del Cano, for Magellan was killed
in a native fight in the Philippine Islands. We have learned
something about the influence of longitude on time. You
will see that, as Magellan's ship was the first to sa.il right round
the world, the sailors would find that they had lost a day when
they once more got back to Spain. This accounts for the
story that instead of being received in great triumph when
they reached Seville, they had to crawl through the streets in
sackcloth and ashes for having kept festivals and fasts on the
wrong days, during the time they had been away.
Whilst Magellan had been undertaking this epoch-making
journey, the Spaniards had not been idle in Mexico, Central
America, and the West Indies. After the visit of Balboa to
the Isthmus of Panama, stories of lands to the north and
south, inhabited by great nations whose wealth was fabulous,
were common. We have already seen (p. 7) that Hernando
Cortes was despatched from Cuba to investigate these stories
as regards Mexico, and that his conquests and discoveries
opened up new lands in Mexico and Central America.
Another Spaniard, Francisco Pizarro, investigated the stories
of the El Dorado to the south. With a companion, Diego
de Almagro, he made coasting voyages along the north-west
coast of South America and heard of the great empire on the
plateau of Peru. Obtaining some gold and silver, he returned
to Spain to get the permission of Charles V. for the conquest
of Peru. This was given on the usual terms, viz., that the
THE DISCOVERY OF SOUTH AMERICA 179
monarch should receive one-fifth of all the spoils. Setting out
with a small force of less than 200 men, he followed the policy
of Cortes and made at once for the capital, Cuzco. He
captured Atahuallpa, the Inca emperor, who offered to pay a
huge ransom. This was paid, but Atahuallpa was nevertheless
put to death, and his country, with its great riches, became
part of the Spanish possessions.
Something has already been learned of the ancient Aztec
civilization destroyed by Cortes and his successors. On the
plateau of Peru and Bolivia, Pizarro found an even more
advanced type of civilization. The Incas had built many
great cities, the chief being Cuzco, from which excellent roads
led to all parts of the empire. Splendid bridges carried
these roads across rivers and gorges, beautiful temples and
palaces adorned their cities, whilst aqueducts were built to
supply the inhabitants and the fields with water. Their chief
occupation was agriculture, and they grew more maize than
is now produced. Wool was obtained from their flocks of
alpacas and llamas, and beautifully designed cloths were woven
by the women. Many of these temples, aqueducts, etc., re-
main even to this day. In fact, the Spanish city of Cuzco is
built upon the old Inca foundations. It is amazing that such
a small body of men as that commanded by Pizarro could
work such havoc with a large population. But the Incas were
peaceful and unused to war, to intercourse with men from the
outside world, to the strange and fearsome arms used by the
Spanish, and above all, to Spanish treachery. Whilst Pizarro
was subduing and enslaving the Incas, Almagro had reached,
but was not successful in conquering, Chile. Pizarro's brother
crossed the Andes, and in 1541 found the headstreams of
the Amazon, which was followed to its mouth by one of his
companions named Francisco de Orellana. The river received
its name from the reports which the latter made of tribes of
female warriors. It was Orellana who circulated the stories
of an El Dorado up the Orinoco, and this led to the unhappy
expedition of Sir Walter Raleigh.
It will thus be seen that fifty years after the first voyage
of Columbus, the coast-line of South America was fairly well
known. The whole continent was given by the Papal Bull to
Spain and Portugal, the latter having Brazil. The Spaniards
also held Central America, Mexico, large parts of what is
i8o GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
now the United States, and all the West Indies. To-day,
not one square mile is Spanish ! This seems very remark-
able, yet it is easily understood when we consider the use to
which the Spaniards put these colonies. Little attempt was
made to cultivate the land, or to provide homes for the
Spaniards from beyond the seas. No attempt was made to
deal sympathetically with either the natives or their institutions.
Their possessions were badly ruled, and used mainly for the
purpose of supplying Spain with vast quantities of gold, silver,
copper, quicksilver, etc. The rising countries of Europe, such
as England and the Netherlands, were not allowed to trade
with the Spanish Colonies. The products of each had to be
bought through Spaniards. Thus Spain raised the price of
gold and silver in Europe, and of European commodities in
the Spain beyond the seas, and the natural result was smug-
gling, for the other countries were determined to have some
share.
Most of the republics of South America became independent
during the early part of the nineteenth century, Callao, the
last Spanish station on the mainland, falling in 1826. Brazil
is no longer Portuguese, although it should be noted that the
Portuguese conquest of Brazil was not as cruel as the Spanish
conquests. Portugal treated the country as a home lor its
surplus population, and encouraged settlement and agricultural
development. Since the natives were not suitable for work
on the plantations, the Portuguese introduced large numbers
of negro slaves to do the manual work. The final separa-
tion from Portugal took place in 1822 and was peacefully
accomplished.
These conquests have, of course, influenced the languages
spoken in America south of the United States. Spanish is
the language everywhere, except in European possessions and
in Brazil, where Portuguese is spoken.
CHAPTER XXVI.
SOUTH AMERICA: PHYSICAL FEATURES.
SOUTH AMERICA stretches from 12° N. to 55° S. Compare
this with Africa and you will see that Africa does not reach
as far south, but extends farther northwards. Examine
the positions of the two continents with regard to the
equator. About four-fifths of South America is within the
tropics. Name the oceans which wash its shores. The area
of the continent is about 7,000,000 square miles, whilst the
area of Africa is 1 1,500,000 square miles, and that of Australia,
the third southern continent, nearly 3,000,000 square miles.
Compared with its great size, South America has a short
coast-line, and this, of course, is due to the absence of penin-
sulas. It is nearly twice as large as Europe, but its coast-line
is only three-quarters the length of the European coast-line.
COMPARISONS WITH NORTH AMERICA.
If you refer to the physical maps of North and South
America in your atlas, you will at once notice —
1. Both continents are broadest in the north and taper
towards the south, being roughly triangular in
shape. Is this true of the other continents?
Think of Europe and Asia as one continental mass.
2. (a) The highest mountain masses are in the west of
each continent. In both continents these consist
mainly of younger folded ranges, plateaux, etc.
Compare Figs. 7 and 59.
(£) In the east of each continent there are also high-
lands, and in each case these are lower and
older than the western highlands.
(c) The centre of each is largely occupied by plains.
181
182
GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
The Andean Cordillera,
young folded ranges,
plateaux, volcanoes, etc.
Ancient, plateaux of
unfolded rocks.
FIG. 59. — The chief structural divisions of South America.
SOUTH AMERICA: PHYSICAL FEATURES 183
3. The direction of the river drainage may be compared.
Name —
(a) The rivers in each continent which drain
northwards.
(ti) The great rivers which drain eastwards.
(V) Those which drain southwards.
CONTRASTS BETWEEN NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICA.
1. South America has no river of any importance draining
into the Pacific. North America has such large rivers as
the Fraser, Columbia, Sacramento and Colorado all flowing
westwards.
2. South America is broadest where it is hottest, whilst the
opposite is true of the northern continent.
3. South America has no large islands off its southern
shores to compare with the frozen archipelago of North
America.
4. In South America there are no large openings like
Hudson Bay, or long gulfs or peninsulas like those of Lower
California.
5. Although the mean elevation of each continent is about
2,000 feet, there is not such a large percentage of North
America with an elevation of less than 600 feet above sea-
level as there is in South America.
6. South America has no area comparable with the old
worn-down highland region around Hudson Bay. (Compare
Figs. 7 and 59.)
7. The eastern highlands of South America consist of
plateaux of unfolded rocks, whilst those of North America
consist of folded mountains which have been denuded to a
plateau, the subsequent uplift of which has produced the
present appearance of the Appalachians.
PHYSICAL FEATURES.
The most prominent feature on the map is the great Andean
Cordillera. The remaining highlands will fall under the two
headings: the Brazilian Highlands and the Guiana High-
la?ids. Now notice the plains and you will see that there is a
great area under 600 feet in height. Only in Europe, in pro-
portion to its size, is there more land under 600 feet. It will
1 84 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
be seen that the plains are between the three highland regions
named and are drained by great rivers. The plains in the
valley of the Parana Paraguay are called the Pampas Lands,
those in the valley of the Amazon the Selvas, and those in
the valley of the Orinoco the Llanos. These vast plains were
formerly the beds of seas which have been filled by the
deposits washed from the surrounding mountains and brought
down by rivers. Now let us examine these highlands and
lowlands in more detail.
THE ANDES.
Using the scale given on the map, find out how long the
Andes are from north to south and how broad they are at
their widest part. They are so high that the highest parts
are snow-capped all the year throughout the entire length.
Compared with their length, they are remarkably straight, and
the change in direction is where they are broadest. Now let
us trace the system from north to south. Three ranges from
the Caribbean Sea meet at the knot of Pasto and continue as
two main chains, enclosing the very high narrow plateau of
Ecuador, which is about 8,000 feet high, although the peaks
of the two main chains flanking the plateau are very much
higher. (See Fig. 68.) There are many volcanoes here,
perhaps the best known being Cotopaxi, which is over
19,000 feet in height, that is, nearly three and three-quarter
miles, although Chimborazo reaches almost four miles in
height. This volcano overlooks the city of Quito, which is
very near to the equator.
Southwards, in Peru, the Andes have three well-marked
ranges, whilst the enclosed plateaux are broader. (Fig. 69.)
It is here that the Amazon and many of its tributaries rise.
Farther south, in the broad plateau of Bolivia, buttressed on
on the east and west by high mountains, the system is at its
widest. This plateau is about 12,000 feet above sea level,
and some of the high peaks are considerably over 20,000 feet.
Sorata is one of the highest peaks in the continent and reaches
almost 22,000 feet. On this plateau is Lake Titicaca, which
is overlooked by Sorata. It has no outlet to the sea, and is,
therefore, a centre of inland drainage like the Great Salt Lake
of North America, and like that lake, was at one time very
SOUTH AMERICA: PHYSICAL FEATURES 185
much larger. South of this plateau the Andes is one giant
range, and it is here that we have the highest peak in the
Americas, Mount Aconcagua, which is a great volcano about
23,000 feet in height. Just south of it you will find marked
the Uspallata or Cumbre Pass, below which tunnels the only
railway which crosses the Andes. This line connects Buenos
Aires with Valparaiso, and the difficulty experienced in con-
structing it may be imagined by the fact that the tunnel is
only a little short of two miles above sea level. On the
summit of the pass, on the boundary between Chile and
Argentina, is an enormous bronze statue of Christ, erected
to celebrate the peace made in 1902. The two countries have
sculptured on the base of the statue these words —
"SOONER SHALL THESE MOUNTAINS CRUMBLE
INTO DUST THAN THE PEOPLE OF
ARGENTINA AND CHILE BREAK THE PEACE
WHICH THEY HAVE SWORN TO MAINTAIN AT
THE FEET OF CHRIST THE REDEEMER."
Southwards, the Andes still contain snow-capped peaks and
volcanoes, but are diminished in height. Your map will show
many lakes skirting the eastern edges, whilst the western
edges are fringed by countless islands and are pierced by
long, narrow fiords. Which other coast-line in North America
resembles that of southern Chile ? (See Fig. 35.)
It is interesting to notice the influence of the position of the
Andes upon the drainage of the continent. Fig. 60 shows the
land drained into (a] the Pacific, (l>} the Atlantic, (c) inland
drainage systems. You will at once observe the comparatively
small area drained into the Pacific and the large area drained
eastwards. Is this also true of North America ? From which
ocean are the interior lands of these continents easier to ap-
proach ? Like the western highlands of North America, the
Andes are close to the Pacific Coast.
THE LOWLANDS.
We have already stated that the great lowlands of the
Orinoco, the Amazon and the Plate were once great inland
seas. We have learned that rivers bring down sediment,
and that this ceases to be carried along in suspension and
i86 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
falls to the bottom when the current receives a check. The
k y 6°°
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\ \Land drained to Atlantic
] „ „ „ Pacific
£? Areas of In la nd Drainage
w
FIG. 60. — The drainage of South America.
rivers rising in the three great highland areas of South America
and running to these former seas, would all be bringing down
SOUTH AMERICA: PHYSICAL FEATURES 187
sediment, and in time— and of course it would be an extremely
long time — the sea would be filled with sediment, and the great
river systems formed.
As may be expected, these great rivers are not confined to
their banks in flood times, each in its flood season resembling,
in parts, a long, narrow lake rather than a river.
Look in your atlas and find the town of Iquitos. It is on
the Amazon, near the eastern base of the Andes, 1,700 miles
from the sea, and can be reached by ocean vessels. It is built
about 300 feet above sea level. That means that the average
fall from Iquitos to the sea is only about two inches per mile.
This gives you an idea of the flatness of these filled-up seas.
THE BRAZILIAN AND GUIANA HIGHLANDS.
These highlands are separated from each other by the broad
lowlands of the Amazon. Just as the Andes may be compared
with the Rockies, so these may be compared with the eastern
highlands of North America. The Brazilian and Guiana high-
lands are plateaux which have been worn down very much
indeed, and are intersected by deep gorges, through which
flow the rivers. They have also been faulted into masses of
table-shaped block mountains. (See Fig. 12.) These plateaux
are fragments of an old continent which stretched right across
the South Atlantic, and joined them to each other, and to the
similar plateaux of Africa, Arabia, India and Western Australia.
Great faultings and subsidences have formed the oceans which
now separate them. Look carefully at the physical map.
You will see that the Brazilian highlands are highest along
the coast and that the plateau is tilted with a gradual slope
to the Amazon. To the ocean, a steep face or escarpment
is presented. The many rivers which drain the plateau are
broken by waterfalls, and the limit of navigation is generally
situated where the rivers leave the plateau for the plains.
(See Fig. 71.)
EXERCISES.
I. Turn to Fig. 4. Make a similar diagram showing the area of South
America more than 500 miles from the sea. Draw two circles to scale, so
that each has a diameter of 2,000 miles, and encloses as small an area of sea
as possible.
2. Using the physical map of South America in your atlas, construct
a section rcross the continent along the line of the equator. Compare it
i88 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
with another section along the parallel of latitude 20° S. Be careful not
to exaggerate the vertical scale too much.
3 Compare the general build of the two Americas.
4. Make a sketch map showing the physical features of South America.
5. Examine Fig. 5 which is a key to the structure of the western
Cordillera of North America. Using your atlas and Figs. 68 and 69
make a similar diagram for the Andean Cordillera.
CHAPTER XXVII.
THE CLIMATE OF SOUTH AMERICA.
1. Temperature. — Examine Figs. 61 and 62. These give
sea-level isotherms for the coldest and warmest months. You
must notice that south of the equator, January is the warmest,
and July the coldest, month. In January the sun is overhead
south of the equator, and in July, north of the equator. The
sun reaches the Tropic of Capricorn, the farthest limit at which
it is seen overhead south of the equator, on December 21,
whilst on the 2ist of June it is overhead at the Northern
Tropic. This explains why the region of greatest heat is
farther south in January than in July. Notice, too, that South
America is broadest where the temperature is greatest, i. e. in
the north, so that the greater part of the continent is always
hot. It must also be kept in mind that these maps are made
from figures that have been corrected to sea-level readings.
This means that i° F. has been added for about every
300 feet of elevation, so that the map cannot give the actual
temperatures experienced on the highland regions, which vary
in temperature according to height and position.
2. Rainfall. — Examine Figs. 63 and 64. They show the
annual rainfall and the seasonal distribution of rain. It will
also be seen that the prevailing winds over all the continent
north of 30° S. are the north-east and south-east trade winds.
But south of 30° S. the prevailing winds are the westerlies.
In studying Figs. 63 and 64 it is important to notice that —
(1) The north of South America, Central America and
the West Indies get most rain in summer.
(2) The equatorial regions get rain all the year round.
The mean annual rainfall is here over 80°.
(3) The Brazilian highlands and the Pampas lands get
most rain in summer (which is the northern winter).
189
1 9o GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
FIG. 61. — Temperature map of South America for January.
(4) Southern Chile, like all the highlands exposed to wet
winds throughout the year, gets rain at all seasons.
(5) Central Chile (the district containing Valparaiso and
Santiago) gets most rain in winter.
THE CLIMATE OF SOUTH AMERICA 191
R
O T
Eqv
'70° F
60T
SOT
FIG. 62. — Temperature map of South America for July.
(6) There is (a) an almost rainless area north of the
last area and extending as far northwards as the
192 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
Inches
underlO
10-20
20-40
40-80
overSO
FIG. 63. — The mean annual rainfall of South America.
THE CLIMATE OF SOUTH AMERICA 193
Rain at all seasons
Rain chiefly in Summer
n chiefly in Winter
I \Drought at all seasons
FIG. 64. — The seasonal distribution of rain in South America.
i94 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
Gulf of Guayaquil ; (b) another area of deficient
rainfall stretching from the Bolivian plateau to the
eastern slopes of the southern Andes.
As there is no region in North America like the Amazon
basin, we will first account for the heavy rainfall in that
region. If you look at the rainfall map, you will see that the
winds which bring this heavy rainfall are the north-east and
south-east Trades, and that they have come over great ex-
panses of water, and must, therefore, contain water vapour,
which will be precipitated if the air currents are forced to rise.
This they are compelled to do by —
(1) The Brazilian and Guiana highlands and rainfall
results, the windward slopes especially receiving
very heavy rainfall.
(2) By the upward movement of air caused by the meeting
of the Trade winds.
(3) By the great barrier of the Andes, which are so high
that there is a very large fall of rain on their eastern
or windward slopes.
The summer rains of the regions to the north and south of
this Amazonian region of rain all the year round, are due to the
apparent migrations of the sun, for the temperature, wind and
rain belts follow these migrations. The almost rainless region
on the west coast is to the lee of the Andes. In Chile it is the
Atacama desert, and further north the coastal strip of Peru.
These regions may be compared with the Colorado desert of
North America. In the southern Andes the desert conditions
are found to the east of the mountains, but it must be noticed
that this is the lee side, for in these latitudes the prevailing
winds are the westerlies. In both these cases we see illustrations
of the chinook effect (see p. 41). You will notice that the
Atacama desert extends somewhat into temperate latitudes.
The rainlessness here is largely due to the fact that the winds
blow parallel to the coast. (See Fig. 63.) South of the
Atacama desert there is a region of winter rainfall, which you
should compare in latitude and seasonal distribution of rain with
California. Both are transition areas of summer drought and
winter rainfall. Southern Chile receives westerlies all the year
THE CLIMATE OF SOUTH AMERICA 195
round, and therefore rain falls at all seasons. It may be com-
pared with the coast-lands of British Columbia in this respect.
Finally, there are the pampas lands and the drier lands
towards the foot of the eastern Andes. Like the prairies of
North America, the pampas lands are lands of summer rainfall,
for at that season the moist winds from the Atlantic Ocean
penetrate far into the interior of these great plains, but, as in
North America, do not bring much rain on the belt of country
at the foot of the western Cordillera.
EXERCISES.
I. MEAN MONTHLY TEMPERATURE, IN DEGREES FAHR.
v C
JZ o >
J3
tf a
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c ! -a
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a
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in
0
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<£
Feet.
/ Manaos .
\Quito
121
9.35°
78 ! 78
54 i 54
78
54
78
54
78
55
79
55
79
53
79
55
80
55
So
55
81
54
So
54
79.
"4 5
(Antotagasta
'3
71 70
69
66
64
61
62
62
62
61
6s
68
63
Salta
3.965
71 70
68
67
57
51
52
56
62
67
7'
72
64
Asuncion
344
80 80
78
71
6fc
61
6S
67
68
71
77
81
72
Rio de Janeiro
197
77 78
77
74
71
68
67
69
70
73
75
MEAN MONTHLY RAINFALL, IN INCHES.
c
.0
"1
a
C
a
C
c
|i
a
o
<j
-8
S>
—i
£
•*•
<
S
!-l
<
Cfl
o
^
Q
H£
/ Manaos .
98
9'6
II -Q
13-0
7 '5
5-i
1-o
1-8
I'S
1*9
6-4
10-^
83-8
\Quito
4'2
4-0
7'3
51
i "5
0-9
i '5
2-9
1'7
V8
3 '9
44 -I
fAntofagasta .
'o
•o
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1 Salta
S 4
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40
o 4
o S
2 '2
1 4
22'I
| Asuncion .
6-8
S'l
6-1
S'8
4 '4
2-9
2 "4
1-8
3 '5
5 S
S'9
5 '2
55-6
\.Rio de Janeiro
4-8
4'4
5-i
4-6
3 '7
i '7
i '9
2 '3
3' i
4'3
43 '4
Find the position of each of these places. Notice that the last four towns
are almost in the same latitude. Draw the curves for the temperature
figures and columns for the rainfall figures, keeping the towns bracketed
on separate diagrams. When you have drawn the diagrams, write a full
description accounting for ail contrasts or similarities which you notice.
2. Compare the distribution of rain on the west coast of South America
with that on the west coast of North America.
3. Examine Fig. 64 and account for the fact that some areas receive rain
at all seasons, whilst others lack rain at all seasons.
4. The Atacama desert is west and the Patagonia desert is east of the
Andes. How do you account for this ?
CHAPTER XXVIII.
THE DISTRIBUTION OF NATURAL VEGETATION.
The Hot Wet Forests. — We have seen that the Amazon
lowlands have heat and considerable rain at all times of the
year. These conditions give tropical forests, which here are
denser than the Congo forests. The same kind of vege-
tation is also found, as you will see from Fig. 65, along the
north-east and north-west coasts, and along the east coast of
Brazil. In these forests the vegetation grows with the utmost
profusion. There is a constant fight to seek the light, and at
first the great giant trees appear to succeed ; but in time the
creepers, which form festoons linking tree to tree, gradually
strangle the giants and down they come. These forests are
very gloomy and dark, and it is with a sigh of relief that a
traveller comes out again into the scorching heat of the sun.
The grandeur of the Amazon forest lies in its solemnity, its
vastness, and the apparently hopeless tangle of dense masses
of trees of all sizes. Naturally, the great waterways are the
chief means of travel, for the vegetation grows at such a rate,
that paths and roadways cut though the forest would soon get
overgrown. The telegraph cable to the river ports has been
laid at the bottom of the Amazon, just as though it were an
ocean cable. The Amazon forests are known as the Selvas.
It should be noted that the eastern slopes of the Andes, in the
area of the Trades, receive very great rainfall, and although
high, are forested, but not in such great profusion as on the
lowlands. These forests are known as the Montana (see Fig.
65), and here, in the forest clearings, it is suitable for the
cultivation of such tropical products as cacao, sarsaparilla and
cinchona.
There is another tropical forest in the middle courses of the
Paraguay and Parana rivers. (See Fig. 65.) This region is
neither so hot nor so wet as the Amazon forest, and the
196
NATURAL VEGETATION OF SOUTH AMERICA 197
Tropical Forest.
Savannah.
Desert.
Forests
Evergreen Forests.
Grasslands
Semi-desert& Scrub
Alpine or too high
for vegetation.
FIG. 65.— The distribution of natural vegetation in South America.
198 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
vegetation may be described as sub-tropical. The most im-
portant tree is the yerba mate", or Paraguay tea. The leaves
and twigs are dried and afterwards ground into a coarse
powder. When infused, it gives a drink that is in great
demand in all the countries of South America.
The Temperate Forests. — In South America, these are found
in central and southern Chile. The latter may be compared
with British Columbia in North America. The southern
Andes are not very high, and their wet exposed windward
slopes are densely forested with mixed deciduous and coni-
ferous trees. Lumbering is one of the occupations, although
the forests, as yet, have been scarcely touched by man. Where
the trees have been cleared, cattle-rearing is carried on.
Examine the temperature and rainfall maps, and give reasons
why this forest is not like that of the Amazon basin.
Central Chile has evergreen forests similar to those of
California. The rain falls mainly in winter, so that the trees
have to adapt themselves to withstand summer drought. The
leaves are thick and shiny, and the roots strike deep down
into the earth. Evergreen oaks, walnuts and chestnuts are
characteristic trees. All the fruits of Mediterranean lands will
grow, the vine being the most important.
THE GRASS-LANDS.
1. The Hot Grass-lands or Savannahs. — These are found
to the north and south of the hot tropical forests. The
northern areas are the Llanos of the Orinoco, and the Guiana
highlands ; and the southern savannahs, or campos, are found
on the Brazilian highlands. You will remember that these
highland regions are old plateaux. Examine the temperature
and rainfall maps, and find out at what time of the year these
savannah regions (a) get most heat, (b) receive most rain.
You will find that both are received at the same season, /'. <?.
in summer. The typical landscape in a savannah region is a
gently undulating grass-land, with woodlands in patches, thus
giving a natural park-like appearance. The natural occupa-
tions are agriculture and stock-rearing, but these are not carried
on to the same extent as in the African savannahs north and
south of the Congo forests.
2. The Temperate Grass-lands. — Notice the position of these.
NATURAL VEGETATION OF SOUTH AMERICA 199
(See Fig. 65.) When do these grass-lands receive most rain
and heat ? Compare them in this respect with the savannahs.
Unlike the latter they are generally treeless, except near the
water-courses. They may be compared with the prairies of
North America, although it must be pointed out that the
prairies are much farther from the equator and from the
ocean, and therefore have a much more extreme climate.
As with the Indians of the prairies, modern development
has forced the Gauchos — tribes of mixed Indian and Spanish
descent — either to follow a more settled mode of life or to
retreat farther inland. The Gauchos, whose numbers are
small, live nomadic lives, and tend horses, sheep and cattle.
They are exceptionally fine horsemen. See Fig. 70, and ob-
serve that on the temperate grass-lands both cattle and sheep
are reared, but sheep are not found in the tropical grass-lands.
West of the Parana the grass-lands are known as the Pampas.
THE DESERTS AND SEMI-DESERTS.
1. Coast Desert of Northern Chile and Peru. — Notice the
position of this desert, and compare it with that of the Colorado
Desert of North America. Try to remember that in the
Americas we have found hot deserts in the trade-wind areas,
on the west sides of those continents. Perhaps you will want
to look up a vegetation map of the world, and see if this holds
good in other continents? The only parts where vegetation
is found are in the narrow valleys of the rivers which cross it.
2. The Droughty Plains between the Pampas Lands and
the Andes. — These may be compared with the dry plains
extending from Alberta to Texas. They have a rather more
extreme climate than the grass-lands of the Pampas regions,
and the rainfall is very small, so that agriculture is dependent
upon irrigation, apart from which settled life is not possible.
3. The Patagonian Desert. — This cool desert occupies the
southern low plateau of Argentina. Patagonia is a shingle
and sand desert, although the western belt near to the water-
shed is capable of considerable development. Numbers of
guanaco, rhea, and sheep find means of support in the scattered
patches of bush and grass. The guanaco, like the llama,
resembles a camel. The rhea is the South American ostrich.
It has three toes, and its head and neck are feathered ; but its
feathers are not so valuable as those of the South African
200 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
ostrich, which has been introduced into Argentina with
considerable success.
There is only one more vegetation unit to mention, and that
is the Mountain or Alpine flora type. Fig. 65 shows a long
belt of mountain flora following the Andes. Much of the area
so marked is too high for any vegetation, whilst there are many
grass-covered areas on the high plateaux, where large numbers
of cattle, sheep, llamas, alpacas and vicunas are reared.
EXERCISES.
1. Give examples from South America of the connections between relief,
temperature and rainfall, and natural vegetation.
2. Describe the vegetation conditions of the basin of the Amazon, and
compare the region with similar areas.
3. Compare the vegetation units on the west coasts of North and South
America.
4. Explain each of the following terms : selvas, llanos, pampas, campos.
CHAPTER XXIX.
THE NATURAL REGIONS OF SOUTH AMERICA.
WE have now considered the physical features, the climate
and the vegetation of South America. We have also learned
something of the natural occupations of its inhabitants, so
that we are in a position to divide the continent into units
or natural regions, throughout each of which the same set of
physical, climatic and vegetative conditions predominate. We
shall consider the lowland regions first, the older highland
regions next, and lastly the regions of the Western Highlands.
Whilst reading this chapter, constant reference should be
made to the atlas, to the temperature, rainfall and vegetation
maps, and to Fig. 66.
THE AMAZON BASIN.
The basin of the Amazon is the largest river basin in the
world. The main stream is about 3,500 miles long, which is
longer than the journey from Liverpool to New York. Its
magnificent waterways form the chief means of communi-
cation, the forests being so dense. Two hundred and fifty
miles from its mouth the river is 50 miles wide, in depth it
often reaches 20 fathoms, whilst it is navigable from its mouth
right to the base of the Andes. Such an enormous quantity
of water is carried oceanwards, that the river water can be
traced for a very considerable distance out to sea. Notice
the head-streams of the Amazon. Can you account for their
courses before they reach the plains ? You will also observe
that the main stream runs eastwards, roughly parallel to the
equator, which it reaches at its estuary. The chief tributary
on the left bank is the Negro, and on the right bank the
Madeiro. Fig. 67 shows that the Negro is joined to the
Orinoco by the Cassiquiare River. This is an example of what
is known as " river-capture " in an incomplete state. Rivers
201
202
GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
II
\.The Amazon Lowlands
2.The Orinoco Lowlands
Tt.The Plate Lowlands
Whs Guiana Highlands
5J/je Brazilian Highlands
6.7/te Columbian Region
1. The Peruvian & Bolivian Plateaux
Iff a The West Coast Desert of Chile & Peru
^.Mediterranean Chile
^.Southern Chile
\ \.The Patagonian Desert
FIG. 66. — The natural regions of South America. The dotted lines show
the political boundaries.
NATURAL REGIONS OF SOUTH AMERICA 203
are constantly eating back their sources into the watersheds
separating them from other rivers, and in time cut back into
the valleys of neighbouring rivers. This has been done in
this case. The stronger river will eventually take to itself the
Cassiquiare and some of the waters of the weaker river. The
watershed is not yet denned. There is another case of river
capture not so far advanced. Notice how close are the head-
streams of the Tapajos and the Paraguay. In the wet season
FIG. 67. — The River Cassiquiare. This map, on which the higher ground
is shaded, shows that the Cassiquiare connects the Orinoco and the Negro.
these rivers are actually united, the divide between them being
so low.
The physical and vegetation conditions in the Amazon
basin have been described. It is a hot tropical forest, which,
as you would expect, finds homes for very few people. Large
areas are not developed, indeed considerable tracts have not
even been explored. The inhabitants are very backward,
and exist mainly by fishing and turtle-catching; they live in
wretched hovels made of twigs and mud, obtaining little
204 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
vegetable food beyond bananas and wild fruits. Their boats
are the hollowed-out trunks of trees. Many of the inhabitants
are now employed in collecting rubber, which is by far the
chief product or" this area, although it is not by any means the
only important vegetable product. As the region becomes
better known, and means of transport become cheaper, there
are vast numbers of valuable timber trees which will find their
way to the ports for exportation. When clearings have been
made, almost every kind of tropical product will be cultivated.
Some mention should be made of the animals of these hot,
wet forests. Naturally, they will be mainly tree-dwellers.
Reptiles, including great tree-snakes and alligators, abound.
Monkeys are very numerous, and the forests often resound
with their cries. Birds of many varieties are found, includ-
ing brilliantly coloured parrots, humming birds and birds of
paradise. The larger animals, such as the elephant and
hippopotamus, are entirely absent, except for the timid and
inoffensive tapir, which may be said to represent the elephant.
Chief Trading Centres. — The chief port for rubber is Para.
Observe the position of this port on the Para Channel, which
is south of the large island of Marajo, at the mouth of the
Amazon. The Para Channel gives the best approach to the
river.
Manaos, at the junction of the Negro with the main stream,
is a river port and a great rubber collecting centre. It can
be reached by large steamers.
THE LOWLANDS OF THE ORINOCO.
The lowlands of the Orinoco, known as the llanos, are
between the Guiana highlands and the eastern extension of
the Andes. Describe the vegetation of these lowlands.
Notice that the Orinoco, which is 1,550 miles in length, rises
in a range in the south of the Guiana highlands, and that
it then runs in a great bend skirting the highlands, its
longer tributaries coming from the Andes. These lowlands
receive considerable rain in summer. Notice, however, their
nearness to the equator, and remember that their "winter"
months are hot and very dry. If you look at your atlas again,
you will notice that there are no large towns marked on the
lower courses of the river or on the delta. This is owing to
the great summer floods. The chief town is the river-port of
NATURAL REGIONS OF SOUTH AMERICA 205
Bolivar, which is the centre of the cattle-rearing industry.
These grass-lands, and this is true of other South American
grass-lands, produced neither cattle nor horses, nor any of the
large domestic animals of similar regions in the old world.
This partly accounts for the smaller native population com-
pared with similar regions in Africa and Asia. Another reason
has just been mentioned. It is the fact that the dry seasons
are so droughty that, in this season, great tracts of the llanos
are little better than deserts.
THE PLATE LOWLANDS.
An examination of the map will show that the Paraguay,
Parana and Uruguay Rivers form the great estuary known
as the Plate River (Rio de la Plata). Observe the great
width of this estuary. Where does each of these great rivers
rise? The upper courses of the Parana and Paraguay are
little known. They traverse an almost uninhabited forested
country. In descending from the Brazilian highlands, the
Parana forms many waterfalls.
Look again at the Vegetation Map (Fig. 65), and you will
see that in their lower courses these rivers cross the grassy
plains known as the Pampas Lands. To the west are the
drier areas, where the grass-lands merge into semi-desert and
scrub lands. In the north in northern Argentina, western
Paraguay and south-eastern Bolivia, there is the extensive area
of forest and savannah land known as the Gran Chaco
("great hunting-ground"). It is a little known region.
A great change has come over these lowlands in recent
years, for a development has taken place which may be
compared with that of the prairies of North America. The
Pampas Lands now support large herds of cattle and sheep,
whilst in the better watered lands of the Plate in the south,
maize and wheat are produced in great quantities. Alfalfa
is also very largely grown for fodder. Being deep-rooted, like
most plants which thrive best in dry climates, it is suited to
the climate of the pampas. Three or four crops yearly can
be obtained.
All the drier areas of the southern continents suffer from
locusts, and the Plate lowlands are no exception. They do
very great damage, especially to maize, for the usual time at
which they appear is before the maize harvest, at a time when
206 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
the corn is soft and juicy. Efforts are made to destroy the
locusts before their wings appear, for after that stage has been
passed, the planter can do little to prevent their destructive
work. Poultry and ostriches eat them ; but the eggs of the
former are quite unsuitable for human food for some time after
such a repast. It is believed that they breed in the Gran
Chaco, and will probably decrease in numbers when that region
is better known and extensive areas have been cleared. Try
to get a good account of a flight of locusts. You will be
astounded at their number, and at the tremendous damage
they do in a very short time.
The Plate lowlands have very little coal, and, except where
the Parana and the rivers from the east leave the plateau,
there are no falls, so that water power cannot be used.
Therefore it is very likely that agriculture will always be the
chief industry.
The ports through which most of the trade is done are
Buenos Aires, Montevideo, and the river port of Rosario. Fig.
71 shows the chief railways of this region. You will readily
see that such a network of railways has had a great deal to do
with the rapid development of stock-rearing and agriculture.
Why is it possible for there to be so many lines ? It will be
seen that one line crosses the Andes by the Uspallata Pass.
Find the town of Mendoza, which is on the railway at the
foot of the eastern Andes. You will remember that this belt
receives a small rainfall, yet Mendoza is the centre of an
important vine, peach and fruit growing industry. Of course,
this is only possible because of careful irrigation, the water
being supplied by streams from the Andes. Considerable
irrigated areas are devoted to the planting of poplars, for
which there is a great demand in the treeless pampas.
Another of the railways connects Buenos Aires with Cordoba,
a pampas stock-rearing centre, and proceeds to Tucuman
farther north. In this district, as at Mendoza, irrigation is
practised, and the temperature allows the growth of sugar,
rice and tobacco.
THE Low PATAGONIAN PLATEAU.
We have learned that this is a shingle and sand desert.
Sheep and cattle-rearing, especially the former, are the chief
occupations. The best lands are near the watershed, for the
NATURAL REGIONS OF SOUTH AMERICA 207
rest of the region suffers from the chinook winds, and sheep,
guanacos and rheas can only find sustenance on the scattered
grass patches. The skin of the guanaco is used by the natives
in the making of tent-coverings and clothing.
The chief port of this region is Bahia Blanca. It is the
naval station of Argentina, and also exports the produce of
the best stock-rearing lands of Patagonia.
THE BRAZILIAN HIGHLANDS.
This region is forested along the Atlantic coast, where it
receives heavy rainfall which decreases towards the interior,
and the plateau is a savannah land. Most of the rivers are
interrupted by waterfalls. The most important is the Sao
Francisco, which is 1,800 miles in length. It is interrupted
by rapids, above which it is navigable for over 1,000 miles
(Fig. 71). Mining for precious stones, especially diamonds, is
carried on in the upper valley.
Examine Fig. 70, which gives the distribution of the most
important products of this region. Brazil is the chief coffee-
producing country in the world, its total output forming
80 per cent, of the world's supply. The chief coffee plan-
tations are in the neighbourhood of Sao Paulo, which is
connected by rail with Santos, its port. This area has very
rich volcanic soils. The coffee plant, which was introduced
into Brazil in the eighteenth century, if left to itself, grows to
a height of about 25 feet; but in the plantations it is not
allowed to grow so high, or considerable difficulty would be
experienced in gathering the berries. A warm, moist climate,
free from frosts, is required. Cotton, tobacco and sugar are
also grown on the narrow coast-plains and on the lower
mountain slopes. These are exported from Bahia and Per-
nambuco. Cacao is the chief product of the forested lands
on the north coast.
The campos, or savannahs, of the highlands are little de-
veloped, and are only slightly peopled, although cattle-rearing
is increasing in importance. Extensive areas are composed
of granite and sandstone, the soil from which is often very
infertile, whilst in many districts the severe drought of the
dry season makes settlement very difficult. This and the
former lack of large domestic animals account for the small
native population and the present backward condition of
208
much of this region. The most important cattle-rearing
district is in the south-west, adjoining Uruguay. Rio de
Janeiro, from which railways climb the difficult slopes of the
escarpment and reach the coffee-producing, cattle-rearing and
mining districts, is the largest city and port in Brazil.
THE GUIANA HIGHLANDS.
The physical features, climate and vegetation have been
described. We have already learned that this region may be
compared with the Brazilian highlands, from which it is
separated by the broad Amazon valley. The Guiana high-
lands are very difficult of access, not only on account of their
rugged nature, but owing to the fact that the rivers, which
would form the natural way of entry, are impeded by water-
falls, whilst their lower valleys are densely forested. The
higher plateaux are suitable for cattle-rearing, but at present
are little developed, in fact, a very large area of these
highlands is little known, the best known districts being
those where gold is mined.
The Coastal Plains, like the Amazon basin, are hot wet
forests, in the clearings of which sugar and cacao are pro-
duced. Labourers have been introduced from Africa and
India in such numbers that negroes and coolies far outnum-
ber the white population. The largest town is Georgetown,
which is near the mouth of the chief river, the Essequibo.
The Western Cordillera and their Pacific slopes may be
divided into the following units or natural regions : the North
Andean or Colombian Region, the High Plateaux of Peru
and Bolivia, the West Coast Desert, the Mediterranean Land
of Central Chile, Southern Chile. We will take them in this
order.
THE NORTH ANDEAN OR COLOMBIAN REGION.
The northern Cordillera consists of three well-marked
mountain systems, between which are deep river-valleys occu-
pied by the rivers Magdalene, Cauca and Atrato. (See
Fig. 68.) These three systems unite, forming a great knot
at Pasto, south of which is the high plateau of Ecuador,
buttressed on the east and west by higher mountain chains.
You will see that although their valleys are often swampy,
these rivers would be the way by which, in the early days
NATURAL REGIONS OF SOUTH AMERICA 209
of Spanish occupation, the minerals from the mines on the
plateau would be brought to the Spanish treasure-ships waiting
along the north coast.
The climate of this region very much resembles that of
Central America, and the same well-marked belts are met
with. The Hot Lands
(Tierra Caliente) are
the coastal lands and
the river valleys.
These receive heavy
rainfall, and are hot
tropical forests. Cacao,
sugar, tobacco and
rice are cultivated,
whilst coffee is the
chief product of the
lower slopes of the
mountains. The Tem-
perate Lands (Tierra
Templada) and Cool
Lands (Tierra Fria)
are higher, and are
found in the fertile
uplands and valleys.
Their chief products
are the cereals of the
temperate zone such
as maize and wheat,
whilst on the higher
plateaux stock-raising ,- HT , ., ~ , ,.
, ,. c . B IMG. 68. — Map of the Colombian region. Ihe
IS the Chief occupation. thick lines show the djrection of the main
The limit of cultivated Andean ridges. The high ground is shaded,
plants is about two
miles above sea-level, and beyond that the country is generally
treeless, bleak and almost uninhabited. These higher areas
are known as Paramos.
You will remember that on the eastern slopes of the Andes
are the forests known as the Montana. In the clearings,
cacao, cinchona, etc., are cultivated, and when this area is
made more accessible by improved means of communication,
it will support a much larger population than it does at present.
p
2io GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
The Colombian region has long been noted for its
minerals, especially gold and silver, which were once shipped
to Spain in large quantities. The chief gold-mines to-day
are in the neighbourhood of Medellin, which is situated on
the range between the Magdalena and Cauca valleys.
The most important inland towns are Bagotd, capital of
Colombia, the largest town in the Colombian region, and the
only one to reach a population of 100,000; and Quito, the
capital of Ecuador. These towns are near to the equator,
Quito being almost on it, but owing to their elevation —
8,700 feet in the case of the former, and 9,500 in the case
of the latter town — they enjoy temperate climates. Quito is
reached by a railway from Quayaquil, the port of Ecuador.
The chief ports of the Caribbean Sea are Cartagena, an
old Spanish port ; Barranqitilla, which has largely replaced
the latter port as an outlet for the main artery of trade — the
river Magdalena; Maracaibo, on a large gulf of the same
name, and La Guaira, the port of Caracas, which is the capital
of Venezuela. Eighty per cent of the trade of Colombia is
carried on by its Caribbean ports. The chief port on the
Pacific is Buenaventura.
It is very probable that the making of the Panama Canal
will be the means of giving a great impetus to the develop-
ment of this region. The ports of north-west South America
will be brought into much better communication with the
east coast of North America and Western Europe than at
present, and the products of this region are such as are
interchangeable with those of the regions mentioned. That
is, the Colombian countries require manufactured articles in
exchange for the minerals, coffee, sugar, cacao, etc., which are
needed by the eastern states of North America and the
countries of Western Europe.
THE HIGH PLATEAUX OF PERU AND BOLIVIA.
Turn to the physical map in your atlas and to Fig. 69.
These plateaux occupy the Central Andes from the point
where the Maranos, the head stream of the Amazon, turns
eastward to the place where the system becomes one great
range. In the northern portion, in Peru, three distinct chains
can be traced, whilst in the south there is the great plateau
NATURAL REGIONS OF SOUTH AMERICA 211
of Bolivia, the largest of all the Andean plateaux. Its
elevation above sea level is about two and a half miles, whilst
several of the great> peaks in enclosing ranges reach the great
height of four miles above sea level. This plateau is known
as the puna and may be compared with Tibet. Find Lake
Titicaca. You will
notice that it is con-
nected by a river to
another large lake
farther south. Have
these lakes any out-
let to the sea ? Like
the Great Salt Lake,
they are centres of
inland drainage.
Lake Titicaca, which
is of great depth, is
about the size of
Lake Erie, and is
12,500 feet above
sea level. Overlook-
ing it on its eastern
border are many of
the highest peaks in
the Andes.
On these plateaux
the rainfall is very
small, except on the
eastern slopes, where
there is the " mon-
tana," to which refer-
ence has already
been made. The
FIG. 69. — Map of the Peruvian and Bolivian
Plateaux. The thick lines show the direction
of the main Andean ranges. The high
ground is shaded.
temperature is every-
where lowered by elevation. Many of the high plateaux are
grass-lands, so that pastoral pursuits form one of the chief
occupations, whilst other areas are suitable for the production
of cereals of temperate latitudes, a considerable amount of
maize being grown, although not so mu6h as in the old Inca
days. Besides cattle and sheep, llamas, alpacas and vicunas
find sustenance, their flesh giving food, and their wool
212 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
material for clothing and for exportation. The llama and
the alpaca are allied to the camel, but are much smaller and
have no hump. The former is about four.and a half feet high
and the latter about a foot smaller. The male llamas are
trained to carry burdens up to loolb. in weight. Being very
sure-footed they are of great importance in an area where the
ordinary means of communication are so difficult. The llamas
and alpacas are pastured in very large flocks. Vicunas are of
the same genus, but are generally met with in a wild state on
the higher plateaux.
The mineral wealth of these plateaux is enormous. The
most famous silver-mines of history are those of Potosi, in
Bolivia. It has been estimated that silver to the value of over
^600,000,020 has been extracted from these mines since their
discovery in 1545. Silver is also mined at Cerro de Pasco,
in Peru. Besides silver, there are rich deposits of copper and
tin.
The chief towns are Cerro de Pasco, noted for its silver-
mines, and Cuzco, which is situated in a fertile interment
valley, and possesses splendid ruins of the old Inca capital.
The former is connected by rail to the port of Callao, and the
latter to Mollendo (Fig. 71). La Paz, the capital of Bolivia, is
situated south-east of Lake Titicaca, and is connected by rail
with Antofagasta. A steamer service on Lake Titicaca also
connects La Paz with the railway from Mollendo, which
reaches the western end of the lake. These two lines carry
the bulk of Bolivia's trade.
THE WEST COAST DESERT OF NORTHERN CHILE
AND PERU.
This desert, the Chile portion of which is known as the
Atacama, occupies the Pacific slope of the Peruvian and
Bolivian plateaux, and owing to the nearness of the latter to
the west coast, it is very narrow. We have learned that it
owes its desert conditions to its position on the west of the
continent, in trade-wind latitudes. The only areas where
vegetation is found are the narrow ribbon-like bands following
the rivers which cross this region on their journey from the
Andes to the sea. It is in these oases, that, by careful
irrigation, cotton and sugar can be grown in the northern
NATURAL REGIONS OF SOUTH AMERICA 213
portion of the desert. These irrigated tracts may be com-
pared with the cultivated lands on the Lower Nile in Egypt,
although, of course, the latter are much more extensive.
Although in many ways a great drawback, the rainless
character of this desert has preserved for it its most important
commercial product. The chief fertilizing constituents have
not been washed out of the soil, and vast quantities of nitrates
have thus been preserved. 1 hey are much sought after, not
only for supplying poor and exhausted soils with the necessary
constituents, but for the manufacture of chemicals. The chief
purchasers are Germany, Great Britain and the United States.
The ships engaged in the trade bring to Chile great quantities
of coal in addition to other goods. Iquique and Antofagasta
are the chief ports trading in nitrates, and the most important
deposits are found some distance inland at an elevation rang-
ing from 3000 feet upwards. Other minerals, especially copper,
are mined, but at present nitrates are of prime importance.
Of the towns not already mentioned, the chief is Lima,
which is the capital of Peru. This town was once the
Spanish capital, and has a magnificent cathedral. The
houses are built of adobe, or mud-brick, which is also used
for the boundaries between the fields. Its port is Callao,
which has already been mentioned as the port for the Cerro
de Pasco silver-mines. The three towns are connected by
railway. Lima and Callao are in the valley of the river
Rimac, one of the short streams which cross the desert.
Its water is used for irrigation purposes. Mollendo and
Antofagasta have already been mentioned as terminal points
of railways which climb to the high plateaux.
THE MEDITERRANEAN REGION OF CENTRAL CHILE.
This region, which is south of the Atacama desert, will be
remembered as a land of winter rainfall. Along the Pacific
coast is a coastal range, which farther south, owing to sub-
sidences, is represented by a string of islands. To the east is
the great single chain of the Andes, whilst between them is
the long narrow plain or valley of Chile.
This plain is now more thickly peopled than any other part
of the west coast of South America, and it is one of the few
parts of South America suitable for the settlement of white
214 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
people. All the fruits of similar regions can be grown, but
the most important is the vine. Considerable quantities of
wheat and barley are produced and form important exports,
although not so much is exported as formerly, owing to the
increasing home demand.
The chief port is Valparaiso, the largest American Pacific
port after San Francisco, and like that city, it is subject to
earthquakes, both having been partially destroyed so recently
as 1906. Santiago, the capital, is in the valley. Conception
is the southern port for this area. In its vicinity coal is
found, and cattle-rearing is also carried on.
SOUTHERN CHILE.
We have compared this region with British Columbia.
Each region shows extensive signs of glaciation and sinking.
In each, the coast range is represented by islands, and the
narrow plains behind the coast ranges have been drowned ;
the coast of each is indented and pierced by long arms of the
sea which resemble the fiords of Norway, and the sea-lochs
of the west of Scotland and Ireland. These have been
formed by the land sinking and drowning the river valleys,
which have been broadened and deepened by the action of
glaciers. Magellan Strait is a fiord piercing right through the
mountain range, thus separating the island of Tierra del Fuego
from the mainland. Notice, too, that the physical map in
your atlas shows that the Andes are decreasing in height as
they go farther south. It will also show that the Falkland
Isles are on a broad continental shelf. These things are
further evidences of sinking. Like British Columbia, it is a
region of temperate forests, the wealth of which is at present
little tapped. Cattle and sheep rearing is carried on in the
north, and fishing along the coast. Why would you expect
the latter industry ? Very many of the islands off the coast
are uninhabited. The largest and most important is Chiloe,
which has a cold, wet climate, and is inhabited by Indians.
South of the long, winding Strait of Magellan, is the large
island of Tierra del Fuego, which is about two-thirds the size
of Scotland. Its physical features are a continuation of those
of the mainland. Owing to its cold, wet climate, it has very few
inhabitants, and the chief occupation is sheep-rearing. Notice
NATURAL REGIONS OF SOUTH AMERICA 215
the port of Punta Arenas, on the mainland, north of Magellan
Straits. This is the most southerly town in the world. How
much nearer the South Pole is it than Hobart or Cape Town ?
It is a coaling and repairing station, and the centre of a
sheep-rearing district.
The Falkland Islands lie about 250 miles north-east of Tierra
del Fuego, and belong to Britain. Find them on your map.
The climate is cold and wet, and strong winds blow nearly all
the year. It is mainly owing to the force of these winds that
there are no trees on the islands. All kinds of agriculture,
except the growing of a few vegetables are impossible, and the
chief occupation is sheep-rearing. Originally the sheep were
imported from Great Britain, and it is remarkable how well
they thrive in a land having such a severe climate. The chief
harbour is at Port Stanley, on the more easterly of the two
large islands. Its chief importance is as a port of call for
ships in need of water or food, or for the repairing of damage
caused by the stormy winds of these seas. The population of
the whole group is only 3,300.
EXERCISES.
1. Trace an outline map of Europe, and upon it draw a map of the
Amazon basin to the same scale. How does the area of the latter compare
with that of Europe ?
2. Draw a map of the Amazon basin.
3. In what parts of South America are the following produced : coffee,
cotton, wool, rubber, wine, wheat ? Account for their distribution.
4. Compare the human life on the high plateaux of the Andes with that
in the Amazon basin.
5. What are the chief occupations in South America ? Where is each
carried on ? As far as possible compare the conditions with those which
obtain in North America.
6. Take any three regions in South America, and name those regions
in North America which may be compared with them. Point out the
comparisons, and also any contrasts you may observe.
CHAPTER XXX.
THE COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA.
So far we have considered the physical features, climate,
vegetation and natural regions of South America. In going
over these we have covered most of the outlines of the
geography of the continent, but before leaving it, we will take
each of the countries in turn, and see how its boundaries
agree with the natural regions. In this way we shall rapidly
revise what we have learned. We will begin with Colombia,
taking next the countries to the north of the Amazon, after-
wards the remainder of those connected with the Andean
Cordillera, and lastly the countries of the Plate and Amazon
basins and the Brazilian highlands. Fig. 66 will help us,
as it shows the natural regions and the political divisions.
Fig. 70 should also be consulted. The area and population
of each country are stated. In connection with the former,
for purposes of comparison, it is well to remember that the
area of the British Isles is 121,200 square miles, and that at
the census of 1911 the population was 45,370,000. It is also
worth noting, that although our maps show the boundaries
between the various countries, very many of these have not
been definitely fixed, and boundary quarrels are very frequent.
COLOMBIA.
Area, 462,000 square miles.
Population (in 1912), 5,472,000 (about 90 per cent, are of mixed Spanish
and Indian descent).
Colombia consists of —
(i) An Andean area,
(ii) A Llanos area,
(iii) An Amazon and hot tropical forest area.
The capital is Bogota, which is situated on a very high but
216
THE COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA 217
uc.Qf.CaiTlconL-
N N N Nitrate
ooooo Rubber
Cattle
II
W W
C C C Cacao
^ X X \sOiTBB
S S S Sugar
::::::: Mate
v V V Vine
FlG. 70. — The chief products of South America.
218 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
fertile plateau. What will this country export? Notice its
natural units and its position, and remember the three belts
of climate in the Andean section. There should be no diffi-
culty in writing out a list which would include coffee, cacao,
rubber, hides and skins. Add to these the minerals of the
Medellin mines. The chief ports are Barranquilla and Carta-
gena. The larger portion of the people live in the first region,
especially in the valleys of the Cauca and the Magdalena,
and on the high plateau.
VENEZUELA.
Area, about 394,000 square miles.
Population, 2,250,000 (mainly of mixed descent).
The name of this republic requires some explanation. It
was given by Amerigo Vespucci during his second voyage
(1499-1500). He was then sailing for Spain, and when the
ships sailed into the great Gulf of Maracaibo, he found that
the Indians built their villages on piles driven into the sea.
Amerigo, who was an Italian, compared them with Venice,
and gave the name Venezuela, or Little Venice.
Of what natural regions does this country consist ? Examine
Fig. 66, and it will be seen that it contains —
(i) The northern portion of the most eastern of the three
ranges which make the northern Andes. Notice
that this range hinders communication between the
coast and the interior.
(ii) A Llanos area.
(iii) A Guiana highlands area.
(iv) An Amazon forest area.
Most of the people live in the first area, the uplands having
a healthier climate than the other regions. This part of the
country produces sugar, coffee and cacao. The llanos area
produces cattle and hides, whilst rubber is the chief article
of export from the coastal plains which skirt the Guiana
highlands and from the Amazon lowlands on the south.
There are few pure whites in the country. The capital is
Caracas, whose port is La Guaira.
THE COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA 219
THE GUIANAS.
Area in sq. mis. Population.
British Guiana . . . 90,000 300,000
Dutch Guiana .... 46,000 85,000
French Guiana. . . . 30,500 49,000
These are the only parts of the mainland of the continent
ruled by European countries. Look again at Fig. 66, and see
of what natural regions they consist. They are —
(i) A Guiana highlands area,
(ii) The hot wet forests of the Coastal Plains.
Therefore the chief products are sugar, coffee, cacao and
bananas. Gold is mined in the mountains, which you will
remember are little known.
Georgetown, in the district of Demerara, which gives its
name to a kind of cane sugar, is the capital of British Guiana.
The capital of Dutch Guiana, or Surinam, is Paramaribo,
and of the French area, Cayenne. The last-named town
stands on an island of the same name. This island is used
as a French penal settlement.
ECUADOR.
Area, 116,000 square miles.
Population (in 1910), 1,500,000 (nearly 75 per cent, are Indians, and
the remainder are mostly Mestizos).
Examine Fig. 66. This country, which gets its name from
the word " equator," has within its frontiers —
(i) An Andean area,
(ii) A hot tropical forested area (including Montana).
Which of these areas would you expect to be less developed ?
Why ? Guayaquil exports cacao and coffee, and is connected
with Quito, the capital, by a railway which has to climb nearly
two miles in order to reach that town. The Galapagos Islands,
which are about 750 miles due west of Ecuador, are owned
by that country. They have a population of about 400, and
are noted for their giant tortoises and turtles.
PERU.
Area, nearly 722,000 square miles.
Population, 4,600,000 (rather more than half are Indians).
Of what regions does this country consist ?
220 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
Fig. 66 shows that they are —
(i) A narrow west coast desert area,
(ii) The Peruvian plateau,
(iii) An Amazonian and Montana forest area.
Flocks of sheep, alpacas, llamas and vicunas find support
on the grass-lands of the plateaux, and the mountains are very
rich in minerals. Remembering this, and keeping in mind
the natural regions stated above, we shall expect the chief
productions to include : sugar, coffee and cotton (from the
irrigated valleys of rivers crossing the desert); wool and
metals (from the plateau) ; rubber, cacao and cinchona (from
the Amazon forests and Montana).
Of these regions the Amazon forest area is most difficult
of access. The best way of reaching Iquitos is by way of
the Amazon. It is proposed to continue the railway from
Callao, which reaches Cerro de Pasco via Lima and Oroya
(see p. 212), to Iquitos, using one of the headwaters of the
Amazon as a means of descent from the plateau.
Lima is the capital, and Callao the chief port.
Cuzco is the old Inca capital.
BOLIVIA.
Area, 605,000 square miles.
Population, 2,268,000 (51 per cent. Indians, 27 per cent. Mestizos).
The natural regions of Bolivia are —
(i) The plateau.
(ii) The Amazon and Montana area,
(iii) A Savannah area.
Bolivia and Paraguay are the only countries in South
America which have no coast-line. Since the various re-
publics have been formed, there have been many wars owing
to boundary disputes, and after one of these in 1879-81
Bolivia lost her Atacama desert strip of coast-line, although
she still has certain rights of access to the sea, across the
coastal lands of Chile and Peru. The majority of the in-
habitants live in the first region, for the others are little
developed. The chief exports include — rubber, cinchona and
minerals, especially tin and silver. Since Bolivia has no coast-
line, its exports have to be sent to the ports through other
countries. The railway from Antofagasta to La Paz will
THE COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA 221
shortly be connected with the railways of Argentina, so that
FIG. "ji. — The chief means of communication.
much Bolivian trade will then find an outlet via Buenos Aires
(Fig. 71). The capital is La Paz ; and Potosi is the chief
222 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
mining centre. Bolivia produces nearly one quarter of the
total tin output of the world, and ranks next to the Malay
Peninsula in the production of that metal.
The mining industry is kept in a backward state on account
of the great difficulty in obtaining suitable labour. Owing to
the great elevation it is very difficult to get workmen, for- it
is not easy to work at such altitudes. The natives are not
naturally inclined towards mining.
CHILE.
Area, 293,000 square miles.
Population, 3,460,000 (mainly of European origin).
The map of South America shows that Chile stretches
through about 36 degrees of latitude (18° S. to 54° S). This
is about 2,500 miles, which is a very great distance indeed,
being almost as long as from Gibraltar to the north of Norway.
It will also be noticed that the country is extremely narrow.
This is, of course, because it occupies the western slopes of
the Andes and their margins, and the Andes are close to the
coast. It would appear that such a peculiarly shaped country
as Chile would be very difficult to govern. But look once
more at Fig. 66, and notice of what natural regions it is
composed. They are —
(i) An Atacama desert area in the north,
(ii) A Mediterranean region in the centre. This region is
a transitional one between the desert and the —
(iii) West Temperate forest region in the south.
We have seen that the central area is the most densely
peopled part of the country (Fig. 72), and this is because it
has the best climate and is productive. Since the country is
so very long, for the purposes of government it is fortunate that
the centre has the largest population. No part of the country
is far removed from the sea, so that communication by sea is
not difficult. It is interesting to note that the majority of the
people of Chile are whites, and this is because it is one of the
places in South America where white people can settle.
The capital is Santiago, the third largest town in South
America, and the chief ports are Iquique and Valparaiso.
The former is the chief port for nitrates, of which nearly
2,000,000 tons per annum are exported. The value of this
THE COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA 223
is ;£ 1 6, 000,000, or about four-fifths of the total exports, so
you can see what this industry means to the country. It is
the chief source of taxation. Valparaiso is the terminus of
the transcontinental line from Buenos Aires, and is the port
for the agricultural area of Central Chile. The forests in the
south are as yet little developed.
ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.
Area, 1, 153,000 square miles.
Population, 7,468,000 (large numbers of Italian and Spanish immi-
grants).
The name Argentina means "silver land." The name La
Plata, too, reminds us of the great lure which brought Spaniards
to its waters. The silver was not mined in Argentina, but its
plains and rivers were routes by means of which the mines of
Peru could be reached. The population in this country is
centred mainly on the plains of the Plate River. There is
a very large number of Italians and Spaniards, for the climate
is suitable for southern Europeans. Examine Fig. 66, which
shows that Argentina contains the following natural regions —
(i) The grass lands of the Plate basin,
(ii) The eastern Andes and drier western plains,
(iii) The Patagonian desert.
In the north of the country is the forest and savannah
region of Gran Chaco. Remembering what has been learned
about these regions, you will infer that the chief products will
be — wheat, maize, meat, wool, skins, etc. (grass-lands), fruits
and wines (Mendoza area), sugar and tobacco (Tucuman area).
The capital and chief port is Buenos Aires ("good air").
It is the largest city in South America, its population in 1912
numbering 1,360,000, which was double its population in
1895. The estuary of the Plate is shallow, owing to the
deposition of sediment, so that Buenos Aires has a very poor
natural harbour. At a cost of over ^8,000,000 an artificial
harbour has been made, and the enormous trade of the port
has justified this great expense. From Buenos Aires railways
radiate to all parts of the country (see p. 206).
Rosario and Santa fe are important river ports engaged in
the exportation of wheat, wool and cattle. Cordoba is the
chief centre of the great stock-rearing area west of the Parana.
224 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
Mendoza and Tucuman are centres of agricultural areas
dependent upon irrigation.
PARAGUAY.
Area, 98.000 square miles.
Population, 800,000 (mostly Mestizos and Indians).
A glance at the map of South America will show the inland
position of this country. What river forms its eastern frontier ?
Its western ? What river runs through the centre ? Paraguay
is largely forested, although its eastern portion contains exten-
sive grass-lands. In the west is the Gran Chaco. It will be
recalled that one of its chief products is yerba mate or Paraguay
tea, the use of which the Spaniards learned from the Indians.
The backward state of the country is largely due to devastating
wars. During the years 1865-70 Paraguay was fighting the
combined forces of Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina. At the
end of the war the population was about 220,000, of whom
not 29,000 were males over fifteen years of age. Before the
war the population was estimated at 1,400,000 ! The position
of the country, far from the coast and the chief lines of com-
munication, has also impeded progress.
The leading occupation is cattle-rearing, and in recent years
sheep-rearing has met with some success.
The chief exports are : meat, hides, tallow (from the grass-
lands), and matd and oranges. Oranges are cultivated or grow
wild in all parts of the country.
The capital, Asuncion, stands at the junction of the Paraguay
and one of its chief tributaries, and is reached in about
fifty hours by rail from Buenos Aires. The journey by river
takes five days.
URUGUAY.
Area. 72,150 square miles.
Population, 1,226,000 (largely of Spanish descent; many Spanish and
Italian immigrants).
The physical map will show that the country has a general
slope towards the south-west. Examine Fig. 65 and you will
see that it consists of grass-lands. The chief occupations are
cattle and sheep rearing and some agriculture, so that you will
expect the trade of the country to be chiefly in wool, hides,
THE COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AMERICA 225
meat and extracts. The English firm of Liebig has very
large extract works at Fray Bentos and Paysandu on the river
Uruguay. Montevideo is the largest city and the chief port,
owing its importance to its splendid situation on the Plate
estuary.
BRAZIL.
Area, 3,219,000 square miles.
Population, 24,300,000.
This large country is very little less in area than the whole
of Europe. It has half of the people of South America. It
is also remarkable that its boundaries march with those of
every other country in the continent except Chile and Ecuador.
Of what natural regions does it consist? They are —
(i) Hot wet forests of the Amazon basin and the east coast
plains.
(ii) The Brazilian highlands,
(iii) Temperate grass-lands in the south.
We are quite familiar with the chief products of these areas.
They are : rubber, cacao, coffee, cotton, sugar, meat, hides,
etc.
The capital and chief port is Rio de Janeiro, which has
more than one million inhabitants and is the second largest
city in South America. It has a splendid harbour. From
Rio de Janeiro railways climb to the plateau. (See Fig. 71.)
Santos is the port for Sao Paulo, which is the centre of a
region producing more than half of the world's coffee. Bahia
exports cacao, sugar and cotton ; and Manaos at the confluence
of the Negro and the Amazon, and Para at the mouth of the
Amazon, are the great collecting centres for the rubber of the
Amazon basin. Notice Fig. 72, which gives the distribution
of the population in South America. Excepting Sao Paulo,
the seven largest towns of Brazil are ports. Why would you
expect this ? The presence of a large number of inhabitants
of mixed negro and Portuguese descent is due to the very
considerable importation of negro slaves for manual work.
EXERCISES.
I. Give the position and importance of each 01 the following cities,
illustrating your answers by sketch maps : Buenos Aires ; Rio de Janeiro ;
Q
226 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
Valparaiso ; Manaos ; Para ; Quito. How has the geographical position
of each city influenced its growth?
2. Into what natural regions may Brazil be divided? Compare their
relative importance as regards trade and facilities of settlement.
3. Compare the present development of the prairies of North America
with that of the pampas lands of South America.
4. Write a descriptive account of a railway journey from Buenos Aires
to Santiago.
5. Into what natural regions may Chile be divided? State clearly the
reasons for their differences. Which of these areas is best adapted for
settlement ?
CHAPTER XXXI.
COMMUNICATIONS AND TRANSPORT : THE
DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION.
Communications and Transport. — These have been mentioned
in connection with each region. We will now consider them
as regards the continent as a whole. Examine Fig. 71. The
chief facts to notice are —
1. The barrier which the Andes constitute in communica-
tion between the east and west coasts. Where is the only
transcontinental line?
2. The number of railways which climb from the west coast
to the plateau-.
3. How far these railways are at present linked together. It
would be of considerable advantage to link up the whole
system.
4. The absence of railways in the Amazon forests. A line
is at present being built round the cataracts and rapids of the
Madeira and Mamore rivers. (See Fig. 71.)
5. The network of railways in the Plate lowlands. Why is
this?
6. The great distances for which most of the great rivers are
navigable. The Amazon alone has 50,000 miles of navigable
waterways.
7. Away from the railways and rivers, the chief means of
transport is by llamas and mules, which are of greatest use on
the difficult Andean roadways.
The Distribution of the Population. — The total population
of South America is estimated to be about 50,000,000, which
is about 4,000,000 more than the present estimated population
of the British Isles. This gives an average density of five
people per square mile, which is very small. Examine Fig. 72,
which shows the distribution of the population.
227
228 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
Since we have already considered all the causes which influ-
ence this distribution, you should be in a position to answer
the following questions about this map.
1. Why is it that although about four-fifths of the continent
is within the tropics, the most populated areas are in temperate
South America?
2. Write a short essay on the distribution of the population
of South America, noting especially the influence of (a) moun-
tainous areas, (<£) deserts, (<:) forests.
3. Which regions of South America are the best suited for
the settlement of Europeans? Why are these immigrants
chiefly from the countries of southern Europe ?
4. The Savannah lands of Africa have always supported
large native populations. Why is this not true of South
America ?
5. Account for the distribution of the people in Brazil and
in Chile.
6. Compare the lowlands of the Plate River with the Peru-
vian and Bolivian plateaux as regards their advantages for
supporting a dense population.
CONCLUSION.
You must have come to the conclusion that South
America is only in the infancy of its development. The
population map (Fig. 72) shows that the bulk of the people
are near the coasts, and that there has been little penetration
into the interior except in the case of the basin of the rivers
drained into the Plate river. This basin has been enormously
developed during recent years, but there are still great possi-
bilities before it. The Mediterranean area of Chile also offers
facilities for a greater increase of the population. Except for
silver and gold, the mineral wealth of South America has been
scarcely tapped. Better means of communication, and the
linking up of the various railways, are in great need. The
making of the railway from Buenos Aires to Valparaiso, and
the opening to trade of the Panama Canal, are bound to have
important influences upon South American trade. With regard
to the Panama Canal the north-coast ports and those of the
west coast north of Valparaiso should gain very considerably,
for they will be brought into closer touch with each other
DISTRIBUTION OF THE POPULATION 229
I Almost uninhabited^
Sparsely peopled
Considerable people
most thickly peopled area
Towns of over 100,000
inhabitants are named.
FIG. 72. — The distribution of the population in South America.
230 GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
and with the ports of the east of North America and western
Europe. Regarding the settlement of Europeans in South
America, it would appear as though the continent will not
attract large numbers of settlers from western Europe, but
that there is very considerable opportunity for settlement by
people from southern Europe. There are very large numbers
of Italians and Spaniards in Chile, Argentina and Brazil,
although, as we should expect, the largest number of any one
race entering the latter country are Portuguese. In recent
years quite a large number of Germans, especially from
southern Germany, have emigrated to the southern provinces
of Brazil, which you will remember are the most temperate
parts of the country. Here they are engaged in agricultural
pursuits.
One of the great drawbacks to the advancement of South
America is the backward state of the governments of most of
the republics. Chile and Argentina are easily the most
advanced countries, and what may be a lasting peace has been
made between them (see p. 185). It would be a great step
forward if the other republics would settle their boundary
disputes in the same way. Colombia touches five other
countries, and is in the unhappy position of having a very
considerable extent of its frontiers unmarked. The general
backwardness of the continent is one of the legacies of three
hundred years of Spanish misrule and oppression. Other
factors are the absence of a pure-bred vigorous white popula-
tion, and the presence of so very many inhabitants of mixed
descent. The latter are always difficult to rule, and have
largely contributed to the numerous insurrections and revolu-
tions for which Mexico, Central and South America are
notorious.
INDEX
ACAPULCO, 164
Agassiz, Lake, 85
Agriculture, 66, 92, 108, 205
Alaska, 49, 89, 152
Albany, 115
Alberta, 86, 103, 126
Alleghany Plateau, 14, 126
Amazon River and Basin, 184, 192,
196, 201-4
Andes, 184
Annapolis, 66
Antofagasta, 212, 213
Appalachians, IO, 14, 22, 107, III,
"5
Appalachian Valley, 14
Argentine Republic, 185, 223
Asuncion, 224
Atacama Desert, 192, 212, 199
Atlanta, 119
Atlantic and Gulf Plains, 15, 113
Aztecs, 56, 165
Bad Lands, 128
Bahamas, 171, 175
Bahia, 226
Bnhia Blanca, 207
Balboa, 7, 177
Baltimore, 113, 117
Barren Lands, 120. See also Tundra.
Bering, 8
Bermudas, 173
Birmingham, 126
Bogota, 210, 216
Bolivia, 184, 210, 220
Boston, 109
Brandon , 86
Brazil, 180, 225
Brazilian Highlands, 183, 187, 189,
192, 198, 207
British Columbia, 35, 47, 90, 103,
195
British Guiana, 219
Broad-leaved forests, 46, 198
Buenaventura, 210
Buenos Aires, 206, 223
Buffalo, 72
Butte City, 149
Buttes, 146
Cabot, John, 6
Calgary, 82, 87
California. 38, 46, 47, 146
Callao, 1 80, 220
Canada: population, 103-4 ; trade,
105 ; growth, IOO ; government,
I O2
Canadian Northern Railway, Si,
87,96,98
Canadian Pacific Railway, 74, 87,
96, 98, 102
Cape Halt eras, 113
Caracas, 210, 218
Caribbean Sea, 166
Carder, 8, 100
Cascade Mountains, 90, 141
Cassiquiare River, 201
Cayenne, 219
Central America, 166-70
Cerro de Pasco, 212
Chagres River, 168
Champlain, 8, 100
Cham plain Lake, 115
Charleston, 126
Charlottetown, 67
Chicago, 123
Chile, 185, 190, 212-14, 222
Chinese in Canada, 104
Chinook wind, 41, 87, 192
Cincinnati, 124
Cleveland, 122 '
Coal, 66, 93, 123, 124, 126, 206
Coffee, 162, 170, 207, 210, 217
231
232
GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
Colombia Republic, 216
Colombian Region, 208
Colon, 168, 174
Colorado Desert, 144, 192
Colorado Plateau, 37, 38, 144
Colorado River and Canon, 145
Columbia River, 92, 141
Columbus, 1-6, 175
Concepcion, 214
Coniferous forests, 44, 46, 75, 165,
198
Continental shelf, 62, 79, 114, 214
Cook, 8
Copper, 70, 149, 163
Cordoba, 206, 223
Cortes, 7, 165, 178
Cotton, 118, 125, 207, 217
Cripple Creek, 149
Crow's Nest Pass, 87, 93, 95
Cuba, 5, 7, 1 66, 170-3
Cuzco, 179, 212, 220
Dawson City, 90
Deltas 27, 137
Denudation, 19, 131
Denver, 149
Deserts, 49, 146, 199, 212
Detroit, 70, 122
Dutch Guiana, 219
Ecuador, 219
Edmonton, 87
El Dorado, 178, 179
El Paso, 149, 163
English in North America, the, 59,
loo, 151
Equatorial forests, 196
Erie Canal, 115
Eskimos, 51, 64, 90
Esquimault, 93
Everglades, 127
Evergreen forests, 46, 198
Falkland Islands, 215
Fall Line, in, 119, 133
Faulted mountains, 21, 187
" Fiery Ring of Pacific," 23
Fishing, 63, 92, 93, 108, 214
Florida, 48, 127
Folded mountains, 17, 181
Fort Churchill, 80
Fort William, 70
French Guiana, 219
French in North America, the, 59,
100, 151
Galveston, 126
Gaspe, 79
Gatun locks and lake, 168
Georgetown (British Guiana), 208
Georgian Bay, 73, 77
Gran Chaco. 205, 223-4
Grand Banks, the, 62
Grand Trunk Pacific Railway, 78,
87, 96, 98
Grand Trunk Railway, 74, 98
Grass-lands, 48, 49, 198
Great Basin, 22, 143
Great Ice Age, 30-3, 107
Great Lakes, 32, 68
Great Northern Railway, 99
Great Salt Lake, 184
Greater Antilles, 3, 166
Greenland, i, 30-2, 42, 54, 60
Guatemala, 167, 170
Guayaquil, 219
Guiana Highlands, 183, 187, 192,
198, 208
Haiti, 173
Hamilton, 73
Harrisburg, 117
High plains, 128
Hispaniola, 5, 6, 166, 173
Honduras, 166, 170
Hot springs, 143
Hudson Bay, 15, So
Hudson Bay Company, 86, IOI
Hudson-Mohawk Gap, 114-17
Incas, 179
Indian Reservations, 56
Indian Territory, 57
Indians, 54, 90, 146
Intercolonial Railway, 67, 75, 98
Iquique, 213, 222
Iron, 70, 124, 126
Irrigation, 87, 94, 144, 179
Jacksonville, 127
INDEX
233
Jamaica, 166, 172
Jorullo, 25
Kansas City, 129
Key West, 127
Kicking Horse Pass, 95
Kingston (Ont), 73, lot
Kingston (Jamaica), 172
La Guaira, 210, 218
La Navidad, 5
La Paz, 212, 221
La Plata, 185, 205
Laccolite, 21
Lachine Rapids, 73, 74, 75
Lake Peninsula, 72-3
Latitude, 156
Leadville, 149
Leeward Islands, 170
Lesser Antilles, 3, 170
Lima, 220, 213
Llanos, 184, 198, 204
Longitude, 156
Longitudinal rivers, 92, 108
Los Angeles, 148
Louisville, 124
Lowell, 109
Lower Canada, 101
Lumbering, 76, 92, 108, 198
Magellan, 177-8
Maize, 55, 56, 118, 122, 179, 205,
209, 211
Manaos, 204, 225
Manchester, 109
Manitoba, 86, 103
Maracaibo, 210
Medellin, 210
Medicine Hat, 87
Mediterranean Lands, 146, 213
Mendoza, 206, 224
Memphis, 127
Mesas, 146
Mexico, 8, 37-8, 48, 55, 56, 161-5
Mexico City, 8, 163
Milwaukee, 122
Mining, 66, 92, 148, 149, 163, 208,
210, 213
Minneapolis, 120
Mississippi River, 8, 85, 100, 131-
41 ; delta, 137-8
Missouri River, 8, 134
Mollendo, 212
Montana Forest, 196, 209
Montevideo, 206, 224
Montreal, 73-4
Moraines, 31
Mormons, 144
Mount Mazama, 25
Negroes, 58, 119, 125, 208
New Brunswick, 65-7, 101, 103
New England States, I, 32, 44, 46,
100, 169
New Haven, no
New Orleans, 126
New Westminster, 93, 97
New York, 114-17, 167, 169
Newfoundland, i, 7, 62-4, 101, 103
Niagara Falls, 70, 72
Nicaragua, 167, 170
Nitrates, 213
Nome, 90
North America, discovery of I ;
physical features, 9 ; climate, 34 ;
plants and animals, 44 ; people,
51
North-west Territories, 103
Nova Scotia, i, 65-7, 101, 103
Oakland, 148
Ohio, 122
Omaha, 129
Ontario, 72. 101
Orellano, 179
Orinoco River and Basin, 185, 201,
204
Ottawa, 68, 77, 103
Ox-bow Lakes, 134
Pacific forests, 46
Pacific Ocean, 23
Pampas lands, 184, 189, 195, 199
205
Panama Canal, 148, 168-9, 172
Panama Republic, 167, 210, 229
Papal Bull, 179
Para, 204, 225
Paraguay, 224
Paramaribo, 219
234
GEOGRAPHY OF THE AMERICAS
Paramos, 209
Patagonia, 178, 199, 206
Peneplain, 65
Pennsylvania, 117
Peru, 179,184, 210, 219
Petroleum, 123, 163
Philadelphia, 113, 117
Pittsburg, 124
Pizarro, 178
Plains of deposition, 27
Plains formed by uplilt, 26
Plate River and Basin, 185, 205
Plateaux, 28, 181
Population of Canada, 103-4
Population of U.S.A., 153-4
Poit Arthur, 70
Port Stanley, 215
Portland (Me.), 74, 109
Portland (Ore.), 141
Porto Rico, 1 66, 170, 172-3
Potosi, 212, 221
Prairies, 26, 49, 84-5, 102
Pribilof Islands, 89
Prince Albert, 86
Prince Edward Islands, 65-7, 101,
103
Providence (R. I.), 109
Ptolemy, 3
Puna, 211
Punta Arenas, 215
Quebec, 77
Quito, 184, 195, 219
Red River, 8 1, 85, 120
Regina, 86
Residual mountains, 22
Rice, 113, 125
Richelieu River, 74, 115
Richmond, 113, 117
Rideau Canal, 73
Rimouski, 79
Rio de Janeiro, 177, 208, 225
River capture, 203
Rocky Mountains, 13, 19; routes
across, 95, 96, 149
Rosario, 206, 223
Rossland, 96
Sacramento, 148
St. John, 65
St. John's, 64
St. Lawrence Basin, 44, 68-79, 81
St. Louis, 124
St. Paul, 120
Salt Lake City, 144, 162
San Domingo, 173
San Francisco, 164-7, l&9
San Salvador, 170
Santa Fe, 224
Santiago, 214, 222
Santos, 207, 225
Sao Paulo, 207, 225
Saskatchewan, 86, 103
Saskatoon, 86
Sault Ste. Maiie, 68
Savannah, 46, 126
Savannahs, 169, 198, 207, 208
Scrub lands, 49, 199
Seattle, 141
Selvas, 184, 196
Sierra Madre, 32. 38
Sierra Nevada Mts., 19, 47, 141
Snake Plateau, 28, 141
"Soo" Canals, 68, 70
South America : climate, 189; com-
munication and transport, 228 ;
discovery, 175; physical features,
181 ; population, 228; vegeta-
tion, 196 ; natural regions, 20 1
Southern Pacific Railway, 149
Spaniards in America, 7> 5^> 'S1)
J65, 179, 1 80, 230
Staked Plains, 128
Standard time, 157-60
Stock-rearing, 84, 128, 146, 207,
208, 209, 211
Sudbury, 70
Tampico, 164
Tehuantepec, Isthmus of, 167
Tierra Caliente, 162, 169, 209
Tierra del Fuego, 214
Tierra Fria, 162, 169, 209
Tierra Templada, 162, 169, 209
Time belts, 157-60
Titicaca Lake, 184, 211
Toledo, 122
Toronto, 72, 73
Toscanelli, 3, 4
INDEX
235
Trade of Canada, 105
Trade of United States, 155
Trade winds, 6, 38, 161, 192
Transverse rivers, 92
Trinidad, 6, 172, 175
Tucuman, 206, 224
Tundra, 49
United States : growth, 151 ; popula-
tion, 153-4 ; trade, 155
Upper Canada, 101
Uruguay, 224
Uspallaia Pass, 185
Valparaiso, 214, 222
Vancouver, 96
Vasco da Gama, 6
Vegetation of North America, 44, 50
Vegetation of South America, 196-
200
Venezeula, 218
Vera Cruz, 8, 164
Vespucci, 7, 175-7, 218
Victoria (B. C.), 96
Volcanoes, 22, 143, 161, 171, 184
War of Independence, 101
Washington, 113, 117
Waterfalls, 32, 70, 108, in, 207
Wat I ing Island, 5
Wei land Canal, 70
Western Highlands of North
America, 12, 13, 14, 18
Western Highlands of South
A-nerica, 184, 2oS
West Indies, 166-74
Wheat, 84, 118, 120, 141, 205, 214
White Pass, 90
Windward Islands, 170
Winnipeg, 80-2
Yellowhead Pass, 87, 95
Yellowstone Park, 141
York Factory, 80
Yucatan, 48, 161, 164, 166
Yukon, 89
Zacatecas, 163
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Bo
THE
JEW REGIONAL
33 GEOGRAPHIES
FOR
ICONDARY AND HIGH SCHOOLS
BY
LEONARD BROOKS, M.A,
Geography Master at the William Ellis School.
ak I. THE AMERICAS. [Ready.
3k II. ASIA & AUSTRALASIA. [In the Pt ess.
Dk III. EUROPE & AFRICA. [In the Press.
These textbooks provide a geographical sur-
vey of the World, and lead up to GEO-
GRAPHY AND WORLD POWER, by
JAMES FAIRGRIEVE, M.A., F.R.G.S.,
F.R.M.S., the Editor of the Series. In this
last volume a complete revision for Matri-
culation purposes is provided.
IN THREE BOOKS. CLOTH. 3s. each.
UNIVERSITY OF LONDON PRESS, LTD.
at ST. PAUL'S HOUSE. WARWICK SQUARE, E.G.
New Regional Geographies
The New Regional Geographies for Secondary and
High School, together with Fairgrieve's "Geography
and World Power," provide a complete four years'
course in Geography, and a thoroughly efficient pre-
paration for the Geography examination of the London
Matriculation and tests of similar standard.
The new and original grouping of the major land
divisions in this series has considerable advantages
over the old conventional order of considering the
Continents. What is known as " Physical Geography"
is introduced in its appropriate settings, and is not
divorced from regional geography and treated as a
subject by itself, as is usually the case. Book I
provides special opportunities for considering questions
of structure, river work, ice work, etc.; Book II lays
emphasis on the meteorological side of Geography;
Book III pays special attention to the principles of
Economic Geography.
The volumes are lavishly illustrated with original
maps and diagrams. Many valuable questions,
problems, and exercises are provided at the conclusion
of each chapter ; specimen questions set at previous
examinations are also included.
From the
CONTENTS OF "THE AMERICAS."
The Discovery of North America. The Physical
Features of North America. How the Mountains,
Plateaux and Plains were made. The Great Ice Age.
The Distribution of Temperature and Rainfall in
North America. British North America: Newfound-
land. The Maritime Provinces of Canada. The
Hudson Bay Area. The Central Plains. The Western
Islands. The United States : the Northern Appala-
chians. The New England States. The Growth of
Canada : Its Population and Trade. The .Southern
Appalachians. The Central Plain. The Mississippi
River and the work it is doing. The Growth of the
United States: Its Population and Trade. Mexico.
Central America and West Indies. South America, etc.
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NEW EDUCATIONAL WORKS
In Accordance with recent Circular of the Board of Education.
A SHORT HISTORY
OF
MODERN EUROPE
FROM THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
TO THE GREAT WAR
BY
EUGENE L. HASLUCK, B.A.
This volume has been specially written to
cover the syllabus set forth in the recent
circular issued by the Board of Education
to Secondary Schools with reference to the
teaching of Modern History. It sets forth
in clear and interesting fashion the develop-
ments in European politics which have led
to the outbreak of the Great War in 1914,
and provides the necessary material for
middle and senior forms taking a course in
Modern European History, and a thoroughly
sound explanation of the causes of the
World War.
In the Press. With specially prepared maps. 3s.
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NEW EDUCATIONAL WORKS
A New Commercial Geography.
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AN ECONOMIC
GEOGRAPHY
OF THE
BRITISH EMPIRE
BY
C B. THURSTON, B.Sc.
Geography Master at Kllburn Grammar School.
A complete survey of the geography and
economic resources of the British Empire.
The broad physical features and general
economic relations to the Empire are dealt
with in their world setting. Each major
unit of the Empire is finally considered in
detail. The book is particularly suitable for
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and Colleges, and for Evening Continuation
Schools.
In the Press. Almost Ready. Cloth. 3s.
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Crown 8vo* viii + 390 pp. Price 3s,
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A SHORT HISTORY
OF
MODERN ENGLAND
FROM TUDOR TIMES TO THE PRESENT DAY
(1485-1914.)
BY
FREDERICK BRADSHAW,
M.A. (Oxon.), D.Sc. (Lond.)
Sometime Senior Hulme Scholar of Brascnose College, Oxford;
Lecturer in Modern History at Armstrong College in the University
of Durham.
This book has been written specially for the
use of Matriculation candidates and of
students reading for Pass Degrees. "The
History of Modern England " is treated in
its various aspects— Constitutional Develop-
ment, Foreign Policy, Religious Problems,
and Social, Economic, and Colonial Develop-
ments. The History of Europe during the
last hundred years is clearly sketched to
show the nature of the European Problems
leading to the Great War.
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good deal of experience in the needs of students and examiners." —
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A Short History of Modern England
The aim of this history is to provide an intelligible
and interesting survey of British History from 1485
to the outbreak of the Great War in 1914. The reader
is not left to struggle in a morass of detail ; he is en-
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Constitution, and the evolution of modern Social,
Political, and Economic Conditions; to trace the
growth of our Colonial Empire, and to understand how
Britain's participation in the World War was the in-
evitable outcome of her share in European Politics.
Less important details have been unhesitatingly sacri-
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result has been to place the reader in a position to
understand the great political, social, economic, and
religious problems of the present day.
EXTRACT FROM THE PREFACE.
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The Book is divided into four sections as follows: The National
Monarchy of the Tudors (1485-1603); from Tudor Monarchy to
Crowned Republic (1603-1688) ; how the Parliamentary Monarch
governed England (1689-1832) ; The age of Democracy. Also
a list of Genealogies.
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ENGINEERING
LABORATORY ENGINEERING.
By H. G. TAYLOR, M.Sc., A.M.I.Mech.E.
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THE APPLICATION of HYPERBOLIC
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graphs are included, as well as valuable weather statistics, and tables for
conversion of rainfall and pressure values from the old system to the new one
recently adopted by the Meteorological Office.
Crown 4to. 32pp. 6d.
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